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Developing Academic Writing Skills

Kuang Ching Hei Associate Professor

Faculty of Languages & Linguistics University of Malaya

Introduction This write up aims to help postgraduate students with the challenges they face in academic writing. In particular, this write up will focus on what academic writing is and the structure it should adhere to as a form of scholarly writing. Since postgraduate students may not be well versed in what academic writing is expected to contain, this write up will provide some tips to help them develop their confidence in academic writing based on some exercises. The limitation of this write up is that the hints/tips and practices provided may be limited to postgraduate students of the Humanities and Social Sciences faculties only.

I. What is Academic Writing:

Academic writing is an important skill to acquire in tertiary education because as a student in college or

university, you will be required to demonstrate several skills:

Competence in writing and in this case, we focus on the English language

Command of a strong and good vocabulary that can illustrate your ability to use formal language when

exercising academic writing skills because formal language is an important facet of scholarly work

Ability to write a complete sentence which conveys what you want to say precisely, thereby

paragraphs

Ability to write coherently

Ability to use cohesive expressions to link ideas

Ability to provide a written text that is sensible and rational and persuasive

Ability to use academic terms which can illustrate your education level

Ability to formulate your own ‘voice’ i.e. you demonstrate critical thinking skills

Ability to support your claims with relevant evidence or support

Ability to paraphrase ideas of other people and yet acknowledge them

Ability to organise ideas in a manner that makes sense

Ability to sound credible, convincing and impartial

Whether you realise it or not, academic writing has a tradition or a format to follow as all academic writing

is organised in the following manner: Introduction, Body, Conclusion and References. At the college or

undergraduate level, students are expected to be able to construct several paragraphs in academic writing

usually of the expository or argumentative type. The format is as follows:

a. Introduction:

An introduction is usually made up of several sentences which aims to introduce the topic from

general to specific.

A good introduction should also contain a thesis statement.

A thesis statement is a sentence which tells the readers what exactly the essay is going to talk

about.

A good thesis statement should consist of the key words that will be discussed in each of the body

paragraphs.

b. Body:

A good body paragraph introduces the thesis statement gradually.

Each body paragraph begins with a Topic Sentence.

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A topic sentence tells the readers what the entire paragraph will talk about.

Each Topic Sentence supports what is said in the thesis statement.

Each body paragraph carries several sentences which are supporting sentences consisting of

either elaborations or examples which enhance the topic sentence.

Each body paragraph must be organised in such a way as to be connected to each other through

transitions or linkers.

Each body paragraph must also provide support to each of the topic sentences in other words,

there is evidence or examples provided to support the claim.

c. Conclusion:

The last component of the essay is called the Conclusion.

It is the last paragraph which brings the essay to an end.

A conclusion is achieved by summarising what is said in the body paragraphs.

A good conclusion also mentions what the body paragraphs had accomplished and it ends with a

statement almost like the thesis statement.

This is to remind the reader what had been written.

Tertiary Education Needs:

However, in tertiary education where a student is expected to do a small project and to submit a research

report, the format of writing a research report may be slightly different as the following components

illustrate:

i. Introduction chapter

This chapter consists of:

Background to the research/project

Research problem

Research objectives/aims/purpose/goals

Research questions

Scope of research

Limitation of research

Significance of research

Summary

ii. Literature review chapter

This chapter mainly should consist of the theories used to support the research.

It may also discuss the specific methodologies used by different researchers as a justification to

employing a certain research methodology.

This chapter also looks at previous studies done in the past as it is aimed at highlighting certain

importance related to the current study.

The same chapter should not just summarise but also critically evaluate the works of other people

by stressing on the weaknesses or strengths of methodology used, findings, research gaps and so

on.

This chapter usually begins with an introduction and ends with a summary.

The organisation is dependent on what the writer wants to highlight but each of these is usually

organised under specific headings.

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iii. Methodology chapter

This chapter consists of everything that a methodology should provide such as whether or not the

current study is qualitative or quantitative in nature or is a mixed method.

Justifications need to be provided.

The chapter also illustrates how the current research is going to take shape for example in social

science and humanities we look at the step by step approach.

It also provides the research approach or instruments used to collect data and justification for the

specific instruments used.

If there are subjects involved, it should also provide some background to the

subjects/participants/respondents for instance what criteria were used for selection and why

The chapter similarly mentions how data will be collected, transcribed, coded or documented and

why,

It might also add a particular model that the current research is using for example in data analysis

and why,

The same chapter provides an overview of how data will be presented and to what extent is

analysis adhering to certain models and why

If there is a need to verify and validate instruments and so one, the mention of inter-raters is also

relevant and why.

Inter-raters are people whom you engage in order to help you verify that your data collection

method was correct and that your analysis has been correctly address and analysed.

iv. Data analysis chapter

This chapter helps you to project your analysis sometimes descriptively and sometimes visually

through charts, tables, and diagrams.

The chapter will attempt to answer the research questions you provided in chapter 1.

It is most definitely organised in a coherent manner that will illustrate to your reader that you are

of a credible and objective quality.

This chapter is the core of any research project because it refers to the findings you have detected

based on your research.

Like the other chapters the data analysis chapter is also organised via an Introduction and

summary. The other parts are organised according to the headings.

v. Conclusion chapter

In this chapter, the research is brought to an end.

It also begins with an introduction.

Much of the body of this chapter discusses what had been found.

It also provides answers to the research questions.

It talks about what is weak or strong about the current research as well as limitations, significance

of the research and in what way future research can take shape.

vi. Referencing

Referencing refers to the instance where a person who writes about a particular topic and borrows the idea

of another author or scholar shows acknowledgement by citing the name of the author. This is done by:

Defining the author’s name and the year his paper, book chapter or book was published and also

the pages where the exact idea could have come from.

Sometimes we may also cite from an interview or a lecture we attended.

This is to show that we respect what we had ‘borrowed’ and referencing can be done via several

referencing styles: APA, MLA, Chicago, Harvard and so on.

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It is It is important that referencing is sourced from reputable sources that support your argument

(books, scholarly journals/articles, university websites etc.).

It is good to note that the credibility of your sources will help your reader to determine the

credibility of your paper as well as your credibility as a writer.

………………………….

II. Developing good Academic Writing

Since the competence in writing academically is crucial to any tertiary education, it might be a good idea to

know some of the strategies to develop the skill. First and foremost it is important to remember that good

writing can only develop from two factors: consistent Reading and Writing.

Why reading:

Reading provides a novice writer with the model i.e. the ‘sample’ or ‘replica’ to follow as an initial process.

Reading also allows you to pick up the writing style, the language command and the necessary vocabulary

and writing techniques such as expressions, linkers, how to begin or end a paragraph and so on.

Why writing:

Constant writing enables you to practice and practice because practice makes perfect. The more you write

and make mistakes the more you improve on your writing skills. No one can help you because only you can

learn it for yourself what the right way of writing a certain subject matter is in your style. The various trials

and errors you make train you to become a more adept writer. From the writing you perfect your grammar

your tenses, your sentence construction and if you get a good reviewer who had read your writing you will

also know what to insert in each paragraph and why.

There are various elements that make up good and comprehensible writing. In the above section it has

already been stressed that academic writing follows a certain format and in the subsequent section the

discussion focusses on the other elements such as tone, diction, style, and audience.

A. Tone

Tone refers to the kind of stress we use when we write.

This stress can be related to how we say things which can be subjective that is based on our

emotions or objective that is not bound by emotions but by what is seen to be the truth.

To accomplish this in academic writing, we use specific words that can help us to relay this tone. Aside from individual word choice, the overall tone, or attitude, of a piece of writing should be

appropriate to the audience and purpose. The tone may be objective or subjective, logical or emotional, intimate or distant, serious or

humorous. It can consist mostly of long, intricate sentences, of short, simple ones, or of something in between. (Good writers frequently vary the length of their sentences.) One way to achieve proper tone is to imagine a situation in which to say the words being written. A journal might be like a conversation with a close friend where there is the freedom to use slang

or other casual forms of speech. A column for a newspaper may be more like a high-school graduation speech: it can be more

formal, but it can still be funny or familiar. An academic paper is like a formal speech at a conference: being interesting is desirable, but there

is no room for personal digressions or familiar usage of slang words. In all of these cases, there is some freedom of self-expression while adapting to the audience. In

the same way, writing should change to suit the occasion.

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Tone vs. Voice Anything you write should still have your voice: something that makes your writing sound uniquely

like you. A personal conversation with a friend differs from a speech given to a large group of strangers. Just as you speak to different people in different ways yet remain yourself, so the tone of your

writing can vary with the situation while the voice -- the essential, individual thoughts and expression -- is still your own.

Examples: 1. “Don’t play what’s there; play what’s not there.” - Miles Davis 2. “The notes I handle no better than many pianists. But the pauses between the notes—ah, that is where

the art resides.” - Artur Schnabel (1882–1951), German-born U.S. pianist.

These two musicians expressed the same thought in their own unique voices.

Writing in Humanities

According to the

http://www.sfsu.edu/~carp1/pdf/Writing%20Skills/Writing%20The%20Paper/Objective%20Tone%20Versus

%20Subjective%20Tone.pdf when writing within the Humanities, we are often asked to write essays in

which we argue a position on a certain topic by using our own ideas, opinions, or experiences along with

credible sources to construct a strong argument. This kind of writing, in which we include our personal

opinions, judgments, or anecdotes employs a subjective tone. However, when writing in the Sciences and

Social Sciences, we are often asked to support an argument using only facts and figures without including

any personal opinions or judgments. This is writing with an objective tone. Some examples are provided to

illustrate.

Examples:

Subjective tone:

My experience of training my two adult dogs to sit and shake has taught me that old dogs can learn new

tricks.

Objective tone:

There is a saying that states “you can’t teach an old dog new tricks,” however, a new study out of the

University of Neptune claims that dogs ages 3-6 can learn new commands almost as fast as their younger

counterparts.

**Facts, Opinions and Fallacies:

Well, first and foremost, let us work out the differences among the following: what is a fact, opinion and

fallacy?

A fact is a truth, it is something that exists and has been proven to be true.

For example, the 44th president of the United States of America is Barrack Obama who was elected as the

first Afro-American president of America on November 4, 2008.

An opinion is a statement a writer like you or me makes based on what we think we know or based

on our own experiences and observations.

For example, the political stability of Malaysia makes it a good country to invest in and visit in the year 2015.

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A fallacy is a false assumption people make based on something they conceive to be true.

It is neither proven, nor substantiated with evidence and could be simply an overgeneralisation.

For example, “People who smoke from young become drug users when they become adults. I know

because I have many friends who turn out like this.”

The general rule of academic writing is that fallacies are false assumptions, opinions are subjective, and

facts are objective. They can, however, be supported with credible evidence. Mongan-Rallis (2014) stresses that the facts should always speak for itself in any objective argumentative paper.

In any argumentative paper, the facts should make up the bulk of the argument. An objective argument is developed through the organization and presentation of the available

facts and figures. Much of the strength of the argument will be determined by the logical progression of the

presented ideas.

Subjective tone:

When a subjective tone is used in academic writing, it tells the readers that you are writing

through your emotions.

A subjective tone is also based on personal opinions and an evaluative judgement that is not

properly supported with credible evidence.

You make a claim or an assertion with a certain feeling or attitude but you do not support what

you claim with relevant evidence.

Subjective writing usually engages in the active voice.

You tend to use the first person pronoun such as I, me, my and mine which most non-academic

writing would use.

Active voice allows the author to project his/her personal presence in whatever is written or said.

Check on diaries, narratives and reflections and you can see this.

Objective tone:

When an objective tone is used, a reader will note straightaway that the writer is being impartial.

There is no sense of personal judgement or opinion or emotion.

A piece of text that is objective tends to be a presentation of facts, events, ideas and claims that

are accurate and easily verified because they have been supported by relevant evidence such as

statistics, references, credible authorities, facts or figures.

An objective tone is the crux of a good piece of academic writing because it carries the following

characteristics:

Is clear

Is precise

Is impartial

Is supported by relevant evidence or credible authorities

Arguments and claims are reasonably supported

Free from bias, prejudice or judgement

Omits using first person pronouns (there could be exceptions)

Shows respect for the views of others by using modality to show caution about one’s view

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Allows room for others to agree or disagree

Uses the passive voice more than the active voice

Does not attempt to use words like: Some, almost, few, (cannot be quantified)

Does not attempt to use words like : amazing, wonderful, interesting (cannot be justified)

Examples:

Subjective tone Objective tone

I think this is useful because… There is evidence to support the effectiveness of…

Examples with personal pronouns:

Subjective:

We performed this experiment and experienced

disappointing results.

Examples with personal pronouns:

Objective:

We performed this experiment and found that the

results did not support our hypothesis.

Examples without personal pronouns:

Subjective:

This experiment was performed and the results

were disappointing.

Examples without personal pronouns:

Objective:

This experiment was performed and the results

did not support the initial hypothesis.

(sourced from Mongan-Rallis 2014)

Precision and Clarity: Mongan-Rallis (2014) suggests that ambiguities in objective writing can cause confusion. It may also prevent the reader from grasping crucial concepts in the written text. To strengthen one’s objectivity in writing, she suggests the following:

Abstain from using figurative language, which is inherently imprecise. Avoid leaving details up to the imagination Refrain from using metaphors and similes. Present the facts. Be transparent when presenting complex concepts and methods Use simple language whenever possible so as to avoid confusing readers.

Examples:

We combed the forest like Sherlock Holmes for what seemed like decades and, despite our efforts, we saw no sign of the elusive banana slug.

After four hours of close observation over six acres of forest floor we were unable to locate and observe a banana slug.

Examples:

Subjective: In my opinion, turkeys are the most ridiculous animals.

Objective: In C.A. Miller’s Avian Blockheads, Miller states that turkeys have some of the lowest intelligence levels of all birds. According to Miller, a flock of thirty turkeys scored forty percent lower on a bird IQ test than equal numbered groups of ostriches, emus, and penguins.

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How to achieve Impartiality: To achieve a writing that is impartial, impersonal and objective these are the following things you need to AVOID: 1. Judgmental Language:

This is language that reveals that the writer is making a personal judgment. Of course, the academic writer is always making a judgment, but using judgmental language

makes it sound as if the writer is coming to his or her conclusions on his or her own, based on his or her previously-held beliefs and values, rather than letting the evidence guide the inquiry.

Whether a word, phrase, or statement is judgmental sometimes depends on context. For example, a claim that would not be considered judgmental if accompanied by a justification

based on evidence might be considered judgmental if the evidentiary justification is not provided or mentioned.

Examples to avoid using: I believe…, I feel…., I conclude…, It seems…, I think…, …. Should, …. need to, …..it is good, ….. it is bad, …..it is right, ….it is wrong. 2. Emotive Language:

Emotive language appeals to emotions or values to make an argument. Emotive language might be persuasive but it does not ask the reader to consider the evidence on

its own merits (something that academic writing is supposed to do) Emotive language fills the argument with emotion in an attempt to incite an emotional reaction in

the reader. Emotive language reveals the writer’s feelings just as judgmental language does, but more subtly,

the writer’s feelings are revealed in the connotation of the phrases used, as in “history has provided us with great heroes.”

Whether a particular word or phrase is too emotive usually depends on its context. Basically, if the writer is using words or phrases with high emotional content that seem to be

trying to persuade the reader, then he or she is probably using emotive language.

Exercise: Judgmental and Emotive vs. Impersonal and Objective Below is an example of student writing that uses judgmental and emotive language, the instances of which are bolded. Look at the paragraph below it, which has been rewritten to give it an impersonal, objective tone that is more suited to an academic context. Think about the different effects that each paragraph has on you as a reader. Which is more persuasive?

Judgemental and Emotive Impersonal and Objective

I strongly believe that a true hero never thinks of

his/herself before others. I feel that Jessica Lynch

definitely had to endure tough times but I also feel

that her rescuers and the men and women who

have died in Iraq are the ones who should be called

heroes, not her. Her rescuers received little to no

credit for her getting Pfc. Lynch home in one piece,

but it is this everyday courage we can see here that

makes our armed forces what they are today.

While Jessica Lynch has been portrayed by the

news media as a hero, comparatively little media

attention has been given to her rescuers and to

others who have died in Iraq, many of whom have

arguably endured more hardship and contributed

more to American military efforts than Pfc. Lynch.

If a “hero” is defined as one who endures hardship

for the benefit of others, these soldiers might be

more deserving of the title than Lynch.

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B. Diction:

Diction refers to word choice. When writing, you should use vocabulary that is suited for the particular assignment. Words that have almost the same denotation (literal or dictionary meaning) may have different connotations

(implied meanings). For example: Formal Diction: are not angry Casual diction: aren’t mad Slang (very informal): aren’t ticked Some types of diction are almost never advisable in writing. Avoid: Clichés Vagueness (language that has more than one equally probable meaning) Wordiness, and Redundancy Complex language 1. Exercises for Diction Label each sentence as formal, casual, or slang based on its diction.

Let’s go get some dinner.

It is vital to understand the text one reads.

Computers are a pain in the neck.

The Mona Lisa looks weird from up close.

Pickett’s charge at the Battle of Gettysburg was surely an awe-inspiring sight. Connotations: Besides the level of formality, a writer should also consider positive or negative connotations of the words chosen in the writing. For example: Positive connotation: Negative connotations: a.Pruning the bushes a. slashing at the bushes b.the politician’s stance b. the politician’s spin 2. Exercises for Connotations In the following sentences, choose between the words in parentheses to make the sentence have as negative a connotation as possible.

The leader was his nation’s most (notorious, well-known, famous) advocate.

Immigrants (thronged, flocked, swarmed) to the large cities.

A (trim, skinny, slender) woman entered the room.

The man was (inebriated, drunk, intoxicated).

Where did you find that (outfit, get-up, attire)? (Sourced from copyright © 2009 Wheaton College Writing Center http://www.wheaton.edu/Academics/Services/Writing-Center/Writing-Resources/Style-Diction-Tone-and-Voice)

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B. Style Style refers to the way in which your thoughts or arguments are written, as opposed to the meaning of what is

written. In writing, however, the two are very closely linked. Style influences the reader’s impression of the information itself. Style includes diction and tone. The main goal in considering style is to present your information in a manner appropriate for both the audience

and the purpose of the writing. Consistency is vital. Switching styles can distract the reader and diminish the believability of the paper’s argument.

3. Exercises for Style The following paragraph has several inconsistencies in its style. Correct the inconsistencies. When writing a term paper, the one thing you’ve got to remember is to use authoritative sources. These are vital if the paper is to persuade the intended audience. Reliable sources can be found everywhere from the library down the street to the internet. Internet sources must be used cautiously, since some sites are just run by wackos; nonetheless, some sites do provide quality information. Once the writer has found her sources, she must remember to cite them properly in order to avoid plagiarism. Plagiarism is bad. Citation styles vary across the disciplines, but they can usually be figured out with a proper style manual.

C. The audience All academic writing has a purpose,. It is written for an audience thus it is important to remember who the audience/reader is. Being conscious of academic tone suggests that you are aware of your audience and respect the formality

normally associated with academic writing. When writing academically, you must target a more general audience than just your lecturer and/or marker. You should assume that your readers will be intelligent thinking people, but they may not be specifically

informed of your topic. Do not presume that your reader knows all the terms and concepts associated with your work.

4. Exercises: Revising for an Academic Audience Rewrite the following paragraphs (taken from student papers) to eliminate the judgmental and emotive language.

i. People's opinions are so malleable and easily influenced by the media that misrepresentations of certain concepts or individuals are very dangerous and damaging. Unfortunately, many times the newspapers, films, and books people are exposed to are indoctrinating and therefore misrepresent concepts by depicting them in a prejudiced manner. The most blatant medium of biased writing is propaganda literature.

ii. Dating all the way back to the Revolutionary War and continuing up to the present day, men and women in

our armed forces have bravely fought against all odds and have at times proven themselves as heroes. These men and women either risked life and limb for fellow soldiers or bravely completed an objective against all odds. Not every soldier deserves to be called a hero, even though we ought to be thankful for their service.

iii. "Fahrenheit 9/11," a film written, produced and directed by Michael Moore, uses distorted or entirely

fabricated facts to propagate ill feelings against the Bush administration and, in turn, influence the 2004 presidential election. Moore strategically produced this movie, using specific techniques such as musical arrangement, altered interviews, and more, knowing the outcome would end up being an attempt of a political assassination for the re-election of President Bush.

iv. The author states that textbook authors deliberately filter the information they put into their books so that

they can achieve their desired results. The irony is that the author did the exact same thing. Out of the approximately four pages he spent talking about Wilson, there was a total of two sentences devoted

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toward his accomplishments. While Loewen complains about faulty texts, he writes one himself. He is correct that textbooks do portray our past leaders in a more noble way; however, it is not to the extent or with the direct intervention that he talks about.

Conclusion: Good academic writing skills can only be honed over time. So take your time to read and write. In fact, one good habit all scholars should learn to develop is to create the habit of reading and writing everyday for as long as you live. It cannot be denied that you will definitely reap many benefits. All academicians know this because this is the trick of their trade! __________________________________END__________________________________________ References: Mongan-Rallis, H. (2014) Guidelines for writing the Literature Review. Retrieved December 29, 2014 from http://www.duluth.umn.edu/~hrallis/guides/researching/litreview.html Retrieved December 29, 2014 from http://www.sfsu.edu/~carp1/pdf/Writing%20Skills/Writing%20The%20Paper/Objective%20Tone%20Versus%20Subjective%20Tone.pdfrefernc Retrieved December 29, 2014 from https://www.google.com.my/webhp?tab=mw&ei=_ceYVN23FMuTqgaHs4HwDA&ved=0CAUQqS4oAg#q=example+of+an+objective+tone+in+writing+ Retrieved December 29, 2014 from Massey University. (2011, January 10). What is Academic Writing? Retrieved fromhttp://owll.massey.ac.nz/academic-writing/what-is-academic-writing.php Retrieved December 29 2014 from http://www.wheaton.edu/Academics/Services/Writing-Center/Writing-Resources/Style-Diction-Tone-and-Voice