Developing educational software to teach Spanish …mdv/courses/CM30082/projects... · Developing educational software to teach Spanish to university students This dissertation may

Developing educational software to teach Spanish to university students.

Sarah Jayne Brearley

Bachelor of Science in Computer Science with Business with Honours The University of Bath

2007-2008

Developing educational software to teach Spanish to university students

This dissertation may be made available for consultation within the University Library and may be photocopied or lent to other libraries for the purposes of consultation. Signed:

II


Developing educational software to teach Spanish to university students Submitted by: Sarah Jayne Brearley COPYRIGHT Attention is drawn to the fact that copyright of this dissertation rests with its author. The Intellectual Property Rights of the products produced as part of the project belong to the University of Bath (see http://www.bath.ac.uk/ordinances/#intelprop). This copy of the dissertation has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with its author and that no quotation from the dissertation and no information derived from it may be published without the prior written consent of the author. Declaration This dissertation is submitted to the University of Bath in accordance with the requirements of the degree of Batchelor of Science in the Department of Computer Science. No portion of the work in this dissertation has been submitted in support of an application for any other degree or qualification of this or any other university or institution of learning. Except where specifcally acknowledged, it is the work of the author. Signed:

III


Abstract The University of Bath currently do not use any computer based software to teach beginner level Spanish. This project investigates second language acquisition, the acquisition of Spanish as a second language in particular, and how this research can be used to develop software to support their language learning and acquisition. A large proportion of the design and implementation of the software is based on interviews and feedback from the users themselves, as well as combining this with usability and HCI principles. The software produced is not a stand alone system, but will complement, consolidate and reinforce through practice what the students have learnt in class.

Accessing the prototype The prototype can be accessed at: http://people.bath.ac.uk/sjb27 Click on ‘Click here to start Sombrero Spanish’ Please note: in order for the prototype to function correctly, Flash Player will need to be installed on your PC.

IV

http://people.bath.ac.uk/sjb27


Contents

Chapter 1 - Introduction ............................................................................................ 1 1.1 Aim of the project ............................................................................................... 1 1.2 Objectives............................................................................................................ 1

Chapter 2 – Literature Review .................................................................................. 2

2.1 Introduction......................................................................................................... 2 Defining second language learning....................................................................... 2

2.2 Bilingualism ........................................................................................................ 2 2.2.1 The monolingual or fractional view............................................................. 3 2.2.2 The holistic view.......................................................................................... 3 2.2.3 Fluency......................................................................................................... 4

2.3 Theories of second language learning................................................................. 4 2.3.1 Motivation and attitude ................................................................................ 4 2.3.2 Aptitude........................................................................................................ 5 2.3.3 Gender .......................................................................................................... 5 2.3.4 Socio-cultural perspectives .......................................................................... 5 2.3.5 Initial learner state........................................................................................ 6

2.3.5.1 Fundamental difference hypothesis ...................................................... 6 2.3.5.2 Universal grammar hypothesis.............................................................. 6

2.3.6 Krashen’s five hypotheses............................................................................ 7 Hypothesis 1: Input hypothesis ......................................................................... 7 Hypothesis 2: Acquisition learning distinction................................................. 8 Hypothesis 3: Natural order hypothesis ............................................................ 8 Hypothesis 4: Monitor hypothesis .................................................................... 9 Hypothesis 5: Affective filter hypothesis........................................................ 10

2.3.7 The role of input and output....................................................................... 11 2.3.8 Cognitive theory......................................................................................... 12 2.3.9 Summary of research thus far .................................................................... 13 2.3.10 Bilingualism in education ........................................................................ 13

2.4 Approaches to language teaching...................................................................... 14 2.4.1 Krashen’s theories in practice: Grammar translation................................. 15 2.4.2 Krashen’s theories in practice: Audio-lingualism...................................... 16 2.4.3 Krashen’s theories in practice: Cognitive code.......................................... 17 2.4.4 Other theories in practice: The natural approach ....................................... 18 2.4.5 When does language teaching help? .......................................................... 18 2.4.6 Summary: The most suitable model........................................................... 19

2.5 Learning theories specific to Spanish language acquisition ............................. 19 2.5.1 Theories of phonological acquisition......................................................... 19 2.5.2 The Past Tense ........................................................................................... 21 2.5.3 SVO processing or First Noun Strategy..................................................... 21 2.5.4 Use of the subjunctive................................................................................ 22 2.5.5 Lexicon....................................................................................................... 22 2.5.6 Size of vocabulary...................................................................................... 22

V


2.5.7. Cognitive elements in Spanish acquisition ............................................... 22 2.6 Computers in language learning........................................................................ 23 2.7 Human Computer Interaction: user-centred design .......................................... 25

2.7.1 Summary of user-centred design principles............................................... 28 2.8 Conclusions of literature review ....................................................................... 28

Chapter 3 - Requirements ........................................................................................ 30

3.1 Introduction....................................................................................................... 30 3.1.1 Stakeholders of the software ...................................................................... 30

3.2 Interview with students from the beginner level Spanish class ........................ 30 3.2.1 Common themes between student responses ............................................. 32

3.3 Interview with Spanish teacher ......................................................................... 33 3.3.1 Summary of findings.................................................................................. 33

3.4 Observation of the Spanish class ...................................................................... 34 3.4.1 Summary of class observation ................................................................... 34

3.5 Evaluating existing software ............................................................................. 34 3.5.1 Evaluation of ‘Spanish Encounters’........................................................... 35 3.5.2 Evaluation of ‘Tell me more’..................................................................... 38 3.5.3 Evaluation of BBC ‘Spanish Steps’ ........................................................... 41 3.5.4 Common themes between the three programmes ...................................... 42

3.6 Expert HCI opinion of the software .................................................................. 43 3.6.1 ‘Spanish Encounters’ ................................................................................. 43 3.6.2 ‘Tell me more’ ........................................................................................... 44 3.6.3 BBC ‘Spanish Steps’.................................................................................. 45 3.6.4 Expert opinion summary:........................................................................... 47

3.7 Functional Requirements .................................................................................. 47 3.7.1 Interface/layout .......................................................................................... 48 3.7.2 Interaction .................................................................................................. 49 3.7.3 Learning requirements ............................................................................... 50

3.8 Non-Functional Requirements .......................................................................... 52 3.9 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 53

Chapter 4 - Design..................................................................................................... 54

4.1 Introduction....................................................................................................... 54 4.2 System Architecture .......................................................................................... 54 4.3 Content of the tutor ........................................................................................... 56 4.4 Initial mock-up designs ..................................................................................... 57 4.5 User feedback on the mock-ups ........................................................................ 60 4.6 HCI expert opinion............................................................................................ 60 4.7 Prototype produced ........................................................................................... 61

4.7.1 Main menu ................................................................................................. 61 4.7.2 Free time sub menu .................................................................................... 62 4.7.3 Free time vocabulary.................................................................................. 62 4.7.4 Free time ‘matching words’ activity .......................................................... 63 4.7.5 Free time ‘fill in the blanks’ activity.......................................................... 64 4.7.6 Free time conversation activity .................................................................. 65

VI


4.7.7 Free time grammar activity ........................................................................ 66 4.7.8 Daily routine activity screens..................................................................... 67 4.7.9 Help screen................................................................................................. 67 4.7.10 Dictionary................................................................................................. 68

4.8 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 69 Chapter 5 - Implementation..................................................................................... 71

5.1 Introduction....................................................................................................... 71 5.2 Programming language ..................................................................................... 71 5.3 Graphics and Sounds......................................................................................... 72 5.4 Vocabulary activity ........................................................................................... 73 5.5 Drag and drop activity....................................................................................... 74 5.6 Fill in the blanks................................................................................................ 75 5.7 Conversation and Grammar .............................................................................. 76 5.8 Testing............................................................................................................... 76

Chapter 6 - Evaluation ............................................................................................. 78

6.1 Introduction....................................................................................................... 78 6.2 Evaluation technique......................................................................................... 79 6.3 Ethical issues..................................................................................................... 79 6.4 Setting up the testing environment.................................................................... 79 6.5 Assessing learning............................................................................................. 80 6.6 Learning results................................................................................................. 81 6.7 Assessing the usability of the tutor ................................................................... 83 6.8 Observations...................................................................................................... 84 6.9 Obtaining usability feedback............................................................................. 85 6.10 Spanish teacher feedback ................................................................................ 86 6.11 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 86

Chapter 7 – Conclusions ........................................................................................... 88

7. 1 Main Findings .................................................................................................. 88 7.2 Future developments ......................................................................................... 91

Bibliography .............................................................................................................. 94 Appendix 1 ................................................................................................................. 97

Stage one Spanish Syllabus..................................................................................... 97 Appendix 2 ................................................................................................................. 98

Spanish class observation........................................................................................ 98 Appendix 3 ............................................................................................................... 100

Class handout 1 ..................................................................................................... 100 Class handout 2 ..................................................................................................... 101 Class handout 3 ..................................................................................................... 102

Appendix 4 ............................................................................................................... 103 Print screens of prototype ..................................................................................... 103

Appendix 5 ............................................................................................................... 111

VII


Black box testing................................................................................................... 111 Appendix 6 ............................................................................................................... 143

Ethics checklist ..................................................................................................... 143 Appendix 7 ............................................................................................................... 145

Paper tests before and after using software........................................................... 145 Appendix 8 ............................................................................................................... 149

Usability Observations.......................................................................................... 149

VIII


List of figures

Figure 2.1 Factors of bilingualism ................................................................................ 3 Figure 2.2 Average order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes. ......................... 9 Figure 2.3 Hypothesis one .......................................................................................... 11 Figure 2.4 Hypothesis two .......................................................................................... 11 Figure 2.5 Hypothesis three ........................................................................................ 11 Figure 2.6 Hypothesis four.......................................................................................... 11 Figure 2.7 Demonstrating the stages of learning copulas. .......................................... 23 Figure 2.8 Nielsen (2001) usability principles............................................................ 28 Figure 3.1 Spanish Encounters main screen ............................................................... 35 Figure 3.2 Demonstrating conversation ...................................................................... 36 Figure 3.3 The user can choose their role and participate in the conversation. .......... 36 Figure 3.4 Demonstrating large blocks of text providing too much information. ...... 38 Figure 3.5 The main screen of the ‘Tell me more’ software....................................... 38 Figure 3.6 Word association exercise. ........................................................................ 39 Figure 3.7 Illustrates the use of graphics .................................................................... 40 Figure 3.8 Main screen of BBC Spanish Steps ........................................................... 41 Figure 3.9 Demonstrating that the software is very intuitive...................................... 42 Figure 4.1 System architecture.................................................................................... 54 Figure 4.2 Mock-up 1 of the main screen ................................................................... 58 Figure 4.3 Mock-up 1 example exercise screen.......................................................... 59 Figure 4.4 Mock-up 2 of the main screen ................................................................... 59 Figure 4.5 Demonstrating the use of metaphors for the buttons. ................................ 62 Figure 4.6 Free time vocabulary screen. ..................................................................... 63 Figure 4.7 Matching words screen. ............................................................................. 64 Figure 4.8 Fill in the blanks screen. ............................................................................ 65 Figure 4.9 Conversation activity. ................................................................................ 66 Figure 5.1 Demonstrating the use of the timeline. ...................................................... 71 Figure 5.2 Flash CS3 library. ...................................................................................... 72 Figure 5.3 When mouse hovers over sombrero it enlarges......................................... 73 Figure 5.4 Showing down state in play button............................................................ 73 Figure 5.5 The sound selected..................................................................................... 74 Figure 5.6 Example code to illustrate the translating of the vocabulary..................... 74 Figure 5.7 Example code to illustrate the drag and drop functionality. ...................... 75 Figure 5.8 Example code to illustrate the fill in the blanks activity. .......................... 76 Figure 5.9 Example speech bubble. ............................................................................ 76 Figure 6.1 Time taken to complete tests ..................................................................... 82 Figure 6.2 Scores before and after using the software ................................................ 82

IX


List of Tables

Table 6.1 – Learning test results .......................................................................................... 81 Table 6.2 – Comparing time taken....................................................................................... 81

X


Acknowledgments I would like to thank Dr. Hilary Johnson for her constant support throughout the project. I would like to thank her for being really encouraging and for helping me to achieve my objectives. I would also like to thank the students at the University of Bath who helped with the entire process. Finally I would like to thank my parents for all their support during my time at University whilst I have been completing this project.

XI


Chapter 1 - Introduction1.1 Aim of the project

The main aim of this project is to investigate the learning of a second language for University students. It will investigate how students studying beginner level Spanish at the University of Bath currently learn, it will also investigate the curriculum of Stage One Spanish and from this implement a prototype Spanish tutoring system. Students at the University of Bath have the opportunity to study a three credit option of Spanish (2 hours per week) or a six credit option (3 hours per week). Through speaking with the Spanish course director, it has become apparent that currently there is no formal computer-based learning, although occasionally individual teachers may guide their students to online material such as the BBC. For example, ‘Spanish steps’ on the BBC website. The tool will not attempt to be a stand-alone Spanish tutor, as there are already many of these readily available on the Internet. The tutor will be designed to complement the in-class teaching and to help emphasise what has been learnt in class. It will be closely designed with the Spanish teacher and student users to provide practical everyday Spanish. On successful completion, this tutor should prove to be a valuable tool for the University’s Foreign Language Centre, within the framework of the current curriculum. Through the use of this tool the students will have an opportunity to practice more than they may otherwise have had. This in turn could lead to improved results and the skills learned could later be used in the workplace.

1.2 Objectives

To achieve the project aims, the following objectives will be undertaken: 1. To investigate second language learning theories for university students. 2. To assess the utility and learning potential of existing Spanish tutors. 3. To identify requirements based on the Spanish curriculum currently used at Stage One Spanish, attendance in Spanish classes and by observing current teaching methods, and on HCI principles and usability guidelines. 4. To iteratively design and implement a prototype of the tutoring system. 5. On successful implementation, assess the learning potential and usability of the prototype on university Spanish students. 6. To establish future developments for the prototype based on the testing and evaluation.

1


Chapter 2 – Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

In order to design and implement the educational software, it is important to investigate the literature within this field. Firstly, not only should the motivation for learning a second language be considered, but other important factors including the learner’s aptitude and their current level of that language. In addition to this, learning theories for second language acquisition will be investigated, particularly with reference to Spanish. In conclusion, this will lead to issues relating to user-centred design and how the literature will influence the overall design of the system.

Defining second language learning A second language is a language that is not the person’s ‘mother tongue’. It is not their native method of speaking. The learning of this language takes place after the first language has been acquired. By investigating second language learning it will help us to understand the processes by which we learn, as well as looking at the successful learning/teaching methods that are currently in place, and those that have not been as successful. It will help to discover the relationship between the first and second language. In the long term this will result in valuable knowledge that will assist language learners. [1]

2.2 Bilingualism

The ultimate aim of learning a second language is to become bilingual. As stated in the Cambridge dictionary, a person who is bilingual is able to communicate in two languages. [10] There are a number of bilingual education models that can be used to demonstrate the idea. The first model is teaching using the host country’s language and then immersing the learner in the second language. Through this method English native speakers are able to develop bilingualism. A main point to consider is the issue of awareness of the language. This may be through friends, teachers, parents and through various teaching and assessment methods. The first step in becoming bilingual starts when the learner is able to speak or understand a word from another language. This then leads to the learner becoming competent in written work. The way in which the language is acquired is often compared with learning how to ride a bicycle – one thing at a time. [11] With respect to implications for this project, the bicycle analogy suggests that languages should be taught in an incremental way, so as not to overwhelm the learner. In designing the software, care must be taken to make sure users know what they are doing, and that the amount of Spanish they are exposed to is relevant to their level.

2


Bilingualism can be seen as either an individual characteristic or it can be seen in a social context e.g. a group or a community. An example of where it is found in groups is in the Basque region or Catalunya in Spain. According to Valdés and Figueroa (1994) different factors relating to bilingualism can be classified into five different groups. These are:

Figure 2.1 Factors of bilingualism – taken from source [12]

1) Age 2) Ability 3) Balance of two languages 4) Development (ascendant: second language is developing;

recessive: one language is decreasing). 5) Context where each language is acquired and used e.g. home or at

school.

François Grosjean (1994) argued that there are two very different views of bilinguals. The first is named the ‘Monolingual’ or ‘Fractional view’ and the other is known as the ‘Holistic view’.

2.2.1 The monolingual or fractional view There are a number of people who see bilingualism as two separate entities. They believe that there are two monolinguals in the one person. For example, an English learner studying Spanish as their second language will often have their level of competence measured against that of a Spanish speaker. The learner is expected to be proficient in both languages. There are many views on this across the world. Whilst the UK stays very much monolingual and this is not considered unusual (it is often an exception if people are bilingual), other countries such as Africa and India are bilingual.

2.2.2 The holistic view This view questions whether it is fair to compare the ability of the learner who is monolingual with a learner who is bilingual. François Grosjean (1994) uses the image of an athlete - it would be unfair to compare the ability of a sprinter with a hurdler. He suggests that instead of comparing the standard to other bilinguals, a method should be introduced whereby their ‘communicative competence’ should be assessed instead of the more traditional ‘bilingual tests’. Communicative competence means that the learner’s language is tested in all domains. The learner may decide to use only one language or a mixture. In terms of implications for this project, the students in the class are learning beginner level Spanish and will not have their competence measured against that of a Spanish native speaker. They will use the software to aid their learning, and will have the opportunity to listen to how a native Spanish speaker pronounces words.

3


2.2.3 Fluency Skutnabb-Kangas and Toukomaa (1976) distinguished between two types of fluency in bilinguals. These are: ‘surface fluency’ and ‘academic language competence’. With surface fluency, this would be enough for the learner to carry out simple tasks such as buying something from a shop or ordering food in a restaurant. However, they argue that surface fluency is not likely to be enough when the learner has to cope with the curriculum that is set. What is described as ‘academic language competence’ may develop over an eight year period to become fully competent. With respect to this project, the software will be for beginner level learners and consequently academic competence cannot be expected. What the software enables is the laying down of foundations, such as grammar, rather than simply teaching surface fluency (which, though important at first, will prove insufficient later). The foundations will be taught to help the students relate to ‘scenarios’ of everyday situations.

2.3 Theories of second language learning

2.3.1 Motivation and attitude It is important to question a person’s motivation for learning a second language. Why do they want to study the language? According to Gass and Selinker (2001) motivation is an important social psychological factor where by having this in place, it leads to different levels of success. If a person is motivated and willing to learn a second language, this will certainly accelerate the learning process and the person will learn the language to a greater extent. A number of studies have been conducted which help to illustrate the fact that motivation is one of the predictors of success when learning a second language. According to Skehan (1989), motivation was the ‘second strongest predictor of success where the strongest predictor was aptitude.’ This argument was certainly supported by Gardner and his research undertaken with Lambert (1972). At the University of Western Ontario, Gardner became well known for his research on motivation when learning a second language. There are four key components with regards to motivation. These are: having a goal; effortful behaviour; the aspiration to be able to achieve the goal; and having a favourable attitude to the tasks that are being carried out. The effort that is put into the activity is based on the idea that the person wants to achieve the language and the person can study well. In the case of a child, another factor may be the need to please a particular person e.g. a teacher [2]. Mantle-Bromley [2] also researched attitude when learning a second language. His view was that a person’s attitude consisted of: affect (how much the person likes the language in question); cognition (what a person believes about the ‘attitudinal object’) and their behaviour (the person’s actions towards the language) With respect to implications for this project, the research demonstrated that the software must provide a way of motivating the students. The software will be designed specifically for university students and therefore it is important to investigate what motivates them. The software should encourage them to achieve their goal of increasing competence in the second language. In this case, the students are learning Spanish.

4


2.3.2 Aptitude Aptitude is another important factor when considering the success of second language acquisition. A person’s opinion about this can have a large impact. If for example, aptitude is used as a measure to discourage a person from learning a second language, then this will result in the student not taking advantage of this knowledge. As Skehan (1989) stated ‘aptitude is consistently the best predictor of language learning success.’ [2] It is clear that for this project, the software must provide encouragement regardless of the student’s intellectual ability. It should be ‘intuitive’ and therefore leave sufficient cognitive resources to allow the student to concentrate on learning the language, rather than learning how to use the system. The software is going to be designed for beginner level Spanish. Therefore all students will have similar levels of aptitude with regards to learning Spanish.

2.3.3 Gender There have also been suggestions that gender could influence second language acquisition. Some researchers, namely Asher and García (1969), claim that females have an advantage when acquiring a target language. However there has been a counter argument to this theory. Elliott (1995) when carrying out a study between gender and the accuracy of the pronunciation (native English speaking students learning Spanish), found that there was no relationship between the two. The students had to carry out exercises on the following: word repetition, reading, sentence repetition and free elicitation. [3] In relation to this project, the Spanish class that the software will be developed for is a mixed class (male and female). This will have no implications on the designing of the software, as there appears to be no concrete evidence of gender affecting the accuracy of the learner’s language.

2.3.4 Socio-cultural perspectives Vygotksky (1962) found that socio-cultural factors influenced second language learning. He believed that socio-cultural theory had an effect on the relationship between the mind and language learning. The process originally started during social interaction, particularly during childhood. When adults were involved in classroom learning, Vygotksky believed that it was important for the teacher (or expert) to take control over parts of the learning process. [6] Consequently, when designing the software within this project, the program will act as the ‘teacher’ and guide the user through the learning process. While the software will provide an overall suggested path to follow (in line with the syllabus), it will allow the learner to select the topic they wish to learn about, without needing to complete all preceding topics. This means that the student can be guided if they wish or focus on specific areas they want to improve.

5


2.3.5 Initial learner state An important consideration is the initial second language learning state of the person. There are two particular variables that are involved in the current debate. These are first, transfer which refers to the learner’s ability to use their first language and its grammar in the learning of a second language. The second variable is access to universal grammar, where a universal grammar is an arrangement of grammatical rules. It is believed that these are the foundation for natural languages [4]. The key question with the universal grammar is how available it is to the learner. This leads on to the discussion of two hypotheses. These are the ‘Fundamental Difference Hypothesis’ (Section 2.3.5.1) (Bley-Vroman, 1989; Schacter 1988) and ‘The access to universal grammar hypothesis’. (Section 2.3.5.2) This is important as this project will be designed to teach Spanish to complete beginners and therefore must consider what previous language ability they may have.

2.3.5.1 Fundamental difference hypothesis This hypothesis explains that what occurs during second language acquisition is different for children and for adults. One example of this is that the ability that is reached is different. When a child is learning a second language, it has the potential to result in complete knowledge of that language, whereas in terms of an adult, this completeness of the language is not always achieved. A further difference between child and adult, is the ‘nature of the knowledge’ that both have at the start of learning. Experienced language learners are already aware of a full linguistic system acquired through their native language. However, when children learn a second language they have to learn when to use the various forms of the language in certain situations, whereas adults have already established when to use them. This theoretical underpinning to this hypothesis relates to child development stages and the hypothesis claims that adults have the universal grammar available to them. [2]

2.3.5.2 Universal grammar hypothesis The universal grammar (UG) hypothesis argues differently. As Chomsky (cited in Gass and Selinker, 1997, p167) noted: “The theory of a particular language is its grammar. The theory of languages and the expressions they generate is Universal grammar (UG)”. [2] With regards to the two variables, ‘transferability of universal grammar’ and ‘access to universal grammar’, White (2000) established five possible situations where universal grammar could be available. These five situations were: (adapted from [2]) 1. Full transfer - partial or no access to the UG. Adults begin the language learning already having a full knowledge of how grammars work. The adult can access the UG from their first language (L1). Therefore their starting point when learning a second language is the finished state of L1. However a disadvantage of this is the fact that if universal grammars do not exist in the learner’s first language then they cannot use it for second language acquisition. This is the theory explained above in the fundamental difference hypothesis.

6


2. No transfer - full access This argues that when a child is acquiring a language, they have access to UG and therefore the beginning of their language learning is based on UG. They have full access to the UG. There is no transfer of knowledge between the first and second language. 3. Full transfer - full access As explained in part 1, the learner begins their second language learning after the end state of L1 and therefore uses L1 as a foundation. This situation assumes that L1 has a universal grammar which the learner can access whenever they feel necessary. 4. Partial transfer - full access In this situation, the learner is able to use any knowledge from the L1 that has been established, as well as the universal grammar. These can be used concurrently. (Eubank 1994). [2] This is different from 1, as here the learner may not achieve complete knowledge of the second language. This ultimately depends on the learner’s first language and the universal grammar that is available to them. 5. Partial transfer – partial access This situation explains that the learner will not be able to achieve full competence in the second language. This is because not all the grammar from their first language is available. With respect to this project, it must be considered whether or not the learners’ mother tongues have universal grammars, as this will decide whether this software needs to incorporate the teaching of the grammar. As those learning at university may be assumed to be fluent in at least English, they will already have access to a universal grammar. This means that they can access rules from their first language and apply them to the learning of Spanish. The chapter will now go onto discuss how people learn second languages. Krashen, one of the leading researchers in this field developed five hypotheses to explain language learning.

2.3.6 Krashen’s five hypotheses According to Krashen (1982) there are five hypotheses that help us to understand second language learning. These are: the input hypothesis; the acquisition learning distinction; the natural order hypothesis; the monitor hypothesis and the affective filter hypothesis. Each of these hypotheses will be discussed in detail below.

Hypothesis 1: Input hypothesis This hypothesis considers the idea of how we acquire the language in the first place, as well as how we progress from one level to another.

7


The input hypothesis claims that it is important for the learner to focus on the meaning of the word and not the form of the message itself. This will then enable them to move from stage i to stage i + 1. One further question that needs to be considered is the idea of how a learner can understand structures in a language that have not been acquired. The answer to this is that we use the world around us and our existing knowledge to aid in understanding the new language. As a counter argument to this, Hatch (1978) stated that a learner first learns the structures of words and grammar, practices using them during communication with others, and it is through this process that overall fluency occurs. The implications for this project are that the software will incorporate language structures that are used in everyday life. Activities should be used where the student can easily grasp the meaning, which will then allow them to concentrate on the structure. This will aid in the students understanding and will help them to move from stage i to stage i + 1.

Hypothesis 2: Acquisition learning distinction This hypothesis states that when adults learn a second language, they have two distinct methods of achieving competence. The first relates to language acquisition. Often the acquisition of a language can be a subconscious procedure. When a learner communicates with others, they are not always aware that they are using grammar rules to express themselves. A word may or may not ‘sound’ correct, and hence the learner is able to realise intuitively when they have made a mistake. The second way in which to acquire a second language is by language learning. This is very much a conscious process, where the learner understands and can express the various grammar rules. In summary, the first method does not include the conscious learning of grammatical rules however the second method makes full use of them. With respect to this project, as the users of the software will be undertaking language learning, this may be the more relevant. However, as people learn subconsciously by hearing the language used, the software should include audio examples to aid subconscious learning, thus using both strategies.

Hypothesis 3: Natural order hypothesis This hypothesis is based on the natural order of language learning, namely that learners tend to learn certain words and types of structure in a predictable order. Bailey, Madden and Krashen (1974) found that adults used the same natural order when learning a language and expressing themselves. An example of the standard order is in the acquisition of morphemes (short words/groups of words that mean something when used on their own) in the English language, (see figure 2.2 below). This order was established from a series of empirical studies carried out by Krashen (1977).

8


ING (progressive) PLURAL COPULA (‘to be’)

AUXILIARY (progressive, as in ‘he is going’) ARTICLE (a, the)

IRREGULAR PAST

REGULAR PAST SINGULAR POSSESSIVE

Figure 2.2 Average order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes. Taken from [7] p13. In this project, the software users are beginners and they will be at an early stage of acquisition. Hence the software must aid their progression to further stages.

Hypothesis 4: Monitor hypothesis The monitor hypothesis states that both the acquisition and learning of a language can be used in two specific ways, with due consideration of performance. In this hypothesis, learning is seen as a ‘monitor’ or an ‘editor’. It comes into use when changes are required in the way that a learner speaks. In the actual performance of the language, this hypothesis suggests that the formal grammar rules only provide a limited role. It seems that the conscious use of language rules only happens when three conditions are fulfilled. These conditions are: 1. Time This variable needs to be considered when applying grammar rules. The learner needs to have enough time to think about the rules that apply to the information. However, if the rules are overused then this may lead to the learner hesitating when speaking, rather than concentrating on what their partner is communicating. 2. Focus on form According to Dulay and Burt (1978), the learner must think about the correctness of the information. It is important to think about how the learner is saying a particular word or sentence.

9


3. Know the rule Language and the structure of grammar are very complex. When the learner is put in a situation where all three conditions are successful, the error pattern has been known to change and this demonstrated the idea of how ‘conscious grammar’ contributes to language learning. The evidence of this comes from studies carried out by Bialystok and Frohlich (1978) where they performed studies on the three conditions. It was found that it resulted in an unnatural order. [7] With respect to the project, the software must strike a balance between explaining the rules of the grammar and the use of the language. It would seem that ‘over monitoring’ has a negative effect on the learner’s communicative ability (they become hesitant). It is important to increase the contact that the learner has with the language so that the software should contain many audio examples, to ensure the user knows what ‘sounds right’.

Hypothesis 5: Affective filter hypothesis Dulay and Burt (1977) proposed the concept of an ‘affective filter’. There are a number of variables that affect second language acquisition. There are three categories that these variables can be arranged into: 1. Motivation It is shown that learners who have motivation to succeed and are interested in the language generally do much better when acquiring a second language. This relates to Gass and Selinker’s theory on motivation as explained previously, (see 2.3.1). 2. Self confidence Learners exude confidence when speaking and practicing the language. 3. Low anxiety If the learner has low anxiety when learning the language, this will aid language acquisition. This applies to individual learning or during a lesson in a classroom. In general, if the learner does not have the correct attitude for acquiring the language, they will tend to put less effort into the activity and this will result in having a strong or high affective filter. Whereas if the learner has a positive attitude and is keen to acquire the language, they tend to put more effort into tasks set. According to Stevick (1976), the learner will be more open to any input. [7] Again, with respect to this project, the software must keep the user motivated, and build their self-confidence by giving sufficient chance to use the language. Factors that will keep a user motivated to use the software must be considered, and this will form a key part of the user-centred design of the program, (see chapter 4 for the design).

10


2.3.7 The role of input and output In order for second language acquisition to take place, many researchers agree that input or experience using the language is important. This could be either by oral or written information. Krashen (1982) views this as a vital component when acquiring a language. VanPatten (1991, 1996) also created the ‘Input Processing’ model, which illustrates the process of input and its success on developing knowledge. The model is based on four hypotheses which describe input strategies. They were carried out using online comprehension. It outlines the learner’s awareness of form and attention to meaning. This hypothesis explains that as a learner, the input for meaning is processed before they process form, so there is a deeper level process at the expense of surface level processing. Hypothesis 1

Figure 2.3 Hypothesis one – taken from source [6]

H1a: Learners process content words in the input before anything else.

H1b. Learners prefer processing lexical items to grammatical items e.g. morphology for semantic information.

H1c: Learners prefer processing more meaningful morphology before less or non-meaningful morphology.

Hypothesis 2

Figure 2.4 Hypothesis two – taken from source [6]

H2: In order for learners to process form that is not meaningful, they must be able to process informational value or communicative content at no or little cost to attention.

Hypothesis 3

Figure 2.5 Hypothesis three – taken from source [6]

H3: Learners tend to process input strings as agent-action-object or subject-verb-object, assigning agent or subject status to the first noun phrase they encounter.

Hypothesis 4

Figure 2.6 Hypothesis four – taken from source [6]

H4: Learners may process phrases and recurring patterns as whole unanalyzed chunks, especially if phonological properties help to delimit these phrases.

11


The model helps to explain the idea that when a learner is at an early stage, they often

owever it has been found that there are some limitations to this model. According to

ith respect to this project, the consensus is that repeated practice of the language is

2.3.8 Cognitive theory theories, cognitivism is a change in a person’s knowledge.

chers in this field. Piaget

anguage production is seen as a process in which the language is constructed and

. Construction e learner has ‘communication goals’. The learner decides what they

s noted that often learners use linear discourse when

.Transformation arner uses language rules that apply. The information that the learner

is about to present must be converted into usable/meaningful sentences. The information may be broken down into more significant units.

require significant cognitive effort to gain meaning from the input. Lexical items have to be processed and this results in grammar being ignored e.g. verb forms. Despite this, the learner is still able to understand the conversation. HVanPatten, a learner who is at beginner level will often concentrate on the roots of words. This is because they have a high communicative value. Often if a word form has a low communicative value, then these items are ignored by the beginner. [6] Wimportant for learning. Therefore, the software must offer both audio and written examples. This will give the learner multimodal opportunities both to see and to hear the correct form of different words in different situations (rather than simply the root).

When related to learning The theory was established in response to behaviourist views. Chomsky (1957) and Jean Piaget were some of the few researresearched on areas that were related to logical reasoning and language. He investigated how people processed the information they received. He noted that the environment around the learner remains constant and that they are motivated by trying to understand how the world works. [5] Lexpressed. According to Anderson (1985), the process of language production can be divided into three sections. He found that both production of the language and comprehension (understanding of the language) are actually very similar, although there are still differences between the two. The three stages that Anderson identified are: 1In this stage, thwould like to say and then chooses the correct facts which are then used to express the goals. The learner must also decide on how they are going to structure the information that they are going to express. In Anderson’s research it waexpressing themselves. For example, if a series of events were described, then the details were expressed in the order in which they happened. This also applied to the description of a particular place. They described the place as though they had just had a tour around it. 2In this stage, the le

12


3.Execution In this stage, the information is communicated to another person.

tages can be recursive, where once it has been decided what the learner is , transformation and

xecution) and go between each stage several times. [6]

elp them with the construction

to consolidate the research When designing the software, motivation is

the students and encourage them to learn the

e software. It is important to discover a theme that a mixed class will be

t defensive about learning.

g with other people.

m in education.

erstand bilingualism within lance theory, the iceberg analogy and the

y describes how two languages exist together and how they are in alance with each other. Some researchers picture this as a weighing scale, where, as

language increases, the use of the first language diminishes. Cummins (1980) has labelled this idea as ‘Separate underlying proficiency

These three sgoing say, the learner may use all parts of the process (constructioneWith respect to this project, it is important that the software provides a means of practising communication in a recursive way. The university students will want to use their Spanish in the ‘real’ world, so the software should hof phrases they are likely to need in everyday situations.

2.3.9 Summary of research thus far After considering many theories, it is now importantoutlined with respect to the project in hand. a key factor. It is necessary to motivate language. Therefore the students will be at the centre of the design. The software must encourage the student regardless of their ability. It should be intuitive to use. This will allow the student to concentrate solely on learning the language and not on the features of the system. The software will be designed for a mixed class (male and female). Although this may not have any implications on how well they learn the language, this may well influence the design of thmotivated to learn from. Grammar rules will be introduced within the software. However it is essential to establish how many of these exercises the student will want to carry out. The software must not make the studenIt will be particularly useful if the software contains exercises on everyday situations through schemas and scenarios, e.g. ordering food in a restaurant. This will aid the student in constructing sentences and in communicatinIn general, the software should provide sufficient use and practice of the language to help the student with their understanding. The theories investigated so far have been concerned with learning a second language. The project will now lead on to bilingualis

2.3.10 Bilingualism in education There are a number of the theories that help us to undeducation. Such theories include: The bathreshold theory. Theory 1: The balance theory The balance theorbthe knowledge of the second

13


model of bilingualism’. Here the two areas of the brain operate separately from one another, without any transfer. With reference to this project, the software must begin to encourage the use of the second language so that it may one day start to ‘shift the balance’ on the scales. This is less relevant for beginners than it is for advanced speakers.

ocean. These represent the rst and second languages. It is underneath the surface that the two languages are in

ore do not

Theory 2: The iceberg analogy The iceberg analogy describes the process of becoming bilingual in a different way. There are two iceberg tips visible above the surface of thefifact joined together and theref work individually. There is a central

to use linguistic rules from their first language to aid second nguage learning.

ld is the actual level that the learner achieves in the econd language. The first level of this threshold should be reached to avoid any

t being understood, or worse, the meaning of your

tware must build towards the first threshold, making

ecome defensive and their peech is interpreted wrongly.

uage acquisition, it is important to consider the way in which the language is taught to an individual or a group of people. Often teaching is carried out in

he language that is being taught.

processing system. Cummins (1980) labelled this model the ‘common underlying proficiency model’. In terms of this project, the users of the software will already speak English, so it may be assumed that their knowledge of English will help their Spanish learning. The learner may be ablela Theory 3: The threshold model Another model that is used is the threshold model. This compares cognitive theories with bilingualism. The threshosnegative consequences such as nospeech being interpreted wrongly. The second level demonstrates the positive outcomes of becoming bilingual. The learner has a balanced knowledge of the two languages. [12] Applying this to the project, the sofsure that the user is understood and encouraging their use of the language. The software must support the user in their learning, so that they do not bs Having now looked at the theories of second language acquisition and the implications of these for the project, discussion now turns to the other side of the equation: teaching a second language.

2.4 Approaches to language teaching

During second lang

a number of different ways to help emphasise t

14


In each of the following methods of teaching, ‘optimal input for acquisition’ will be considered. Krashen (1982) devised a number of variables that must be present during optimum acquisition. These are: Comprehensible: whether the language can be understood.

ation taught arn or be defensive.

the form of teaching will assist in

d

.4.1 Krashen’s theories in practice: Grammar translation

ntences and a list of vocabulary. The list itself is bilingual. trate the use of the racticing exercises

. Comprehensible

class is completely on the form of the grammar and not necessarily any meaning. he learner concentrates on specific words and not the overall meaning of the sentence.

at are interesting to the student could be selected.

during the lesson.

. Affective filter level t that this method of teaching will make the student defensive towards

s, as it xpects the learner to be able to answer their work immediately and accurately.

Interesting/relevant: interesting to the student. Not grammatically sequenced: where the grammar is not sequenced. Quantity: the volume of inform Affective filter level: whether the student will be willing to le Tools for conversational management: whether

verbal communication. In terms of this project, these five criteria must form a core part of the requirements andesign of the programme.

2The main focus in this type of teaching is a certain grammar rule. The class will be presented with example seThe learner will then carry out some reading exercises that demonsgrammar rule. This type of teaching will also include the learner pwhich will allow them to use the grammar that has been taught. Often they will include translation both ways e.g. from English to Spanish and from Spanish to English. Teaching style: Grammar translation - Is this ‘optimal input?’ (Adapted from [7], page 127) 1This type of teaching only provides small amounts of comprehensible input. The focus of theT 2. Interesting/relevant Sometimes during these exercises, the learner may not be interested in carrying out the task as the topic does not capture the learner’s attention. Perhaps to improve this, topics th 3. Not grammatically sequenced This type of teaching is certainly grammatically sequenced. A new rule is explained to the class and this forms the basis of what takes place 4. Quantity This type of teaching does not provide a large amount of comprehensible input. 5It is thoughlearning. It goes against the theory that was explained in the input hypothesie

15


6. Tools for conversational management It does not help the learner to manage a conversation in the language. With respect to this project, grammar exercises must form part of the program’s

the interests of university students and must gth’ of any given

xercise. This will be something to consider in the requirements chapter.

n repeats the

a drill will result in the

his type of teaching does provide comprehensible input. The way in which there are

nt

in veryday situations.

is good practice to speak the language, although some argue that is method of teaching does not satisfy the ‘quantity’ requirement sufficiently

other teaching methods. This method concentrates on the memorisation of

ithout errors. Also by not allowing the arner to look at written work during this time, this may lead to anxiety when learning

n 1978).

teaching process, but must be relevant tonot overdo the quantity. Users must be consulted on the ‘optimal lene

2.4.2 Krashen’s theories in practice: Audio-lingualism This approach starts where the dialogue is expressed to the class. The dialogue includes the vocabulary that is going to be used that lesson. The learner thedialogue. Sometimes the class will be divided into smaller groups and they will practice among themselves. Lado (1964) argues that often having suchlearner becoming unfocused on the new structure that is going to be learnt. There are four different types of drills. These are: repetition, translation, transformation and substitution. Eventually the learner is expected to memorize the work. Teaching style: Audio-lingualism - Is this optimal input? (Adapted from [7], page 129) 1. Comprehensible Tpatterns and the learner can practice the dialogue, makes it comprehensible to most. 2. Interesting/relevaMany dialogues that are used do not capture the interest of the learner. On the other hand, it is important to use useful and natural language that may be appropriatee 3. Not grammatically sequenced There is an obvious sequence used in this type of teaching. Learners can build on previous knowledge. 4. Quantity When using dialogue in class, it is quite easy to spend the whole time using this method. Of course it thcompared tothe particular dialogue and often the learner is too engrossed in this, rather than thinking about the overall meaning of the text. 5. Affective filter level Again this type of teaching goes against the input hypothesis described earlier. The learner is expected to answer straight away and wlethe language (Schuman

16


6. Tools for conversational management. By using dialogue, the learner is able to practice the language. In some cases, the dialogue may be from a script, although perhaps working in small groups to try

egotiating the language would be of benefit.

st be a native Spanish speaker, so that arners can hear the correct pronunciation.

hould be based on a set script, but should

grammar translation and

.g. role play, translations, filling in blanks or a dialogue.

his provides only a small amount of comprehensible input. The learner can possibly is

portant to find the meaning of the information.

. Not grammatically sequenced uence used in this type of teaching.

. Quantity t compared to that of grammar translation.

n In this project the implication is that the programme should include audio examples and the possibility for learners to interact, perhaps by taking different parts in a conversation. The voice in the program muleIt is clear that the topics of conversation must be relevant to the learners, for as they will be learning in their own time, the only thing keeping them using the software is their own motivation. Hence learners should be consulted on the topics of conversation they would find useful. Not all examples sallow the learner a choice of words to use. This will help with the conversational relevance, as well as teaching a greater quantity to the learner.

2.4.3 Krashen’s theories in practice: Cognitive code This method of teaching assists in all four aspects of language learning: reading, writing, speaking and listening. In some ways it is similar to audio-lingualism, although these are only concerned with reading, and with listening and speaking respectively. The class itself starts with an explanation of a particular aspect of the language, and then the learner is given exercises to carry out. This allows the student to be able to practice what they have just been taught. The use of the Monitor is encouraged. Many different methods are used e Teaching style: Cognitive code - Is this optimal input? (Adapted from [7], page 132) 1. Comprehensible Tincrease this during the activities, as long as the main focus is not just on the rule. Itim 2. Interesting/relevant As in all scenarios, it depends on the activities that are given to the learner. 3There is an obvious seq 4There is a greater quantity of inpu

17


5. Affective filter level There is a high affective filter that is expected to influence the learner. During the class error checking is dominant, the learner can then be sure that what the teacher is using is accurate. 6. Tools for conversational management. Some of the tasks such as the speaking element of the class will help in conversational management. The variety of exercises used in this approach appears beneficial due to the obvious sequencing and the large amount of language input. Consequently, for this project the program should contain a balance of exercise types using reading, writing, listening and speaking.

2.4.4 Other theories in practice: The natural approach This method of teaching was developed in the University of California. It is divided into two main areas. These are class time (where input is provided and the teacher only speaks the second language in the class) and error correction (when the class is given homework exercises). The natural approach encourages the learner to discuss ideas and solve problems that are presented to them. [7]

2.4.5 When does language teaching help? Language teaching helps during a classroom lesson, as the affective filter is low. By being in the classroom, this helps to provide ‘comprehensible input’. It is particularly helpful for beginners of a language because at that level they find it difficult to use the information in an ‘informal environment’. Some evidence of this comes from Briére (1978). He did a study on 920 native Mexican children. He wanted to investigate the factors that determined success when learning a language. It was concluded in his work that by attending the class, the students were more successful and proficient in the language. Despite this, there are still limitations of learning a language in a classroom environment. It can be argued that the learner is not exposed to the natural environment in which it is spoken, such as a restaurant, shop or office. If the learner lived in the country where the language could be used throughout the day, then the learner would have a large input of the language. No matter how hard the teacher tries to simulate the natural environment in which the learner speaks, the classroom is still unable to do this. [7] Error correction is an incredibly important part of teaching a second language. The first question to consider is whether errors should be corrected, and if so, in what ways? By notifying the learner if their use of the language is incorrect, they are informed that the rule is incorrect and that it affects their competence. Hendrickson (1977) agreed that error correction should take place but it should be limited. He suggested that the conditions that are used when error correcting should be the same conditions as those when the student is originally learning. This means that errors can be corrected on written activities, but should not be corrected during a conversation.

18


Burt and Kiparsky (1972) decided that ‘global’ errors should be corrected. By this they

that were made repeatedly would have to be given the highest priority. he errors themselves could be corrected either directly (when they occur) or through a

elped to understand their mistake.

ns for this project of the foregoing discussion are that speaking ssignments are difficult to assess by computer due to the unpredictable nature of

n how the given answer is correct. Verb exercises are particularly important as the verb form used could affect the understanding of the sentence i.e. which person

arner is able to control how much of the input is comprehensible and in addition, activities can be chosen based on what the

earlier, motivation is a key aspect in

in the ‘real’ world.

ossible in assisting the

ies on the acquisition of the Spanish language, these include learning through honology, use of the past tense, use of the subjunctive, use of the lexicon and most

meant that errors which would actually impede the message would need to be corrected in the first instance. In addition to this, those errors that resulted in an adverse reaction and errorsTmore inductive way, where the learner is h The implicatioaspeech recognition software. However these theories would confirm that leaving them out would not necessarily have an adverse effect on the learning. Error correction should be used during written exercises and this should provide the learner with feedback o

the verb is referring to.

2.4.6 Summary: The most suitable model After considering all of Krashen’s models, the cognitive model is the one that satisfies most areas. It considers the four important aspects of language learning. These are reading, writing, listening and speaking. The le

students find most interesting. As expressed designing the software and therefore this model allows for topics that are relevant and interesting. Error checking is also apparent in this method of teaching. The main benefit with this model is that it aids communication and for most university students this is very valuable for when using the language Now that a comprehensive analysis of second language acquisition and the teaching thereof has been completed, some aspects that are unique to Spanish need to be considered, so as to make the programme as effective as planguage learning process.

2.5 Learning theories specific to Spanish language acquisition

After considering the various theories for second language acquisition, it is important to consider these theories but with reference to learning Spanish. There are a numerous studpimportantly computers in language learning.

2.5.1 Theories of phonological acquisition Phonological acquisition is the study of speech through sound. It considers any patterns that may develop, as well as their distribution. Phonology refers to the actual system produced by sound in a language. [8]

19


According to Harlow and Muyskens (1994) often people worry about their pronunciation and are quite concerned about how they sound to people in the class. This may result in the student being hesitant. Therefore again this will contribute negatively to the person’s attitude towards learning the language and participating in

ed on the ronunciation accuracy of university students learning Spanish. He found that the most

of the Spanish examples will be unfamiliar to the English learner and they will therefore require explanation and error correction. [17]

ajor (2001) identified four different levels of pronunciation to study. These include:

2) A combination of segments

dren and fifty young adults to investigate re better both in

This however, does not support the critical age ypothesis. This specifies that there is a critical period for being able to acquire a

dialogue. What is particularly relevant here is Elliott’s study (1995) that concentratppredominant variable was the student’s attitude towards pronouncing the Spanish in a native way. Those students who were very much concentrated on the pronunciation of the Spanish, were better at the allophones of the language. [3] An allophone is ‘phonetic variant of a phenome in a particular language,’ or more simply, different ways of pronouncing one letter. For example in the English language, ‘p’ and ‘pH’ are allophones of the letter ‘p’. Another example is that ‘t’ and ‘tH’ are allophones of the letter ‘t’. Whereas in Spanish, an example may be that ‘b’ and ‘B’ are allophones of the phenome ‘b’. [4] Some

In another study Elliott carried out, he found that during the first phases of language acquisition, if importance was emphasized on pronunciation, this resulted in the person being able to speak freely and they were not as anxious about speaking the language. It helped to lower the affective filter. Once the person has been given confidence in the way they are talking, it is often useful for them to practice with a native speaker. By spending this additional time with a native speaker, this results in more target language input. [3] M 1) Individual segments For example, pronouncing the ‘rr’ in the word ‘perro’.

For example, pronouncing the word ‘apreciáis’. 3) Features that are used during pronunciation such as the tone of voice or rhythm that is used. 4) The accent that is used. Rosenmann (1987) studied fifty English chilhow they produced Spanish sounds. It was found that adults weauditory work and when they had to produce sound. All of those studied, then had to repeat Spanish words and again this resulted in the adult’s pronunciation being better than that of the child. She stated that the adult was more mature and that they were fficient in their language learning. e

h

20


language. Any time after this point, the learner will find it more difficult to acquire it. Penfield and Roberts (1959) defined this to be the age of nine. However Lenneberg (1967) believed that this occurred at the age of five and those children who are older can still acquire the language like a native. [3] Spanish contains a number of pronunciations that will not be familiar to an English speaker and the implications for this project are that the software must explain these with examples both in writing and with audio. For example, ‘Me llamo Valerie’, would be pronounced ‘May yammo balerie’. The learner should be able to record their voice and compare it to the voice of a native speaker (recorded in the software). This will help the learner to become more confident when speaking as proven by research. Part of the phonological acquisition theory is the contrastive analysis hypothesis. The Contrastive Analysis hypothesis According to Stockwell and Bowen (1965) if a particular sound does not exist in the

preterit. However this is only the case when the verbs that are used include an Some examples of this are: ‘María fue a la playa’ which means Mary went to the

each. Also ‘Juan compró un auto’ which means John bought a car. The Spanish

here have been several studies into the topic of ‘tense’. Lafford (1996) used 13 ere all at different levels of the language. They had to retell the

minutes. It was found that most erbs that were used were atelic verbs. The term atelic is a type of verb that is used

vent that is not yet complete. The students at the lower ather a lot and it was only those who

ere at higher level Spanish who used the imperfect tense. The main conclusion that

First Noun Strategy

native language (for example English), but does exist in the second language (Spanish), then this will cause complexity when the learner is trying to learn the second language. Spanish vocabulary with the ‘rolled r,’ include words such as ‘ropa’ and ‘carretera’.

2.5.2 The Past Tense It is found that within the English language the ‘simple’ past corresponds to that of the Spanishevent.bsentence makes use of the preterit, whereas the English sentence uses the simple past. TSpanish students who wstory of the video (The Sorcerer’s Apprentice) in ten vwhen describing an action or elevels of Spanish tended to use the past tense rwcame from this was the idea of the preterit being used as a ‘default marker of past tense’.

2.5.3 SVO processing orThis theory demonstrates that when the learner is processing information and they wish to discover the meaning, the learner often listens to the first noun that they hear and believe that this word is the main subject of that sentence. This sometimes results in the delivery of incorrect data. VanPatten (1996) believed that this is often the cause of many learner errors. He looked into processing strategies that were used in those learning Spanish when shown these types of sentences. They included ‘direct and indirect object pronouns’. An example of a direct object is ‘Los invita él al cine. This literally translates as: ‘them invites he to the cinema’. In other words ‘He invites them

21


to the cinema’. An example of an indirect object is ‘Les da él dinero’ which literally translates as ‘to them gives he money’. In the correct order it is ‘He gives them money’. Each learner in VanPattern’s study were given four pictures and they listened to a sentence. They then had to match up the picture and the sentence together. His results

luded that the First Noun Strategy occurred between 35%-70% of the time. Often e first noun was misinterpreted. [3]

n any xisting models from their native language. An example of the subjunctive in Spanish

tokes and Krashen (1990) investigated the acquisition of the subjunctive. The students ersity students. The students had to complete

ere

).

ze of vocabulary according to Naition and Waring be much improved. Sometimes by

concth

2.5.4 Use of the subjunctive The Spanish language makes use of the subjunctive. The subjunctive is often used to express a mood or an emotion. It is often used to explain a form of uncertainty. In the English language it is not commonly used. An example English would be ‘If I were you’. This results in many learners not being able to base their Spanish learning oemay be: ‘Ojalá que’ which translates as ‘hopefully’. Sthat were involved were Spanish univsentences all of which started with ‘Mis padres quieren que yo’ which translates to ‘my parents want me to.’ The students were taught how to use the subjunctive. From this study it was found that by living in the foreign country, this correlates positively to the ability of those understanding the subjunctive, whereas with classroom instruction thwas no correlation. [3] [9]

2.5.5 Lexicon Schmitt and McCarthy (1997) define a lexeme to be ‘an item which functions as a single meaning unit, regardless of the number or orthographical words it contains’. The first items that a second language learner acquires are lexical words. (Ellis 1997Examples of this in Spanish are ‘buenos días’ meaning ‘good morning’ and ‘por favor’ meaning ‘please’. As demonstrated by Chomsky (1988), what is known as the ‘structure dependency principle’ has a large impact on a lexicon. It requires the learner to look at the grammar involved and decide the environment in which it should be used. For example the Spanish word ‘bebida’ meaning ‘a drink’ would combine with the word ‘tengo’ (meaning ‘I have’), rather than the verb ‘beber’ (meaning ‘to drink’).

2.5.6 SiIf the learner has a wide range of vocabulary, then(1997) the learner’s reading and writing skills will not knowing one specific word, then this can result in misunderstanding.

2.5.7. Cognitive elements in Spanish acquisition In terms of a cognitive approach, Spanish acquisition involves the processes of perceiving the language, being able to memorize and finally being able to process the information that is provided. One of the first studies carried out in this area was done by VanPatten (1987). He wanted to investigate the verbs ‘ser’ and ‘estar’. These are known as copulas as they are

22


linking words. In this case, these verbs mean ‘to be’. Other examples of copulas in the English language are: ‘to get’ or ‘to feel’. During the study he established five progressions in the learning of the Spanish copulas. These are shown below:

2.7 Demonstrating the stages of learning copulas. Taken from source [3] page

rted. However he UK in a number of schools. esponds to stimuli. This may be

Figure

1. Absence of copula in leMaria baja “Mary short

arner speech ”.

e

enferma “Mary is sick”.

2. Selection of ser to perform most copula functions

Juan es estudiando “John is studying” El libro es aquí “The book is here”

3. Appearance of estar with present progressiv

Juan está estudiando. “John is studying”. 4. Appearance of estar with locatives

El libro está aquí. “The book is here”

5. Appearance of estar with adjectives of condition. Maria está

number In his study, he argues that the use of the copula cannot be fully understood by just teaching or experience in a classroom environment. If the copula was used and explained from the very beginning of acquiring the language, it would be expected that the learner would start to master this from a very early stage. [3] The software that will be designed will complement the teaching of Spanish. This will be computer based. Therefore it is vital to consider the issues surrounding computers used for education. In this case, the teaching of the Spanish language.

2.6 Computers in language learning

When an application is designed to encourage the learning of a language, it is known as Computer assisted language learning (CALL). They are able to support the attainment of knowledge through a series of tasks and activities. CALL was first introduced in the early 1960s, primarily in universities where such software could be suppoby the 1980s it became much more widely used across tThey require an interactive element, where the student ra series of questions, images or sounds. The computer then offers feedback to show whether the students answer is correct (Davies et al., 2007). There are many researchers in the field, as well as interest groups such as the Second Language Acquisition and Technology (SLAT). CALL enables the researchers of

23


second language acquisition the chance to study the process of learning a language as a whole. It is important to question the need for teaching and learning using a computer.

technology surrounds people and is becoming increasingly entral to most jobs. In the long term, if students understand how computers can benefit

well as saving money

the learner. By using idence in using the

ts who are at first arn more. In addition to the students, the

ere the software can

ded benefit of providing with short questions, for

ercises can be other form of exercise

into their input and progress to the

are simple tasks, they only require basic computer literacy, which will allow

r the user, as specified the ‘natural approach’ discussed previously. The software will include a number of

l the pace at which they work,

In some cases, the student also has the opportunity to work through the software

6] [19]

Today in the workplace,cthem, then this can result in time saving when producing work, as and energy that has to be put in. Technology helps to enhance the reading and writing skills of word processing and software this can help the student to gain conflanguage when carrying out educational activities. Often those studenreluctant, become motivated, wanting to leteacher must also look at the current curriculum and find whenhance achievement. Using computers for language learning also has the adimmediate feedback to the user. This is definitely the caseexample when using multiple-choice. In the case of this project, short exprovided on Spanish grammar and different forms of the verb. Anthat can be checked immediately is the unscrambling of words and putting themthe correct order. The user is therefore able to learn from next stage. As thesethe user to focus on the Spanish task, rather than learning how to use the software. However, feedback becomes difficult if the software has to detect errors in a comprehension or large document for example. It becomes very time consuming. In relation to this project, the software must include feedback foingrammar exercises that can easily be checked, rather than complex checking of documents. By using technology, it enables the student to controallowing them to learn in a relaxed environment.

choosing topics that interest them, rather than having a set order to follow. The main benefit is that software can help to reinforce what they have learnt in class (those areas that cannot be done independently, such as conversation practise). The implications for this project are that the learner should be able to work through thesoftware in the order that they desire, rather than having a set route to follow. The learner will be able to practise the topics that have been covered in the class environment, reinforcing what they have been taught. [15] [1

24


Finally, computer software can be easily integrated with a curriculum and this can be the basis of the requirements. In the case of this project, the software will be based on the Spanish curriculum of the beginner level Spanish class. [20] This leads onto the discussion of how extremely important it is to involve the users at

will be

hen designing educational software it is important to consider human computer

dditionally it is important to consider the current skills of the user. How well they can

ograms as part of their university degree. Therefore many of the students

e it is perative that the application is fast enough to meet their demands. If the interface is

e processing of information and the

evelops eir knowledge, their mental model will grow. This relates to the theory of ‘more and

the centre of the design. In the following section, human computer interaction discussed.

2.7 Human Computer Interaction: user-centred design

Winteraction (HCI) issues. The first part of the process is to understand the users of the system and what they require. In order to identify them, empirical studies will be carried out with users of the system. This is known as interaction design. It demonstrates how the learner will interact with the system that is produced. Hansen’s (1971) first principle was “know thy user”. Ause a computer and an interface is key to using the software that is produced. There are three types of user. These are: novice users, knowledgeable intermittent users and expert frequent users. As the software is going to be designed for university students, they will all have a good level of computer literacy. Most students constantly have to access email and use computer prwill be in the ‘frequent user’ category. With respect to this project, as university students have experienced many applications throughout their studies, they will want to carry out their work quickly. Thereforimtoo slow then this could lead to the student becoming frustrated when using the software. Often shortcuts are favoured by those students who want to move through the programme at a fast rate. [14] There are a number of conceptual models that help to demonstrate the theories of HCI. There are three different areas: mental models, thcognition that takes place in the external environment. With reference to mental models, this means that the learner will develop their knowledge and learn how to use the system that is designed. As the learner dthmore’, where the more you turn or push something on, the more it results in the desired effect. It is important for the learner not to apply this to every situation as this can form an incorrect mental model. In response to this, the educational software must provide useful feedback to the user and will be easy to understand.

25


Another approach is to consider information processing. This involves conceptualising the processes that occur during the learning of the language. There are a range of possibilities including matching and comparing items or using images. It is important to nsure that the learner is not overloaded with information, as well as how long it will

t is shown as a series of stages. Many of the cognitive tasks that take place involve the user interacting with items in the external environment e.g. with a book or a

tage involves identifying the tasks that the tudents will carry out, as well as their preferred interaction style. To establish this, the

em most

are should include. As for identifying the tasks, the software ill be based on beginner level Spanish and will therefore comply with the student’s

riting, listening or speaking, as well as any dditional material that is provided. The software will incorporate a combination of

he interface must be consistent. or example: the use of terminology throughout the software, the use of buttons,

he interface should take into consideration the wide range of users. This may include

should explain clearly how to rectify the situation. It must be clear and coherent.

etake the learner to respond to the stimuli that is provided. Card et al. (1983) developed the human processor model. This demonstrates how the user interacts with the computer. I

computer.

The final item to consider is external cognition. The learner interacts with a number of external devices. In this case, it will be a computer. There are many benefits to using external devices. These include reducing the memory load for the learner, carrying out a computation and having the ability to annotate. Taking these models into account, the next ssusers and the Spanish tutor will be interviewed to find out what they require in a Spanish tutor. Not only will this demonstrate the topics that interest th(motivates them) but will help to determine how they would like to interact with the system and what the softwwsyllabus. [14] In relation to the language teaching, a Spanish class will be attended to observe the way the class is currently taught. It is important to consider the teaching style, whether the teacher uses a mixture of reading, wathese to enhance what they have learnt in class. [13] When designing an interface, it is vital to consider how the user will interact with the software. There are a number of interface design principles that should be carefully examined. The following are adapted from Shneiderman’s usability principles [14]. 1. TFmenus, colours, fonts and the layout of the interface. 2. Usability should be universal Tthe age range of the users or if they have any disabilities. If a user is a novice, then providing help buttons and tags may assist them in their learning. 3. Feedback should be informative The interface should provide feedback. If the user makes a large mistake, the feedback

26


4. Dialogues If the user has to carry out a sequence of actions, they should have a beginning, middle

the user as they know that they can get back to their original work.

and end. If the user is presented with a dialog box on completing a task, this provides them with a sense of achievement. 5. Errors It is important to design the system so that the user cannot make any major errors. If an error does occur, the user should be presented with appropriate feedback. 6. Reverse actions If the user is able to reverse the action that they just carried out, this reduces any anxiety for 7. Control The user likes to feel in control of the interface they are using. It is therefore important not to surprise users with any unnecessary actions. . Reduce memory load 8

The interface must be kept simple. If too much information is presented to the user then this will result in ‘information overload’. In addition to this, Neilsen (2001) developed ten usability principles: The following are taken from source [13]

27


Figure 2.8 Nielsen (2001) usability principles The software developed in this project must comply with the usability principles as specified by Neilsen. These principles will be used when designing the prototype.

2.7.1 Summary of user-centred design principles At all stages of the design process the user should be involved. The university students will be interviewed about what they would look for in a Spanish tutor, particularly with reference to what motivates them. The students will also take part in the design process. The ideas that they provide and the research that has been found in the literature will contribute to the requirements chapter. This will lead to the first prototype of the software in the design chapter. The students will provide feedback on this prototype to ensure that it satisfies their requirements.

2.8 Conclusions of literature review

After investigating the literature, it is important to consolidate all of the findings. These will then be considered when defining the requirements of the educational software and in the design process. Some of the main findings are:

1. Visibility of system status – always keep users informed about what is going on, through providing appropriate feedback within reasonable time.

between system and the real world – speak the users’ language, using words,

themselves, by using clearly marked ‘emergency exits’.

nose and recover from errors – use plain language to nature of the problem and suggest a way of solving it.

ognition rather than recall – make objects, actions and options visible.

y out tasks more quickly.

2. Matchphrases and concepts familiar to the user, rather than system oriented terms.

3. User control and freedom – provide ways of allowing users to easily escape from

places they unexpectedly find

4. Consistency and standards – avoid making users wonder whether different words, situations or actions mean the same thing.

5. Help users recognise, diag

describe the

6. Error prevention – where possible prevent errors occurring in the first place.

7. Rec

8. Flexibility and efficiency of use – provide accelerators that are invisible to the novice users, but allow more experienced users to carr

9. Aesthetic and minimalist design – avoid using information that is irrelevant or rarely

needed.

10. Help and documentation – provide information that can be easily searched and provides help in a set of concrete steps that can be easily followed.

28


Motivation The student needs to be motivated to learn the language. According to research, the student is more successful if they are motivated. Therefore it is important to include the users in the design process and develop a system that they are keen to learn with. Optimal input for acquisition

As Krashen defined, it is important to consider the optimal input for acquisition. Therefore a number of teaching methods will be considered such as grammar translation and audio lingualism for example. It is key to understand the affective filter of the learner and how best they acquire the language. The following variables will be included in the requirements: Comprehensible: whether the language can be understood. Interesting/relevant: interesting to the student. Not grammatically sequenced: where the grammar is not sequenced. Quantity: the volume of information taught Affective filter level: whether the student will be willing to learn or be defensive. Tools for conversational management: whether the form of teaching will assist in

verbal communication. Range of teaching

The learner can acquire the language through a number of skills. These are: reading, writing, speaking and listening activities. User centred

The users should be included through all stnvolves carrying out interviews with the Spani

ages of the development process. This sh teacher, Spanish pupils and observing

as specified by Neilson and

iclasses. The student’s curriculum also has to be considered. Usability principles

It is important to consider the usability principles Shneiderman. The following chapter will include the literature to produce a set of requirements that the software will adhere to.

29


Chapter 3 - Requirements .1 Introduction 3

This chapter investigates the nature of the requirements of the software that will be produced. In order to gather the requirements of the system, it is not only important to consider the research that has been carried out in the literature review but it is essential that the users are involved in the process. Firstly, it is important to interview the students who the software is d

establish what they require esigned for (beginner level Spanish class). This will help from the software including the layout of the tutor, use of

panish teacher will be e

ow the class sting software that is accessible to the

f

f the software

he software that is produced. [18] the case of the educational software to be developed, the stakeholders are:

dents studying beginner level Spanish.

.2 Interview with students from the beginner level Spanish class

imperative that the students of the Spanish class are interviewed. There re a number of questions that need to be considered when designing the software.

) The type of interaction with the tutor - speaking, listening, reading or writing for xample.

b) Methods of interaction – left to discover a topic on your own? Repetition of words/tasks? Grammar practise? c) What type of topic to study? E.g. modern day topics such as ordering food in a restaurant. Spanish that can be used in real life? d) Use of sound? e) Use of graphics? f) What theme? What would motivate the students to learn? g) Should progress be monitored? Print results?

tographics and sounds for example. In addition to this, the S

the system. Secondly, the Spanish int rviewed to identify what they would want in class will be observed to identify the current teaching methods and hresponds to the teacher. Finally, some of the existudents will be evaluated. It is necessary to draw upon the good and bad features oexisting software, as well as to look for improvements in the design. These findings will then be considered in the design for the Spanish students.

3.1.1 Stakeholders oA stakeholder is ‘any person or group who will be affected by the system, directly or indirectly’ This includes the end users of tIn University stu Spanish teacher of beginner level Spanish at the University of Bath. Course director of the foreign language centre at the University of Bath.

3

As stated in the literature review, Hansen’s (1971) first principle was “know thy user”. It is therefore aThese include: ae

30


These were the students’ responses to the interview topics and questions:

nd speaking exercises (pronunciation). the most difficult.

Topics – use topics that can be used if you went to Spain. Everyday topics – food,

cise wrong, provide an

in points or have a set of exercises.

ennis’.

le. bers of the

family.

Not too much active content e.g. pop-ups or graphics which might slow down the

Main page contains all the topics. When the student clicks on a topic, they can

t. E.g. grammar, listening.

show the tongue movement when

events. Everyday conversation. Then perhaps under the Spanish

e top of the screen. Sound – the sound of the words and how to pronounce them.

Student 1 Lots of listening a Oral exercises are

drinks, jobs. Include grammar exercises, but have them during topics, rather than all at once. If

there are too many grammar exercises to complete all at once, then it will become de-motivating. Appearance – colourful. Navigation buttons in one bar, located at the bottom of the screen. Sound – Spanish music perhaps. Certain words, where if you click, it pronounces the words for you in a native

Spanish voice e.g. cinco. When pronouncing the number 5, the ‘c’ at the beginning of the word is pronounced ‘th’. Another example of this is when saying ‘Me llamo’ which means ‘My name is…’ the ‘ll’ part at the beginning of the word, is pronounced with a ‘y’, so phonetically it is ‘yamo’. Record the student’s marks. If the student gets an exer

opportunity to go back and the software could display the correct answer. At the end of the topic, recap the ma As for the topic design, if for example there is an icon of a person playing tennis,

the student could click the image and in Spanish it would say ‘I like to play t Student 2 Grammar exercises – fill in the blanks. A random order, not predictab Listening exercises with a native speaker. E.g. saying numbers or mem

Visually not overpowering in terms of colours or graphics.

software. Could contain a dictionary where the student could look up the ‘English to

Spanish’. Or the phrases could be made available, which relate to the topic e.g. going to a restaurant.

address all the activities that are within that topic and select which one they would like to carry ou Student 3 Practise the pronunciation of words. Perhaps have small video clips which show

how the speaker says the words. This wouldpronouncing them. Topics – everyday

conversation, it will show the translation. Within each topic, provide the new words at th

31


Monitor the progress of the student on specific topics. Have the words under the pictures that are used.

– a simple and tidy layout. ent forms of the verb. E.g.

oes.

of colours to highlight the topics. the grammar parts by themselves, perhaps with tests,

to fill the blanks. This would help sentence

ntify any common themes. The most important factor

ppearance nd simple layout.

too much active content e.g. graphics which might slow down the software.

nd/graphics

entences. Drag and drop words to fill the gaps.

ar exercises that show the different verb forms.

ons e.g. ordering food and drink.

Layout Exercises – grammar exercises where they provide differ

voy – I go, vas – you go, va – he/she/it g Student 4 Lots of interactive speaking and listening because that is the hardest to practise. Very clear, simple layout. Clear use Able to just go through

quizzes and games. Maybe ‘drag and drop’ words

construction.

3.2.1 Common themes between student responses After speaking with students from the beginner level Spanish class, it is necessary to combine all of their ideas and idewas the use of sound to emphasise the pronunciation of words. This would be carried out by a native Spanish speaker. The student responses have been categorised into the following headings: A Clear a Navigation buttons in one bar, located at the bottom of the screen. Visually not overpowering in terms of colours or graphics. Not Have the words under the pictures that are used.

Use of sou A large quantity of interactive speaking and listening exercises to aid pronunciation. Listening exercises with a native speaker. E.g. saying numbers or members of the

family. Type of exercise Fill in the blank to help construct s

Gramm Topics to cover Everyday situati Everyday conversations that could be used when visiting a Spanish speaking

country.

32


Extra features Include a dictionary where the student can look up key words.

important to interview the Spanish teacher of the class. This will provide a hes

niversity of Bath.

the syllabus.

ggle on?

uch as reflexive verbs.

to the word, the student then records the way they ronounce the word and then compare it to the native speaker on the tutoring system.

conversation nd the student takes one role. They would then respond to the questions.

peaker should provide the sound for the tutoring system. ficial. The student could then see where they had made

st they have learnt in that

xisting software r does not currently guide them to software. In terms of

found at: http://www.bath.ac.uk/flc/spanish/ The students are often give a mixture of reading, writing and listening exercises to

rs that both the students and e teacher have very similar requirements for the software. The teacher specified that

to struggle on pronunciation of words, as well as the details of certain ted when speaking to the students

, perhaps where the student is responsible for one side of the conversation and e native speaker is on the other side of the conversation. Both the students and the

Provide key words within the topic.

3.3 Interview with Spanish teacher

It was alsoset of requirements from a teacher’s perspective. Helen Kelsh currently teacbeginner level Spanish at the U What would you be looking for in a tutor system? What topics in particular? It should follow

Are there any topics students stru Pronunciation Including details of grammar and various verb forms s

Suggestions for the system including interaction styles Repetition exercise to reinforce pronunciation. The word could be repeated. Perhaps get the student to listen

p Could have conversation exercises where there are two sides of the

a A native s Feedback would be bene

mi takes. They would be able to track their own progress. At the end of each unit, perhaps provide a summary of wha

unit. E The Spanish teache

multimedia, students are able to access the foreign language centre site and use the listening exercises to practise. This can be

practise.

3.3.1 Summary of findings After interviewing the Spanish teacher of the class it appeaththe students tend grammar and verb forms. This issue was also highlighabout the software. The teacher in addition to this suggested the use of conversation and dialoguesth

33


teachers found it a good idea to track progress as the student works through the

3.4 Observation of the Spanish class

The Spanish class was observed on 6 November 2007. It was vital to investigate the

x.

r ked the teacher about which words/verbs to use. The acher would also ask individuals to share with the class what they had just written.

e often explain many of the sheets in Spanish and ask the class what s that

eople do at the weekend e.g. to go shopping, to go to the cinema. If the students did f drawings.

it o assist

g.

it of drawings. For

ortant to include feedback in

e a list of words where the student could check the spelling of the word.

f class observation

out the lesson, different activities were given to the This included translation

conversation in pairs and small groups, as well as working on individual e teacher then invited individuals to share their

software.

th

current teaching methods that are being used, as well as any further resources that the class work from. The lesson that was observed was on the topic of ‘free time’. The full lesson observation is given in the appendi Main observations: Th oughout the class, students asteThe teacher would correct any grammar. Th teacher wouldthey mean in English. For example, one sheet had a list of sports and activitiepnot understand, the teacher helped to explain with the aid oW h the final work sheet that the class were given, again drawings were used tlearning. The sheet contained a picture with lots of people doing various activities, the class had to work in pairs and ask each other what the people in the picture were doinE.g. David is reading. W h respect to this project, the software will aid learning with the use example, ‘to go shopping’ may be illustrated with some shopping bags, or ‘to play football’ would be illustrated with a football. It is also impthe software. This particularly applies to grammar exercises. The software could also includ

3.4.1 Summary oDuring the observation it is quite evident that the teacher uses a range of teaching techniques. The class made use of conversation exercises and the use of new words that had been introduced. Throughstudents to help emphasize the topic they were learning. exercises and grammar exercises. A large proportion of the class time was spent practisinganswers to the questions asked. Thanswers with the class.

3.5 Evaluating existing software

It is extremely useful to evaluate existing software in this field. This will help to identify any successful approaches that have been used, as well as identifying any features that should be avoided when considering the design of the software.

34


The evaluation was carried out by an advanced Spanish student as they are more experienced with learning Spanish and can provide a good balance between what made it easy to learn the Spanish language, as well as providing the key topic areas e.g. verb

ssed out.

ble in the self access language centre at the University of Bath.

forms that are necessary and should not be mi

The evaluation of the following software will be categorised according to Schneiderman. [14]

3.5.1 Evaluation of ‘Spanish Encounters’ This software is availa

Figure 3.1 Spanish Encounters main screen Good points In some screens, it is possible to change the text from English to Spanish and vice versa. This includes the entire content of the screen. This is done by the clicking of one button. To improve this, rather than switching between the two languages (effectively on two different screens), perhaps have the English written below the Spanish. Another good point is the vocabulary button. Here the user can look up any words that

he Spanish and the English

he user is able to take part in a dialogue. Here they can practice their speaking skills. The tool allows the user to record their answer. The user can do this by clicking the

are contained within the interface. It is possible to find both twords in the list.

Usability principle: ‘Help and documentation’. The user is provided with help should they need it. They are able to look up any words they are unsure about. T

35


‘Record’ button. This allows the user to listen to how they sound compared with the native speaker. Perhaps the buttons could be clearer. The button says ‘play back’ and here it is not clear if this is the user’s voice or the Spanish speaker on the screen. It would be helpful if they were labeled ‘Listen to your answer’ and the other button

beled ‘Listen to Miguel’s answer’.

le: ‘Match between the system and the real world’. The initial idea of aring the user to that of the native speaker is excellent however it must be clear

what actions the buttons will perform.

la Usability principcomp

Figure 3.2 Demonstrating conversation

Figure 3.3 The user can choose their role and participate in the conversation.

36


Bad points The interface does not have a button to return the user to the main screen in one click. There is an exit button but it is not clear to the user whether it quits the exercise or the entire application. On some occasions there are about six steps to get from the exercises back to the main menu. Usability principle: ‘User control and freedom’. Users should be able to easily escape from a situation. The interface should have made it clear which button would exit the exercise and which button would exit the entire application.

The navigation buttons are not always in the same position. To improve this have all of the navigation buttons and help buttons together in the same place. In the topic ¿Quién es el ladrón? All of the navigation buttons are in the same position and there is an additional button to return the user to the main menu. There is general inconsistency between the screens. It is not clear what the buttons do. To improve this perhaps when the user hovers the mouse over the icon, then it will inform the user what the icon represents. The colour of the buttons does not fit in with the rest of the GUI. Usability principle: ‘Consistency and standards’. The buttons should be presented in the same position on each screen, making it clear to the user what the actions mean and where they can be found. By clicking the ‘Topic’ button on the main user interface, the user is presented with a list of topics. E.g. days of the week, different verbs etc. This is similar to an index. When the user selects a topic, the idea is that it should show the user in which topics

e way it does this is by changing the colour of e arrows, next to the topic. E.g. Hotel y turismo. The arrow changes between red and

yellow. However by doing this, it is not immediately noticeable that the arrows have been changed. This leaves the user in a state of ‘Where do I go now?’ Usability principle: ‘Visibility of system status’. It is important to make it clear to the user what is going on in the system. The system should have provided appropriate feedback and therefore made the user aware of the colour change and what it meant. On some screens there are large blocks of text. The user is presented with too much information. The interface provides instructions, however they are not always in the same place on the screen. To improve this, perhaps the interface could have an ‘instruction bar’ so that the instructions can always be found in the same place. Usability principle: ‘Consistency and standards’. The interface should provide information for the user and it should appear in a consistent position on each screen. Usability principle: ‘Aesthetic and minimalist design’. The user should not be

these types of exercises can be found. Thth

presented with a large block of text as this often makes it difficult to read.

37


Figure 3.4 Demonstrating large blocks of text providing too much information.

at the self access language centre at the University of Bath.

3.5.2 Evaluation of ‘Tell me more’ his software is available T

On opening, the user has the option to have a guided session or they can be ‘free to roam’. When the interface is presented, the user’s first response is ‘Where do I start?’ Usability principle: ‘Aesthetic and minimalist design’. When the software is first opened, it is unclear what the user should do. There seems to be too many options to choose from.

Figure 3.5 The main screen of the ‘Tell me more’ software

38


39

Good points The interface makes use of many graphics. When the user hovers the mouse over the icons, it explains what they mean. The interface has a very good navigation bar at the bottom of the screen, where many icons are presented all in the one location. The buttons include ‘go back’, ‘view progress’, ‘next activity’, ‘translation’, ‘options’, ‘online services’ and ‘help’. Usability principle: ‘Consistency and standards’. The navigation buttons are found in one location and this is consistent throughout the software. This interface has a progress monitor. If the user hovers over a square (which represents a certain type of activity about a certain topic), then it will display to the user how much of that unit is complete. Usability principle: ‘Visibility of system status’. The user is aware of their progress and can see how much of the unit is complete. There are a number of excellent exercises for the user to carry out. One that stood out in

ntences with the missing words. Another useful method was the word and picture association

image and then three words. The user had to r

match p words that have

particular is the use of a ‘drag and drop’ screen, where the user would fill in se

screen. The use was presented with an select which word matched up with the image. There was a choice of three words. Foexample, the user had to match a picture of a winter scene with the word ‘invierno’ which means winter. Usability principle: ‘Aesthetic and minimalist design’. The design is aesthetically pleasing and it is clear what the user has to do. Help is available should the user need it.

Figure 3.6 Word association exercise. Here the user has tohe same meaning. t

u


Once the user had completed the exercises for that activity, the system took the user back to the answers that were incorrect. To improve this further it would be better if the

ad points

ove this, perhaps have the on with the name of it underneath.

ciated images, the icon may not be necessarily familiar the user and therefore it could be improved by having labels under the images.

e complex with lengthy explanations. What ould be most helpful is that if the help related specifically to the screen the user was

king and listening. Next to each of the images, there are lights. hey light up when the user hovers over an exercise and it indicates which one of the

of the available exercises and their type. It was suggested that perhaps the exercises c e.g. colours, days of the week, and by type e.g.

han recall’. The user should be able to

world’. By grouping similar te the topic they require.

user only saw the incorrect ones, rather than having to run through the entire series of questions again regardless of whether they were right or wrong. BThe user interface sometimes relies on the over user of graphics, whereas sometimes words would be better to help aid understanding. To impric Usability principle: ‘Match between the system and the real world’. Although the symbols correspond to the assoto Help is available, however often it is quitwcurrently working on, rather than the user having to search through information. Usability principle: ‘Help users recognize, diagnose and recover from errors’. The help that is provided should be clear to the user. At the bottom of the interface, there is an icon which indicates whether the exercise is reading, writing, speaTfour it covers. This is definitely a good idea in itself, however what may be clearer is that if the user can click a button saying ‘exercises’ and then a list will be displayed of all could be displayed according to topiword/picture association, filling in the blanks etc.

Usability principle: ‘Recognition rather trecognize and understand the graphics used.

Usability principle: Match between the system and the realactivities/topics together, the user will be able to easily loca

Figure 3.7 Illustrates the use of graphics to show whether the exercise is listening (ear icon), reading (eye icon), speaking (lips icon) or writing (hand icon).

40


3.5.3 Evaluation of BBC ‘Spanish Steps’ This software is available for free on the World Wide Web and can be found at the following url: http://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/spanish/lj/

Figure 3.8 Main screen of BBC Spanish Steps Good Points The initial impression is that it is clear, bright and simple. E.g. bright colours in the ackground. The text is clear to read (black on a white background).

t the top of the tutor there is a link named ‘key words’. This displays key vocabulary that relates to the topic the user is studying. At the bottom of the screen, it shows progress. There are links to the other tasks that the

Usability principle: ‘Aesthetic and minimalist design’. The design is aesthetically pleasing and intuitive.

bThis tutor seems to be more adult based compared to the others that have been evaluated. The tutor is very intuitive. It is obvious to the user what they are meant to click. Has very clear use of buttons such as ‘Show English’, ‘Sound Only’ and ‘Next’. A

user still has to complete. Examples include: ‘Guess the words’ and ‘One or more’.

41


The user can practice their conversation building by dragging and dropping sentences nversation. There is also an option to

and say it’ and ‘match the eaning’.

If the user chooses the correct answer when matching the meaning, they are presented with a tick and the next word is shown. If the user is incorrect, it says ‘have another try’. A very good feature is that it contains a syllabus for the user to look at. It shows the objectives of each topic and any grammar tips that are included. The user can see an overview of the whole course. Usability principle: ‘Match between the system and the real world’. When learning a language in a class situation, the student makes use of a syllabus which gives an overview of what will be covered in the course. This software contains a syllabus to provide an overview.

into the correct position, to complete the copractice the words that are used in the topic. It presents the word in bold e.g. unas aceitunas. The user then has the various options of ‘hear m

Figure 3.9 Demonstrating that the software is very intuitive. Very clear use of buttons.

he interface also has an option to create a log of their progress however this is one that

to write it own manually.

tion where the user could access exercises traight away and practice exercises on specific elements e.g. adjectives, verb forms.

y areas:

Bad PointsTthe user has to print out and complete themselves. To improve this, perhaps the interface could record the user’s progress automatically, rather than havingd The interface may benefit from having an ops

3.5.4 Common themes between the three programmes After evaluating all three software programmes it is possible to identify some common themes between the three. In terms of the good points when designing the software, there are a number of ke

42


The software should have a clear and concise layout. Navigation tools located in the same place on each screen to ensure that the design

is consistent. Create an intuitive design where it is clear immediately what the user has to do. The user should be able to take part in dialogue to practice the language.

rovide a range of exercises e.g. speaking, reading, writing and listening.

nd design process it is vital to involve the users of the

ted by the Spanish student. This was their response:

3.6.1 ‘Spanish Encounters’ Their initial response about the software was that it was frustrating because the application could not be moved around the computer screen. Once the software was loaded it remained in a fixed position. If the user wanted to open another application e.g. opening a Word document to type up Spanish notes alongside the application, then this is not possible. Usability principle: ‘User control and freedom’. The software violates this heuristic and causes the user to become frustrated. The user is not able to display the screen in the way that they require.

t has minimalist features.

t. From the topics on screen, there is no indication of the difficulty of

nt refore the user is able to

Provide key words or a dictionary where the user can ‘look up’ the words they do not understand. P

3.6 Expert HCI opinion of the software

hroughout the requirements aTsoftware. In addition to this an expert HCI opinion will be considered. This will help to establish usability principles that will be included in the design of the software. The HCI expert carried out a ‘walk through’ of the three pieces of software that had reviously been evaluap

The initial interface is not cluttered which is a good point of the software. sability principle: ‘Aesthetic and minimalist design’. The software follows thisU

principle as i To the HCI expert, the topic may not be logically organized, they do not know as they are a beginner to learning Spanish. All of the topics are listed in Spanish and the user can ‘make a guess’ at what they mean, but it appears that some knowledge of Spanish

ust already exismthe topics. The software is very much concentrated around the use of dialogue. A very good poiis that the dialogue can be played with or without pauses. Thecontrol the pace of the conversation and their learning. The user is also able to record their voice.

43


In terms of the layout on some of the screens, they are not presented in an aesthetically

the other side, therefore this creates an unbalanced look.

e software

ftware by one step. This can often lead to frustration. In general, there is not much support with

w. This is a not clear to the user what this change in colour means.

le system, there is no user feedback. The user is not informed about

the user. Feedback is incredibly important in software. It

. The software comprises of a number of boxes

rinciple: ‘Visibility of system status’. This principle is satisfied as the

hen investigating the exercises, the user selects an exercise for the construction of sentences. As the user hovers over the individual words, each word is outlined by a

pleasing way. Often there is a large amount of text on one side of the screen and not many items on Usability principle: ‘Aesthetic and minimalist design’. This is violated as this not aesthetically pleasing. The presentation of the information is inconsistent. There is no option to be able to ‘undo’ what the user did and go back in the so

the navigation. The user finds it difficult to move between screens. Usability principle: ‘Help users recognize, diagnose and recover from errors’. There appears to be a lack of functionality. The user cannot undo the step that they carried out. At the top of the interface, there is a topic button. This displays a list of topics, verbs and words that are arranged in alphabetical order. When the user clicks a topic, this results in the arrows on the main screen to change between red and yellovery poor design as it really is Sometimes it is not clear whether it has changed at all. Usability principle: ‘Consistency and standards’. The colour change is not clear and therefore the user does not realise what the colours mean.

hroughout the whoTany actions that they have carried out. Usability principle: ‘Visibility of system status’. This is violated as the software rovides no feedback to p

should provide the status and the action that has just been carried out by the user.

3.6.2 ‘Tell me more’ he HCI expert describes the softwareT

forming a grid. When they hover over one of the squares, a tool tip is presented. The tool tip is a good feature as it explains what the task is e.g. word order, and how much of the topic has been complete. Although tool tips are present, the precise meanings of the tips are not quite clear.

sability pUsoftware displays how much of the unit is complete. The user is also able to click outside the grid. This causes the background to light up. A tool tip is presented ‘free to roam’. This means nothing to the user. W

44


dotted line. This illustrates to the user that they are individual words and can be ‘dragged and dropped’ to construct a sentence. One very good point is that when the user drags the word into the correct place, the word changes to a green font. If the word

in the incorrect place, then the word changes to a red font. This provides feedback to

smiley ces are displayed.

answer is incorrect. provides immediate feedback to the user.

demonstrates the other activities that can be carried out, although most of these are rayed out’. This frustrates the user. One good feature of the layout is that it uses a

real world’. The software uses book metaphor and therefore relates the clicking of the corner of the page, to turning

he software provides a good help feature. If the user right clicks, then they are

the user should do. It is presented in a floating indow, meaning that if the user wishes to leave the help window open whilst working,

and concise. The help window can also be kept open whilst the user tries to recover from

r where to start.

is an image set in Spain and some panish words on the screen. The name of the software is very encouraging as it

s this software has dopted a model where it makes use of an agent or persona to help guide the user

isthe user. When the sentence is completely correct, the entire sentence goes green and fa Usability principle: ‘Match between the system and the real world’. The user is able to associate the colour green with a correct answer and red when an It Within the exercise screens, there is a tabbed arrangement down the right hand side. This ‘g‘page’ metaphor. The software is in the form of a book and when the user wishes to move to the next page, the user clicks on the corner of the page of the book, and the page turns over, just as a book would. Usability principle: ‘Match between the system and theaa page in a book. Tpresented with a drop down list. This includes an option named ‘What’s this?’ This is a very good feature as it explains what wthen they are able to. Usability principle: ‘Help and documentation’. The help that is provided is clear

the error. In terms of the overall design, it is not a conventional piece of software. This may appear more of a step to users when they come to use the system. What is not clear is whether there is a starting point in the software. The user is immediately presented with a large grid and it is not clea

3.6.3 BBC ‘Spanish Steps’ The HCI expert first looks at the main screen. ThereSillustrates to the user that the course is in a series of steps and is suitable for a beginner. There is an image of a person and they introduce their name. It seemathrough the software. It explains that there will be 24 steps and this gives the user an idea of the work that will have to be carried out.

45


As for the layout, it is uncluttered. The organization of the content is clearly divided and it is easy to digest the material. There is a side navigation bar, where each menu item is clearly separated. Although when the font size of the website is increased, this distinct spacing is disrupted. This is something that should be considered when making

here is an option for the user to look at the syllabus of the course. This provides an

he expert user then investigates the content of the site. There is a ‘start’ icon, as well

tise. Those users who are more experienced may prefer shortcuts.

xercises, the user is given four options of ‘Show Spanish’, ‘Show nglish’, ‘Sound only’ and ‘Next’. These icons are very clear. Once the user clicks

er has to construct the conversation using the sentences they have just heard. his is achieved by ‘dragging and dropping’ sentences into their correct position. This

ted.

rs recognize, diagnose and recover from errors’. The

ts scored are displayed within a mobile

it accessible to all. In general, the user feels very positive about the entire look and feel of the software. Usability principle: ‘Aesthetic and minimalist design’. The software is aesthetically pleasing to the user. The information is presented in a clear and consistent way. Toverview of what the user will learn. Usability principle: ‘Match between the system and the real world’. The software contains a syllabus to show the user what topics will be taught. In a class situation, the students are presented with a syllabus for the course. Tas the option of being able to start from the navigation menu. This is a good idea to have more than one place to carry out an action. Users often have different preferences and levels of exper Usability principle: ‘Flexibility and efficiency of use’. The software has more than one way of carrying out a function. This allows those who are more experienced with the software to carry out the task more quickly. As for the individual eE‘next’, a new slide is displayed and the slide is numbered. There is a Flash animation which demonstrates how to complete the activity. In this case, the usTprovides encouragement for the user. Once the activity is complete, the conversation is repeated to emphasize what has just been learnt. Although here there must be a ‘bug’ in the software as even though the user gets the answer correct, it asks the user to ‘try again’. At this point, the user becomes frustra

Usability principle: ‘Help usesoftware violates this principle because even when all of the answers are correct, the software makes the user try again. This results in the user becoming frustrated. The software should be able to recognize when errors have been made and allow the user to recover from such a situation. The expert user then carries out the ‘challenge’ activity. The challenge asks a series of questions and the user can score points. The poin

46


phone image. This is a good point as it is important for the user to know how they have

le: ‘Visibility of system status’. The user is informed of how many uestions they have answered correctly. If the answer is incorrect, they are able to

a key ctor when learning a second language.

ted to the particular topic that the user is working n. There are also a number of grammar tips connected to the topic.

e oftware to keep the user motivated.

an activity. This is particularly important hen considering the users level of expertise with computers and software.

software can be established.

ations. In some cases, the functional requirements may

done in the activity. They use a combination of radio buttons and drop down lists to answer the questions. The use of a drop down list with multiple choices provides a good challenge. The user is able to check their answers. For each answer that is correct, the user earns a point. Usability principqcheck their answer. This also provides a sense of reward and recognition and will help to keep the user motivated. As explained in the literature review, motivation isfa The site provides vocabulary lists relao Overall, the consistency of the site is very good and it is a very encouraging site that can be used when learning a language.

3.6.4 Expert opinion summary: A consistent layout is important when designing software. The information should

be logically ordered on the screen and presented in an uncluttered manner. Encouraging features should be considered e.g. the use of rewards throughout th

s The use of a vocabulary list will allow the user to look up words that they are

unsure about. Allow a number of ways of accessing

w Any icons that are used should be clearly labelled and the meaning must be clear to

the user. Provide a sense of feedback to demonstrate the action that has been carried out. The user should be able to return to the previous screen or be able to move one step

back from their current position. A help menu would be beneficial. Perhaps in a floating window so that the user

could keep this open if desired. After evaluating existing Spanish software and carrying out interviews, both the functional and non-functional requirements for the

3.7 Functional Requirements

According to Somerville, functional requirements are ‘statements of services the system should provide, how the system should react to particular inputs and how the system hould behave in particular situs

also explicitly state what the system should not do’. [18] The functional requirements will be divided up into a number of categories. These are:

47


3.7.1 Interface/layout Requirement number: 1 Description: The interface shall be user friendly. It will be intuitive. University tudents should not nees d to read a user manual in order to use the software effectively.

hall be positioned in the same place on each t.

ginner level Spanish students, they stated that the

s refers to

sh students and 2.7 Human Computer Interaction:

as this would distract them from learning the Spanish.

Gass and Selinker (2001) stated that motivation is an portant factor when learning. The more motivated a person is to learn, the more

Description: The software must include clearly labelled icons.

Rationale: The software should aid language learning rather than hinder it. Source: 3.2 Interview with the Spanish students. Requirement number: 2 Description: There shall be a navigation toolbar with the following options: Exit, Main

enu, Help, Back/forward arrows. MRationale: When interviewing the beginner level Spanish students, they stated that they required navigation buttons to move between screens.

ource: 3.2 Interview with the Spanish students. S Requirement number: 3 Description: The navigation toolbar sscreen to ensure that the design is consistenRationale: When interviewing the benavigation buttons should be located in the same place on every screen. In addition to this, when evaluating existing software one of the usability principle‘consistency and standards’. Source: 3.2 Interview with the Spaniuser centred design. Requirement number: 4 Description: The interface shall not overuse images to distract the user from learning. Rationale: The beginner level Spanish students stated that there should not be overuse of imagesSource: 3.2 Interview with the Spanish students Requirement number: 5 Description: The software should motivate the student to learn Spanish. Rationale: From the literature, imsuccessful they will be at learning the language. Source: 2.3.1 Motivation and attitude in the literature review

Requirement number: 6

Rationale: After evaluating existing software with the HCI expert, it is important to make sure icons are clearly labelled and provide meaning to the user. Source: 3.6 Expert HCI opinion of the software

48


3.7.2 Interaction

information then this can de-motivate e user. From the literature, learning is similar to the bicycle analogy where it will take

e. Therefore it is important not to overwhelm the user.

tising communication in a

ationale: As stated in the literature, Anderson identified three stages of ere construction, transformation and execution. The user

, the learner makes use of language rules

tware must make use of audio examples and written examples. ationale: This will allow the learner to see and hear the correct form of the word.

en interviewing the beginner level Spanish students.

ish speaker for any audio clips. ationale: This was specified when interviewing both the Spanish teacher and the

beginner class. This will help the learner to pronounce the

escription: The software should allow the learner to record their voice and compare it

ents, they stated that it

Requirement number: 12 Description: The software will contain ‘fill in the blank’ exercises.

Requirement number: 7 Description: The software must not overwhelm the user of the system. It must bepresented in an incremental way. Rationale: If the user is presented with too much thtime to acquire the languagSource: 2.2 Bilingualism Requirement number: 8 Description: The software must provide a way of pracrecursive way. Rcommunication. These wwould then move between the three stages. In construction, the learner decides what they would like to say, during transformationand during execution, the information is communicated. The software must aid the learner with all three aspects. Source: 2.3.9 Cognitive theory Requirement number: 9 Description: The sofRThis was the consensus whSource: 3.2 Interview with the Spanish students. Requirement number: 10 Description: The software must use a native SpanRSpanish students from the words correctly. Source: 3.2 Interview with the Spanish students and 3.3 Interview with Spanish teacher. Requirement number: 11 Dto the native speaker. Rationale: When interviewing the beginner level Spanish studwould be beneficial if they could compare their voice to that of the native speaker. This will help the learner to improve their pronunciation. Source: 3.2 Interview with the Spanish students

49


Rationale: When interviewing the beginner level Spanish students, they stated that by ’, this will help them to construct sentences. This type of exercise

used for verb drills. the Spanish students.

on of ome cases it took the user approximately six clicks to return

istake or moves to the next screen without intending

ust provide more than one way of accessing an activity. nt to

uragement regardless of the student’s

‘filling in the blankscan also be Source: 3.2 Interview with Requirement number: 13 Description: The user will be able to return to the main menu, in fewer than 3 clicks. Rationale: From carrying out the evaluation of existing software, the user will become frustrated if it requires a lot of effort to return to the main menu. In the evaluati‘Spanish Encounters’, in s

the main menu. toSource: 3.6.1 ‘Spanish Encounters’. Requirement number: 14

:Description The user will be prevented from creating many user errors. The software will guide them as much as possible. Rationale: If a user error does occur, the learner will be presented with instructions to help them understand what they should do next. Source: 2.7 Human Computer Interaction: user centred design. Requirement number: 15

escription: The software must allow the user to go back ‘one step’. DRationale: If the user makes a mto, they must be able to go back. The user will become frustrated if they have to go back to the main menu and search for the particular place they had reached. Source: 2.7 Human Computer Interaction: user centred design.

equirement number: 16 RDescription: The software mRationale: From evaluating existing software with the HCI expert, it is importaconsider different levels of expertise and the user’s preferences when using the software. A more advanced user may prefer to use shortcuts. Source: 3.6.4 Expert opinion summary.

3.7.3 Learning requirements Requirement number: 17 Description: The software shall follow the beginner level Spanish syllabus. Rationale: The software is going to be designed for the beginner level Spanish class and therefore must follow the syllabus. Source: 3.3 Interview with Spanish teacher. Requirement number: 18

escription: The software should provide encoDintellectual ability.

50


Rationale: The software will be designed for beginner level Spanish and therefore all students will have similar levels of aptitude with regards to learning Spanish. Source: 2.3.2 Aptitude Requirement number: 19

must strike a balance between explaining the rules of the

are will therefore contain many audio examples to help explain that

ource: 2.3.6 Krashen’s five hypotheses.

in exercises on everyday situations e.g. free time.

el Spanish students, it was made clear he ‘real’ world’). The

oftware will simulate the practise of this type of conversation. he Spanish students.

akes use of all of these put types. It is also the technique that the teacher currently uses during class time.

ry

it is important to provide a form of error correction. The students will then be able to learn from any mistakes that they make.

eraction: user centred design.

e they last

e and will not lose the person’s progress in the

ource: 3.2 Interview with the Spanish students.

Description: The software grammar and the use of the language. Rationale: As stated in the literature it is important to strike a balance between the two. If the student is over monitored, then this can result in the student becoming hesitant. It is essential that the software increases the contact the learner has with the Spanish language. The softwa particular word ‘sounds right’. S Requirement number: 20 Description: The software must contaThis will include conversation exercises. Rationale: When interviewing the beginner levthat they wanted to use Spanish in everyday situations (in tsSource: 3.2 Interview with t Requirement number: 21 Description: The software must provide a balance of reading, writing, listening and speaking exercises. Rationale: As explained in the literature, the cognitive theory minSource: 2.3.9 Cognitive theo Requirement number: 22 Description: The software must provide a form of feedback at the end of each question or series of questions. Rationale: As stated in the literature,

Source: 2.7 Human Computer Int Requirement number: 23 Description: The software shall track the user’s performance and save wherreached when learning. Rationale: The software will be reliablsoftware. S

51


Requirement number: 24 Description: The software shall provide a reward system. Rationale: By providing a reward for the user (in the form of scoring points), the user

ill be encouraged to carry on learning. he Spanish students.

rds. Non-functional requirements often apply to the just apply to individual system features or

ervices.’ [18]

w through using too many images/sound files.

nts, they stated that the ing) if there are images/video clips

isplayed. If the software is slow, then this may cause the user to become frustrated tivated to learn from it.

ow f required.

ationale: The system will be intuitive. From the evaluation of existing software, it is lated to the specific screen the user is working on, rather

ith the Spanish students.

ationale: The code will be well documented. This will enable the software to be s particularly applies to the addition of new topics or

ractise.

ent number: 28 indows XP PC.

ationale: The University of Bath has a vast number of PCs using this operating system. Therefore this is the most likely piece of hardware that will be used. Source: 3.2 Interview with the Spanish students.

wSource: 3.2 Interview with t

3.8 Non-Functional Requirements

According to Somerville, non-functional requirements are ‘constraints on the services or functions offered by the system. They include timing constraints, constraints on the development process and standasystem as a whole. They do not usuallys Requirement number: 25 Description: The software will not be sloA maximum of 2 seconds between a user command and the software output is desirable. Rationale: When interviewing the beginner level Spanish studesoftware should not be slow (in terms of loaddwith the software and de-moSource: 3.2 Interview with the Spanish students. Requirement number: 26 Description: The users of the system will not need to use a manual to understand hto use it. Help will be available iRdesirable to contain help rethan have a ‘general’ help section. Source: 3.2 Interview w Requirement number: 27 Description: The code shall be well documented. Radapted in the future. Thiproviding a tool for the more advanced students. Source: Good industry p RequiremDescription: The software shall be for use on a WR

52


3.9 Conclusion

After gathering together both functional and non-functional requirements for the system, they will act as the main criteria when designing the educational software. It is

stem, as they will become e end users of the software. The requirements that have been produced will be used to

develop a prototype of the software. This will follow in the next chapter.

imperative that the design is centred round the users of the syth

53


Chapter 4 - Design

his chapter to produce a prototype of the Spanish tutor. The process by which the prototype was created will also be explained. Throughout the entire process, a user-centred approach to design was taken. As the Spanish students were ultimately the key users of the system it was important to have their active involvement. Hansen (1971) stated “know thy user” [14]. The process was an iterative one in which the user was involved, the requirements were created and then the requirements were implemented. This was then shown to the users to gain feedback and any appropriate changes were made. It is particularly important to involve the users in the design stage as it is vital that a prototype is developed that will motivate the students to learn. As Gass and Selinker (2001) suggested, motivation is an extremely important factor in determining success. Therefore if a person is more motivated to learn a language, this will speed up the learning process.

4.2 System Architecture

In considering the original requirements and applying Krashen’s theories of second language learning to the software, it became apparent that the software should take account of how the student learns a language and their progression from stage i to stage i + 1. This can therefore be incorporated into the order in which the student can learn each topic in the software. A general structure of the software has been established. This is shown in the figure below.

4.1 Introduction

Both the functional and non-functional requirements produced in the previous chapter, along with the research gathered in the literature will be combined in t

Figure 4.1 System architecture

54


topics which the students cover when studying stage found on the stage one Spanish syllabus. The topics

family, my house, daily routine, free time, restaurant, expressing The students cover these topics over a ten week period during the

first semester of the term.

en explaining the rules of the guage.

The dictionary contains commonly used words and can be accessed from any of the other screens. The help screen contains help with writing accents on the computer. The Spanish language makes use of many accents. This particularly applies to the grammar exercise in which the user has to type in the correct ending of the verb. It is important to teach the words correctly from the beginning. The help screen can be accessed from any other screen. Instructions are provided on the activity screens to explain to the user how they should carry out the task. Satisfies: Requirement number: 14 Description: The user will be prevented from creating many user errors. The software will guide them as much as possible.

The main menu contains the eightone Spanish. These topics can be include: greetings, mywishes and shopping.

Satisfies: Requirement number: 17 Description: The software shall follow the beginner level Spanish syllabus. Sub menu one and two will contain the activities for each topic to be implemented. There are eight topics that the stage one Spanish students cover in their first semester, and two representative topics have been implemented to illustrate the utility of the prototype tutor. This explains why the architecture contains two submenus. A similar principled approach would be adapted with any further enhancements to the tutor. The activity screens contain the exercises for the students to carry out. The content of these screens will be discussed in the following section. Satisfies: Requirement number: 19 Description: The software must strike a balance betwegrammar and the use of the lan Satisfies: Requirement number: 20 Description: The software must contain exercises on everyday situations e.g. free time. This will include conversation exercises. Satisfies: Requirement number: 21 Description: The software must provide a balance of reading, writing, listening and speaking exercises.

55


4.3 Content of the tutor

struggled with. The Spanish class observed was on the topic f ‘free time’. This topic was therefore implemented in the software, as all of the

there was first hand experience of the learning

ke

oing ut with their friends for example. This could be incorporated into the ‘daily routine’

0pm’.

otype, this was based on what the students had

ferred. One important point to note was how rashen’s theory of second language learning implied that the software should look at

first place, and then help them to progress from

ple, one may first learn the actual vocabulary at is required of a topic and then progress to the next stage by being able to construct

ulary they had just learnt. This hypothesis was

ocabulary, matching words, fill in the blanks, conversation and rammar. The activities were chosen in such a way that it would mean that the

, then this could be applied to recognizing the words and then later onstructing sentences.

ill sound, however this is confirmed or not confirmed when ey are able to check this with the audio example. Therefore by incorporating audio

will aid the student’s subconscious learning.

has learnt the vocabulary, this screen allows the student to match the Spanish words with the appropriate picture. This will reinforce the

The next stage was to decide which two topics were best to implement. In the initial research, a Spanish class was observed. This was to investigate current teaching methods and to identify any common questions that were being asked by the students or anything they particularly oresources were readily available andprocess. With regards to the second topic, the students were asked which topic they would lito be implemented. The students chose the topic of ‘daily routine’ as this would best fit with the ‘free time’ topic. They believed that the vocabulary would work very well with the vocabulary they had learnt in the ‘free time’ class. Free time, as indicated by the label includes what a person does in their free time, be it going to the cinema or gotopic, as here they learn about the time and what they do throughout the day. For example, ‘I get up at 8am or I go out with my friends at 1 In terms of the activities of the protexpressed in the individual interviews and the evaluation of existing tools including what elements of them they had preKhow a person learns a language in thestage i to stage i + 1. This is the best strategy to adopt as the student can build upon what has previously been learnt. For examththeir own sentences from the vocabincorporated into the initial design of the prototype. The following activities on each topic were: learn vglanguage learning would be incremental. Once the vocabulary had been learnt for a particular topicc Learn vocabulary – This screen will be based on the vocabulary that the students learn in class. Applying this to Krashen’s acquisition learning distinction hypothesis, often a learner may hear a word and realise that it sounds ‘correct’. They are able to learn from their mistakes with feeback. The user may read the text on the screen and have an idea of how the Spanish word wthoutput within the prototype, then this Matching words – Once the learner

56


vocabulary that they have just learnt. The idea of a ‘drag and drop’ exercise was suggested by one of the students in the initial interview.

tion – This allows the student to listen to a Spanish conversation. The tudents wanted to include many listening elements into the prototype. This will be

atisfies: Requirement number: 9

re must provide a balance of reading, writing, listening and peaking exercises.

ents ould choose between.

students, they did not specify a particular theme, however on several occasions they

Fill in the blanks – This allows the user to fill in the sentences with the correct Spanish word. This will develop the student’s skills to develop sentences. This exercise was suggested by one of the students in the initial interview. The student wanted to improve sentence construction. Conversascarried out by a native Spanish speaker as to keep it authentic. Grammar – This screen allows the students to investigate the different verb forms, as well as hear how they are pronounced. From the initial interviews, the students wanted to include a grammar section in the prototype. The design features described above satisfy the learning requirements: SDescription: The software must make use of audio examples and written examples. Satisfies: Requirement number: 12 Description: The software will contain ‘fill in the blank’ exercises. Satisfies: Requirement number: 19 Description: The software must strike a balance between explaining the rules of the grammar and the use of the language. Satisfies: Requirement number: 20 Description: The software must contain exercises on everyday situations e.g. free time. This will include conversation exercises. Satisfies: Requirement number: 21 Description: The softwas

4.4 Initial mock-up designs

The Spanish students sketched an example main screen and an example sub screen to provide ideas of what the prototype would look like. It was from these sketches and the interviews that the first mock-ups were produced of the system. Two mock-up designs were created as alternatives the Spanish studw The first mock-up was based on the theme of sombreros. When interviewing the

57


expressed that they would like the prototype to be colourful and lively. From the interviews they also wanted to include a combination of images, as long as they were

ot overpowering and distracting to what was being learnt. The main screen includes

consistent throughout. Each topic has a sombrero icon with the panish word written above and the English written below it. The sombreros and text

screen, to the dictionary nd to the next screen. Each button is clearly labelled. By having the navigation bar on

ext easy to read. In the black navigation ar, the text colour is white. Again, this provides a clear contrast between the black bar

he design makes use of metaphors in the navigation bar. This allows the user to with those on the screen. For example, a question

nu creen, a book for the dictionary and arrows for the next and back actions.

neight sombreros, each of which represents the topics the stage one Spanish class cover in the first semester. As for the HCI aspects of design, Shneiderman’s usability principles were taken into account. The design is Sare evenly spaced and the interface has been kept simple. The navigation bar can be found in the same position on each screen, with buttons that take the user back one screen, to the help screen, to the main aeach screen, it provides the user with a sense of control. The colours that have been used include the light blue background, with black text. This provides a clear contrast and makes the tband the white labels. Tassociate objects in the real world, mark symbol has been used for the help icon, a house symbol for the main mes

Figure 4.2 Mock-up 1 of the main screen

xample exercise screeE n When the user clicks the sound button next to each word/sentence, the user can listen to the sentence (it will be a native Spanish speaker). When the user clicks the translate button, the English will appear.

58


Figure 4.3 Mock-up 1 example exercise screen The second design is based on a map of Spain in which the student would travel around the country to complete each of the topic areas. To access each of the levels, the student would click on the place name to take them to that particular topic. The navigation would be kept consistent on every screen, to ensure that the user feels in control of the software.

Figure 4.4 Mock-up 2 of the main screen

59


The mock-ups were then evaluated by the users, as well as gaining an expert HCI opinion. This is discussed in the following section.

4.5 User feedback on the mock-ups

The students evaluated the mock-ups that had been created; their comments about the two designs are as follows: In general: ‘The menu at the bottom of each screen is excellent as it enables the user to go back

to the beginning or to the next section without any problem.’ ‘The options available to the learner are good, especially the listening section.’

Mock-up 1: ‘It has a fun design and encourages one to browse through.’ ‘The font is clear and easy to read.’ ‘The buttons are clearly spaced apart.’

‘The colour scheme is easy on the eye.’

dd a ‘test yourself’ section at the end of each unit e.g. an element to test rammar.

The general consensus after looking at both designs was that they preferred mock-up 1. The main reason for this choice can be applied to the following usability principle: Usability principle: ‘Aesthetic and minimalist design’. The design is aesthetically pleasing and intuitive.

4.6 HCI expert opinion

As well as getting the users to carry out an evaluation, a HCI expert evaluated the two mock-up designs. Mock-up 1: The next and back buttons provide a clear indication of their action. However the

black box which contains the icons is quite bold and possibly draws the eye a bit too much. One suggestion so to try using a lighter shade of black or grey. Good use of icons as metaphors e.g. the help button, dictionary and main menu

button. Also the fact that the navigation bar is present throughout all screens, providing the user with access to help and documentation, whilst providing a consistent way of

Mock-up 2:

‘The idea of travelling around Spain is a good way of linking the journey through the country to the journey of learning a language.’ Improvements: Could a

g

navigating.

60


Using the sombrero images is a good idea providing a clear identification of the

on would be to present each topic with a different icon. Although by doing this, it may look confusing for the user. The

eate a minimalist design. The font used is clear to read and is consistent.

xercise screen: tency between this and the main screen is good.

screens. However it is creens

an become tiresome. rs to be no system status on the screen. It would be good to include this as

ow many there are still to

ock-up 2: comments remain the same as in the previous design. It has a clear

with clear icons for the buttons.

perhaps more prominent than on the revious design.

rhaps include the Spanish flag somewhere on the screen to make it

.7 Prototype produced

, the

4.7.1 Main menu an option of which topic to study. The eight sombreros

represent each of the different topics that the stage one Spanish class cover in one

These are ‘free time’ and ‘daily routine’.

explain that this

functionality by enlarging the button when the user hovers over it. Rather than having each topic as a sombrero, one possible considerati

sombrero images provide consistency and cr

Aesthetically, perhaps include a Spanish flag on the main screen. E The consis Perhaps with the quantity of vocabulary, there may be an overload of information and

therefore it may be best to split the vocabulary over twoimportant to think about the cognitive load, as having to click through many sc There appea

it indicated the number of questions that have been done and hcomplete. M Most of the

navigation bar at the bottom of the screen, It is interesting how the places around Spain represent tasks. The font used for the title is very clear and

p Again, could pe

relate to real life.

4

Taking into account the considerations of the students and the HCI expert opiniondesign chosen was mock-up 1. The screens produced were:

This provides the user with

semester. For the purpose of this project, due to time constraints only two of these topics are in action. Improvement:It was later suggested that for the main screen, with the topics that were not yet available, perhaps include a tool tip on the screen, so that if a user tries to access a particular topic e.g. greetings or my house, then the tool tip wouldtopic is not yet available.

61


4.7.2 Free time sub menu This screen contains a menu of the activities that can be carried out within this topic. These include: vocabulary, matching words, fill in the blanks, conversation and grammar. The vocabulary activity is based on the words that were taught in class. This was observed in the initial research and the sheets obtained from the observation can be

from this activity, learnt and associate

rect image. The fill in the blanks activity originates from the the blanks’ this will

ols. The user is able map the images with items in the real world.

found in the appendix. The matching words activity is a progression as it allows the user to recognise some of the words they have just them with the corinterviews with the Spanish students. They stated that by ‘filling inhelp them to construct sentences. The students also stated that they required lots of audio examples and grammar practise; therefore the conversation activity and the grammar activity have been produced. Each of the activities can be accessed via buttons. The icons used are metaphors for what they are describing e.g. for the conversation activity, the icon used is a speech bubble. This was recommended by the HCI expert when evaluating the existing software to

Figure 4.5 Demonstrating the use of metaphors for the buttons.

4.7.3 Free time vocabulary This screen contains all of the vocabulary that was provided in the Spanish class that

Although the HCI expert opinion stated that there may be too much

bility would have been to put half of the words on the next screen however this was not implemented as it would have meant that the information did not flow or it would become tiresome for the user since they would unnecessarily

was observed. information on the screen, the reason for keeping the design in this way was because of the following reasons. Firstly, all of the vocabulary in the list was included on the screen. If some of the words were taken away then this would not cover what had been taught in class. One possi

62


have to navigate to an additional screen. There is a cost/benefit problem here related to

lish. The user can select which words they

ock-up design was the idea of having an ‘instruction box’ in the top left hand corner of the screen. This provides instructions to the user. The information box and the navigation bar at the bottom are consistent on every screen. Referring back to Shneiderman’s usability principles, it is important to keep the interface consistent.

screen design and navigational costs. Both Krashen’s acquisition learning distinction hypothesis and the feedback obtained from the users was applied to this screen. The acquisition learning distinction looks at how a learner communicates and often a particular word will sound correct to them. This is why the user has the option to click on the play button next to each Spanish word to hear how the word can be pronounced. A native Spanish speaker was recorded saying these words. Also from the interviews with the students, they commented that they often found pronunciation difficult and therefore by including the recordings of the native Spanish speaker, the user will be able to compare their voice to this. The user also has the option of clicking the translate button next to the Spanish word or sentence.

his then displays the translation in EngTwould like to translate, by clicking the appropriate translate button. Once the user has finished learning the vocabulary, they can click the reset button to clear all of the words.

provements: ImAn addition to the original m

Figure 4.6 Free time vocabulary screen.

4.7.4 Free time ‘matching words’ activity This screen allows the user to match up some of the Spanish words they have just learnt and apply them to this exercise. The user has to match up the Spanish words with the corresponding image. The user is able to drag and drop them to where they should

63


reside. The status bar at the top indicates to the user whether the word is in the correct place or not. If the word is not in the correct place, as soon as the user releases their

ouse button, the word will return back to the centre. Once the user has completed the mtask, they are able to reset the activity, by clicking the reset button. Again the navigation bar is placed at the bottom of the screen therefore creating a consistent interface. By having this exercise as the second activity to complete, this allows the user to build on what they have learnt in the first activity. This relates to Krashen’s hypotheses, as the learner is able to progress from stage i to i + 1.

Figure 4.7 Matching words screen. Improvements: According to Schneiderman, it is important to have user feedback. There is feedback when the user drags and drops the word to the correct image, as the status says ‘excelente’ (meaning excellent), however once the user has completed all of the matching words there is no screen saying ‘well done’ Perhaps to improve this feedback, an extra screen or statement can be introduced to provide a sense of achievement for the user. From the literature, it is imperative that the user stays motivated whilst using the software.

4.7.5 Free time ‘fill in the blanks’ activity anks. This exercise aims to help the students

he students, one student commented that they as to choose words from the box of pe them into the boxes. The user types

This screen allows the user to fill in the blconstruct sentences. From interviewing tfind sentence construction difficult. The user hwords on the right hand side of the screen and tythe words in this exercise as this will aid them in Spanish spelling. This prevents the user from becoming complacent and helps focus their attention on the form of the words. The user is then able to check their answers by clicking the ‘check answers’

64


button. If the word is correct, then underneath the box it will say ‘correct’, however if the word is incorrect, the system will show the user what it should have been e.g. ‘Should be: Me gusta’. This way the learner is still able to see what they typed and compare this to the correct answer. If the user wants to practise this exercise again, they are able to click the ‘reset’ button and this will clear all of the answers. The user can practise this exercise until they are satisfied they have learnt how to construct the

r was unaware of which word had een changed and therefore could not learn from their mistakes. Therefore by having

the correction underneath each box, the user is able compare their answer with the correct answer. The user can reset the task and practise the task again.

sentences. From evaluating existing software, it was often found that the word that the user typed would be replaced by the correct word, but the useb

Figure 4.8 Fill in the blanks screen. Improvements: Perhaps if the user gets them all correct in one go, then a ‘well done’ screen could appear or an animation to provide a sense of achievement.

4.7.6 Free time conversation activity ish conversation. They are able to click This screen allows the user to experience a Span

on the individual speech bubbles and hear the part of the conversation. The conversation itself is spoken by a native Spanish speaker. By allowing the user to click on each part of the conversation, then they are able to control the pace at which they learn. From the literature, this is one of the main benefits of computer language learning. The user is able to control the pace in which they learn. The Spanish language is very fast compared to the English language and therefore if this conversation was played in one file, then as the students are from the beginner level Spanish class, then they may miss certain parts of the conversation. By having the conversation divided up

65


into separate speech bubbles, they are able to control the speed in which they work through the conversation.

Figure 4.9 Conversation activity. Improvements: Perhaps a further improvement is to provide a system status on this screen, to indicate that there are two pages to this conversation activity. However on the bottom of the first page (as shown above), in the bottom right hand corner there are instructions to continue with the exercise by clicking on the next button.

4.7.7 Free time grammar activity Here the users can learn the various forms of grammar and then on the following screen they are able to practise the type of grammar they have learnt. To aid the learning, audio output has also been included. If the user clicks on the block of text of a particular verb, a native Spanish voice demonstrates how each word should be

ar screen, this comprises of a fill in the blank eir answers. By clicking the correct button, the

ser’s answers are checked. Instructions are provided on the screen to explain to the

pronounced. On the second grammexercise in which they can input thuuser what to do.

66


Figure 4.10 Grammar screen.

s this activity has two screens, perhaps a system status could be provided indicating o parts to the activity.

decided to keep the activities the same, as that way there is an equal opportunity to obtain the same amount of

e conversation exercise. Daily routine grammar.

4.7.9 Help screen This screen contains help on how to type accents on a computer. The Spanish language contains many words with accents. Some of the words in the fill in the blank activity require the use of accents and therefore it is important to include this information. It is essential to teach the words correctly from the beginning. As explained in Shneiderman’s principles, it is important that the user does not make any major errors. By providing this help screen, it will help to combat those errors and explain how to overcome them.

Improvements: Athat there are tw

4.7.8 Daily routine activity screens The daily routine activity screens follow the same format as the ‘free time’ screens however with different vocabulary and sentences. It was

practice on each topic. The following screens were produced: Daily routine sub menu Daily routine vocabulary. Daily routine ‘matching words’ exercise. Daily routine ‘fill in the blanks’ exercise. Daily routin

67


4.7.10 Dictionary This screen contains many common words that will be used in the two topics that are implemented. The words are based on the class text book ‘Spanish 1’ by Cathy Holden.

68


4.8 Conclusion

Throughout the entire design process, it was important to involve the users and gain an understanding of what they wanted in the software. Not only receiving feedback from the users, but also an opinion from a HCI expert was very beneficial, as it helped to identify any usability issues that were present. The feedback obtained was used in the final redesign of the prototype. In summary, the improvements made were: Main menu: On the main screen, the topics that are not yet available now include a tool tip. If a user tries to access the topic e.g. greetings, then the tool tip explains that the topic is not available. Vocabulary screens: The screen now contains an instruction box in the top left hand corner. This provides details on how to complete the task. Matching words screen: The drag and drop exercise contains user feedback, in the sense that when a word is in the correct place, in the status bar at the top of the screen, it says ‘excelente’ which means ‘excellent’ in Spanish. Once the user has completed the entire exercise, a well done sign animation is displayed. Fill in the blanks screen: When the sentences are complete, a well done animation is displayed. This provides the user with a sense of achievement. Conversation screen: This screen includes instructions in the bottom left hand corner (next to the ‘next’ button) which indicates to the user that there is an additional page to the activity. Grammar screen: Again, instructions have been placed in the bottom left hand corner to indicate that there is another screen to the activity.

69


After completing the improvements to the design, the software satisfies 25 out of the ments.

escription: The software must provide more than one way of accessing an activity.

en learning.

s for requirement number 11, from asking users of the software, they found it was the native Spanish voice and compare their voice to the track.

ith requirement number 16, as the software was a relatively small system and by aving a navigation menu at the bottom of every screen they did not require more than

ctivity, as from the main menu any activity could be accessed

h activity is a standalone activity and therefore the ser is informed of which aspects are correct or incorrect as they are working on the ctivity. Instant feedback is available when the ‘check answers’ buttons are clicked.

y incorrect answers. As the software is small in size, the user

he implementation of the software prototype is described in the following chapter.

original 28 require

The requirements that were not satisfied were: Requirement number: 11 Description: The software should allow the learner to record their voice and compare it to the native speaker. Requirement number: 16 D Requirement number: 23 Description: The software shall track the user’s performance and save where they last reached wh Asufficient to listen toThey did not feel that by recording their voice, this would improve their pronunciation. Whone way of accessing an awithin two clicks. This means that the user can easily access where they were last working. With requirement number 23, eacuaThe user can learn from ancan easily navigate to the activity, should they wish to carry it out again. T

70


Chapter 5 - Implementation

aphical user interface (GUI) was created.

entation was to choose a suitable programming language.

d have options for audio files to be played. When interviewing e students, it became apparent that they required many Spanish words to help

an be created in Java, many of the Java libraries are quite complex and mock-ups had

animation and developing screens for user input. Flash contains many omponents that are available and ready to use. For example, it is possible to drag a text

ith Flash it is also possible to easily integrate sound files which are suitable for the

lash makes use of a component inspector in which different instances can be managed. his means that small differences between the various instances can be made. [21]

Flash CS3 professional consists of the main stage and the timeline at the top of the screen. The timeline shows how long each frame in the timeline lasts and can be used to create a set of screens for which the user can interact.

5.1 Introduction

This chapter will describe how the initial mock-up design was implemented into a working prototype. It will explain the process in which each screen was programmed nd how the overall gra

5.2 Programming language

The first step in the implemThe language that was chosen had to be able to accommodate and support the rapid prototyping of a GUI anthimprove their pronunciation. Two initial choices were made for the programming language. These were Java or Flash CS3 professional. Java could have been used in the implementation, however after some consideration it was decided that although a GUIcto be produced quickly to gather user feedback. It was because of this, that Flash CS3 professional was chosen. Flash is best suited to rapid prototype developments and is an excellent tool for providing cbox onto the screen, which can be used for the user to type text into it. Flash makes use of ‘standard components’ and therefore when learning how to use the development environment, it reduces potential frustration, as users are able to recognise the common tools. This is vital when time is of the essence. There is no need to ‘reinvent the wheel’ and therefore this can save time when developing a prototype. WSpanish vocabulary and conversation exercises. FT

Figure 5.1 Demonstrating the use of the timeline.

71


Once the initial mock-up had been using Flash CS3, the actual functionality could be 3.0. This is the language that is used of creating animations and ways in

interact with the GUI. The functions that were created, were ach timeframe and therefore the code related specifically to the

screen produced.

hout the prototype, have either been created from ments or they have been obtained from the Internet.

applied. This was programmed using Actionscript within the Flash runtime environment. It is capablewhich the user can programmed within e

5.3 Graphics and Sounds

Many of the graphics used througscratch using Adobe Photoshop EleA list of references can be found in the bibliography. Often an image or icon would be saved, however it would need to be modified so that it would match with the colour scheme of the prototype. The images were modified using Adobe Photoshop Elements. Once they had been modified, they were then imported into the library with the Flash IDE.

Figure 5.2 Flash CS3 library. Graphics and sounds were used throughout the prototype. This was one of the

quirements that had been established when interviewing the students. The sounds

as possible to record two native panish speaking students. This was done using a small microphone and the sound

recorder on a Windows PC. Each word or sentence was recorded individually. The sounds then had to be edited to ensure there was no background noise. The sounds were imported into the library ready to use. On the main screen, the sombrero buttons for each topic has an enlarge and reduce

e user that the sombrero icons were

rewere imported in the same way into the Flash library. Once the content of the screens had been decided, it wS

function applied to them. To make it clear to th

72


actually buttons, when the user hovers over the sombrero it enlarges and then when the mouse is taken away it returns to its normal size.

Figure 5.3 When mouse hovers over sombrero it enlarges to indicate it is an active button.

5.4 Vocabulary activity

For the vocabulary activity, first of all the GUI had to be created. This consisted of writing out the vocabulary for the topic and creating the play buttons and the translate buttons for each word. For the play button, an image was inserted and this was then converted to a ‘Button symbol’. The button was given an instance name. Within that button, it was then possible to set the actions that were applied to the button, in the up, over, down or hit state. In the case of playing the sound for the vocabulary, a sound was inserted into the

he user clicked the button, the sound would play. ‘down’ state. Therefore when t

Figure 5.4 Showing down state in play button.

73


Figure 5.5 The sound selected. Once the sounds had been applied to the vocabulary, the translate buttons could be programmed. Firstly, action listeners had to be added to the buttons. If the translate button was clicked, then this would display the dynami

ple, if the anslate button next to ‘Nadar en el mar’ is pressed, then on the right hand side of the

screen would display the text in English ‘To swim in the sea’.

c text box that had been created atrnd the text within it. Otherwise the dynamic text field is left blank. For exam

Figure 5.6 Example code to illustrate the translating of the vocabulary.

For the drag and drop activity, again this involved creating the initial GUI with the Spanish words and the corresponding images of sports and activities e.g. to play football or to read a book. Once this had been created, both the images and the words were converted to a symbol (in this case they were movie clips). Black boxes were drawn under each image and this would act as the target in which the words would

5.5 Drag and drop activity

74


reside. Two functions were written, one to pickup the word and another to drop the word onto the target. If the word matches the image, then the word clicks into place, however if the word is incorrect, then the word returns to the centre. The user is provided with feedback via the status box. If the word is correct, it will say ‘excelente’ meaning excellent in Spanish; otherwise it will tell the user to try again.

Figure 5.7 Example code to illustrate the drag and drop functionality.

5.6 Fill in the blanks

. The text field ith an instance

he code to identify the answer that the user will type. s clicked, if the string that is typed in the box matches

up with the correct answer, a dynamic text box displays the word ‘correct’ underneath

For the fill in the blanks activity, the text was written in a static text boxcomponents were inserted onto the screen. Each text box was provided wname and this name was used in tWhen the ‘check answer’ button i

the input box. If however the answer is incorrect, the correct answer will be displayed below. The user can then reset the activity using the reset button.

75


Figure 5.8 Example code to illustrate the fill in the blanks activity.

5.7 Conversation and Grammar

For this activity, individual speech bubbles were created within Adobe Photoshop Elements and then imported into the library. Each speech bubble in turn was converted to a button symbol and the sound was applied to the ‘down state’ meaning that when the button was pressed the sound would play.

Figure 5.9 Example speech bubble.

The same applied with the grammar activity. Each box of verbs had a sound file that h library. When the box is clicked the sound file plays.

mentation, it is important to as carried out to ensure that

ll the functionality that had been programmed works correctly. Black box testing can

was imported into the Flas

The same set of activities was applied to both the free time topic and the daily routine topic.

5.8 Testing

Although the software has been tested throughout the implearry out some final testing. Thorough black box testing wc

a

76


77

also be known as functional testing. The software is tested without physically looking at the code and it concentrates on the actual and expected outputs of the software [22]. A table has been produced to demonstrate the various paths that can be taken through the software. All tests that were carried out were passed. This can be found in thappendix. Not only should the software be tested by the users to see if it meets their requirements and meets the usability criteria but it is important to establish if the software benefilanguage learning. To test the usability of the software, the users of the software had 20 minutes to trial theprototype and were asked a series of questions about usability. It is necessary to gafeedback about what they like about the software, what they dislike about the softwaand what can be improved. The questions and answers are discussed in the evaluationchapter. To test whether the software aids language learning, the users were given a short Spanish test in which they had 10 minutes to complete the test before using the

een improved. The apter.

5.10 Conclusion

d files had been recorded of the native panish speakers, they could be easily inserted into the software.

As only two topics have been implemented for the prototype, it has been satisfactory to implement the vocabulary and sentences directly into the code. However if further

e fu re, a database would be recommended. This of data that would be required in the software. The

the following chapter, the software will be tested by the users of the system.

e

ts

in re

software and a similar test to complete after using the software. The idea behind this was to see if by using the software the user’s knowledge had bresults are also discussed in the evaluation ch

This chapter has demonstrated how the prototype has been implemented. The screen shots of every frame implemented can be found in the appendix. Flash CS3 was the best choice of programming language for the task as it allowed rapid prototyping to be carried out. Once the sounS

topics were to be implemented in thould then contain the vast amounts

tucsoftware can be easily extended by inserting new frames in which to work. The code would then need to be altered to include the new screens in the navigation system. In


Chapter 6 - Evaluation

6.1 Introduction

entioned in the previous chapter, it is necessary to test whether the oftware meets usability requirements, as well as assessing whether the software aids

.

ly find out if the software being roduced is suitable.

ut a particular task. A

d out an action in a articular way. By interviewing the user after testing the software, it is possible to

his is where the study is carried out in a natural setting and this allows the user to be hniques

uch as interviewing the users and observations are carried out. These are later nalysed.

redictive evaluation his type of evaluation is where an expert uses their knowledge to predict if and when sability problems may occur. The users of the software do not need to be present and erefore this means that this type of evaluation is often quick to process. The expert

may compare the software against design heuristics.

This chapter will assess how effectively the implemented software meets user expectations. As mslearning. The results of these tests and the analysis will be explained in detail. As highlighted by Preece et al (2002) there are four main evaluation paradigms. These are: ‘Quick and dirty’ evaluation, usability testing, field studies and predictive evaluation ‘Quick and dirty’ evaluation This is where designers received informal feedback from the users of the system. This type of evaluation can occur at any stage of the process and the idea is to take note of any improvements, rather than produce detailed findings. This may be to improve an individual component of the software or to quickp Usability testing This is where the user’s performance is measured when carrying olot can be obtained through observation of the user whilst performing the task and looking at how the user interacts with the software. Any errors are identified and the observation of the user can often help to explain why they carriepinvestigate the users’ thoughts and to establish any improvements that could be made to the software. The usability testing takes place in a very controlled environment often with a set time for the users to test the software and any other distractions such as email or telephones are reduced. Field studies Table to understand how the new technology impacts them. In a field study, tecsa PTuth

78


6.2 Evaluation technique

hen evaluating the Spanish software, a cWA

ombination of these techniques will be used. pplying this to the ‘quick and dirty’ evaluation technique, throughout the entire

ftware, from the initial prototype to the most recent, a number of een suggested and these have been implemented in the software.

ironment

gathered will be stored anonymously. The users also had the any questions if they were unsure about any aspect of the evaluation.

ototype as stated at the beginning of the project is designed t the in-class teaching of Spanish for University students. Comments

ns of usability and included the corrected content.

development of the soimprovements have bThe prototype had a user-centred design approach and therefore it was necessary to obtain feedback from the users during the entire process. This was discussed in the previous chapter. The usability testing and field study, are most applicable to the developing of the Spanish software as it is possible to capture the data when the users are undertaking natural behaviour. With the usability testing, although the envis very much controlled, it is possible to obtain user opinions through interviewing them. As for the field study, here users carry out natural behaviour and through the use of observations, it is possible to evaluate their actions.

6.3 Ethical issues

Before carrying out the testing of the software it was important to consider ethical issues when involving humans. The ethics checklist has been completed and can be found in the appendix. The users who tested the software were informed that at any time they could withdraw from the evaluation should they desire and that all nformation that wasi

opportunity to askAt the end of the evaluation, a debrief was given, which analysed the answers which they had provided in the interview and asked for clarification if needed. If the user agreed to take part in the software evaluation, then they were required to sign a consent form.

6.4 Setting up the testing environment

The users that took part in both the usability evaluation and the assessment to see whether the tutor aided learning were from the beginner level Spanish class at the

niversity of Bath. The prUto complemenwere also given from an advanced Spanish speaker in terms of the usability of the software and how they had learnt the Spanish language when they were at a beginner level. All users were computer literate as they use computer applications regularly for University assignments. The Spanish teacher also tested the software to see if it met xpectatioe

The equipment needed to evaluate the software was the use of a computer with speakers. The computer was used in a separate room so that the user would not be distracted.

79


6.5 Assessing learning

ish class. Ideally a large number of people need to be assessed using the software, as well as carrying out longitudinal

wever within the framework of the project, this was one of the constraints.

pe software.

learn the how to tell the time in the

In order to assess whether the software aids learning, a short series of Spanish questions were given to the user before using the software. This was to establish a baseline against which to assess any improvement. They were allowed a maximum of 10 minutes to complete these questions. The user then had a maximum of 20 minutes to learn from the software and this was followed by a similar test which again they had 10 minutes to complete. Although assessing whether the software aids learning is a complex task, assessing before and after using the software could indicate whether they have learnt some additional Spanish through using the software. Eight students were selected from the beginner level Spanish class. All of the participants had experience of Spanish from their Span

studies over time. Ho

Each test consisted of vocabulary from both topics that had been implemented in the prototype. These were ‘tiempo libre’ (free time) and ‘rutina diaria’ (daily routine). The questions consisted of: A matching words exercise. This is a similar exercise to the matching words screen in

the prototype software. Writing the tense of the verb. This is a similar exercise to the grammar screen in the

prototy

Writing the correct time. The students can ‘matching words’ exercise in the software. The before and after tests that were created had different questions but were of the same complexity. An example of the test both before and after using the software can be found in the appendix.

80


6.6 Learning results

In both the before and after tests, the total possible score was 23 points. A point was awarded for each correct answer. The results are shown below:

Participant Number

Male/ Female

Time taken before (mins/seconds)

Score on test before out of 23)

Time taken after (mins/seconds)

Score on test after (out of 23)

Differencein scores

1 M 5.44 16 5.20 19 +3 2 F 2.45 19 2.02 20 +1 3 F 3.43 19 2.28 20 +1 4 F 3.05 22 2.44 22 0 5 F 3.10 22 2.10 23 +1 6 F 4.07 16 2.38 18 +2 7 M 3.55 20 2.10 22 +2

Table 6.1 – Learning test results

8 M 3.56 18 3.42 18 0

Participant Number

Time taken before (minutes/se

Time taken after Difference in time conds) (minutes/seconds) (minutes/seconds)

1 5.44 5.20 - 0.24 2 2.45 2.02 - 0.43 3 3.43 2.28 - 1.15 4 3.05 2.44 - 0.21 5 3.10 2.10 - 1.00 6 4.07 2.38 - 1.29 7 3.55 2.10 - 1.45 8 3.56 3.42 - 0.14

Table 6.2 – Comparing time taken The graph (figure 6.1) demonstrates the difference in time taken to complete the test before and after using the software. Looking at both the table and the graph, it quite clearly demonstrates that the participants completed the test afterwards in a shorter period of time. This may be due to the familiarity with the Spanish and the type of questions, even though the questions were different in both tests. The greatest difference in time taken was with participant 7, who was quicker by 1 minute and 45 seconds.

81


0

1

2

3

4

6

5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

ant Number

n Ti

me

im

inut

es

Time taken to compl ng software)

ete test before usi(minutes/secondsTime taken to co

Particip

mplete test after using softwareinutes/seconds)

igure 6.1 Time taken to complete tests

(m

F

10

15

20

re (/23)

25

ScoScore before

0

5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Participant Number

Score after

Scores before and after using the software

Figure 6.2

82


Calculations The table below shows the mean test score and standard deviation in the before and after tests.

Mean test score Standard Deviation Before using software 19 points 2.32992949 After using software 20.25 points 1.908627031

Table 6.3 – Comparing test scores As shown in the results, all participants except two improved their score after using the software. Looking at the mean scores, this improved from 19 points in the test before using the software, to 20.25 points in the test afterwards. With reference to individual participants, participant 1 had the greatest difference in score and improved by three points. Looking at the standard deviation, the standard deviation before using the software was 2.33 and after using the software this reduced to 1.91. This indicates that with a large standard deviation before using the software, the participants results were distributed further away from the mean and there was a greater variation in the accuracy of the results.

eviation was reduced and this meant that the articipant’s results were gathered more closely around the mean. This means that the

results as a whole became more consistent. This indicates that the software aided their understanding of the Spanish language. The students already study the Spanish language and this perhaps reminded them of key vocabulary for their course and was consequently shown to be an effective learning aid for practicing the language. It was found that in all cases, the participants found the first part of the paper test (the matching words activity) the simplest to complete. The participants were able to match the Spanish word to the English word, even if they were unsure of the meaning. It was observed that in particular the participants struggled on the grammar exercises of the test before using the software. This was much improved once they had used the software and they had been reminded on the different verb forms. One important point to note is that testing language learning is a very complex issue. In such a relatively short space of time it is difficult to measure how learning has improved. In future studies, it would be essential to carry out a longitudinal study to look at the individual’s behaviour over a period of time and see how their learning improves. What has been found demonstrates that the software consolidates and reinforces the Spanish that the students already know.

With the usability testing, each user had 20 minutes to complete the tasks in the software that had been implemented. During that time the user was able to investigate

After using the software, the standard dp

6.7 Assessing the usability of the tutor

83


the software as they pleased and observations were made on the actions that were taken.

as much as possible a natural environment. The user could choose from arning vocabulary, matching words, filling in the blanks, a conversation exercise and

a grammar exercise.

6.8 Observations

onal paths throughout the software and thus it was ossible to establish if there were any navigational issues or errors made. By observing

s been reduced significantly. The software is easy to navigate and if any errors re made it is possible to return to the previous page or try out an exercise again.

the main findings were:

r. They particularly enjoyed the ‘matching words’ exercise as this is very interactive.

tivities and the class text book. Therefore the software that was developed certainly had the appropriate learning

The users had not been told to complete the tasks in a specific order, as it was intended to simulatele

The participants followed navigatipthe participants it was also possible to gauge their reactions and experience with the software. Due to the participation of users in the design process, the number of errors that could occur haa The observations that were made during the usability testing can be found in the appendix. Some of Interface/Layout All users navigated through the software as expected. All users made use of the navigation bar at the bottom of the screen. Once a user had completed an exercise, they generally clicked the ‘next’ button to

move to the next activity. Interaction It was certainly clear that all users who evaluated the software enjoyed the idea of

having a reward if all of the answers were correct. They enjoyed the Spanish music that was played. The participants also enjoyed a variety of exercises including being able to listen to

how the words should be pronounced by the native Spanish speake

Learning content Once the users had tried out the software, they were interviewed to find out their thoughts about the software that had been implemented and whether they had learnt any additional Spanish through using it. The content of the software was based on topics they had been taught in class, as well as homework ac

content.

84


6.9 Obtaining usability feedback

At the end of the exercise the users were interviewed to gather opinions about the software that had been produced. This feedback is extremely valuable, as those users who tested the software are ultimately those users who are going to be using the

t would you improve? . Did you find it easy to use? If not, what did you find difficult?

hat did you like about the software?

reens. On the main screen, when the mouse hovers over a sombrero, the buttons enlarge and

tton. Consistent colours throughout and a simple design that is easy to follow.

his makes it user friendly and easy to work on. e the words and can therefore

ll answers are correct. (reward screen) It was possible to learn from mistakes. It was very clear in the software what had

nd why.

tive.

on the ‘matching

It was fun to use and could see how with all sections implemented it would overall be

ted to look at the help screen to learn how to type accents, the user would return to the grammar exercise and the word that had been typed was lost due to changing screens.

software.

The questions that were asked in the interview were: 1. What did you like about the software? 2. What did you dislike about the software? 3. Wha4 Responses to the questions: W The navigation bar at the bottom of the screen meant that it was easy to move

between sc

this indicates clearly that it is a bu

Very colourful. T Good to have the native Spanish speaker to pronounc

hear what the words should sound like. The help menu provided clear instructions on how to type accents. The sound effects when a

gone wrong a A very clear walkthrough of the program and easy to navigate. The font is clear to read. The font had a friendly look to it. Very interac Variety of exercises including listening, reading and writing. Useful visual feedback about what the user is selecting, especially

words’ exercise where it says ‘excelente’ or ‘try again’.

a great benefit. What did you dislike about the software? Perhaps the ‘check answers’ button on the ‘fill in the blanks’ screen should not give

the answers straight away if not all of them have been filled in. On the ‘grammar’ screen, if some answers had already been inputted and then the

user wan

85


What would you improve? adcrumbs at the top of each screen indicating

where they are in the system. E.g. Main Menu > Tiempo Libre > Gramática.

‘grammar’ exercise, could have a small button on the actual screen near to e input boxes that takes you to a screen explaining about accents, so the user does not

nt.

find difficult? ge nd it easy to use. One participant stated ‘Yes it was

use the help menu ntil I needed to and only clicked on the dictionary to see what it contained’.

.10 Spanish teacher feedback

es are shown below:

e navigation menu.

ns. A good and fun

ve to click the ‘play’ e word to hear the sound. The Spanish tutor expected the sound to

o understand if the user is a

.11 Conclusion

s shown in the graphs,

g. The users had already been exposed to Spanish previously and

Could have a hierarchy diagram or bre

Could make the software available in a larger screen size. With ‘fill in the blanks’ exercise, it would be good to check each individual answer in

turn, rather than having to complete the whole page before checking the answer. With the

thhave to get one incorrect to realise they need an acce Did you find it easy to use? If not, what did you In neral, most participants fouvery easy to use. It had a good flow and clear instructions. I didn’t u

6

It was also important to obtain feedback from the teacher of the beginner level Spanish class. Her respons Overall: Good use of colours. Easy to follow and it is easy to return to previous pages using th User friendly and accessible. The software is easy to use. Makes use of excellent sentence structures and vocabulary. It is an excellent tutor aid and I would like to use it in my lesso

way to review the Spanish topics.

Improvements: On the vocabulary page, perhaps it is not clear that you ha

button next to thplay when she clicked on the ‘translate’ button.

In the ‘fill in the blanks’ exercise in the daily routine topic, perhaps have the instructions written in English, as it may be difficult tbeginner.

6

The aim of this chapter was to evaluate the software for usability issues, as well as to find to find out whether the software aided language learning. Aall participants (except two whose scores remained the same) not only managed to improve their score on the paper test carried out after using the software but also took less time to complete it. As indicated by the results it appears that the software helped to improve learnin

86


therefore the software has consolidated their learning and reinforced what they have

if it was onger period. It would be

re and

been taught already. This evaluation was a small scale study and it would be much improvedpossible to assess the users’ learning behaviour over a linteresting to assess the software with a larger sample size, as well as longitudinally over time. This would mean that the users would get more exposure to the softwathis could possibly yield further improvements in learning results.

87


Chapter 7 – Conclusions

all objectives were successfully accomplished. Through speaking with the Spanish course director, it became apparent that the students at the University of Bath currently do not use any formal computer-based learning. Occasionally individual teachers will guide their students to online material such as the BBC. This project aimed to bridge this gap and to create tailored Spanish software to meet their needs. The literature review initially investigated second language learning and how the students currently learn through an observation of the Spanish class. From the early theory, learning a second language was likened to learning to ride a bicycle: that a person should learn the language one stage at a time. Therefore when designing the software it was important not to overwhelm the user with too much information and it was necessary to develop software where they can learn the language incrementally. The theory also looked at Krashen’s five hypotheses of second language learning. These are: the input hypothesis; the acquisition learning distinction; the natural order hypothesis; the monitor hypothesis and the affective filter hypothesis. The input hypothesis investigates how we acquire the language in the first place and how a person progresses to the next level. It argues that the individual should focus on individual words to begin with and then progress to the next stage. The Spanish software that has been implemented satisfies this hypothesis as it incorporates the language structures that are used in everyday life. The two topics that were implemented were the daily routine and free time topic. In both topics, it is possible to learn the initial vocabulary in the first screen and then progress further with matching words and then constructing sentences. This aids the student in progressing from stage i, to stage i + 1. With the acquisition learning distinction, this claims that as adults we have two distinct methods of achieving competence. The first of which is where the language learning is a subconscious process and a word may ‘sound’ correct and this enables the user to learn from their mistakes. The software has combated this by containing many audio examples right from the beginning of each topic. Audio examples can be found throughout the software, particularly on the ‘vocabulary’ screen where the user is able to click on the play button next to each word and hear how the word is pronounced. The voice that is used is from a native Spanish speaker and therefore the user will be able to

7. 1 Main Findings

The main aim of the project was to develop a piece of educational software to complement the in-class teaching of beginner level Spanish. This was achieved and

88


hear exactly how the word should sound. By providing many audio examples, this helps

othesis, this is where learners tend to learn certain words and edictable order. Bailey, Madden and Krashen (1974) found that

adults used the same natural order when learning a language and expressing

topic to learn these initial words. The user

puter aided language learning, as it allows the learner to spend as much

he user is able to

ptions that through involving the users in the design of the software,

to aid the subconscious learning of the user. In the natural order hyptypes of structure in a pr

themselves. The software that has been implemented tries to encompass this natural order. First of which the user must learn simple vocabulary e.g. ‘to be…’ The user is able to access the vocabulary screen on eachis then able to build on this by being able to recognise words in the ‘matching words’ exercise. In this exercise, the user is not presented with any English and therefore they can start to associate the Spanish words with the images on the screen. This then leads onto the ‘fill in the blanks’ screen where the individual can type their own answers and can therefore learn how to spell the words for themselves. The aim of this exercise is to help in the construction of sentences and the user can see how they are formed. In the monitor hypothesis, this is where learning is seen as a ‘monitor’. It looks at specific variables such as time, focusing on the form of the word and learning the rules of the grammar. Particularly with time, the software allows the user to spend as much time as they wish on each exercise. The theory states that the learner should have enough time to consider the grammar rules, and also that it is important to make sure that the rules are not overused as this could lead to hesitation. This is one of the great benefits of comtime on each activity as they wish. With the software that has been implemented, the user can read how to construct the grammar, as well as listening to what the different verb forms sound like. The user is able to ‘focus on form’ as stated in the hypothesis. The user is able to hear how a particular word or sentence sounds. As tfreely move around between exercises with the use of the navigation bar, this will help to reduce over monitoring as the user can choose how long they spend on each exercise. The software should therefore give them confidence when learning Spanish. In the case of the affective filter hypothesis, this theory considers three main variables. These are motivation, self confidence and low anxiety. With regards to motivation, as argued by Gass and Selinker (2001) it has been found that if a person is motivated this will speed up the learning process and the person will learn the language to a greater extent. Motivation is an extremely complex factor to measure and therefore one can only make assumthey will be motivated to use it out of class. The design was based on user-centred design and this resulted in a colourful interface with images and sounds that the user asked for when interviewed. Looking into motivation would require a further psychological study and this was beyond the scope of the project. As for self confidence, as the software is designed for out of class use then the user is able to practise in their own time and become confident in their own learning. The user can perhaps feel judged in a classroom environment and this can lead to evaluation apprehension. Evaluation apprehension is where a person may fear criticism from

89


others in the group and this prevents them from putting ideas forward. The software allows the individual to work alone and work at their own pace.

abulary ctivities and the conversation screens.

n created, o initial mock-up designs were made. It was vital at this stage, as well as in the rest

Approaches to language teaching were also considered in the literature. Again these were related to Krashen’s theories of second language learning. With regards to grammar translation, it was found that grammar exercises must form a part of the teaching process. However it was noted that the words chosen should be relevant to the interests of the university students. The software that has been implemented contains a ‘grammar’ screen within each topic. The words that were chosen were based on what was taught in class and the verbs that are appropriate to describe what a person would do in their free time or in their daily routine. In Krashen’s theory about audio-lingualism, it was found that the software should contain many audio examples and many possibilities for the user to interact with the software. The software that has been designed is extremely interactive and requires the user to investigate the various activities. Many audio examples are included particularly within the vocaWith regards to cognitive code, this theory requires an explanation of the particular aspect of the language the class are learning and then the learner is given exercises to carry out. Many different methods can be used such as role plays, translations, filling in the blanks or dialogue practise. The software implemented provides translations, a fill in the blank exercise and the user is able to practise and hear what Spanish dialogue should sound like. The software contains a number of reading, writing, speaking and listening exercises for the student to practice. Following the literature review, three existing Spanish tutors were evaluated to consider any successful approaches that have been used, as well as identifying any features that should be avoided when considering the design of the software. The literature, interviews with the Spanish students and teachers, as well as an observation of the class were the basis of the requirements that were produced. The software was based on the curriculum of the Stage One Spanish class. Once the requirements had beetwof the process to obtain user feedback. The software could then be implemented using a user-centred design approach. When comparing the software to the requirements that had been generated, it satisfied 25 out of 28 requirements. The requirements that it did not satisfy were: Requirement number: 11 Description: The software should allow the learner to record their voice and compare it to the native speaker. Requirement number: 16 Description: The software must provide more than one way of accessing an activity. Requirement number: 23

90


Description: The software shall track the user’s performance and save where they last reached when learning. As for requirement number 11, from asking users of the software, they found it was sufficient to listen to the native Spanish voice and compare their voice to the track. They did not feel that by recording their voice, this would improve their pronunciation. With requirement number 16, as the software was a relatively small system and by having a navigation menu at the bottom of every screen they did not require more than one way of accessing an activity, as from the main menu any activity could be accessed within two clicks. This means that the user can easily access where they were last working. With requirement number 23, each activity is a stand-alone activity and therefore the user is informed of which aspects are correct or incorrect as they are working on the activity. Instant feedback is available when the ‘check answers’ buttons are clicked. The user can learn from any incorrect answers. As the software is small in size, the user can easily navigate to the activity, should they wish to carry it out again. Being able to

duced significantly. As all of the students ad been introduced to the Spanish language before, this meant they were not complete

bottom of each screen and the users found that they ould quickly learn how to use the software without the need for instructions. The users

the system and ere pleased when they had completed the exercise correctly to receive the reward of

ic.

ments

ested that it aided learning Spanish, as well as reducing the e

ould need to be considered, as well as carrying out a longitudinal study of the r. By having a larger sample size it would be possible to

gain more conclusive evidence as to whether the tutor does actually aid learning and

track the user’s performance may be best suited to the full implementation of the software, where there are a large number of screens with the different topics e.g. greetings, my family, my house, daily routine, free time, restaurant, expressing wishes, shopping. From the evaluation, it was clear that by using the software the participant’s times to complete the paper test before and after was rehbeginners. The paper test results before using the software demonstrated this. It appears that the software helped to consolidate and reinforce what they had learnt in class. All students improved in their marks, with the exception of two people whose marks remained the same. Usability testing was performed to ensure that the prototype satisfied the user’s requirements and were able to use the software in an efficient way. The software received positive feedback as a whole. The software is easy to navigate using the consistent navigation bar at thecparticularly found the audio examples helpful as they could hear the pronunciation of each word. From observation it was clear that the users enjoyed using wlistening to the Spanish mus

7.2 Future develop

Although the software sugguser’s times to complete the test, to improve the study further both a larger sample sizwstudent’s learning behaviou

91


how learning progresses such that the theories of learning may be supported or challenged. As for further additions to the software, the suggestions that have been provided by the users would be considered and then developed, as ultimately the software was designed for the users of the beginner level Spanish class. The following improvements would be made: 1. The software could include a hierarchy system, similar to ‘breadcrumbs’ on a website. This would apply to the fully implemented system with all topics functional. This

t boxes, it would be helpful to have a small button near to the boxes which would take you to a screen explaining about accents.

For example with the grammar exercise, the user can read about how to form the

enu of the software: greetings, my family, my house, restaurant, expressing wishes and shopping would be implemented. The software would

evel Spanish syllabus at the University of Bath. If these were to be implemented a database would need to be created to store the data in

would indicate to the user of the system where they are in the software, as the software would contain many different screens. Each sub screen does contain a title so the user knows which exercise they are completing. The navigation bar also allows them to move between screens easily. However by providing ‘breadcrumbs’ this would show the user what steps they had taken to get to a particular screen. 2. With the grammar exercise, where the user has to type in the different verb forms in the inpu The information about how to type accents on a computer is currently in the help menu, meaning that it can be accessed via the navigation bar on every screen. If there was a small button next to the input box then this would make it clearer that the answer includes accents. 3. The software could be developed for a larger screen. Currently the window size is fixed. various verb forms on the first screen but then has to move to the next screen to complete the exercise. The software was designed in this way, as this would allow the user to read and listen to the different verb forms on one screen and then they could practise their answers on the next screen. It would act as a test of memory to see if they could remember the verbs. If both the explanation and the exercise were on the same screen, then the user could easily look at the answers and would be perhaps less beneficial for learning. The other topics on the main m

then comply with the beginner l

software, with perhaps the possibility of the Spanish teacher being able to the change the vocabulary or exercises within the system. This would allow greater flexibility as the teacher could alter the content according to which topic the students were currently working on.

92


After completing the prototype it is possible to derive a set of guidelines that one can adhere to when designing educational software for use on a computer.

Investigate the current curriculum the students are studying. This will allow the .

e good and bad design features when designing software. In

C

Inher to use a series of images, sounds or text. It is important to

esign an interface that the students will want to spend time learning from.

Im

Oe ssess whether the software aids learning, develop a

eries of questions for the users to complete both before and after using the software.

er topic areas can then be implemented.

p

Involve users of the system from the onset of the project. Take a user-centred design

approach in order to obtain feedback about the software being created. The users may be students or the teacher of the language class.

software to be tailored to a particular topic area Involve the users in evaluating existing language software. This will assist in

identifying th vestigate the current teaching methods of learning a second language. Particularly

how the users learn best and what type of interaction they are looking for e.g. audio, visual. reate a set of requirements based on the literature, observations and the evaluation

of existing language tools. volve the users in the initial mock-up designs of the prototype. Investigate what

appeals to the user: whetd Produce the mock-up designs on the computer and gain feedback from the users and

HCI expert. The HCI expert should identify any usability issues that need to be considered. plement the prototype and obtain feedback from the users throughout the process.

This is an iterative process and improvements are made continuously. nce the prototype has been developed, assess the software for usability and whether

th software aids learning. To as Take into consideration the feedback obtained and implement this in the working

solution. Furth The project has outlined the theories in the literature that need to be considered when designing a prototype for second language learning. The prototype that has been developed can act as a starting point to which a fully working system could be im lemented. The benefits of using computers in language learning outweigh the costs, as it enables the student to work in a relaxed environment allowing them to control the pace at which they work. This aims to encourage the student in language learning.

93


Bibliography

[1] MITCHELL, R., AND MYLES, F., 1998. Second language learning theories. New York: Oxford University Press. [2] GASS, S., AND SELINKER, L., 2001 Second language acquisition. An . introductory course. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [3] LAFFORD, B., AND SALABERRY, R., 2003. Spanish second language acquisition – State of the science. Washington: Georgetown University Press. [4] Universal grammar [online]. Lexico Publishing Group ltd. Available from: http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=universal+grammar [Accessed 24.11.07] [5] Cognitive learning theory [online]. Erin C. Barrett Cunia. Available from: http://suedstudent.syr.edu/~ebarrett/ide621/cognitive.htm [Accessed 28.11.07]

uisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

:

[6] O’MALLEY, J., AND CHAMOT, A., 1990. Learning strategies in second language acq [7] KRASHEN, S., 1982. Principals and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford: Pegamon Press. [8] Phonological [online]. Lexico Publishing Group ltd. Available fromhttp://dictionary.reference.com/browse/phonological [Accessed 27.11.07]

] Subjunctive [online]. Spanish learning resources. Availab[9 le from: http://www.studyspanish.com/lessons/subj1.htm [Accessed 27.11.07] [10] Cambridge dictionaries online [online] Available from: http://dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp?key=7433&dict=CALD [Accessed 27.11.07] [11] CARDER, M., 2007. Bilingualim in international schools. A model for enriching language education. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd. [12] BAKER, C., 2001. Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd. [13] PREECE, J. et al., 2002. Interaction Design. New York: John Wiley & Sons. [14] SHNEIDERMAN, B., AND PLAISANT, C., 2005. Designing the user interface. USA: Pearson Education ltd.

94


[15] MERRILL, P. et al., 1996. Computers in education. USA: A Simon and Schuster Company. [16] DELCLOQUE, P., 2000. History of CALL. Available from: http://www.ict4lt.org/en/History_of_CALL.pdf [Accessed 13.10.2007] [17] What is an allophone? [online] Available from: http://www.sil.org/LINGUISTICS/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAnAllophone.htm[[Accessed 23.11.07] [18] SOMERVILLE, I., 2004. Software Engineering. Essex: Pearson Education Limited. [19] DELCLOQUE, P., 2000 Types of computer aided assessment. Available from: http://www.ict4lt.org/en/en_mod4-1.htm [Accessed 15.10.2007] [20] ZHANG, Z., CALL for chinese issues and practise. Available from: http://www.csulb.edu/~txie/learn_online/issues.htm [Accessed 16.10.2007] [21]WEBSTER et al., 2008. Foundation ActionScript 3.0 with Flash CS3 and Flex. New York: Springer-Verlag New York. [22] Testing overview and black box testing techniques [online]. Available from: http://agile.csc.ncsu.edu/SEMaterials/BlackBox.pdf [Accessed 12.4.08]

www.geocities.com/ghanavenothan/Quotes.html

ww.trancreative.com/images/icon_wb.gif

x_What_Is_A_Web_Browse

http://simplythebest.net/sounds/MP3/sound_effects_MP3/instruments_mp3.html

lightbulb icon

Graphics used:

forward and backward arrows www.axialis.com/objects/ip_icon_03.shtml

home icon

dictionary icon http://w

question mark http://www.mouserunner.com/Fx_Guide_1_01_2007/Fr_icon.png

latin guitar

hat icon http://direct.motorola.com/hellomoto/Motosupport/source/images/learning_icon.jpg

95

http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=universal+grammar

http://suedstudent.syr.edu/%7Eebarrett/ide621/cognitive.htm


http://www.pixelpressicons.com/Lightbulb.jpg

grammar icon

matching icon

h.shtml

http://members.microsoft.com/partner/images/play_button2.gif

urself button www.thatphilosophywebsite.com/.../pen_paper.gif

https:/.../catalog/images/cat_book.jpg

www.theatre.ccsu.edu/dance/DanceHome1.JPG

tell.fll.purdue.edu/.../FLClipart/Verbs/sing.gif

http://www.pbs.org/standarddeviantstv/images/classres_grammar_icon.gif

http://www.enchantedlearning.com/themes/spanis

play button

test yo

book icon

dance icon

sing icon

96


AS

ppendix 1tage one Spanish Syllabus

(Print out)

97


A observation

Tiempo libre – Free time. Teacher greets students in Spanish as they enter the class. Hands out the first sheet ‘Describe what Alicia and Ramon do at the weekend’. Teacher asks the class what the title means in English. Teacher then reads out to the class the vocabulary in Spanish and asks them what the

words mean in English. The class respond well. Teacher encourages group work. The class work in groups of 4 to work through the

scenarios of what people did at the weekend. They were asked to write a short description of the situation. The teacher walks around the class helping those who need it. They are told that it will be useful if they have the verb sheet they were given the

previous week. During this time, students ask about words/verbs to use. The teacher then asks individuals to share with the class what they have just written.

The teacher listens and corrects any grammar. A second sheet is given to the class. ‘El tiempo libre’. Again the teacher says them in Spanish and asks the class what they mean in English.

The list is a number of sports and activities that people do at the weekend e.g. to go shopping, to go to the cinema. With words that the class do not understand, the teacher draws some of the sports on

the board to help aid their understanding. The teacher also elaborates by describing situations or other words, to help explain

the word they are looking for. E.g. visitar los cuartos de la charla. (visiting a chat room). To explain this phrase, the teacher names a number of rooms in the house. A third sheet is handed out ‘Tiempo libre – actividades’. The students have to work

through the list of activities that are written in Spanish (translating them as they go) and tick the boxes to say whether they do them regularly, from time to time, or never. The next activity is for each individual to write a paragraph about what they did at the

weekend. The teacher writes an example on the board. The teacher walks around and assists those students who need it. The example is: ‘Mi fin de semana. Los viernes por la noche voy de copas con mis

amigos y me acuesto tarde. Los sabados…’ Students often ask ‘how do I say….’. The teacher tells them the vocabulary. The teacher then asks individuals to share to share their work with the class. The

teacher corrects any mistakes as they are speaking. Another sheet is given to the class. It is a conversation where two people are

arranging to meet up and do something together. The class are told to work in pairs and translate the words and phrases into Spanish. The students then have to work in pairs to create their own conversation, asking each other ‘Would you like to do something

ppendix 2 Spanish class

98


tomorrow? At what time? Where? Etc’. The teacher then asks if certain pairs can demonstrate what they have practised.

ts a list of verbs on the overhead projector. The title is: ¿Qué t are you doing?). In pairs/groups, the students have to act out

the group have to guess what the word is. E.g. talking,

lackboard how ‘ar’, ‘er’ and ‘ir’ verbs can be ‘ing’ on the end. For example, ‘to speak’ is ‘hablar’. To

doing

ey are unsure about.

The teacher then puestoy haciendo? (Whaone of the words and the rest of eating. The teacher demonstrates on the b

altered so that the word haschange this to ‘speaking’, the ‘ar’ is removed from the word ‘hablar’ and the ending isreplaced with ‘ando’. Therefore the word speaking is: hablando. The final sheet is given to the class. It is a picture with lots of people on it,

various activities. The class are told to work in pairs and ask each other what the people on the picture are doing. E.g. David is reading. To end the class, the teacher gives homework. The homework is from the text book

‘Spanish 1’ by Cathy Holden. They have to do: page 30 exercises 7, 8 and 9. Also page 35 exercise 1-4. The homework covers the topics that they have done in class. At the end various people ask some questions about anything th

99


Appendix 3Class handout 1

(Print o ut)

100


Class handout 2

(Print out)

101


Class handout 3

(Print out)

102


Appendix 4 Print screens of prototype

103


104


105


106


107


108


109


110


Appendix 5 Black box testing

Number Test Expected

outcome Actual outcome Pass?

1 Click ‘Tiempo libre’ icon to start the topic.

Moves to tiempo libre sub screen

Moves to correct screen

Pass

2 Click ‘Rutina Diaria’ icon to start the topic.

Moves to rutina diaria sub screen


Pass

3 Click on other topic icons.

Does not move to another screen. Remains on the main menu screen.

Remains on the correct screen

Pass

4 Click on back button Remains on main screen.


Pass

5 Click on help button Moves to help screen.


Pass

6 Click on main menu button

Remains on the main screen.


Pass

7 Click on dictionary button

Moves to dictionary screen.


Pass

8 Click on next button Moves to next screen (tiempo libre sub screen)


Pass

9 Click on all buttons to test the ‘click’ sound

Button plays ‘click’ sound when pressed.

‘Click’ sound plays on all buttons

Pass

111


Tiempo Libre sub

screen

Expected outcome Actual outcome Pass? Number Test

10 Hover mouse over a icons

Icons enlarge when rs over to

All activity icons n

when mouse is

Pass ctivity mouse hove

and returns original size when mouse is removed.

enlarge and returto original size

removed

11 Cv

to the Pass lick on ‘learn ocabulary’ button

Takes the user to the vocabulary screen

Movescorrect screen

12 C g words’ button rd

lick on the ‘matchin Takes the user to the matching woscreen

Moves to the correct screen

Pass

13 Click on the ‘fill in the b

creen

Moves to the Pass lanks’ button

Takes the user to the ‘fill in the blanks’ s

correct screen

14 C‘conversation button’

ersation

screen screen

lick on the Takes the user tothe ‘conv

Moves to the correct

Pass

15 Click on the ‘grammar button’

to the ‘grammar’ correct screen

Pass Takes the user

screen

Moves to the

16 Click each activity b

The button should Each activity

sound

Pass utton play a ‘click’

sound button plays a ‘click’

17 Click on the ‘back b

Takes the user in

Moves to the Pass utton’ back to the ma

menu previous screen

18 Click on the ‘help’ button

Takes the user to the help screen

Moves to the help screen

Pass

19 Click on the ‘main menu’ button

Takes the user to the main menu

Moves to the main menu

Pass

112


20 Click on the ‘dictionary’ button

Takes the user to the dictionary

Moves to the dictionary screen

Pass

screen

21 Click on the ‘next’button

Takes the user to the ‘Vocabulary’ Screen as this ithe first activity

s

Moves to the next screen

Pass

T po L ocabu

Number Test ed outcome Actual outcome Pass?

iem ibre ‘Learn V lary’ screen

Expect

22 Click on play button for ‘nadar en el mar’

n el mar’

ct Plays the correct sound track for ‘nadar e

Plays the corresound

Pass

23 Click on play button for ‘ver un video’

ct Plays the correct sound track for‘ver un video’


Pass

24 Click on playfor ‘tomar café con

button

mis amigas’ café con mis amigas’

ct Plays the correct sound track for ‘tomar


Pass

25 n play button for ‘dar un paseo con una amiga’

t rack for

‘dar un paseo con

ct sound

Pass Click o Plays the correcsound t

una amiga’

Plays the corre

26 Click on play button for ‘bailar en una

he correct sound track for

ct sound

Pass

discoteca’

Plays t

‘bailar en una discoteca’

Plays the corre

27 Click on play button Plays the correct Plays the correct Pass for ‘ver la tele’ sound track for

‘ver la tele’ sound

28 Click on play buttofor ‘limpiar el

n coche’

Plays the correct sound track for

Plays the correct sound

Pass

113


‘limpiar el coche’

29 Click on play button for ‘jugar al fútbol

e correct Plays the correct sound

Pass

americano’

Plays thsound track for ‘jugar al fútbol americano’

30 Click on play button for ‘ir al cine’ sound track for ‘ir

al cine’


Pass Plays the correct

31 Click on play button Plays the correct for ‘descansar’

‘descansar’

Plays the correct Pass sound track for sound

32 for ‘limpiar la casa’

‘limpiar la casa’

e correct sound

Pass Click on play button Plays the correctsound track for

Plays th

33 n for ‘lavar la ropa’

‘lavar la ropa’

e correct sound

Pass Click on play butto Plays the correctsound track for

Plays th

34 pras’

r

e correct sound

Pass Click on play buttonfor ‘ir de com

Plays the correctsound track for ‘ide compras’

Plays th

35 Click on translate button for ‘nadar en elmar’

translation Translates the phrase to ‘swim in the sea’

Provides the correct

Pass

36 Click on translate e h

Provides the

Pass button for ‘ver un video’

Translates thphrase to ‘to watca video’

correct translation

37 nslate button for ‘tomar café o have

Provides the correct translation

Pass Click on tra

con mis amigas’

Translates the phrase to ‘tcoffee with friends’

38 Click on translate e r

Provides the

Pass button for ‘dar un paseo con una amiga’

Translates thphrase to ‘to go foa walk with a

correct translation

114


friend’

39 Click on translate button for ‘bailar enuna discotec

a’

ce translation Translates the phrase to ‘to danin a disco’


Pass

40 Click on translate Translates the h

Provides the

Pass button for ‘ver la tele’ phrase to ‘to watc

television’ correct translation

41 Click on translate Translates the

Provides the

Pass button for ‘limpiar el coche’

phrase to ‘to cleanthe car’

correct translation


ll’

Provides the

Pass button for ‘jugar al fútbol americano’

phrase to ‘to play American footba

correct translation


Provides the

Pass button for ‘ir al cine’ phrase to ‘to go to

the cinema’ correct translation

44 Click on translate

Translates the

Provides the

Pass button for ‘descansar’ phrase to ‘to rest’ correct translation

45 Click on translate button for ‘limpiar la

phrase to ‘to clean


Pass

casa’

Translates the

the house’

46 on translate button for ‘lavar la

s the phrase to ‘to clean


Pass Click

ropa’

Translate

clothes’

47 n translate s the Provides the correct translation

Pass Click obutton for ‘ir de compras’

Translatephrase to ‘to get shopping’

48 t’ button

es that n

translated. The n be

Clears all translations

Pass Click on the ‘rese Clears phrashave bee

activity can thecarried out again

115


49 Click on the ‘back button’

e user back to the ‘tiempo

n

Moves to the previous screen

Pass Takes th

libre’ sub scree

50 lp’ button

ser to the help screen


Pass Click on the ‘he Takes the u

51 menu’ button nu menu

Pass Click on the ‘main Takes the user to the main me

Moves to the main


Takes the user the dictionary screen

to Moves to the dictionary screen

Pass

53 Click on the ‘next’button

to

this is the next

next Takes the user the ‘Matching words’ Screen as

activity

Moves to the screen

Pass

Tiempo Libre ‘Matching words’ screen

ber ome me Num Test Expected outc Actual outco Pass?

54 Click and drag ‘ir al If in correct place, d

Word fixes into es

Pass cine’ fix into place an

say ‘excelente’ place and stat‘excelente’

55 Click and drag ‘ir al If in the incorrect rd

nd say ‘try

Word moves back sition

again!’

Pass cine’ place, move wo

back to original position aagain!’

to original poand status says ‘try

56 , e and place and states

Pass Click and drag ‘bailar’

If in correct placefix into placsay ‘excelente’

Word fixes into

‘excelente’

57 d drag ‘bailar’

orrect d

ry again!’

to original position and status says ‘try again!’

Pass Click an If in the incplace, move worback to original position and say ‘t

Word moves back

116


58 Click and drag ‘ver tele’

la e, to

‘excelente’

If in correct placfix into place and say ‘excelente’

Word fixes inplace and states

Pass

59 Click and drag ‘ver tele’

la d

back to original ry

osition and status says ‘try

If in the incorrect place, move wor

position and say ‘tagain!’

Word moves back to original p

again!’

Pass

60 Click and draal fútbol’

g ‘jugar d

elente’

to

‘excelente’

If in correct place,fix into place ansay ‘exc

Word fixes inplace and states

Pass

61 Click and drag ‘jugaal fútbo

r l’

‘try

osition and status says ‘try again!’

If in the incorrect place, move wordback to original position and sayagain!’


Pass

62 Click and drag ‘leer’ If in correct pfix into place

lace, Word fixes into Pass and

say ‘excelente’ place and states ‘excelente’

63 Click and drag ‘leer’ If in the incorrect place, move word back to original position and say ‘tagain!’

ry

k n

ys ‘try

Word moves bacto original positioand status saagain!’

Pass

64 Click and drag ‘cantar’

elente’ d states

‘excelente’

Pass If in correct place, fix into place and say ‘exc

Word fixes into place an

65 Click and drag ‘cantar’

If in the incorrect place, move word back to original position and say ‘tagain!’

ry

k n

ys ‘try


Pass

66 Click and drag ‘ir de compras’ d states

Pass If in correct place, fix into place and


117


say ‘excelente’ ‘excelente’

67 Click and drag ‘ir de compras’

t

y

osition

Pass If in the incorrecplace, move word back to original position and say ‘tragain!’

Word moves back to original pand status says ‘tryagain!’

68 Click and drag ‘jugar al tenis’

ect place, fix into place and

Word fixes into place and states

Pass If in corr


69 Click and drag ‘jugar al tenis’

t place, move word

y

to original position

Pass If in the incorrec

back to original position and say ‘tragain!’

Word moves back

and status says ‘tryagain!’

70 Complete all matching words

rect, should display a

l and play a Spanish

Displays message, shows image and

Pass

correctly

If all cor

‘congratulations’ message, show an image of a meda

guitar sound track.

plays Spanish sound track


ck screen

Pass Takes the user bato the ‘Vocabulary’ screen

Moves to the previous

72 Click on the ‘hebutton

lp’ e p Takes the user to thhelp screen

Moves to the helscreen

Pass

73 Click on the ‘main Takes the user to the Moves to the main Pass menu’ button main menu menu


the ry screen

Pass Takes the user todictionary screen

Moves to the dictiona

75 Click on the ‘next’ e user to the

next activity

Moves to the next Pass button

Takes th‘Fill in the blanks’ screen as this is the

screen

118


Tiempo Libre ‘Fill in the blanks’ screen

ber T e Num est Expected outcom Actual outcome Pass?

76 Complete input box 1

th when user clicks the

Pass If correct, then display ‘correct’ undernea

‘check answers’ button

Displays ‘correct’

77 Complete input box 1 If incorrect, display Displays the Pass ‘should be: me’ when user clicks the ‘check answers’ button

correct word underneath the incorrect answer

78 Complete input box 2 If correct, then

when

Displays ‘correct’ Pass display ‘correct’ underneathuser clicks the ‘check answers’ button

79 Complete input box 2 ‘should be: gusta’

’ button

Displays the correct word

Pass If incorrect, display

when user clicks the ‘check answers

underneath theincorrect answer

80 C ect’

ers’

omplete input box 3 If correct, then display ‘corrunderneath when user clicks the ‘check answbutton

Displays ‘correct’ Pass

81 Com

n

Displays th

ath the incorrect answer

Pass plete input box 3 If incorrect, display ‘should be: te’ when user clicks the ‘check answers’ butto

e correct word underne

119


82 Complete input box 4 If correct, then t’

Displays ‘correct’ Pass display ‘correcunderneath when user clicks the ‘check answers’ button

83 Complete input box 4 play ’

ser clicks

Displays the correct word underneath the

Pass If incorrect, dis‘should be: gustawhen uthe ‘check answers’ button

incorrect answer

84 Complete input box 5 rect’

t’ Pass If correct, then display ‘corunderneath whenuser clicks the ‘check answers’ button

Displays ‘correc

85 Complete input box 5 play

ser clicks


Pass If incorrect, dis‘should be: me’ when uthe ‘check answers’ button

incorrect answer


t’ Pass If correct, then display ‘corunderneath whenuser clicks the ‘check answers’ button

Displays ‘correc


ser clicks


Pass If incorrect, dis‘should be: gustawhen uthe ‘check answers’ button

incorrect answer


t’ Pass If correct, then display ‘corunderneath when

Displays ‘correc

120


user clicks the ‘check answers’ button

89 Complete input box 7 ay be: te’

when user clicks


er

Pass If incorrect, displ‘should

the ‘check answers’ button

incorrect answ


underneath when

Pass If correct, then display ‘correct’



91 Complete input box 8 ay be: gusta’

when user clicks


er



incorrect answ


underneath when




93 Complete input box 9 ay be: me’

when user clicks


er



incorrect answ


underneath when




121



ser clicks the ‘check

Displays the correct word underneath the incorrect answer

Pass If incorrect, dis‘should be: gustawhen u

answers’ button

96 Complete input box 11rect’

t’ Pass If correct, then display ‘corunderneath whenuser clicks the ‘check answers’button

Displays ‘correc


ser clicks


Pass If incorrect, dis‘should be: le’ when uthe ‘check answers’ button

incorrect answer

98 Complete input box 12rect’

user clicks the

t’ Pass If correct, then display ‘corunderneath when

‘check answers’ button

Displays ‘correc


ser clicks the ‘check


Pass If incorrect, dis‘should be: gustawhen u

answers’ button

100 Complete all input boxes correctly

message, an image

e

Spanish sound track

Pass If correct, should display a ‘congratulations’

of a medal and a Spanish guitar sound track

Displays messagand image. Plays

101 Click on the ‘back button’ the


Pass Takes the user back to

122


‘Matching words’ screen


screen

Pass Takes the user to the help screen

Moves to the help

103 menu’ button

o menu

Click on the ‘main Takes the user tthe main menu

Moves to the main Pass



Pass Takes the user to the dictionary screen

105 Click on the ‘next’ button

Takes the user to the ‘Conversation’ Screen as this is tnext activity

he


Pass

Tiempo Libre ‘Conversation’ screen

ber me Num Test Expected outco Actual outcome Pass?

106 Click on speech bubble number 1

h tive

play

Sound file plays Pass The sound file witthe recorded naSpanish speaker should

107 bubble number 2

ys Click on speech The sound file with the recorded nativeSpanish speaker should play

Sound file pla Pass

108 Click on speech e

peaker

Sound file plays Pass bubble number 3

The sound file with the recorded nativSpanish sshould play


ve

r

Pass The sound file withthe recorded natiSpanish speakeshould play

Sound file plays

110 Click on speech The sound file the recorded

with native

Sound file plays Pass

123


bubble number 5 play

Spanish speaker should


h ive

Spanish speaker

The sound file witthe recorded nat

should play



The sound file with the recorded nativSpanish speakeshould

e r

play



h

The sound file witthe recorded nativeSpanish speaker should play



The soundthe record

file with Sound file plays Pass ed native

Spanish speaker should play

115 bubble number 10 e

ker

Sound file plays Pass Click on speech The sound file with the recorded nativSpanish speashould play


ker



ker


118 button’

creen


Pass Click on the ‘back Takes the user back to the ‘Fill inthe blanks’ sif on the first conversation

124


screen or takes thuser back to

e the

first conversation screen if on the second conversation screen

119 Click on the ‘helpbutton

’ screen


Moves to the help Pass


er to the main menu


Pass Takes the us

121 ‘dictionary’ button


Pass Click on the Takes the user to the dictionary screen

122 Click on the ‘nexbutton

t’

he

nd

t screen

Takes the user to the second ‘conversation’ screen if on tfirst ‘conversation’ screen or takes the user to the ‘grammar’ screenif on the seco‘conversation screen’ as this is the next activity

Moves to the nex Pass

T o L r’ scr

ber iempNum

ibre ‘GrammaTest

een Expected outcome Actual outcome Pass?

123 Click on ‘practicar’ grammar box s.wav

d

.

Sound file plays Pass The sound file practicarverbwith the recordenative Spanish speaker should play

124 Click on ‘jugar’ v with

Sound file plays Pass The sound filejugarverbs.wa

125


grammar box the recorded native Spanish speaker should play.

125 Click on ‘hacer’ grammar box

d file v with

rded native Spanish speaker

Sound file plays Pass The sounhacerverbs.wathe reco

should play.

126 Click ‘cht,

es’ Pass Complete input box 1 for ‘tomar’

eck answers’. If correcdisplay ‘Yes!’

Displays ‘Y

127 Complete inpfor ‘tomar’

ut box 1

t, displays ‘tomo’

o’ Click ‘check answers’. If incorrec

Displays ‘tom Pass

128 te input box 2 for ‘tomar’

ect,

s ‘Yes’ Pass Comple Click ‘checkanswers’. If corrdisplay ‘Yes!’

Display

129 Complete input box 2 for ‘tomar’

Displays ‘tomas’ Pass Click ‘check answers’. Ifincorrect, displays ‘tomas’

130 Complete input box 3 for ‘tomar’ t,

Displays ‘Yes’ Pass Click ‘check answers’. If correcdisplay ‘Yes!’

131 Complete input box 3 mar’

Click ‘check Displays ‘toma’ Pass answers’. If incorrect, displays ‘toma’

for ‘to

132 t box 4 for ‘tomar’ t,

Displays ‘Yes’ Pass Complete inpu Click ‘check answers’. If correcdisplay ‘Yes!’

133 Complete input bfor ‘tomar’

ox 4 Click ‘check answers’. If

Displays ‘tomamos’

Pass

126


incorrect, displays ‘tomamos’

134 Complete input box 5 rect,

Displays ‘Yes’ Pass for ‘tomar’

Click ‘check answers’. If cordisplay ‘Yes!’

135 Complete input box 5 for ‘tomar’

incorrect, displays

Displays ‘tomáis’ Pass Click ‘check answers’. If

‘tomáis’

136 Complete input box 6 for ‘tomar’ answers’. If correct,

Displays ‘Yes’ Pass Click ‘check

display ‘Yes!’

137 Complete input box 6 for ‘tomar’ ’. If

incorrect, displays

Displays ‘toman’ Pass Click ‘check answers

‘toman’

138 Complete input box 1 for ‘beber’

Displays ‘Yes’ Pass Click ‘check answers’. If correct, display ‘Yes!’

139 Complete input box 1 for ‘beber’ . If

incorrect, displays

Displays ‘bebo’ Pass Click ‘check answers’

‘bebo’

140 Complete input box 2 for ‘beber’ answers’. If correct,


display ‘Yes!’


incorrect, displays

Displays ‘bebes’ Pass Click ‘check answers’. If

‘bebes’



display ‘Yes!’

127



incorrect, displays

Displays ‘bebe’ Pass Click ‘check answers’. If

‘bebe’



display ‘Yes!’

145 Complete input box 4 for ‘beber’ If

incorrect, displays

Displays ‘bebemos’

Pass Click ‘check answers’.

‘bebemos’


Displays ‘Yes’ Pass for ‘beber’

Click ‘check answers’. If correct, display ‘Yes!’

147 Complete input box 5 for ‘beber’ . If

incorrect, displays

Displays ‘bebáis’ Pass Click ‘check answers’

‘bebáis’



display ‘Yes!’

149 Complete input box 6 for ‘beber’ ’. If

incorrect, displays

Displays ‘beben’ Pass Click ‘check answers

‘beben’

150 Click ‘reset’ button once all answers have

input boxes and

s that an

Clears all boxes and clears

Pass

been filled in

Should clear all

clear messagestate whetheranswer is correct ornot

messages.


Takes the useto the ‘Grammar 1’ screen

r back previous screen Moves to the Pass

128



Takes the usehelp screen

r to the p screen Moves to the hel Pass

153 Click on the ‘main menu’ button main menu


Pass Takes the user to the

154 ‘dictionary’ button n


Pass Click on the Takes the user to the dictionary scree


Takes the usemain menu

r to the the main Moves to menu

Pass

Rutina Diaria sub screen

Number Test Expected outcome Actual outcome Pass?

156 Hover mouse over hen over

All activity icons

when mouse is removed

Pass activity icons

Icons enlarge wmouse hoversand returns tooriginal size when mouse is removed.

enlarge and return to original size

157 Click on ‘learn vocabulary’ button

Takes the usevocabulary screen

r to the Moves to the correct screen

Pass

158 Click on the to the d

Moves to the Pass ‘matching words’ button

Takes the user matching worscreen

correct screen

159 Click on the ‘fill in the blanks’ button

e e blanks’


Pass Takes the user to th‘fill in thscreen

160 button’

the e en

Pass Click on the ‘conversation

Takes the user to‘conversation screen

Moves to thcorrect scre

161 Click on the ‘grammar button’

mmar’ screen


Pass Takes the user to the‘gra

162 Click each activity button

The button should play a ‘click’ sound

Each activity button plays a ‘click’ sound

Pass

129


163 Click on the ‘back button’ enu s screen

Takes the user back to the main m

Moves to the previou

Pass




Pass

165 Click on the ‘menu’ button

main ain Takes the user to the main menu

Moves to the mmenu

Pass

166 Click on the ‘dictionary’ button reen ary screen

Takes the user to the dictionary sc

Moves to the diction

Pass

167 Click on the ‘next’ Takes the user to the ‘Vocabulary’ Screebutton nas this is the first


Pass

activity

Rutina Di ocabu

Number Test Pass?

aria ‘Learn V lary’ screen

Expected outcome Actual outcome

168 Click on play button Plays the correct Plays the correct Pass for ‘levantarse’ sound track for

‘levantarse’ sound

169 Click on playfor ‘comer’

button

ct Plays the correct sound track for ‘comer’


Pass

170 Click on play buttonfor ‘salir con mis

amigas’ n mis amigas’

ct Plays the correct sound track for ‘salir co


Pass

171 for ‘estudiar’ sound track for

ct sound

Pass Click on play button Plays the correct

‘estudiar’

Plays the corre

172 Click on play button Plays the correct Plays the correct Pass for ‘trabajar’ sound track for

‘trabajar’ sound

130


173 Click on play buttofor ‘llega

n r’

‘llegar’

ct Plays the correct sound track for


Pass

174 n play button for ‘preparar la sound track for

e correct sound

Pass Click o

comida’

Plays the correct

‘preparar la comida’

Plays th

175 Click on play buttofor ‘terminar’

n Plays the correct sound track for ‘terminar’


Pass

176 n play button for ‘volver’

e correct sound

Pass Click o Plays the correct sound track for ‘volver’

Plays th

177 Click on play button for ‘acostarse’

Plays the correcsound track for

t Plays the correct sound

Pass

‘acostarse’

178 Click on play button for ‘dormir’

Plays the correct sound track for ‘dormir’


Pass

179 Click on play button for ‘no hacer nada’

Plays the correct sound track for ‘nhacer nada’

o Plays the correct sound

Pass

180 Click on play button for ‘ayudar’

Plays the correct sound track for ‘ayudar’


Pass

181 Click on translate s the Provides the Pass button for ‘levantarse’

Translatephrase to ‘to get up’

correct translation

182 Click on translate the Provides the Pass button for ‘comer’

Translates phrase to ‘to eat’ correct translation

183 late button for ‘salir con mis amigas’

to go out with my friends’

s the correct translation

Pass Click on trans Translates the phrase to ‘

Provide

131


184 Click on translate button for ‘estudiar’ y’ translation

Translates the phrase to ‘to stud


Pass

185 Click on translate ’

Provides the

Pass button for ‘trabajar’

Translates the phrase to ‘to work correct translation

186 translate button for ‘llegar’

e ‘to

arrive’


Pass Click on Translates thphrase to

187 ate button for ‘prepara la comida’

o prepare food’


Pass Click on transl Translates the phrase to ‘t

Provide

188 slate button for ‘terminar’ ‘to finish’


Pass Click on tran Translates the phrase to

Provide

189 Click on translate button for ‘descansar’ ’ translation

Translates the phrase to ‘to rest


Pass

190 Click on translate e Provides the

Pass button for ‘volver’

Translates thphrase to ‘to return’

correct translation

191 Click on translate the

Provides the

Pass button for ‘acostarse’

Translatesphrase to ‘to go tobed’

correct translation

192 Click on translate e ’

Provides the

Pass button for ‘dormir’

Translates thphrase to ‘to sleep correct translation

193

slate button for ‘no hacer ‘to do


Pass Click on tran

nada’

Translates the phrase to nothing’

Provide

194 button for ‘ayudar’ se to ‘to help’ correct translation

Pass Click on translate Translates the phra

Provides the

195 Click on ‘reset’ button

Clears all of the words that have been translated

Clears the words that have been translated

Pass

196 a Rutina Diaria sub

Pass Click on the ‘back’ button

Takes the user back to the ‘Rutin

Moves to the

132


Diaria’ sub screen screen

197 Click on the ‘help’ Takes the user to

Moves to the help Pass button the help screen screen

198 Click on the ‘main Takes the user to Moves to the main Pass menu’ button the main menu menu


e user to Moves to the dictionary screen

Pass Takes ththe dictionary screen

200 the ‘next’ button

to the ‘Matching

as

activity


Pass Click on Takes the user

words’ Screen this is the next

Rutina Diaria ‘Matching words’ screen

ber ome me Num Test Expected outc Actual outco Pass?

201 Click and drag ‘son las tres’

rect place, fix into place and


Pass If in cor


202 Click and drag ‘son las tres’

he incorrect place, move word

l

Word moves back to original position

s ‘try

Pass If in t

back to originaposition and say ‘tryagain!’

and status sayagain!’

203 y diez’

, ace and

place and states

Pass Click and drag ‘son las diez

If in correct placefix into plsay ‘excelente’

Word fixes into

‘excelente’

204

‘try

n y

Pass Click and drag ‘son las diez y diez’

If in the incorrect place, move wordback to original position and say again!’

Word moves back to original positioand status says ‘tragain!’

205 Click and drag ‘son If in correct place, fix into place and


Pass

133


las doce y media’ nte’ say ‘excelente’ ‘excele

206 Click and drag ‘son las doce y media’ d

back to original ry

osition and status says ‘try

If in the incorrect place, move wor

position and say ‘tagain!’


again!’

Pass

207 Click and drag ‘sonlas cuatro’

nd

elente’ ‘excelente’

If in correct place,fix into place asay ‘exc


Pass

208 Click and drag ‘son las cuatro’ rd

‘try

osition and status says ‘try again!’

If in the incorrect place, move woback to original position and sayagain!’


Pass

209 Click and drag ‘son las once menos

If in correct pfix into place

veinticinco’

lace, Word fixes into Pass and

say ‘excelente’ place and states ‘excelente’

210 Click and drag ‘son las once menos veinticinco’

ry

k n

ys ‘try



Pass

211 Click and drag ‘es la una y cuarto’

elente’ d states

‘excelente’

Pass If in correct place, fix into place and say ‘exc


212 Click and drag ‘es launa y cuarto’

ry

k n

ys ‘try



Pass

213 Complete all matching words correctly ulations’

age and plays Spanish

Pass If all correct, should display a ‘congratmessage, show an image of a medal

Displays message, shows im

sound track

134


and play a Spanish guitar sound track.

214 button’

ry’

Pass Click on the ‘back Takes the user backto the ‘Vocabulascreen


215 Click on the ‘help’ Takes the user to the Moves to the help Pass button help screen screen


the main menu Takes the user to Moves to the main me Pass

217 ‘dictionary’ button

e

Click on the Takes the user to thdictionary screen

Moves to the dic

Pass reen s

218 Click on the ‘next’ button he blanks’

Takes the user to the ‘Fill in tscreen as this is the next activity

Moves to the next scre Pass

R a Di anutin

Number aria ‘Fill in the blTest

ks’ screen Expected outcome Actual outcome Pass?

219 t box 1

th when

Pass Complete inpu If correct, then display ‘correct’ underneauser clicks the ‘check answers’ button


220 Complete input box 1 If incorrect, displa‘should be: duermo’ when user clicks th‘check answers’ button

y

e

Displays the correctword underneath the incorrect answer

Pass

221 Complete input box 2 If correct, then display ‘correct’ underneath when user clicks the ‘check answers’

Displays ‘correct’ Pass

135


button

222 Complete input box 2 If incorrect, display ‘should be: me despierto’ when userclicks the ‘check answers’ button

Displays the correct th

answer

Pass word underneathe incorrect

223 e input box 3 en

e

s ‘correct’ Pass Complet If correct, thdisplay ‘correct’ underneath when user clicks th‘check answers’ button

Display

224 Complete input box 3 word underneath the incorrect answer

If incorrect, display ‘should be: me ducho’ when user clicks the ‘check answers’ button

Displays the correct Pass

225 Complete input box 4 If correct, then

underneath when

Displays ‘correct’ Pass display ‘correct’


226 Complete input box 4 ay be: me

visto’ when user

Displays the correct word underneath the incorrect


clicks the ‘check answers’ button

answer

227 Complete input box 5 ‘correct’

underneath when

‘correct’ Pass If correct, then display


Displays

228 Complete input box 5 ay ‘should be: tengo’

Displays the correct word underneath

Pass If incorrect, displ

136


when user clicks the ‘check answers’

the incorrect answer

button


user clicks the

ect’ Pass If correct, then display ‘correct’ underneath when

‘check answers’button

Displays ‘corr


o’ when use

If incorrect, dis‘should be: despiert rclicks the ‘check


Pass

answers’ button


user clicks the



Displays ‘corr


er clicks the ‘check answers’


Pass If incorrect, dis‘should be: pide’ when us

button


user clicks the



Displays ‘corr


er clicks the ‘check answers’


Pass If incorrect, dis‘should be: tiene’when us

button

137


235 Complete all input boxes correctly

tulations’ message, an image

n

If correct, should display a ‘congra

of a medal and aSpanish guitar sou dtrack

Displays messand ima

age ge. Plays

Spanish sound track

Pass


ck atching

words’ screen


Pass Takes the user bato the ‘M


er to the Pass Takes the ushelp screen

Moves to the helpscreen


the main menu


Pass Takes the user to


the Moves to the dictionary screen

Pass Takes the user to dictionary screen


the

as this is the


Pass Takes the user to‘Conversation’ Screen next activity

Rutina Diaria ‘Conversation’

Number Test e

utcome Pass? screen Expected outcom

Actual o


The sound file with the recordednative Spanish speaker should play


242 Click on speech The sound file Sound file plays Pass bubble number 2 with the recorded

native Spanish speaker should play

138


243 Click on speech bubble number 3 corded

The sound file with the renative Spanish speaker should play



und file with the recorded

Sound file plays Pass The so

native Spanish speaker should play

245 Click on speech bubble number 5 rded

native Spanish

The sound file with the reco

speaker should play


246 Click on speebubble number 6

ch s The sound file with the recorded native Spanish speaker should play

Sound file play Pass


with the recorded

nish uld

Sound file plays Pass The sound file

native Spaspeaker shoplay


The sound file with the recorded native Spanish speaker should play





139





251 Click on the ‘bacbutton’

k

en previous screen

Takes the user back to the ‘Fill in the blanks’ scre

Moves to the Pass


o the help screen


Pass Takes the user t

253 menu’ button


Pass Click on the ‘main Takes the user to the main menu


o ctionary


Pass Takes the user tthe discreen

255 ’ button

xt activity


Pass Click on the ‘next Takes the user to the ‘Grammar’ Screen as this isthe ne

Rutina Di r’ scr

Number Test me Actual outcome Pass? aria ‘Gramma een

Expected outco

256 Click on ‘ser’ grammar box

und file serverbs.wav with

ive


the recorded natSpanish speaker should play.

257 Click on ‘ir’ grammar box

und file irverbs.wav with the


recorded native Spanish speaker should play.

258 Click on ‘salir’ grammar box

und file salirverbs.wav with


140


the recorded natSpanish speaker should play.

ive

259 Click on ‘levantarse’ grammar box

und file levantarseverbs.wav

d

.


with the recordenative Spanish speaker should play


Takes the user bacto the ‘Conversa

k tion’

screen s screen

Moves to the previou

Pass

261 elp’ the help screen

to the help Pass Click on the ‘hbutton

Takes the user to Movesscreen

262 menu’ button

o the nu

menu

Pass Click on the ‘main Takes the user tmain me

Moves to the main


e ary screen

Takes the user to thdictionary screen

Moves to the diction

Pass


the main menu


Pass Takes the user to

H

Number Test Expected outcome Actual outcome Pass? elp screen

265 back button’

k

as it is

most likely to be

Moves to the grammar exercise

Pass Click on the ‘ Takes the user bacto the ‘Grammar exercise’ screen this is where

used


Remains on the same screen

Pass Remains on the same screen

267 Click on the ‘main er to thmenu’ button

Takes the us emain menu

Moves to the main Pass menu

141



Takes the user to thedictionary screen


Pass

269 Click on the ‘next’ er to thbutton

Takes the us emain menu

Moves to the main Pass menu

Dictionary screen

Number Test Actual outcome Pass? Expected outcome

270 Use the scroll bar tmove up or down dictionary

o the er

words in the

The scroll bar moves and does not stay in a fixed position

The scroll bar moves and the uscan look at the

dictionary

Pass

271 e main e main Pass Click on the ‘back’ button

Moves to thmenu

Moves to thmenu

272 Pass Click on the ‘help’ button




Takes the user to themain menu


Pass

274 ‘dictionary’ button same screen same screen

Pass Click on the Remains on the Remains on the

275 Click button

on the ‘next’ Takes the user to themain menu

Moves to the mainmenu

Pass

142


AppendE s che

NIVERSITY OF BATH ter Science

1 E S CHECK LISTT ocume ss be c ully b students or st volve pa llectioinformation o 1. Have you prepared a briefing script for volunteers? Yes, the user will be asked to test the Spanish softwa o Spanish’. They will be looking at usability and how the software improves their learning. The volunteer has the right to w w at 2. Will the participants be using any non-standard hardware? No, the participants will be using a P 3. Is there an tional deception of the participants? N 4. How will participants voluntarily give consThe volunteer will sign the form to s wit th th ng. 5. Will the participants be exposed reater th ountered in their normal work life? N 6. Are you offering any incentive to the participants? No. They will not be paid. 7. Are any of your participants under the age of 16? No. 8. Do any of your participants have an impairment that will limit their understanding or communication? No. 9. Are you in a position of authority or influence over any of your participants? No. I am only obtaining feedback about learning and usabilitiy. 10. Will the participants be informed that they could withdraw at any time? Yes.

ix 6 thic cklist

UDepartment of Compu 3-POINT THIC his daff in

nt describes the 13 i other people (“particias part of their project

ues that need tonts”) for the cor research.

onsidered carefn of

re ‘Sombrer

efore

ithdra any time.

C on a desk.

y inteno.

ent? ay that they agree

to any risks g

h participating wi

an those enc

e testi

o.

143


ts be informed of your contact details? y contact details.

be de-briefed? Yes, the process will be explained to the volunteer.

articipants be stored in an anonymous form?

re to complement the teaching of

11. Will the participanThe user already has m 12. Will participants

13. Will the data collected from the pYes. NAME: Sarah Brearley SUPERVISOR: Hilary Johnson SECOND READER: Leon Watts PROJECT TITLE: The development of educational softwaSpanish to university students DATE: April 2008

144


Appendix 7 Paper tests before and after using software

tesPaper test before using software – Time allowed: Maximum 10 minu

po Libre Tiem

atch the Spanish word with the corresponding English wordM

to clean the house

er la tele to read

Nadar en el mar to go shopping Ir de compras to swim in the sea Limpiar la casa to go to the cinema Write the present tense of the following verb

Leer to watch television

Ir al cine V

Tomar – to take Yo (I take) __________________________ Tú (You take) __________________________ Él (He/she takes) __________________________ Nosotros (We take) __________________________ Vosotros (You take (plural)) __________________________ Ellos (They take) __________________________

145


Rutina Diaria Match the Spanish word with the corresponding English word

d

studiar to go out with my friends

reparar la comida to study

yudar to work

trabajar to prepare foo

ormir to help d salir con mis amigas to sleep e p a Telling the time Write the correct time in English.

____________________________

_____________________________

__

aper test after using software – Time allowed: Maximum 10 minutes

las tres _____________________________ Son

on las cuatro _____________________________ S

Son las doce y media _ Son las diez y diez Son las once menos veinticinco ___________________________ P

iempo Libre T

ithMatch the Spanish word w the corresponding English word Ver un video to watch a video Limpiar el coche to have a rest Bailar en una discoteca to swim in the sea

146


Nadar en el mar to read Leer to dance in a disco

the car Descansar to clean Rutina Diaria Match the Spanish word with the corresponding English word

no hacer nada to prepare food

alir con mis amigas to eat

to go out with my friends

elling the time

comer to help s terminar preparar la comida to finish ayudar to do nothing T

n nglis .

on las cinco _____________________________

on las siete y media _____________________________

______________

__________

Write the correct time i E h Son las dos _____________________________ S S Son las ocho y diez _______________ Son las diez menos cuarto ___________________

147


Practicar – to practise

o (I practise) _____________________________

ú (You practise) _____________________________

l (He/she practises) _____________________________

tise) _____________________________

osotros (You practise (plural)) _____________________________

llos (They practise) _____________________________

Y T É Nosotros (We prac V E

148


Appendix 8 sability Observations

articipant 1: utine turn.

the

The user then repeats the translations without listening to the sound, to test whether

Moves to ‘matching words’ exercise. The user likes how it provides feedback stating

Moves to ‘fill in the blanks’ exercise and clicks ‘check answers’ immediately. They appear to be testing the functionality of the button. The user then ‘resets’ the answers and completes them all. The user uses the ‘next’ button to move to the next exercise (conversation exercise). The user then completes the grammar exercise and uses the button to check the

answers. Two answers are incorrect. The user corrects them and click the ‘check answer’ button again to see if they are correct. The user clicks the ‘main menu’ button in the navigation bar to return to the main

menu and start the ‘free time topic’. The user goes to the vocabulary screen and listens to the first three words and

translates all of the words. The user makes use of the ‘next’ button to move to the next exercise. Again the user seems pleased when they receive a reward on the ‘matching words’

activity. The user completes the fill in the blanks screen and also receives a reward. They then

click the ‘next’ button to move to the conversation exercise. The user works their way down the conversation speech bubbles to hear the

conversation. The user clicks the ‘next’ button to move to the grammar screen. The user listens to

the grammar after reading the note in the top left hand corner explaining how to click on the individual grammar boxes. The user finishes, by clicking on the ‘main menu’ button on the navigation bar.

Participant 2: Starts on the ‘free time’ topic and enters the sub menu. Goes to the ‘vocabulary’ activity and clicks the translate buttons to display the

English but decides not to listen to any vocabulary. The user clicks the ‘main menu’ button in the navigation bar at the bottom of the

screen. They then click on the ‘free time’ topic and select the ‘matching words’ activity.

U

P User clicks on daily ro topic and goes to the vocabulary topic. Then listens to ach of the vocabulary in e Clicks the play button and n the translate button. Once the user has finished, they click the ‘reset’ button to clear the words.

they have understood the vocabulary.

‘excelente’ when the correct word is in place. The user appears pleased when the eward screen appears of the image of the medal and the Spanish guitar sound plays. r

149


Completes the ‘matching words’ activity and appears pleased with the reward. Once d the exercise, they click on the ‘reset’ button’ to return all of the ntre of the screen.

ve to the ‘fill in the blanks’ screen. Fills in all of the

nd then uses the ‘next’ button to go to the ‘conversation’

of pe

m

x

xercise. The user appears happy when the reward screen is shown and the

ercise plete it again. The user struggled on a few of them and therefore clicks ’ to see what the correct answers should have been. It appears the user

the user has completewords back into the ce Clicks ‘next’ button to mo

sentences. Clicks on ‘check answers’ a

exercise. Clicks on each of the speech bubbles to hear the conversation. Clicks on the ‘next’ button to move to the ‘grammar’ activity. Completes the

grammar exercise, however before completing the user notices the hint at the bottomthe screen and therefore decides to click on the help screen to investigate how to tyaccents on a computer. The user clicks on the ‘main menu’ button in the navigation menu and chooses to

complete the ‘daily routine’ topic. When looking at the vocabulary, this time the user clicks all the translate buttons and

then clicks all of the play buttons in turn. The user clicks ‘next’ to move onto the ‘matching words’ exercise. Again they see

pleased when the Spanish music plays. Clicks on the ‘next’ button to go to the ‘fill in the blanks’ exercise. The first input box

does not obtain focus when the user clicks the box. The user then clicks until the bohas been selected. They complete their answers and then click the ‘check answers’ button to make sure their answers are correct. The user then listens to the speech bubbles in the conversation exercise. They move

down the screen and listen to the daily routine in the correct order. The user moves to the grammar exercise and chooses not to listen to the grammar.

Participant 3: Starts on the free time topic and enters the ‘learn vocabulary’ screen. The user translates all of the words at once and decides not to use the audio examples. The user clicks ‘next’ to move to the next screen. They complete the ‘matching

words’ emusic plays. Clicks ‘next’ to move to the fill in the blanks exercise. The user reads the exercise but

decides not to complete the exercise. Clicks ‘next’ and moves to the ‘conversation’ exercise. The user clicks the individual

speech bubbles to listen to the conversation. Clicks ‘next’ to go to the ‘grammar’ screen and clicks on the boxes that contain the

grammar to listen to the various verb forms. The user then clicks the ‘back’ button until they reach the ‘fill in the blanks’ ex

to try and com‘check answersreads this carefully and learns from their mistakes. Clicks the ‘main menu’ button at the bottom of the screen to return to the main menu. Clicks on the daily routine topic and begins learning the vocabulary. This time the

user click on the play buttons to hear the words and then clicks the translate buttons in turn.

150


Clicks ‘next’ to go to the telling the time ‘matching words’ activity. The user appears to enjoy this activity. User completes the fill in the blank exercises and the grammar exercises. The user

find out what they should have been. seems to struggle a little with the fill in the blanks exercises and therefore clicks ‘check answers’ to The user then investigates the ‘dictionary’ and scrolls down the page to look at the

words.

151


Participant 4: Starts on the ‘free time’ topic and clicks on the sub screen to get to the vocabulary

creen. Chooses the ‘matching words’

ser clicks ‘next’ to go to the ‘fill in the blanks’ exercise. Fills in the answers and licks ‘check answers’. The user gets the 6th input box wrong and reads what the correct

should be. Clicks ‘next’ to go to the ‘conversation exercise’ and clicks on each of the speech

bubbles to listen to the conversation. Moves to ‘grammar’ screen and reads the grammar but chooses not to listen to the

audio examples. On the grammar exercise, the user reads the hint at the bottom of the screen and goes to the help menu to learn how to type accents on a computer. They access the help menu via the ‘help’ button in the navigation bar. The user then returns to the grammar exercise using the ‘back’ button and completes the exercise. The user gets them all correct and sees the reward screen. The user then returns to the main menu using the ‘main menu’ button in the

navigation bar. The user clicks on the ‘daily routine’ topic and works through the vocabulary screen.

The user clicks on all the play buttons for the vocabulary but only clicks on the translate buttons of the words they are unsure of. Clicks ‘next’ to move to the ‘matching words’ exercise. The user completes them all

and seems happy when they receive the ‘congratulations’ message. Clicks ‘next’ to go to the ‘conversation screen’. Clicks each speech bubble in turn to

hear the conversation. Moves to the ‘grammar’ screen by clicking ‘next’. Reads the information but does not

listen to the audio examples. Participant 5: Starts with the free time topic and uses the sub menu to access the ‘vocabulary

screen’. The user clicks on each play button and then clicks on the translate button. The user works their way down the vocabulary list. Clicks ‘next’ button to move to the ‘matching words’ activity. The user drags and

drops the words to the correct image and seems pleased when they get them all correct. The user then moves onto the ‘fill in the blanks’ screen. The user completes all of the

answers, but clicks ‘next’ and moves onto the next exercise before checking their answers. The user clicks on each speech bubble to hear the conversation. Clicks ‘next’ to move to the grammar screen. The user reads all of the information but

does not play the audio examples. With the ‘grammar’ screen, the user tries out the exercise and clicks ‘check answers’.

The user gets two answers incorrect. The user then realises that an accent is needed and reads the hint at the bottom of the screen. This leads the user to the help screen, by clicking on the ‘help’ button in the navigation menu. The user reads about how to type accents on the computer.

screen. The user clicks on the play button and then the translate button and works down the entire list. Clicks on the ‘back’ button to return to the sub s

exercise. The user seems pleased when the reward appears and the music plays. The u

c

152


The user returns to the main menu by clicking the ‘main menu’ button.

to move to the telling the time ‘matching words’ screen. Completes the

Checks

ords and reads them.

son, the user does not pay attention to the arrows

en clicks all of the translate buttons.

the task has been completed.

input boxes. In this exercise, the user

conversation.

cticar’. The user fills in the grammar exercise and checks their answers.

clicks on the ‘dictionary’ button and takes a look at the word in the

This time the user only listens to one

ot to fill it in. eech bubbles.

They begin the daily routine topic and start the vocabulary activity. The use does not listen to the sound this time but clicks ‘translate’ for all of the words. Clicks ‘next’

exercise and appears to enjoy the playing of the Spanish music. Clicks ‘next’ to move to the ‘fill in the blanks’ and completes all words.

answers using ‘check answers’ button. Opens the ‘dictionary’ screen using the button in the navigation menu. Scrolls down

the list of w Then clicks on the daily routine topic and accesses the sub menu to reach the

‘conversation’ exercise. For some reagoing down the screen which indicate the order in which the conversation runs. The user listens to only a few speech bubbles. Participant 6: Starts on the free time topic and begins the vocabulary exercise. The user works their

way down only the first three play buttons and th User clicks ‘next’ to move to the ‘matching words’ exercise. The user is pleased with

the reward when Clicks ‘next’ to move to the ‘fill in the blanks’ screen. Instead of typing in the words

straight away, the user tries to drag and drop the words from the box. The user then realises that the words have to be typed into the types one word in at a time and then clicks the ‘check answers’ button to see if the individual word is correct. Clicks ‘next’ to move to the conversation exercise. The user clicks on each speech

bubble and follows the Clicks ‘next’ to move to the ‘grammar screen’ and listens to only one of the three

verbs. Listens to the verb ‘pra

The user thendictionary. The user returns to the main menu by clicking the ‘main menu’ button. Starts the

daily routine topic and listens to the vocabulary.audio example and translates all of them. Clicks ‘next’ to move to the ‘matching words’ exercise. The user enjoys the music

when the answers are correct. Clicks ‘next’ to move to the ‘fill in the blanks’ exercise. Reads the exercise, but

chooses n Clicks ‘next’ to move to the ‘conversation’ exercise. Clicks all sp Moves to the ‘grammar’ exercise and listens to the verb ‘ser’.

Participant 7: Starts with the free time topic and from the sub screen selects ‘learn vocabulary’. The

user listens to all vocabulary in turn and then translates all of the words. The user checks if the ‘reset’ button works correctly. Clicks the button and all of the

words are cleared.

153


Clicks ‘next’ to move to the ‘matching words’ exercise. The user seems pleased with

er struggles with

button. The user gets

rs’ again and this time the reward appears, as all

mar’ screen. Reads the grammar, but does not use any

s. It seems the student already knows this ocabulary.

to move to the ‘matching words’ exercise. Really enjoys the music that

er

screen. The user moves down the screen

ns to the sound and then moves down the list to

g and dropping the words, but tries dragging the word ‘bailar’ (to dance) to

nput box incorrect. The user checks their answers using

reward screen is displayed. peech

t’ to move to the ‘grammar’ exercise. They click on all three grammar how to pronounce the words correctly.

the words.

activity, especially having a reward screen.

the reward of Spanish music when all answers are correct. Clicks ‘next’ to move to the ‘fill in the blanks’ exercise. The us

getting focus on box three. The user clicks several times and then gets this to work. The user types in all of their answers and checks them using thesentence 1 and 3 incorrect and therefore corrects them with the answers that have been provided. The user clicks ‘check answeanswers are correct. Clicks ‘next’ to reach the ‘gram

of the audio examples. Completes the grammar exercise and gets them correct. Returns to the main menu using the ‘main menu’ button in the navigation bar. The user begins the daily routine topic and starts on the learning vocabulary screen.

The user only translates the first 4 wordv Clicks ‘next’

is played when all answers are correct. Moves to the ‘fill in the blanks’ screen but seems to find this quite difficult. The us

enters only the first two words and checks their answers. Clicks ‘next’ and moves to the conversation

listening to each of the speech bubbles. The user clicks ‘next’ to go to the ‘grammar’ screen. They listen to all three boxes

which have grammar in them. The user clicks the ‘dictionary’ button at the bottom of the screen and scrolls down to

look at the words. Participant 8: Starts with the daily routine topic and begins the vocabulary screen. The user clicks

on each of the play buttons and listeclick all of the translate buttons. The user then clicks on ‘next’ to move to the ‘matching words’ exercise. The user

tries dragginthe wrong position. The word is returned to its starting position. The user then places this word underneath the correct image. Once the user has completed the exercise, they seem pleased with the Spanish music. Clicks ‘next’ to move to the ‘fill in the blanks screen’. The user enters all of the

words, however gets the last ithe ‘check answers’ button. The user corrects their answer and this means that all answers are correct. The Clicks ‘next’ to move to the ‘conversation’ exercise. The user clicks on all s

bubbles and follows the Spanish conversation. Clicks ‘nex

sections to hear Clicks ‘main menu’ button to return to the main menu and begins the free time topic.

The user clicks on only the first five sounds and then translates the rest of Clicks ‘next’ to move to the telling the time ‘matching words’ exercise. The user

seems to enjoy this

154


Clicks ‘next’ to look at the ‘fill in the blanks’ activity. Reads the exercise, but chooses to click ‘next’ to move straight to the conversation exercise. The user clicks on each speech bubble to listen to the conversation. Clicks ‘next’ to move to the grammar exercise. The participant listens to all grammar

boxes.

155

Documents

Developing educational software to teach Spanish …mdv/courses/CM30082/projects... · Developing educational software to teach Spanish to university students This dissertation may