Development of episodic and Development of episodic and autobiographical memory: autobiographical memory: A cognitive neuroscience A cognitive neuroscience

perspectiveperspective

Nora S. NewcombeNora S. NewcombeTemple UniversityTemple University

Episodic Memory is Rare in the First Two Episodic Memory is Rare in the First Two Years of LifeYears of Life

First Birthday Party

Episodic Memory is Robust by the Age of Episodic Memory is Robust by the Age of Seven YearsSeven Years

Cub Scout Boating Contest

Episodic Memory is (Thankfully?) Episodic Memory is (Thankfully?) Flaky in the InterimFlaky in the Interim

Preschooler at Play

Two Periods of Early AmnesiaTwo Periods of Early Amnesia

►►Rubin (2000) Rubin (2000) assembled about assembled about 11,000 memories to 11,000 memories to construct this curveconstruct this curve

►►Variety of Variety of techniques, e.g., techniques, e.g., probe wordsprobe words

Other Data on Earliest AppearanceOther Data on Earliest Appearance

►► Date and describe earliest Date and describe earliest memory memory

3 or 3.5 yr 3 or 3.5 yr (e.g(e.g., Mullen, 1994)., Mullen, 1994)

►► BUTBUT----Ask about specific event Ask about specific event 2 or 2.5 yr 2 or 2.5 yr (e(e.g.g., Eacott & ., Eacott &

Crawley, 1998)Crawley, 1998)

Other Data on Adult LevelsOther Data on Adult Levels

►►Know vs. recollect Know vs. recollect 3 years for know, 6 3 years for know, 6

years for recollect years for recollect ((Bruce et al., 2000)Bruce et al., 2000)

►► Berntsen & Rubin (2006)Berntsen & Rubin (2006)8 years8 years for for

memories of German memories of German invasion of Denmark, invasion of Denmark, and of liberationand of liberation

Autobiographical Memory is a Type Autobiographical Memory is a Type of Episodic Memoryof Episodic MemorySemantic Episodic

Not Personal

Self-Related

Paris is the capital “Tree” was on theof France. free recall list.

That’s a picture of A picture of that faceAl Gore. was in this experiment.

I was born in Toronto. My picnic last Sunday.

That’s a picture of my That’s a picture of the mother. the guy I met at Joe’s

party.

Some Further Issues about Defining Some Further Issues about Defining Autobiographical MemoryAutobiographical Memory

►►Mental time travel Mental time travel versus constructivismversus constructivism

►►Role of emotion and Role of emotion and firstfirst--person spatial person spatial and temporal and temporal perspectiveperspective

Brain Areas Critical for Episodic MemoryBrain Areas Critical for Episodic Memory

Medial temporal lobeMedial temporal lobeRole in semantic memory?Role in semantic memory?Continuing role in episodic memory?Continuing role in episodic memory?

Prefrontal cortexPrefrontal cortexSource memorySource memoryStrategic encoding and retrievalStrategic encoding and retrievalSee for review: See for review:

Wheeler, Wheeler, StussStuss, & , & TulvingTulving(1995)(1995)

What Do We Know About Development What Do We Know About Development of these Areas?of these Areas?

HippocampalHippocampal development often thought to be development often thought to be complete earlycomplete early

Diamond (1990), Nelson (1995)Diamond (1990), Nelson (1995)But development may continue as late as 5 yearsBut development may continue as late as 5 years►►Alvarado & Alvarado & BachevalierBachevalier, 2000; , 2000; GogtayGogtay, Nugent, Herman, , Nugent, Herman,

Ordonez, Greenstein, Hayashi, Ordonez, Greenstein, Hayashi, ClasenClasen, Toga, , Toga, GieddGiedd, , RapoportRapoport & & Thompson, 2006; Thompson, 2006; SeressSeress, 2001; Utsunomiya, Takano, Okazaki , 2001; Utsunomiya, Takano, Okazaki & & MitsudomeMitsudome, 1999 , 1999

Prefrontal cortexPrefrontal cortex has time course from infancy has time course from infancy through adolescencethrough adolescence

HuttenlocherHuttenlocher (1979, 1990); (1979, 1990); HuttenlocherHuttenlocher & & DabholkarDabholkar(1997)(1997)

How Can We Study the Neural Substrates How Can We Study the Neural Substrates of Episodic Memory Development?of Episodic Memory Development?

fMRIfMRI and PET are not practical for age and PET are not practical for age range of interestrange of interestERP cannot help with hippocampusERP cannot help with hippocampusBehavioral techniquesBehavioral techniques

What is developmental function for tasks with What is developmental function for tasks with known neural substrates?known neural substrates?What are correlations of tasks with known and What are correlations of tasks with known and hypothesized neural substrates?hypothesized neural substrates?

What is Developmental Function for What is Developmental Function for Tasks with Known Neural Substrates?Tasks with Known Neural Substrates?

Spatial memory tasksSpatial memory tasksThat depend on medialThat depend on medial--temporal lobetemporal lobeShow marked change between 18 and 24 monthsShow marked change between 18 and 24 monthsCoinciding with earliest longCoinciding with earliest long--term autobiographical term autobiographical memoriesmemories

Source memory tasksSource memory tasksThat depend on prefrontal cortexThat depend on prefrontal cortexShow marked change between 4 and 6 yearsShow marked change between 4 and 6 yearsCoinciding with offset of childhood amnesiaCoinciding with offset of childhood amnesia

The Emergence of Place LearningThe Emergence of Place Learning

Place learning is the most powerful system of Place learning is the most powerful system of spatial codingspatial coding

Allows for reorientation after movementAllows for reorientation after movement

Considerable evidence, from a wide variety of Considerable evidence, from a wide variety of techniques, that it depends on hippocampustechniques, that it depends on hippocampus

Animal studies: e.g., Morris, Animal studies: e.g., Morris, GarrudGarrud, Rawlins, & O, Rawlins, & O’’Keefe Keefe (1982)(1982)Human studies: e.g., Human studies: e.g., HoldstockHoldstock et al. (2000) et al. (2000)

Place Learning TaskPlace Learning Task

Children go to other side Children go to other side of box before searchingof box before searching

Landmarks in room Landmarks in room either visible or hidden either visible or hidden by circular white curtainby circular white curtain

Results:Results: Only children Only children older than 21 months older than 21 months used the landmarks to used the landmarks to rere--orient.orient.

Newcombe, Huttenlocher, Drummey & Wiley(1998), Cognitive Development

Memory for Multiple LocationsMemory for Multiple Locations

Memory for more than one location is requisite Memory for more than one location is requisite for learning spatial relationsfor learning spatial relations

In primates, medial temporal lobes are critical In primates, medial temporal lobes are critical for remembering multiple locations for remembering multiple locations

AngeliAngeli, Murray, & , Murray, & MishkinMishkin (1993)(1993)MalkovaMalkova & & MishkinMishkin (2003)(2003)

TwoTwo--Location TaskLocation Task

Two identical objects Two identical objects (dinosaurs)(dinosaurs)

Objects 18 inches apart in Objects 18 inches apart in various locations on each of 4 various locations on each of 4 trialstrials

Order of retrieval unspecifiedOrder of retrieval unspecified

After finding one, child asked After finding one, child asked to find the otherto find the other

Ability to Code Two Objects Changes Ability to Code Two Objects Changes Around 21 MonthsAround 21 Months

Sluzenski, Newcombe, & Satlow (2004),J. Cognitive Neuroscience

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

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45

18 mo 24 mo 30 mo 36 mo 42 mo

Mean

Err

or

(cm

)

Retention of a Single Spatial LocationRetention of a Single Spatial Location

In functional terms, a basic ability is some In functional terms, a basic ability is some degree of durability of memory for spatial degree of durability of memory for spatial locationlocation

Depends on hippocampusDepends on hippocampusBohbotBohbot et al. 1998et al. 1998Lee & Lee & KesnerKesner, 2003, 2003Long & Long & KesnerKesner, 1998, 1998

Delay TaskDelay Task

Experimenter hides dinosaur.Experimenter hides dinosaur.

Experimenter and child leave Experimenter and child leave room to read a book about room to read a book about dinosaurs for 2 minutes.dinosaurs for 2 minutes.

They return and child is asked to They return and child is asked to ““go find your dinosaurgo find your dinosaur””..

Test

Hiding

Delay

Delayed Spatial Memory Improves after Delayed Spatial Memory Improves after 21 Months21 Months

Sluzenski, Newcombe, & Satlow (2004),J. Cognitive Neuroscience

0

5

10

15

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25

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40

18 mo 24 mo 30 mo 36 mo 42 mo

Mean

Err

or

(cm

)

Correlations between Hiding and Search Correlations between Hiding and Search LocationLocation

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

18 mo 24 mo 30 mo 36 mo 42 mo

Corr

ela

tions

Sluzenski, Newcombe, & Satlow (2004), J. Cognitive Neuroscience

p > .10

p < .01

p = .01p < .01

p < .01

Interim Summary: Interim Summary: Shifts in Spatial Coding and Shifts in Spatial Coding and

Representation Around 21 MonthsRepresentation Around 21 MonthsPlace learningPlace learningSpatial coding of more than one objectSpatial coding of more than one objectSpatial retention over a delaySpatial retention over a delayAll three are known to depend on medial All three are known to depend on medial temporal regionstemporal regionsCoincides with earliest longCoincides with earliest long--term memoriesterm memories——coincidence??coincidence??

Is Memory in the First Two Years Is Memory in the First Two Years Explicit but Not Episodic?Explicit but Not Episodic?

►► Delayed imitation by 6 months passes the Delayed imitation by 6 months passes the ““amnesia testamnesia test”” and shows robust retention after and shows robust retention after 12 months or so12 months or so

►► But it could be semanticBut it could be semanticNone of the experimental data [on infant memory] None of the experimental data [on infant memory] provides any evidence for spatiotemporal dating of provides any evidence for spatiotemporal dating of these memories. Indeed, it seems somewhat unlikely these memories. Indeed, it seems somewhat unlikely that when an observed event comes to mind at a later that when an observed event comes to mind at a later time the infant is also aware of when or where it time the infant is also aware of when or where it happened. Spatiotemporal dating is not required for happened. Spatiotemporal dating is not required for recallrecall……By age 2, verbal recall protocols suggest some By age 2, verbal recall protocols suggest some awareness of when and where events being recalled awareness of when and where events being recalled took placetook place……..but this issue has not been systematically ..but this issue has not been systematically studiedstudied…….. ((MandlerMandler, 2004, pp. 239, 2004, pp. 239--240)240)

How Do We Account for How Do We Account for Childhood Amnesia?Childhood Amnesia?

►►Source memory depends on frontal areasSource memory depends on frontal arease.g., e.g., SchacterSchacter, , HarblukHarbluk & McLachlan (1984)& McLachlan (1984)

►►Binding of memory attributes involves Binding of memory attributes involves frontalfrontal--hippocampalhippocampal circuitcircuit

e.g., e.g., ShastriShastri (2002)(2002)

Memory for Source of Facts Changes Dramatically Between 4 and 6 Years

Drummey & Newcombe (2002), Developmental Science

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70

Correct Source Extra Errors Intra Errors

Mean P

roport

ion o

f R

esponse T

ype

4-year-olds

6-year-olds

8-year-olds

Reality Monitoring for Naturalistic Events Reality Monitoring for Naturalistic Events Changes Between 4 and 6 YearsChanges Between 4 and 6 Years

Sluzenski, Newcombe, & Ottinger (2004),

Developmental Science

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Exp 1 Exp 2 Exp 3 Exp 3

Mean

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rrect

repeatedinitial

Relationships to a Measure of Relationships to a Measure of Prefrontal FunctionPrefrontal Function

Correlations with category fluency, partialled for age and intelligence, pooled across experiments:

Using: Exp. 3 initial Exp. 3 repeated

4yrs 6yrs 4yrs 6yrsFree recall .24* .22* .27* .23*Cued recall .25* .05 .34** .00Reality mon. .10 -.14 .18 .04

Sluzenski, Newcombe, & Ottinger (2004),Developmental Science

Memory Binding Task

Presentation: Complex pictures of animals in Presentation: Complex pictures of animals in arbitrary backgroundsarbitrary backgrounds

Test Conditions: Sample Pictures

Binding Binding AnimalAnimal BackgroundBackground

Binding of Memory Characteristics Changes Between 4 and 6 Years

Sluzenski, Newcombe, & Kovacs (JEP:LMC, 2006)

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Animal Background Binding

Mean

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4-year-olds6-year-oldsAdults

Conclusions Are TentativeConclusions Are Tentative……

Age difference in binding may be biggerAge difference in binding may be biggerSome 4Some 4--yearyear--olds had difficulty passing training in the olds had difficulty passing training in the binding conditionbinding condition

Age difference in binding may be smallerAge difference in binding may be smallerSome 4Some 4--yearyear--olds gave all olds gave all ““yesyes”” or all or all ““nono”” responses in responses in the animal and background conditions (data removed)the animal and background conditions (data removed)

Not clear whether there is further improvement Not clear whether there is further improvement after 6 yearsafter 6 years

Aims of Experiment 2Aims of Experiment 2

Training and presentation changed to make task Training and presentation changed to make task comprehensible and aid awareness of comprehensible and aid awareness of miscombinationsmiscombinations

Increased relevance to everyday lifeIncreased relevance to everyday lifeIncidental learningIncidental learningDelayed as well as immediate testingDelayed as well as immediate testingNaturalistic story recall added (free recall)Naturalistic story recall added (free recall)

Immediate Test (Exp. 2)Immediate Test (Exp. 2)

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Animal Background Binding

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Sluzenski, Newcombe, & Kovacs (JEP:LMC, 2006)

HourHour--Delayed Test (Exp. 2)Delayed Test (Exp. 2)

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Animal Background Binding

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Sluzenski, Newcombe, & Kovacs (JEP:LMC, 2006)

Binding Performance Is Related To Binding Performance Is Related To Episodic MemoryEpisodic Memory

4 yrs 5 yrs 6 yrsImmediate -.20 .06 .02 Delayed .14 .43* .22

.41*

Correlations of binding with free recall, partialled for age and intelligence measure:

Sluzenski, Newcombe, & Kovacs (JEP:LMC, 2006)

Are Bindings Lost or Never Made?Are Bindings Lost or Never Made?

►►MichellMichell, , RayeRaye, Johnson, Mather & , Johnson, Mather & DD’’EspositoEsposito(2000) found that binding deficits in the (2000) found that binding deficits in the elderly were evident in a WM version of the elderly were evident in a WM version of the task as well as an LTM versiontask as well as an LTM version

►►Would this also be true for young children? Would this also be true for young children? ►►Additional purpose of this studyAdditional purpose of this study

Move to simple contexts rather than complex Move to simple contexts rather than complex backgrounds of backgrounds of SluzenskiSluzenski et al., which may et al., which may themselves require bindingthemselves require binding

LongLong--Term Memory ProcedureTerm Memory ProcedureAcquisition Test

Working Memory ProcedureWorking Memory ProcedureAcquisition Test

Results: Long Term MemoryResults: Long Term Memory

00.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.80.9

1

Background Object Binding

Prop

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Test Item Type

Long Term Memory

Hits-4yrold

Hits 6-yrold

False alarm 4-yr old

False alarm 6yr old

Results: Working MemoryResults: Working Memory

00.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.80.9

1

Background Object Binding

Prop

ortio

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s R

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nses

Test Item Type

Working Memory

Hits-4yrold

Hits 6-yrold

False alarm 4-yr old

False alarm 6yr old

Second Interim Summary: Second Interim Summary: Shifts in Source Memory and Binding Shifts in Source Memory and Binding

Around 5 YearsAround 5 YearsSource memory for factsSource memory for factsReality monitoring for episodesReality monitoring for episodesBinding of actor/object and location/backgroundBinding of actor/object and location/backgroundAll three are known to depend on frontal areas or All three are known to depend on frontal areas or frontalfrontal--medial temporal circuitmedial temporal circuitCoincides with beginning of adult forgetting Coincides with beginning of adult forgetting function for autobiographical eventsfunction for autobiographical events——coincidence??coincidence??

ConclusionsConclusions

►► Behavioral data provide tentative support forBehavioral data provide tentative support forHippocampalHippocampal changes that might support onset changes that might support onset of durable autobiographical memories at around of durable autobiographical memories at around 2 years2 yearsFrontal or Frontal or hippocampalhippocampal changes or changes in changes or changes in circuit that might support onset of adultcircuit that might support onset of adult--like like memory functions at around 5 or 6 yearsmemory functions at around 5 or 6 years

►► ERP techniques could be useful in studying ERP techniques could be useful in studying developing involvement of frontal areas in developing involvement of frontal areas in autobiographical memoryautobiographical memory

ERP Study of Recognition Memory in 4ERP Study of Recognition Memory in 4--YearYear--Old Children and Adults:Old Children and Adults:

A First StepA First Step

Children and adults were presented with pictures, Children and adults were presented with pictures, half of which had been previously shown to themhalf of which had been previously shown to themParticipants were asked to indicate whether each Participants were asked to indicate whether each picture had been seen beforepicture had been seen beforeMarshall, Marshall, DrummeyDrummey, Fox, & , Fox, & NewcombeNewcombe (2002), (2002), Journal of Cognition and DevelopmentJournal of Cognition and Development

Adults better at oldAdults better at old--new judgments new judgments

In both groups: Correctly recognized old pictures In both groups: Correctly recognized old pictures elicited more positiveelicited more positive--going going ERPsERPs than correctly than correctly rejected new pictures (the rejected new pictures (the ““oldold--new ERP effectnew ERP effect””))

In adults the oldIn adults the old--new ERP effect was bilateral, new ERP effect was bilateral, whereas in children it was stronger over the right whereas in children it was stronger over the right hemispherehemisphere

ChildrenChildren’’s olds old--new ERP effect began around 400 new ERP effect began around 400 to 500 milliseconds later than it did in adultsto 500 milliseconds later than it did in adults

ResultsResults

Why the Laterality Difference?Why the Laterality Difference?

Adults may process visual material both verbally Adults may process visual material both verbally and nonverbally, eliciting bilateral activationand nonverbally, eliciting bilateral activation

Young children may employ only a visual (but not Young children may employ only a visual (but not naming) memorization strategy, therefore naming) memorization strategy, therefore activating the right hemisphere more than the left activating the right hemisphere more than the left (see Buckner, Kelley, & Peterson, 1999)(see Buckner, Kelley, & Peterson, 1999)

Why the Timing Difference?Why the Timing Difference?

The global process of retrieving information from The global process of retrieving information from previously encoded stimuli is slower in children previously encoded stimuli is slower in children than among adults.than among adults.

Perhaps preceding cognitive processes, such as Perhaps preceding cognitive processes, such as the latency to focus attention on the task the latency to focus attention on the task demands, are delayed in children.demands, are delayed in children.