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Next Generation Biofuels. Bologna, September 14 - 18 2009

Next generation biofuels from agro-waste

and non-food biomass: taking into accountfood and environmental issues

L. Barbanti, S. Capponi, G. Venturi

DiSTA (Dept. of Agroenvironmental Science and Technologies)

University of Bologna (Italy)

http://www.dista.agrsci.unibo.it/grici/

1

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Present at ion out l ine


2

1.1. Reference Scenario at 2030Reference Scenario at 2030

2. World Biofuel Production

3. Land Use

4. Biofuels & Food

5. Biofuels & Developing Countries

6. Environmental Sustainability

7. Next Generation Biofuels

8. Conclusion

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1 - Reference Scenario at 2030

According to IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), a30-50% reduction in global emissions is necessary between 2030 and2050, in order to stabilize CO2 concentration at a safe level (450-550ppm) by the end of the XXI century, so as to avoid permanent changesto the Earths climate system.

According to the reference scenario of the 2008 WEO (World EnergyOut look) of the IEA (Int ernat ional Energy Agency):

World energy consumption will rise about 45% in the next 20 years,80% of which will be satisfied by fossil fuels.

At the present trend, global CO2 emissions associated to the energydemand will rise likewise (45%) at 2030.

Three fourths of the emission increases associated to the energyconsumption in the reference scenario come from China, India and theMiddle East.


R

eferenceSc

enarioat2030

3

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The Wor ld s Quest f or Pr imary Energy


Source: Reference Scenario WEO, IEA 2008 ( http://www.iea.org )

4

R

eferenceSc

enarioat2030

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Pr imary Energy Demand at 2030 by Geographical Area


Source: IEA - World Energy Outlook 2008

5

R

eferenceSc

enarioat2030

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Inf luence of Transpor t s on Tot al Energy Demand


R

eferenceSc

enarioat2030

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Green-House Gas (GHG) Emissions by Geographical Area



7

ReferenceSc

enarioat20

30

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IEA s Scenar ios of Mi t igat ion for t he Emissions



8

ReferenceSc

enarioat20

30

(Carbon Capture Storage)

ppm of CO2

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Volunt ary (V) and Mandat ory (M) Bioenergy Target s for t he Use of

Fuels in Tr ansport s in G8+5 Count r ies NO COMMON GUIDELINES ?!


Sources: GBEP, 2007; updated with information from the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA, 2008), the Renewable FuelsAssociation (RFA, 2008) and written communication from the EU Commission and Professor Ricardo Abramovay, University of So Paulo,Brazil.

9

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enarioat20

30

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Next generat ion biofuels f rom agro-wast e and non-foodbiomass: solving food and envi ronmental issues


10

1. Reference Scenario at 2030

2.2. World Biofuel ProductionWorld Biofuel Production

3. Land Use

4. Biofuels & Food




8. Conclusion

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2 - World Biofuel Production


WorldBiofu

elProduction

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Global ETHANOL Product ion, Trade and Pr ices: Proj ect ions t o 2017


WorldBiofu

elProduction

12

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Maj or ETHANOL Producers (proj ect ions t o 2017)


WorldBiofu

elProduction

13

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Global BIODIESEL Product ion, Trade and Pr ices: Project ions t o 2017


WorldBiofu

elProduction

14

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Maj or BIODIESEL Producers (Proj ect ions t o 2017)


WorldBiofu

elProduction

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16



3.3. Land UseLand Use

4. Biofuels & Food




8. Conclusion

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3 - Land Use

Lan

dUse

The growth rate in the demand for biofuels over the past few years far

exceeds historic growth rates in the demand for agricultural commodities

and in crop yields.

This suggests that land-use changes and the associated environmentalimpacts may become a relevant issue for both first- and second-

generation technologies.

In the short term, this demand may be primarily satisfied by increasing

the land area under biofuel crops; in the medium to long term, thedevelopment of improved biofuel genotypes, changes in agronomic

practices and new transformation technologies (such as cellulosic

conversion) may take over.

Source: FAO, 2008. BIOFUELS: prospects, risks and opportunities

Next Generation Biofuels. Bologna, September 14 - 18 2009 17

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Land Use - Area expansion

In 2004, an estimated 14 million hectares were used worldwide to producebiofuels and their by-products, representing about 1 percent of globalcropland (IEA, 2006).

Sugar cane is currently (2008) cultivated on 5.6 million hectares in Brazil,and 54 percent of the crop (about 3 million hectares) is used to produceethanol (Naylor et al., 2007). United States farmers harvested 30 millionhectares of maize in 2004, of which 11 percent (about 3.3 millionhectares) was used for ethanol (Searchinger et al., 2008).

In 2007, area planted to maize in the United States of America increasedby 19 percent (Naylor et al., 2007; Westcott, 2007).

Land used for biofuel production is projected by IEA to expand three-to four-fold at a global level over the next few decades, depending on

the policies pursued, and even more rapidly in Europe and North America(FAO, 2008)


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Of the worlds 13.5 billion hectares of total land surface area, about 8.3billion ha are currently in grassland or forest and 1.6 billion ha in cropland(Fischer, G. 2008. Implicat ions for land use change. Paper presented at the Expert Meeting on GlobalPerspectives on Fuel and Food Security,1820 February 2008. Rome, FAO). An additional 2 billionhectares are considered potentially suitable for rainfed crop production.



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Excluding forest land, protected areas and the land needed to meetthe rising demand for food crops and livestock, the estimates of theareas potentially available to expand non-food crop production liebetween 250 and 800 million hectares, most of which is found in

tropical Latin America or in Africa (Fischer, 2008).


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In Malaysia, palm oil plantations have been cited as a major cause ofdeforestation and biofuels have been blamed. However, only 5%1 of palmoil produced today goes to biofuels. Increase in palm oil use is partly dueto recent US and EU health regulations aimed at reducing the content oftrans-fatty acid and hydrogenated fats in food, which has driven areplacement of soy oil by palm oil.1 USDA Foreign Agricultural Service, Report n E47047, FAS EU-27http://www.fas.usda.gov/gainfiles/200706/146291409.pdf

In Brazil the production of sugar cane for ethanol only uses 1% of the

available land and sugar cane is not suitable for growth in the Amazonarea. The recent increase in sugar cane production for biofuels is not largeenough to explain the displacement of small farmers or soybeanproduction into deforested zones (http://www.europabio.org/Biofuels/Biofuels_about.htm).

However, Biofuels, by introducing a new demand, can indeed put pressureon forest resources.

Establishing and enforcing sustainability criteria for biofuels are crucialmeasures to ensure that biofuels do not lead to further deforestation.

Land Use - Do biof uels cause deforest at ion in t ropical areas?


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22



3. Land Use

4.4. Biofuels & FoodBiofuels & Food




8. Conclusion

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4 - Biofuels & Food

There are several studies examining the effects of

biofuel production on crop prices.

These studies differ considerably in their estimates ofthe extent to which biofuel production led to the

increase in crop prices in 20072008.


Are biofuels causing food prices to rise?

Biofuels&Food

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Are biofuels causing food pr ices t o rise?

The US Presidents Council of Economic Advisors estimates maizeethanol to be responsible for only 3% of the 43% increase in worldfood prices from March 2007 to March 2008

However, Rosegrant estimates that biofuel demand contributed to39% of the increase in maize prices between 2000 and 2007

Also the International Monetary Fund (IMF) attributes almost half of

the recent increases in the global food prices to biofuels(http://seekingalpha.com/article/78015-reconciling-estimates-biofuelsfood-prices )


Hochman G, Sexton SE, Zilberman D. The economics of biofuel policy and biotechnology. Journal ofAgricultural and Food Industrial Organization 2008, 6:22. http://www.bepress.com/jafio/vol6/iss2/art8/

Rosegrant M. Biofuels and Grain Prices: Impacts and Policy Responses. 2008, Testimony for the U.S. SenateCommittee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs. Washington (DC), May 2008. (Accessed viaInternational Food Policy Research Institute).

24

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Biofue

ls&Food


It is important to note that the high prices of wheat

and corn (maize) of the recent past are not

unprecedented. Previous peaks were not due tobiofuels and did not create a food crisis or dramatic

increases in food price. In the past 30 years,

corn price passed above $3/bushel(120/tonne) in 1981, 83, and 95 forreasons totally unrelated to bioethanol

production, which was virtually nonexistent

before 2001, and fell back after one or two years.


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Biofue

ls&Food


Globally, world meat production has increased by around 65%during the last 20 years, boosting the demand for feed. Forthe production of 1 kg of meat, at least 3 kg of cereals areneeded, as average. The increase in meat consumption ismost acute in India and China; as the wealth of a countryincreases, the demand for meat and dairy products tendsto increase. Meat consumption in China alone increasedfrom 27 to 59 kg per person per year between 1990 and2005.

Each additional kg of increase in China results in a need forroughly 3 million tons of animal feed.

Source: FAPRI, 2007 Agricultural Outlook 2007 http://www.fapri.org/outlook/2007

This has been one of the largest drivers for the risingprice for cereals on the world market.


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Biofue

ls&Food


The price tension on the market created by high demand wasreinforced in the previous years by poor harvests and recordoil prices. According to the FAO (2006a), much of the poorperformance of world agriculture in 2006 was due todisappointing cereal production, which fell for the secondconsecutive year as a result of poor weather conditions. Thecereal harvest was especially poor in Australia and theUnited States, where it fell by 60% and 7%, respectively.

Production was also down in the European Union, Canada,

Argentina and South Africa. Additionally, between2003 and 2008, the price of oil has increased

from 25$ to 100$ per barrel, heavily impacting onagricultural production, processing and transportation costs.

27


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Biofue

ls&Food


Pr ice relat ionships between crude oil and biofuel feedst ocks, 200308

Sources:Crude oil prices: Brent crude, Chicago Board of Trade (US$ per barrel), downloaded from the Commodity ResearchBureau Web site (http://www.crbtrader.com/crbindex/ ) on June 10, 2008. Commodity prices from FAO internationalcommodity price database.

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0

100

200

300

400

Jan-00

Jul-0

0

Jan-01

Jul-0

1

Jan-02

Jul-0

2

Jan-03

Jul-0

3

Jan-04

Jul-0

4

Jan-05

Jul-0

5

Jan-06

Jul-0

6

Jan-07

Jul-0

7

0

20

40

60

80

100Corn

Wheat

Rice

Oil (right scale)

Biofue

ls&Food

Commodity prices (US$/ton)Commodity prices (US$/ton)


Oil prices affect prices of agricultural products, even ifthey are not used for bioenergy (e.g. rice)Von Braun, 2008 (Data from FAO 2007 and IMF 2007Data from FAO 2007 and IMF 2007).

29


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Biofue

ls&Food


Though it has often been said that increased corn use forbiofuels in the US would cause food shortages in

Africa because of reduced stocks and exports, the

facts show that the US corn exports, thoughless in 2006-7 than in 2005-6, are still above

the average of the past ten years. It is alsoimportant to remember that most of the corn exportedby the US is used for cattle feed, not human food indeveloping countries.

Source: USDA Statistics http://www.nass.usda.gov/QuickStats/indexbysubject.jsp

How do the higher pr ices of raw mat er ials af f ect f ood pr ices andavail abil i t y in developing count r ies?

30

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Biofue

ls&Food


How do the higher pr ices of raw mat er ials af f ect f ood pr ices andavail abil i t y in developing count r ies?

31

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32

1. Reference Scenario at 20302. World Biofuel Production

3. Land Use

4. Biofuels & Food

5.5. Biofuels & Developing CountriesBiofuels & Developing Countries



8. Conclusion

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5 - Biofuels & Developing Countries

Biofuels&DevelopingCoun

tries

The recent United Nation Report: Sust ainable Bioenergy, aFramework for Decision Makers(2007)1 examined theimplications of bioenergy on agro-industrial development andjob creation.

The report found that

successful bioenergy i ndust r ies br ing signi f icantj ob creat ion pot ent ial and cont inues Because

t he vast maj or i t y of bioenergy employment occursin f arming, t ranspor t at ion and processing, most oft hese j obs would be creat ed in rural communit ies

where underemployment is a common problem.1 UN-Energy, 2007. Sustainable bioenergy: A Framework for Decision Makers.

http://esa.un.org/un-energy/pdf/susdev.Biofuels.FAO.pdf


Do biofuels increase t he incomes of t he rural poor

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Do biofuels increase t he incomes of t he rural poorin developing count r ies?

Biofuels&DevelopingCoun

tries

Energy crops often represent a diversification for cash crops forsubsistence farmers. The UN Report on Sustainable Bioenergy1 cites

the benefits especially of the second-generationbiofuels which the UNO believes will create higher-value co-products (and thus greater wealth generation). First generation fuelsare already creating real value for rural economies in the developingworld by producing crops which can be used for biofuels.

Industrialized countries must be prepared to set up strong regulatory

frameworks (such as sustainable productioncertification schemes) together with their local counterparts,in order to support sustainable development for these countries andprevent unsustainable damage to rain forests and similar high carbon

habitats.

1 UN-Energy, 2007. Sustainable bioenergy: A Framework for Decision Makers.

http://esa.un.org/un-energy/pdf/susdev.Biofuels.FAO.pdf


Why is t he development of local energy sources so

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Why is t he development of local energy sources soimpor t ant f or t he growth of developing count r ies?

Biofuels&Dev

elopingCoun

tries

Many countries, such as Brazil, have experienced a negative trade balancebecause of the need to import oil. It is thus essential for countries to seek localsolutions. Brazil, for example, which is one of the largest ethanol producerstoday, has laid out long-term programmes to develop biofuels production as analternative to oil. Though the industry is dominated by large corporations inBrazil, the UN-Energy Report (2007) notes that farmer cooperatives also play arole and bring benefits to smaller farmers.

Malaysia has recently encouraged national industries to develop biodieselproduction for internal use instead of exporting most of palm oil. However, palmoil prices have risen dramatically leaving Malaysian biorefineries without oil fordomestic production as they cannot afford the current price. The price increasewas not due to biodiesel production in Europe or US, which represents less than5% of palm oil use, but rather to the change in health policies in the EU and USaimed at reducing trans-fatty acids content in food, inducing a substitution ofsoy oil for palm oil in food products.

In Northern Zambia, diesel is at more than $2 per litre. This is because of hightransport costs associated with getting the fuel from the Indian Ocean to remoteareas on poor roads. Growing local crops could lower the price of diesel and thushelp spur small scale solutions and local development for local people.

Source: http://www.europabio.org/Biofuels/Developing%20Countries_Biofuels%20factsheet.pdf


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Product ion Cost s of Biofuels

Biofuels production costs may widely vary by feedstock, conversion process,scale of production and region. On an energy basis, ethanol is currentlymore expensive to produce than gasoline in all regions considered.Only ethanol produced in Brazil comes close to competing with gasoline.Ethanol produced from corn in the US is considerably more expensive thanfrom sugar cane in Brazil, and ethanol from grain and sugar beet in Europeis even more expensive.

These differences reflect many factors, such as scale, process efficiency,feedstock costs, capital and labor costs, co-product accounting, and the

nature of the estimates.

The cost of large-scale production of bio-based products is currently high indeveloped countries. For example, the production cost of biofuels may bethree times higher than that of oil fuels, without, however, considering the

non-market benefits. Conversely, in developing countries, the costs ofproducing biofuels are much lower than in the OECD countries and verynear to the world market price of oil fuels.

Source: UN (United Nations), 2006. The emerging biofuels market: regulatory, trade and developmentimplications. United Nations conference on trade and development, New York and Geneva, 2006.


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Bi

ofuels&Dev

elopingCoun

tries

Estimates show that bioethanol in the EU may become competitive whenthe oil price reaches US $ 70 a barrel, while in the United States itbecomes competitive at US $ 5060 a barrel.

For Brazil the threshold is much lower between US $ 25 and a barrel.Other efficient sugar producing countries such as Pakistan, Swaziland andZimbabwe have production costs similar to Brazils.

Anhydrous ethanol, blendable with gasoline, is still somewhat more

expensive.

Prices in India have declined and are approaching the price of gasoline.

Source: Dufey A. 2006. Biofuels production, trade and sustainable development: emerging issues.Environmental Economics Programme, Sustainable Markets Discussion Paper No. 2, International Institute forEnvironment and Development (IIED), London, September 2006.


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Source: FAO, 2006b. Impact of an increased biomass use on agricultural markets, prices andfood security: a longer-term perspective, by J. Schmidhuber. Rome

(available at www.fao.org/es/ESD/pastgstudies.html ).


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39


3. Land Use

4. Biofuels & Food


6.6. Environmental SustainabilityEnvironmental Sustainability


8. Conclusion

6 E i l S i bili

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6 - Environmental Sustainability

How will biofuel production affect water, soils andbiodiversity?

Producing more biofuel crops will affect water quality as well as

quantity. Converting pastures or woodlands into maize fields, for

example, may exacerbate several problems: soil erosion; sedimentation

and excess nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) runoff into surface

waters; infiltration into groundwater from increased fertilizer

application.

As the CBD (2008) notes1, many current biofuel crops are well suited fortropical areas. This increases the economic incentives in countries withbiofuel production potential to convert natural ecosystems intofeedstock plantations (e.g. oil palm), causing a loss of wild biodiversity

in these areas.

1CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity). 2008. The potential impact of biofuels on biodiversity. Note bythe Executive Secretary for the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, 19-30May 2008, Bonn, Germany (draft, 7 February 2008).


Environment

alSustainability

How wil l biofuel product ion af fect wat er,

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psoi ls and biodiversi t y?

Pesticides and other chemicals can wash into waterbodies,negatively affecting water quality.

Maize, soybeans and other biofuel feedstocks greatly differ in

their fertilizer and pesticide requirements.Of the principal feedstocks, maize is subject to the highest

application rates of both fertilizers and pesticides per hectare.

Per unit of energy gained, biofuels from soybean and other low-input, high-diversity prairie biomass are estimated to require only

a fraction of the nitrogen, phosphorus and pesticides required by

maize, with correspondingly lower impacts on water quality.

(Hill et al ., 2006; Tilman et al ., 2006).

The IEA (2006) notes that the impact of sugar cane on soils is generallyless than that of rapeseed, maize and other cereals.


Environment

alSustainability

Can biofuels be produced on marginal lands?

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Can biofuels be produced on marginal lands?

It is not unusual to hear claims that significant tracts ofmarginal land exist that could be dedicated to biofuel

production, thus reducing the conflict with food crops and

offering a new source of income to poor farmers.Although such lands would be less productive and subject to

higher risks, using them for bioenergy plantations could

have secondary benefits, such as the restoration of

degraded vegetation, carbon sequestration and local

environmental services.

In most countries, however, the suitability of this land for

sustainable biofuel production is poorly documented.

Source: FAO, 2008. BIOFUELS: prospects, risks and opportunities


Environment

alSustainability

Can yields be increased to address t he need for more

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biofuels wi t hout using more wat er and land?

It is likely that with temperature rises and desertification, land areaavailable for farming will be reduced. Faced with a rapidly increasingworld population, the UNO estimates that farmers will need to at leastdouble their production over the next 25 years. Combining food productionand environmental protection is therefore a key challenge.

In raising agricultural production, the availability and use of water is aprimary constraint to productivity. The International Water ManagementInstitute estimates that it takes on average roughly 2500 litres of croptranspiration and 820 liters of irrigation water withdrawn to produce one

litre of biofuel (De Fraiture et al . , 2008). But regional variation is large.In regions such as China or India, where maize or sugar cane is irrigated,the withdrawal of water per litre of biofuels can be up to 3500 litres (DeFraiture et al . , 2008).

The water withdrawal has a direct impact on immediate water availabilityfor human consumption and agriculture, but it should not be forgottenthat crops transpire water into the atmosphere which in turn contributesto the water cycle.


Environment

alSustainability

The biofuels l i f e cycle: energy balances

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The biofuels l i f e cycle: energy balances

Environment

alSustainability


Figure summarizes the resultsof several studies on fossilenergy balances for differenttypes of fuel, as reported bythe Worldwatch Institute(2006).

A fossil energy balance of 1.0means that it requires as muchenergy to produce a litre ofbiofuel as it contains; in otherwords, the biofuel provides nonet energy gain or loss.

A fossil fuel energy balance of

2.0 means that a litre ofbiofuel contains twice theamount of energy as thatrequired in its production.

Problems in accuratelyassessing energy balancesoriginate from the difficulty ofclearly defining the systemboundary for the analysis.

How does f eedst ock use and agricult urali i f l h GHG b l f bi f l ?

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pract ices inf luence the GHG balance of biofuels?

Environment

alSustainability

The vast majority of studies have found that, even when all fossilinputs are accounted for, producing and using biofuels from currentfeedstock results in reductions of GHG emissions compared to oilfuels1. A better understanding is needed to fill gaps in knowledge

regarding life-cycle GHG emissions2.1 Worldwatch Institute, 2006. Biofuels for Transportation: Global Potential and Implications for SustainableAgriculture and Energy in the 21st Century, http://www.worldwatch.org/node/4078

2 FAO, 2007. Sustainable Bioenergy A framework for decision makers,

http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/a1094e/a1094e00.htm

Results vary with the feedstock used and assumptions about landuse changes, fertilizers application and by-products use.

More data and a common methodology is needed to measure landuse change and agricultural practice impact on GHG balance.


Wil l biofuels help mi t igat e cl imat e change?

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Environment

alSustainability


Estimated ranges of reduction in greenhouse gas emissions for a series ofcrops and locations, excluding the effects of land-use change:

IEA, 2006. World Energy Outlook 2006. Paris.

FAO, 2008. BIOFUELS: prospects, risks and opportunities


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EnvironmentalSustainability


Land-use changes associated with expanded biofuelproduction may have a major impact. For example, convertingforest land to the production of biofuel crops or

agricultural crops displaced by biofuel feedstocks elsewhere canrelease large quantities of carbon that would take years torecover through the emission reductions achieved by replacingfossil fuels with biofuels.

The conversion of grassland to produce biofuel cropscan release 300 tonnes CO2 per hectare; the conversionof forest land can release 6001000 tonnes CO2 per ha.

(Fargione et al., 2008; The Royal Society, 2008; Searchinger, 2008).


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EnvironmentalSustainability


Recent studies have also prompted scepticism about the extent

to which biofuels can mitigate GHGsSearchinger T, Heimlich R, Houghton RA, Dong F, Elobeid A, Fabiosa J, et al. 2008. Use of croplands forbiofuels increases greenhouse gases through emissions from land use change. Science 329, 829831.

Fargione et al.1 believe that producing biofuels using food-based

crops grown by converting rainforests, peatlands, savannahs, or

grasslands to cropland creates a biofuel carbon debt by releasing17420 times more GHG emissions than the annual savings in these

emissions that these biofuels would provide by displacing fossil

fuels.

1 Fargione J, Hill J, Tilman D, Polasky S, Hawthorne P. 2008. Land clearing and the biofuel carbon debt.

Science 319, 12351238.

Biofuel regulat ion issues in EU, including t heenvir onment al sust ainabil it y cr it eri a

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envir onment al sust ainabil it y cr it eri a

EnvironmentalSustainab

ility

Europes sustainability and biodiversity criteria1 related to biofuels are:

1. Sustainability criteria aimed at ensuring:

A minimum GHG saving

Avoid loss of high biodiversity land

Avoid loss of high carbon-stock land

Environmental requirements for agriculture

Diversification of feedstocks

2. Biodiversity criteria aimed at ensuring no use of raw materials from:

forest undisturbed by significant human activity

highly biodiverse grassland

wildlife protection areas, unless compatible with wildlife protection

1 DIRECTIVE 2009/28/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 23 April2009 (article 17 et seq.)


Biofuel regulat ion issues in EU, including t heenvir onment al sust ainabil it y cr it eri a

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envir onment al sust ainabil it y cr it eri a

Directive

2009/28/CE

The EUs adoption of sustainability criteria has been specifically designed

to avoid competition with food and supports second generation /lignocellulosic biofuels development.

R.E.S. (Renewable Energy Sources) Direct ive(2009/28/EC of April 23) tobe adopted within 18 months: Sustainability Criteria of Biofuels

A reduction of GHG emissions, thanks to biofuels, of at least 35% forbiofuels produced in power plants opened since Jaunary 23, 2008.

To achieve 50% since January 1, 2017, and 60% since Jaunary 1,2018 for biofuels produced in power plants opened since Jaunary 1,2017.

For biofuels produced in plants already operating at January 23,

2008, the 35% reduction of GHG must be reached by April 1, 2013.



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51


3. Land use

4. Biofuels & Food



7.7. Next generation biofuelsNext generation biofuels

8. Conclusion

7 - Next Generation Biofuels

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NextGene

rationBiofue

ls

An important step in increasing biofuel production and sustainabilityis the competitive production of biofuels from (hemi)cellulose and

organic agricultural wastes, instead of from starch, sugar and oils

which are used today. These are the second generation biofuels.

It has been estimated that to reach the EU target of 10% biofuelssubstitution in the transport sector, second generation biofuelsneed to represent about 30% of biofuels produced.

Source: http://www.europabio.org/Biofuels/Land%20use_Biofuels%20factsheet.pdf

Second generation biofuels have a better GHG emission balance;

their use has the potential to reduce the pressure on food crops and

decrease land use.

This may happen either by exploiting agricultural by-products andwastes such as wheat straw, household and other organic wastes, or

by growing energy crops and short rotation forests.


Cellulosic Biofuels

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NextGene

rationBiofue

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Cellulosic biofuels from perennial grasses have the potential to producemore biofuel per hectare of land and thus have smaller indirect land use

effects. For example, with the current miscanthus (M. sinensis x Giganteus)

genotypes it could be feasible to produce almost twice as many litres of

ethanol per hectare of land as with 1st-generation maize ethanol.Khanna M. 2008. Cellulosic biofuels : are they economically viable and environmentally sustainable? Choices2008, 23:1621.

Cellulosic biofuels are also expected to have a significantly-better energy

balance than maize-ethanol, reducing the need for fossil fuel energy for

their production.

Farrell AE, Plevin RJ, Turner BT, Jones AD, OHare M, Kammen DM. 2006. Ethanol can contribute to energyand environmental goals. Science 2006, 311:506509.

They are expected to reduce emissions by 90% or more (particularly if soil

carbon sequestration is included).Wu M, Wang M, Huo H. 2006 Fuel-Cycle assessment of Selected Bioethanol Production Pathways in the UnitedStates. Argonne National Laboratory Report. Energy Systems Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne,Illinois; 2006.


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Perennial gramineous may also be grown on rainfed marginal lands wheremaize yields are low and have the potential to reduce soil erosion andchemical run-off, owing to their low chemical input requirements, rootstructure and perenniality that reduces the need for tillage.

They may also be grown in polycultures and provide conservation benefitswhile sequestering large amounts of carbon in the soil.

In addition, they may provide extended habitat for wildlife and stabilizesoils along streams and wetlands.

McLaughlin S, Walsh M. 1998. Evaluating environmental consequences of producing herbaceous crops forbioenergy. Biomass and Bioenergy 1998,14: 317324.

Semere T, Slater F. 2007. Ground flora, small mammal and bird species diversity in miscanthus (Miscanthus xgiganteus) and reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea) fields. Biomass and Bioenergy 2007, 31: 2029.

Additionally, agricultural residues, forestry wastes and municipal

solid wastes for biofuel production can be used to producebiofuels without any indirect land use effects.


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Some herbaceous crops currently investigated at GRiCI,Bologna University, as cellulosic feedstocks for energy

AnnualAnnual cropscrops

PerennialPerennial cropscrops

Maize Fibre sorghum Sugar beet

Giant reed (Arundo) Miscanthus Cardoon (Cynara)Switchgrass (Panicum)


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3. Land use

4. Biofuels & Food



7. Next generation biofuels

8.8. ConclusionConclusion

8 - Conclusion

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Strong measures to curb GHG emissions are needed to contrast the riseof atmospheric CO2, in a contest of growing energy demand worldwide.Develop-ed/-ing countries are following inconsistent ways to reach the goal.

Biofuel production will soar in the near future, while prices are expected

to level off. Usa and Brazil are leader in ethanol production; EU in biodiesel.

The risk of land-use changes to the disadvantage of food crops is debatable:apparently, enough land seems to be available for the development of bothfood and biofuel chains. Sustainability of the new cropland vs. previousnatural systems remains the major issue to be faced.

It is questionable whether biofuels will be/have been responsible forincreases in cereal prices. From the majority of the cited sources, it appears

that both price and availability have not been affected by energy crops sofar; other factors are to be blamed, such as the increase in meatconsumption and palm-oil use worldwide.

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The break-even point of biofuels vs. oil-deriving fuels is generally lowerin developing than in developed countries. This and other side-effects,such as job creation in rural areas and improvement in the trade balance,could stimulate the growth of bio-energy in the former countries.

The issue of environmental sustainability remains a major one: the use ofsoil, water and other limited/non renewable resources for the productionof energy may exacerbate problems where they are already in short supply.Energy efficiencies and the GHG reduction are a good counterweight.

The enforcement of sustainability and biodiversity criteria seems the bestway to minimize the respective problems.

Many expectations to solve some of the pending issues lie in next-generationbiofuels. Field, processing and industrial researches are all aimed at

developing the best sources of energy at the lowest price and in the mostfavourable contour conditions.

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Farrell A.E., Plevin R.J., Turner B.T., Jones A.D., OHare M., Kammen D.M. 2006. Ethanol can contribute toenergy and environmental goals. Science 311, 506509.

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McLaughlin S., Walsh M. 1998. Evaluating environmental consequences of producing herbaceous crops forbioenergy. Biomass and Bioenergy 14, 317324.

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