Developed in Partnership with - Amazon S3 · Dr. Luis Ricardo Fraga is a Russell F. Stark University Professor of Political Science, Associate Vice Provost for Faculty Advancement,

Developed in Partnership with

Charles N. QuigleyJohn HaleMaria GalloRobert LemingKari CoppingerMark StritzelMark Gage

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Dr. Luis Ricardo Fraga is a Russell F. Stark University Professor of Political Science, Associate Vice Provost for Faculty Advancement, and Director of the Diversity Research Institute at the University of Washington. A native of Corpus Christi, Texas, Dr. Fraga received his A.B. from Harvard University and his M.A. and Ph.D. from Rice University.

Dr. Fraga’s primary interests are urban politics, education politics, voting rights policy, and the politics of race and ethnicity. He has published extensively in scholarly journals and edited volumes including the American Political Science Review, the Journal of Politics, Urban Affairs Quarterly, Dubois Review, and the Harvard Journal of Hispanic Policy.

Dr. Fraga served as the Secretary of the American Political Science Association (APSA) in 2006–2007. He has also served on the APSA standing committee on Civic Engagement and Education and as president of the Western Political Science Association.

Dr. Fraga has served on the faculty at Stanford University, the University of Notre Dame, and the University of Oklahoma. He has received numerous teaching awards, including the Rhodes Prize for Excellence in Undergraduate Teaching and the Dinkelspiel Award for Distinctive Contributions to Undergraduate Education.

LUIS RICARDO FRAGA

Author

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Academic ReviewersEdwina Barvosa, Ph.D.University of California Santa BarbaraSanta Barbara, California

Kareem Crayton, J.D., Ph.D.University of Southern California Law SchoolLos Angeles, California

William P. Hojnacki, Ph.D.Indiana University South BendSouth Bend, Indiana

Valerie M. Hudson, Ph.D.Brigham Young UniversityProvo, Utah

Karen M. Hult, Ph.D.Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State UniversityBlacksburg, Virginia

Wayne D. Moore, Ph.D.Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State UniversityBlacksburg, Virginia

Rob Reich, Ph.D.Stanford UniversityStanford, California

Gary M. Segura, Ph.D.University of WashingtonSeattle, Washington

Wendy G. Smooth, Ph.D.The Ohio State UniversityColumbus, Ohio

Del Taebel, Ph.D.University of Texas at ArlingtonArlington, Texas

Program Advisers

Tracy DussiaChurchland High SchoolPortsmouth, Virginia

Jill Anne HahnEvansville Central High SchoolEvansville, Indiana

Program Consultants

Educational ReviewersLawrence D. BroughtonProviso East High SchoolMaywood, Illinois

Christopher G. CavanaughPlainfield High SchoolPlainfield, Indiana

Kevin FoxArcadia High SchoolArcadia, California

Debbie Lou Tucker HagueFirst Colonial High SchoolVirginia Beach, Virginia

D. Drew HorvathLawrence Central High SchoolIndianapolis, Indiana

Monte M. Linebarger, Ed.D.Martin Luther King Jr. High SchoolLithonia, Georgia

Rebecca RamseyRonald Reagan High SchoolSan Antonio, Texas

James RobinsonGeorge C. Marshall High SchoolFalls Church, Virginia

Jason C. ScottNaples High SchoolNaples, Florida

Melissa M. ShoffMaryvale SchoolsCheektowaga, New York

Field Test TeachersMary AtkinsonHigh School for Health and SciencesNew York, New York

Tom BroganCenter Grove High SchoolGreenwood, Indiana

John ComerSeeger High SchoolLebanon, Indiana

Phillip Scott FechuchBlack River High SchoolSullivan, Ohio

Deanna FrazeeCenter High SchoolAntelope, California

Pamela L. HowethSherman High SchoolSherman, Texas

Rudolph RoethelBuckingham County High SchoolBuckingham, Virginia

Mary SchmanskiWashington High SchoolSouth Bend, Indiana

Charles SlaughterM.B. Smiley High SchoolHouston, Texas

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Contents

Essentials of United States Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

iv

Basic Principles of the Constitution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .x To the Student . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xivSkills Handbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .H1

Foundations of Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4SECTION 1 The Purposes of Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6Debating the Issue: Eminent Domain: Public Good over Private Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13SECTION 2 Forms of Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14SECTION 3 Democracy in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Landmark Supreme Court Case: Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24We the People: Constitutional Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Origins of American Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

VIDEO America Gets a ConstitutionSECTION 1 The Roots of American Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32SECTION 2 American Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37Primary Sources: The Declaration of Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43SECTION 3 Articles of Confederation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47SECTION 4 The Constitutional Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51Debating the Issue: Mandatory National Public Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56SECTION 5 Ratification and the Bill of Rights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57Landmark Supreme Court Case: Schenck v. United States (1919) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61We the People: Individual Rights and the U.S. Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

The Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66SECTION 1 A Blueprint for Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68Landmark Supreme Court Case: Marbury v. Madison (1803) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75Debating the Issue: The Constitution and Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77SECTION 2 An Enduring Document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78SECTION 3 Applying the Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84We the People: A New Constitution and a New Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

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Federalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94SECTION 1 Dividing Government Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96SECTION 2 American Federalism: Conflict and Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103Landmark Supreme Court Case: McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107Debating the Issue: Federalism and Hurricane Katrina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111SECTION 3 Federalism Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112We the People: Laboratories of Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Congress: The Legislative Branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120SECTION 1 Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122SECTION 2 The Powers of Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127Landmark Supreme Court Case: Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132SECTION 3 The House of Representatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137SECTION 4 The Senate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143Debating the Issue: The Seniority System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148SECTION 5 The Legislative Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149We the People: The Sources of Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158

The Presidency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160

VIDEO Jefferson’s Presidential StyleSECTION 1 The President . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162SECTION 2 The Powers of the Presidency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169Landmark Supreme Court Case: United States v. Nixon (1974) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171Debating the Issue: The Presidential Power to Make War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179SECTION 3 The President’s Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180We the People: Executive Power and the President . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188

The Executive Branch at Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190SECTION 1 The Federal Bureaucracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192SECTION 2 Executive Departments and Independent Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196Landmark Supreme Court Case: Schechter Poultry Corporation v. United States (1935) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203

Debating the Issue: The Size of the Federal Bureaucracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205SECTION 3 Financing Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206We the People: The Federal Bureaucracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

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The Federal Courts and the Judicial Branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218SECTION 1 The Federal Court System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220Debating the Issue: Judicial Activism or Judicial Restraint? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .226SECTION 2 Lower Federal Courts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227SECTION 3 The Supreme Court . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233Landmark Supreme Court Case: Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237We the People: The Supreme Court and the System of Checks and Balances . . . . . . . . .242Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244

The Political Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246

VIDEO Becoming a CandidateSECTION 1 Public Opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .248SECTION 2 Interest Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .254SECTION 3 Political Parties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260Debating the Issue: Voting for a Third-Party Candidate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .266SECTION 4 The Electoral Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267Landmark Supreme Court Case: Buckley v. Valeo (1976) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273We the People: The Role of Political Parties in the Constitutional System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .276

Civil Liberties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .278SECTION 1 Protecting Constitutional Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280SECTION 2 First Amendment Freedoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285Debating the Issue: Prayer in Public Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .295SECTION 3 Protecting Individual Liberties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296SECTION 4 Crime and Punishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .303Landmark Supreme Court Case: Miranda v. Arizona (1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .309We the People: Fundamental Rights and the Doctrine of Incorporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

Civil Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318

VIDEO Civil Rights Act of 1964SECTION 1 Civil Rights and Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320SECTION 2 Equal Justice under Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325Landmark Supreme Court Case: Brown v. Board of Education ofTopeka, Kansas (1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333

SECTION 3 Civil Rights Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .334Debating the Issue: Affirmative Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341SECTION 4 Citizenship and Immigration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .342We the People: Civic Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .348Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350

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Understanding Elections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353

VIDEO Voting TechSECTION 1 Election Campaigns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354Simulation: Running a Presidential Campaign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .364SECTION 2 Campaign Funding and Political Action Committees . . . . . . . .366Simulation: Deciding to Back a Candidate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376SECTION 3 Election Day and the Voters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .378Simulation: Planning Election Day Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .386Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .388

Supreme Court Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .389SECTION 1 The First Amendment: Your Freedom of Expression . . . . . . . . . .390Simulation: The Play’s the Thing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400SECTION 2 The Fourth Amendment: Your Right to Be Secure . . . . . . . . . . . . .402Simulation: Have You Been Seized? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412SECTION 3 Due Process and the Fourteenth Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414Simulation: Terrorists and Due Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .426SECTION 4 Federalism and the Supreme Court . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .428Simulation: Arguing a Federalism Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .434Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .436

Making Foreign Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .437SECTION 1 Foreign Policy Choices in a Complex World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .438Simulation: Deciding Whether to Use Military Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446SECTION 2 How Domestic Actors Affect Foreign Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .448Simulation: Senate Trade Bill Vote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .458SECTION 3 Foreign Policy and International Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .460Simulation: Crisis at the UN Security Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .468SECTION 4 Foreign Policy Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470Simulation: Negotiating an Environmental Treaty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .482Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .484

Interactive United States Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352

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Comparative Political and Economic Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .485SECTION 1 Democratic Governments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .486Simulation: Choosing a System of Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .496SECTION 2 Authoritarian Governments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .498Simulation: Overthrowing a Dictator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .506SECTION 3 Economic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .508Simulation: Negotiating a Trade Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518

State and Local Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519SECTION 1 States and the National Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .520Simulation: Amending the State Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .526SECTION 2 State Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528Simulation: Budgeting and Public Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .540SECTION 3 Local Government and Citizen Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .542Simulation: Conducting the City’s Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .548Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550

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9-12_SNLAESE451381_FM_toc 8 12/8/10 6:49:18 PM

Supreme Court Case Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R2Facts about the States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .R10The Presidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R12Atlas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R14United States Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .R18Flag Etiquette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .R40English and Spanish Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .R41Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .R59Credits and Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .R75

ix

Reference Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .R1

R50 U.S. ConStitUtion

U.S. ConStitUtion R51

CommentaryCommentary

Commentary

3. Number of Representatives Representatives

and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the

several States which may be included within this

Union, according to their respective Numbers, which

shall be determined by adding to the whole Number

of free Persons, including those bound to Service for

a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed,

three fifths of all other Persons. The actual

Enumeration shall be made within three Years after

the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States,

and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in

such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The

Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for

every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at

Least one Representative; and until such enumeration

shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be

entitled to choose three, Massachoosetts eight,

Rhode-Island and Providence Plantations one,

Connecticut five, New-York six, New Jersey four,

Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six,

Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina

five, and Georgia three.

4. Vacancies When vacancies happen in the

Representation from any State, the Executive

Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill

such Vacancies.

5. Officers and Impeachment The House of

Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other

Officers; and shall have the sole Power of

impeachment.

Section 3.

1. Number of Senators The Senate of the

United States shall be composed of two Senators

from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof,

for six Years; and each Senator shall have one Vote.

2. Classifying Terms Immediately after they

shall be assembled in Consequence of the first

Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be

into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the

first Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the

second Year, of the second Class at the Expiration of

the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the

Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one third may be

chosen every second Year; and if Vacancies happen

by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of

the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof

may make temporary Appointments until the next

Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such

Vacancies.

3. Qualifications No Person shall be a Senator

who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty Years,

and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States,

and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of

that State for which he shall be chosen.

Article ISection 1.

All legislative Powers herein granted shall be

vested in a Congress of the United States, which

shall consist of a Senate and House of

Representatives.

Section 2.

1. Elections The House of Representatives shall

be composed of Members chosen every second Year

by the People of the several States, and the Electors in

each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for

Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State

Legislature.

2. Qualifications No Per son sha l l be a

Representative who shall not have attained to the

Age of twenty five Years, and been seven Years a

Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when

elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he

shall be chosen.

e the People

of the United

States, in Order to form a

more perfect Union,

establish Justice, insure

domestic Tranquility,

provide for the common

defense, promote the

general Welfare, and secure

the Blessings of Liberty to

ourselves and our Posterity,

do ordain and establish this

Constitution for the

United States of America.

Note: The parts of the Constitution that have been

lined through are no longer in force or no longer apply

because of later amendments. The titles of the sections

and articles are added for easier reference.

The United States Constitution

PreambleShort and dignified, the

Preamble explains the goals of the

government under the Constitution.

These goals include ensuring justice

and peace, providing protection

against foreign enemies, promoting the

general well-being of the people, and

securing liberty for current and future

generations. The phrase “We the People” has become a

signature of American democracy. The Framers firmly

established the people’s authority by creating a republic, a

government in which people exercise their sovereignty by

electing representatives to govern them. “To form a more

perfect Union” means that the new government will

provide greater cooperation among the states than was

outlined in the Articles of Confederation.

Article I: Legislative Branch

Section 1. Congress

The first three articles of the Constitution divide the

powers of the U.S. government among three separate

branches. Article I establishes Congress, a bicameral

legislature consisting of the House of Representatives and

the Senate. It also grants only Congress the power to make

laws.

Section 2. the House of representatives

1. elections Members of the House of Representatives

are elected to serve two-year terms. A person is eligible to

vote for representatives if he or she is eligible to vote for

the state house with the most members. Who can vote for

state legislators is entirely up to each state, subject to the

restrictions of the Constitution and federal law.

2. Qualifications A representative must be at least 25

years old, a U.S. citizen for at least seven years, and a

resident of the state he or she represents. Subject to con-

stitutional limits, each state determines for itself the

requirements for legal residence. Most representatives

live not only in the state but also in the district from

which they were chosen.

3. number of representatives The number of

representatives given to each state shall be based on its

population, determined by a general census every 10

years. Each state shall have at least one representative.

“Those bound to Service” refers to indentured

servants. “Three fifths of all other Persons” refers to

enslaved African Americans. Slaves made up a large part

of the population in several southern states. Counting all

the slaves would have given the southern states much

greater representation in Congress, but because some

taxes were based on population it would have also

increased taxes. Southern states wanted to count all slaves

for representation purposes but none for taxation.

Northern states objected. In the Three-Fifths Compromise,

delegates agreed that all whites plus three-fifths of the

slave population would be counted for both representa-

tion and taxation. Native Americans were not counted.

The requirement that there shall be no more than one

representative for every 30,000 persons no longer has

practical force. There is now one representative for about

every 650,000 persons. The Reapportionment Act of 1929

fixed the permanent size of the House at 435 members,

with each state having at least one representative.

4. Vacancies If a vacancy occurs in a House seat, that

state’s governor must call a special election to fill it.

However, if the next regularly scheduled election is to be

held soon, the governor may allow the seat to remain

empty rather than call a special election.

5. officers and Impeachment The House chooses

an officer called the Speaker to lead meetings. The House

alone has the power to bring impeachment charges

against government officials.

Section 3. the Senate

1. number of Senators Each state has two senators

who serve six-year terms and have one vote each. The

Constitution at first provided that each state legislature

should select the state’s senators, but the Seventeenth

Amendment changed this provision by allowing the

voters of each state to choose their own senators.

2. Classifying terms Senators are elected to six-year

terms. Every two years, one-third of the senators are

elected and two-thirds remain in office. This arrangement,

called overlapping terms of office, makes the Senate a

continuing body, unlike the House, whose entire

membership is elected every two years. The Seventeenth

Amendment changed the method of filling vacancies. In

case of a vacancy, the seat is to be filled by a special

election called by the governor. However, state law may

allow the governor to appoint a successor to serve until

that election is held.

3. Qualifications A senator must be at least 30 years

old, a U.S. citizen for at least nine years, and a resident of

the state from which he or she is elected.

9-12_SNLAESE451381_FM_toc 9 12/8/10 6:49:49 PM

BA

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Basic Principles of the U.S. Constitution

x

The U.S. Constitution outlines six fundamental principles that have guided American government for more than 200 years. The Framers of the Constitution established these six principles—popular sovereignty, limited government, separation of powers, checks and balances, judicial review, and federalism—as the basis of our national government.

POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY

Popular sovereignty is the concept that a government’s power comes from the people it rules. Our government was created by and for the people of the United States, and power remains in the hands of the people. So important is the concept of popular sovereignty that the Constitution begins with the words “We the People.”

“Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.”

—Declaration of Independence, 1776

LIMITED GOVERNMENT

The Constitution also established a limited government to guide the United States. In order to protect the people from an all-powerful government, much of the Constitution deals with setting limits on the powers and functions of government. This idea that gov-ernment is limited by the laws is one of the fundamental principles of our nation.

“A sacred respect for the constitutional law is the vital principle, the sustaining energy of a free government.”

—Alexander Hamilton, letter III to the American Daily Advertiser, 1794

JUDICIAL REVIEW

The principle of judicial review is designed to ensure that the government obeys the laws set forth in the Constitution. Judicial review grants courts the power to review government actions and judge their constitutionality. Although not specifically mentioned in the Constitution, judicial review is a concept that has been promoted since the early days of the United States.

“The interpretation of the laws is the proper and peculiar province of the courts.”

—Alexander Hamilton, Federalist Paper No. 78, 1788

9-12_SNLAESE451381_FM_Prin 10 12/15/10 4:48:10 PM

xi

CHECKS AND BALANCES

To prevent any branch from exercising too much power, the Framers of the Constitution established a system of checks and balances. This system gives each branch certain powers to change or negate acts of the other two branches. The system of checks and balances prevents any one branch from dominating the national government.

“The powers of government should be so divided and balanced among several bodies . . . as that no one could transcend their legal limits.”

—James Madison, Federalist Paper No. 48, 1788

SEPARATION OF POWERS

Another way to ensure that the powers of government are limited was to cre-ate three distinct branches with separate duties and powers. This separation of powers among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches is designed to prevent any one person or branch from becoming too powerful.

“The first principle of a good government is certainly a distribution of its powers into executive, judiciary and legislative.”

—Thomas Jefferson, letter to John Adams, 1787

FEDERALISM

In order to protect the power of individual states and strengthen the national govern-ment, the Framers of the Constitution established a federal system. The principle of feder-alism divides power between the national government and state governments.

“The federal and State governments are in fact but different agents and trustees of the people.”

—James Madison, Federalist Paper No. 46, 1788

9-12_SNLAESE451381_FM_Prin 11 12/15/10 4:48:55 PM

HISTORY programming greatly appeals to educators and young people who are drawn into the visual stories our documentaries tell. Our Education Department has a long-standing record in providing teachers and students with curriculum resources that bring the past to life in the classroom. Our content covers a diverse variety of subjects, including American and world history, government, economics, the natural and applied sciences, arts, literature and the humanities, health and guidance, and even pop culture.

The HISTORY website, located at www.history.com, is the defi nitive historical online source that delivers entertaining and informative content featuring broadband video, interactive timelines, maps, games, podcasts and more.

Since its founding in 1995, HISTORY has demonstrated a commitment to providing the highest quality resources for educators. We develop multimedia resources for K–12 schools, two- and four-year colleges, government agencies, and other organizations by drawing on the award-winning documentary programming of A&E Television Networks. We strive to engage, inspire and encourage the love of learning by connecting with students in an informative and compelling manner. To help achieve this goal, we have formed a partnership with Houghton Miffl in Harcourt.

“ We strive to engage, inspire and encourage the love of learning...”

HISTORY™ is the leading destination for revealing, award-winning, original non-fi ction series and event-driven specials that connect history with viewers in an informative, immersive and entertaining manner across multiple platforms. HISTORY is part of A&E Television Networks (AETN), a joint venture of Hearst Corporation, Disney/ABC Television Group and NBC Universal, an award-winning, international media company that also includes, among others, A&E Network™, BIO™, and History International™.

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In addition to HOUGHTON MIFFLIN HARCOURT, our partners include the

Library of Congress, the Smithsonian

Institution, National History Day, The

Gilder Lehrman Institute of American

History, the Organization of American

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other historic sites worldwide.

In addition to HOUGHTON MIFFLIN

In addition to premium video-based resources, HISTORY has extensive off erings for teachers, parents, and students to use in the classroom and in their in-home educational activities, including:

The Idea Book for Educators is a biannual teacher’s magazine, featuring guides and info on the latest happenings in history education to help keep teachers on the cutting edge.

HISTORY Classroom (www.history.com/classroom)is an interactive website that serves as a portal forhistory educators nationwide. Streaming videos on topicsranging from the Roman aqueducts to the civil rightsmovement connect with classroom curricula.

HISTORY email newsletters feature updates and supplements to our award-winning programming relevant to the classroom with links to teaching guides and video clips on a variety of topics, special off ers, and more.

Live webcasts are featured each year as schools tune in via streaming video.

HISTORY Take a Veteran to School Day connects veterans with young people in our schools and communities nationwide.

The Idea Book for Educators

Live webcasts

HISTORY Take a Veteran to School Day

Classroom resources thatbring the past to life


xii Program ParTNEr

9-12_SNLAESE451381_FMHP 12 12/8/10 7:05:03 PM

HISTORY programming greatly appeals to educators and young people who are drawn into the visual stories our documentaries tell. Our Education Department has a long-standing record in providing teachers and students with curriculum resources that bring the past to life in the classroom. Our content covers a diverse variety of subjects, including American and world history, government, economics, the natural and applied sciences, arts, literature and the humanities, health and guidance, and even pop culture.

The HISTORY website, located at www.history.com, is the defi nitive historical online source that delivers entertaining and informative content featuring broadband video, interactive timelines, maps, games, podcasts and more.

Since its founding in 1995, HISTORY has demonstrated a commitment to providing the highest quality resources for educators. We develop multimedia resources for K–12 schools, two- and four-year colleges, government agencies, and other organizations by drawing on the award-winning documentary programming of A&E Television Networks. We strive to engage, inspire and encourage the love of learning by connecting with students in an informative and compelling manner. To help achieve this goal, we have formed a partnership with Houghton Miffl in Harcourt.

“ We strive to engage, inspire and encourage the love of learning...”

HISTORY™ is the leading destination for revealing, award-winning, original non-fi ction series and event-driven specials that connect history with viewers in an informative, immersive and entertaining manner across multiple platforms. HISTORY is part of A&E Television Networks (AETN), a joint venture of Hearst Corporation, Disney/ABC Television Group and NBC Universal, an award-winning, international media company that also includes, among others, A&E Network™, BIO™, and History International™.

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In addition to HOUGHTON MIFFLIN HARCOURT, our partners include the

Library of Congress, the Smithsonian

Institution, National History Day, The

Gilder Lehrman Institute of American

History, the Organization of American

Historians, and many more. HISTORY

video is also featured in museums

throughout America and in over 70

other historic sites worldwide.

In addition to HOUGHTON MIFFLIN

In addition to premium video-based resources, HISTORY has extensive off erings for teachers, parents, and students to use in the classroom and in their in-home educational activities, including:

The Idea Book for Educators is a biannual teacher’s magazine, featuring guides and info on the latest happenings in history education to help keep teachers on the cutting edge.

HISTORY Classroom (www.history.com/classroom)is an interactive website that serves as a portal forhistory educators nationwide. Streaming videos on topicsranging from the Roman aqueducts to the civil rightsmovement connect with classroom curricula.

HISTORY email newsletters feature updates and supplements to our award-winning programming relevant to the classroom with links to teaching guides and video clips on a variety of topics, special off ers, and more.

Live webcasts are featured each year as schools tune in via streaming video.

HISTORY Take a Veteran to School Day connects veterans with young people in our schools and communities nationwide.

The Idea Book for Educators

Live webcasts

HISTORY Take a Veteran to School Day

Classroom resources thatbring the past to life


HISTORY xiii

9-12_SNLAESE451381_FMHP 13 12/8/10 7:05:16 PM

TO T

HE

STU

DEN

T

The opportunity that citizens have to participate in public affairs and to influence government decision making is the most important feature of American government. Active participation in the political and social life of the United States is essential to maintaining a vibrant democracy. As such, citizen participation is an act of leadership.

One cannot understand—or participate effectively in—the structure and operation of American government without a full appreciation of three dimensions of leadership:the leadership of ideas, the leadership of decision making, and leadership in learning.

The leadership of ideas was the type of leadership that the Framers of the Constitution demonstrated when they adopted untried ideas such as individual liberty, limited govern-ment, and federalism to guide how our government should be structured.

The leadership of decision making reflects the type of leadership required to make difficult choices about how governmental power should be used. When making these choices, leaders have always decided who wins and who loses in American politics, as well as by how much and how often.

Leadership in learning represents the type of leadership shown when one learns from what has worked well in American government—as well as from what has failed—and then uses this learning to fashion future public policy.

Taken together, these dimensions of leadership in ideas, decision-making, and learning make up what I call the responsibilities of leadership.

The goal of this textbook is to help you understand how our nation, through both its leaders and its people, has accepted the responsibilities of leadership—from the found-ing of the nation to the present day. My hope is that by focusing your study of American government on these responsibilities, you are each more fully informed and able to accept the responsibilities required of all citizens and residents who are effectively engaged in American politics today.

All of us, whatever our ideological positions and policy preferences, must accept responsibility for the ideas, choices, and consequences that we choose to support in our collective life as a nation. If more of us accept the responsibilities of leadership to propose new ideas, make informed choices, and learn from the consequences of those choices, our nation will be better prepared to confront the complex, ever-changing challenges that confront it today and in the future.

To the Student

Luis Ricardo Fraga

xiv

9-12_SNLAESE451381_FM_stu 14 12/8/10 7:12:19 PM

H1

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SKILLS HANDBOOK

To maximize your study and understanding of United States government, use the Skills Handbook to review and practice a variety of key skills.

Distinguishing Fact from Opinion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .H2

Identifying Cause and Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .H3

Analyzing Points of View and Frames of Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .H4

Recognizing Bias and Propaganda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .H5

Analyzing Primary Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .H6

Analyzing Secondary Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .H7

Analyzing Political Cartoons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .H8

Making Inferences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .H9

Determining Relevance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H10

Developing and Testing Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .H11

Evaluating Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H12

Using Electronic Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H13

Synthesizing Information from Multiple Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H14

Creating a Multimedia Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H15

Making Decisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H16

Solving Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H17

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Defi ne the SkillIn order to be a critical thinker, you must know how to distinguish fact from opinion as you read. A fact is a statement that can be proved or disproved. An opinion is a personal belief or attitude, so it cannot be proved true or false. Distinguishing fact from opinion can help you make reasonable judgments about what you read.

Learn the SkillUse the following strategies to distinguish between fact and opinion.

Apply the Skill1 What language does the author use that might indicate facts or opinions?2 What facts does the author cite?3 What opinions does the author cite?

In 1776 Thomas Paine wrote the pamphlet Common Sense, arguing against British rule in the American colonies.

“In short, monarchy and succession have laid (not this or that king-dom only) but the world in blood and ashes . . .

If we inquire into the business of a king, we shall find that in some countries they have none; and after sauntering away their lives with-out pleasure to themselves or advantage to the nation, withdraw from the scene, and leave their successors to tread the same idle round. In absolute monarchies the whole weight of business, civil and military, lies on the king; the children of Israel in their request for a king, urged this plea “that he may judge us, and go out before us and fight our battles.” But in countries where he is neither a judge nor a general, as in England, a man would be puzzled to know what is his business.

The nearer any government approaches to a republic the less busi-ness there is for a king.”

1 Examine the source carefully. Look at the

language the author uses. Consider which statements may be facts and which may be opinions.

2 Identify facts. Consider what evidence the author uses to support

his or her statements. If a statement can be proved, it is a fact. Check other sources to determine if a statement is a fact. Be careful with statistics. They can be used incorrectly to mislead the reader.

Distinguishing Fact from Opinion

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3 Identify opinions. Determine if a state-

ment can be proved or not. If it cannot, it is an opinion. Opinions may use positive or negative words, such as outstanding and poor and phrases such as I believe, probably, and should.

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Defi ne the SkillIdentifying cause and effect can help you to become a critical thinker and to better understand what you read. A cause is something that brings about an action or condi-tion. Often, a cause will be directly stated in the text, but sometimes it will be implied, or stated indirectly. An effect is an event that happens as the result of a cause. A cause may have more than one effect. Similarly, an effect may have several causes. By iden-tifying causes and effects, you will be able to determine why certain events occurred, whether certain events are related, and what the relationship is between events.

Learn the SkillUse the following strategies to identify cause and effect.

Apply the Skill1 What was the cause of the events described in the passage?2 List the various effects described in the passage. 3 What is the ultimate outcome described in the passage? Why might that outcome have

resulted from the cause you identified?

From Chapter 2, Section 2

The Stamp Act Congress The colonists’ reaction to the Stamp Act of 1765, Parliament’s first attempt to tax the colonists directly, should have been a warning sign of the rough times to come. The Stamp Act infuriated colonists, who responded with organized protest. Secret colonial societies called the Sons of Liberty sprang up across the colonies. Their goal was to intimidate the stamp agents charged with collecting Parliament’s taxes. In many places, mobs forced stamp agents out of office. In Philadelphia, colonists even conducted a mock hanging of a stamp agent.

In October 1765 nine colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York to craft a united response to the new tax measure. The congress was the colonies’ first attempt at forging a plan to work together since the 1754 Albany meeting. It sent a petition to the king that declared their loyalty but voiced a strong protest, asserting that the power to tax colonies should belong solely to the colonial assemblies.

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Identifying Cause and Effect

1 Identify the causes of events. Look for

reasons that prompted a given event to occur. Words such as since, because, so, therefore, and due to can signal a causal relationship among events.

2 Identify the effects of events. Look for phrases

and clue words that indicate consequences, such as thus, brought about, led to, conse-quently, and as a result.

3 Connect causes and effects. Consider why

certain causes led to an event and why the event turned out as it did. Remem-ber that an event can be both a cause and an effect.

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Democratic Senator Hubert Humphrey, speech accepting nomination as the Democratic vice presidential candidate, June 1964

“We of the Democratic Party call upon all Americans to join us in making our country a land of opportunity for our young, a home of security and dignity for our elderly, and a place of compassion and care for our afflicted . . . Let us take those giant steps forward . . . to build the great society.”

Defi ne the SkillA point of view is a person’s outlook or attitude. It is the way that he or she looks at a topic or an issue. Each person’s point of view is shaped by his or her frame of reference. A frame of reference refers to a person’s background and experiences. Because people’s frames of reference are different, so are their points of view. Understanding frames of reference can help you to better analyze a person’s point of view and understand what you read.

Learn the SkillUse the following strategies to analyze points of view and frames of reference.

Apply the Skill1 What can you determine about the frame of reference, or background, of each author?2 What is the point of view of each author?3 Why might the authors’ frames of reference influence their opposing views?

Republican Senator Barry Goldwater, speech announcing candidacy for the presidency, January 1964

“I’ve always stood for government that is limited and balanced and against the ever increasing concentrations of authority in Washington . . . I believe we must now make a choice in this land and not continue drifting endlessly down and down for a time when all of us, our lives, our property, our hopes, and even our prayers will become just cogs in a vast government machine.”

Analyzing Points of View and Frames of Reference

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1 Examine informa-tion about the

author’s background. Knowing the author’s background can give you insight into his or her frame of reference. You may need to conduct research to learn more about the author. “

our property, our hopes, and even our prayers will become just cogs in a vast government machine.”

2 Identify the author’s opinions. A person’s

opinions can provide clues to his or her point of view.

3 Consider how the author’s frame of reference might

influence his or her beliefs. Consider such factors as age, occupation, educa-tion, personal experiences, and political affiliations, as they might indicate the author’s point of view.

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Defi ne the SkillMany sources you encounter may contain bias or propaganda. Bias is information that indicates a preference or an inclination that prevents a person from making an impartial judgment. Bias can be influenced by a person’s political, social, or personal beliefs. Propaganda is information designed to persuade a person to think or act in a particular way. Propaganda can be used by governments or political parties to convince people to espouse a particular issue or course of action. In order to analyze documents effectively, you must be able to recognize the presence of bias or propaganda.

Learn the SkillUse the following strategies to recognize bias and propaganda.

Apply the Skill1 What is the subject of the poster? 2 What opinions and emotional language does the poster use? What purpose do they serve?3 What point of view is presented by the poster?4 Is there bias or propaganda in the poster? Explain.

Recognizing Bias and Propaganda

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3 Examine the author’s point of view. Analyze what beliefs the

author is trying to convey to his or her audience. Bias and propaganda often provide one-sided information on a subject.

1 Identify facts and opinions stated by the author. Analyze

the facts and opinions presented. Unsupported facts and opinions are often indicators of bias and propaganda.

2 Analyze the language the author uses. Look for emotional,

persuasive, or exaggerated language that is trying to sway the reader to a particular point of view.

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Defi ne the SkillA primary source is a document or other artifact created by people who are present at historical events either as witnesses or participants. Usually, you can identify a primary source by reading for first-person clues, such as I, we, and our. Primary sources are valuable tools because they give firsthand information about an event or a time period and are the work of people who have created or witnessed history.

Learn the SkillUse the following strategies to analyze primary sources.

Apply the Skill1 What was Washington’s purpose in writing this portion of his Farewell Address?2 Why might Washington have given the advice he did at this time?3 What does this primary source tell you about the time in which it was written?

In 1796 George Washington chose not to seek re-election for a third term as president. Washington gave the nation advice in his Farewell Address.

“I have already intimated to you the danger of parties in the State, with particular reference to the founding of them on geographical discriminations. Let me now take a more comprehensive view, and warn you in the most solemn manner against the baneful effects of the spirit of party generally.

This spirit, unfortunately, is inseparable from our nature, having its root in the strongest passions of the human mind. It exists under different shapes in all governments, more or less stifled, controlled, or repressed; but, in those of the popular form, it is seen in its greatest rankness, and is truly their worst enemy.

The alternate domination of one faction over another, sharpened by the spirit of revenge, natural to party dissension, which in differ-ent ages and countries has perpetrated the most horrid enormities, is itself a frightful despotism. But this leads at length to a more formal and permanent despotism. The disorders and miseries which result gradually incline the minds of men to seek security and repose in the absolute power of an individual; and sooner or later the chief of some prevailing faction, more able or more fortunate than his competitors, turns this disposition to the purposes of his own elevation, on the ruins of public liberty.”

Analyzing Primary Sources

1Identify the author or creator of the

primary source and when the source was created. The author and the date the primary source was created give you a his-torical context in which to place the document.

2 Compare details in the primary source

to what you know about the historical event or time period. The time frame of the primary source allows you to make connec-tions between your previous knowledge and the informa-tion the document provides.

3 Determine why the author created the

primary source. Each document has a particular purpose and can be used by its author to inform, per-suade, direct, or influence the audience.

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Defi ne the SkillProduced after a historical event, a secondary source is an account created by people who were not present at the actual event. These people rely on primary sources in order to write their secondary source accounts. Secondary sources often contain summaries and analyses of events and time periods. Your textbook, for example, can be considered a secondary source. Before determining whether a document is a primary or secondary source, you must pay attention to how the document is presented.

Learn the SkillUse the following strategies to analyze secondary sources.

Apply the Skill1 What clues indicate that this passage is a secondary source?2 What information about political parties does this source present?3 What is the author’s purpose and point of view?

From Chapter 9, Section 3

Criticisms of Political Parties Some critics argue that by trying to appeal to as many types of voters as possible, the major parties lack unity, discipline, and loyalty. As a result, parties may not be able to fulfill all the campaign promises they make.

Critics also charge that parties are full of office seekers who are interested more in their own personal success than in serving the public good. For example, a candidate may express support for a certain policy during a campaign because doing so helps the person get elected—even though in a previous campaign or office, the candidate had held, and stated, a position directly contrary to his or her new position.

Finally, some people are angered by the partisan bickering between the two major parties. They charge that parties offer simple, narrow solutions to complex problems and are more interested in winning public opinion—and votes—than in solving the complex issues confronting the nation.

between the two major parties. They charge that parties offer

1 Identify the source. Examine any source information to learn the

origins of the document and its author.

3 Identify the author’s purpose. Look for clues that indicate the

intention of the author.

2 Analyze the sum-mary of historical

events provided by the source. The author of a secondary source usually offers a summary of events or of a time period.

Analyzing Secondary Sources

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Defi ne the SkillA political cartoon is a type of visual we can use to understand a particular time period or issue. Unlike other visuals such as photographs and fine art, the primary goal of political cartoons is to express a specific point of view. Political cartoons often use exag-gerated characteristics of subjects or events in order to convey a specific message, either about politics in particular or society in general. To interpret a political cartoon, examine all the elements while considering the social, political, and historical context of the time in which it was created.

Learn the SkillUse the acronym BASIC to analyze political cartoons.

Apply the Skill1 What symbols are used in the political cartoon? What do they mean? 2 What caricature does the artist use? What point do you think the artist is trying to

make through the use of caricature?3 What is the artist’s message?

Analyzing Political Cartoons

B ackground Knowledge Place the political cartoon in its historical context.

Use your prior knowledge of what is being depicted to analyze the cartoon’s message about the particular issue, person, or event.

A rgument Determine what message the artist is trying to convey. Analyze the

message that the artist is sending to the audi-ence.

S ymbolism Analyze any symbols in the cartoon. Symbols can be used to repre-

sent large groups that cannot be depicted easily or to stand for a person or an event. Symbols can also be used to simplify the cartoon or make its message clearer to the audience.

I rony Examine any irony that is present in the cartoon. Irony is the use of words to

express something other than, and often the opposite of, their literal meaning. Sometimes in political cartoons, examples of irony are implied through the various symbols and images.

C aricature Caricature, or exaggeration, is often used in political cartoons. Exag-

gerated facial features or figures are used to make a point. Analyze any caricature present in the cartoon and consider what the meaning of such exaggerations might be.

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Defi ne the SkillSometimes reading effectively means understanding both what the writer tells you directly and what the writer implies. When you fill in the gaps, you are making inferences, or educated guesses. Making inferences involves using clues in the text to connect implied ideas with what is stated. You also draw on your own prior knowledge and use common sense to help make inferences.

Learn the SkillUse the following strategies to practice making inferences.

Apply the Skill1 What does the author believe about the purpose of the Bill of Rights?2 What does the author mean by the statement “One’s right to life, liberty, and property

. . . may not be submitted to vote”?3 Using the reading and your prior knowledge, what can you infer about the protections

provided in the Bill of Rights?

Supreme Court Justice Robert H. Jackson, West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette, 1943

“The very purpose of a Bill of Rights was to withdraw certain sub-jects from . . . political controversy, to place them beyond the reach of majorities and officials and to establish them as legal principles to be applied by the courts. One’s right to life, liberty, and property, to free speech, a free press, freedom of worship and assembly, and other fundamental rights may not be submitted to vote; they depend on the outcome of no elections . . .

If there is any fixed star in our constitutional constellation, it is that no official, high or petty, can prescribe what shall be orthodox in poli-tics, nationalism, religion, or other matters of opinion or force citizens to confess by word or act their faith therein. If there are any circum-stances which permit an exception, they do not now occur to us.”

The very purpose of a Bill of Rights was to withdraw certain sub-jects from . . . political controversy, to place them beyond the reach of

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The very purpose of a Bill of Rights was to withdraw certain sub-

Making Inferences

1 Identify the main idea and details in

the passage. Take note of stated facts and informa-tion in the reading passage.

3 Compare stated and unstated ideas with

your prior knowledge. Use facts from the reading, your common sense, and what you already know about a topic or an event to make a valid inference about it.

no official, high or petty, can prescribe what shall be orthodox in poli-no official, high or petty, can prescribe what shall be orthodox in poli-

to confess by word or act their faith therein. If there are any circum-

2 Identify implied ideas in the text.

Look for ideas that are suggested but not directly stated. Noting statistics and opinionated language can help you understand what is being implied.

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Defi ne the SkillWhen conducting research, you will likely be faced with a great variety of different sources. Identifying which sources will help you is an important task. One step in identifying your sources is to determine their relevance. Determining relevance means deciding if a piece of information is related to your topic. It also involves identifying how something is related to your topic.

Learn the SkillUse the following strategies to determine the relevance of information.

Apply the Skill1 List several resources you might use to find information on the topic of juvenile crime.2 How might you evaluate each of the sources listed above?3 What sources from the list above would be relevant to your research? Explain.

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Determining Relevance

1 Identify the specific topic. Determine what types of sources address your research

topic. Define your specific task to narrow down what types of information you need. Write down any questions for which you need answers.

2 Locate a variety of sources. Use several resources to track down sources.

Textbooks, encyclopedias, periodicals, and electronic databases are just a few types of resources you can use.

3 Examine the sources carefully. Identify the purpose of the source

and the information it provides. 4 Determine what information is

useful for your topic. Decide if the information in the sources can help you answer the list of questions you created.

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Defi ne the SkillA hypothesis is a testable statement about the relationship between two or more factors. Hypotheses are possible explanations based on facts. Because they can be tested, hypotheses can be proved or disproved.

Learn the SkillUse the following strategies to learn to develop and test hypotheses.

Apply the Skill1 Develop a list of facts and a hypothesis that might explain why voter turnout rates among young voters has

increased in recent years. 2 Use a graphic organizer like the one above to test your hypothesis.

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Developing and Testing Hypotheses

FACTS:• Crime rates in the city of Monroeville have declined for five consecutive years.• Monroeville’s crime rate used to be the highest in the county.• This year unemployment rates dropped to an all-time low.• The population of Monroeville has increased by 26 percent since the new factory

opened six years ago.• Monroeville has hired three new police officers in the last three years.

Question: What has caused the drop in Monroeville’s crime rate?

FACTS THAT SUPPORT HYPOTHESIS:Monroeville’s population has increased 25 percent in six years.

Hypothesis: The availability of jobs in Monroeville has led to the drop in the town’s crime rate.

FACTS THAT REFUTE HYPOTHESIS:Monroeville has three new police officers.

FACTS THAT SUPPORT HYPOTHESIS:Monroeville’s population has increased 25 percent in six years.

1Identify the ques-tion. Examine the

issue at hand to find the trend, relationship, or event that you want to explain.

2 Examine the facts. Identify all the facts

surrounding the question. The facts may support sev-eral different conclusions.

3 Consider what you already know about

the issue. Use your own prior knowledge to help you formulate a hypothesis.

4 Develop a hypoth-esis that addresses

the question. Analyze the facts and your own knowl-edge to form a conclusion, explanation, or prediction.

5 Test your hypothesis. Conduct research to test your hypothesis.

Identify facts that support or refute your conclusion. Depending on your findings, you may need to modify your hypothesis.

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Defi ne the SkillNot all the sources you will come across in your research will be useful. By evaluating your sources, you can identify reliable and valid sources of information. Evaluating sources means that you determine the reliability and validity of the information in your sources. A reliable source is one that is trustworthy and verifiable. In other words, it is a respected source of information. A valid source is one that is accurate and free from error. Strive to use only sources that are both reliable and valid.

Learn the SkillUse the following strategies to evaluate sources.

Apply the Skill1 What is the purpose of this source?2 Do you think this source presents a balanced or biased point of view? Explain your answer. 3 Is this source valid? Is it reliable? Explain your answers.

James Madison, Journal of the Constitutional Convention, July 16, 1787

“On the morning following before the hour of the Convention a num-ber of the members from the larger States, by common agreement met for the purpose of consulting on the proper steps to be taken in consequence of the vote in favor of an equal Representation in the 2d branch, and the apparent inflexibility of the smaller states on that point. Several members from the latter States also attended. The time was wasted in vague conversation on the subject, without any specific proposition or agreement. It appeared indeed that the opinions of the members who disliked the equality of votes differed much as to the importance of that point, and as to the policy of risking a failure of any general act of the Convention by inflexibly opposing it. Several of them supposing that no good Governmt. could or would be built on that foundation, and that as a division of the convention into two opinions was unavoidable; it would be better that the side comprising the principal States, and a majority of the people of America, should propose a scheme of Govt. to the States, than that a scheme should be proposed on the other side, would have concurred in a firm opposition to the smaller States, and in a separate recommendation, if eventually necessary.”

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1 Identify the author of the source. Consider the author’s back-

ground and determine if the author is an authoritative source on the topic.

Evaluating Sources

2 Examine the language used in the source. Look for bias in the

source. Sources that lack objectivity may not be reliable or valid.

3 Identify the author’s purpose, point of

view, and frame of reference. Information about the author and source may help you determine the source’s reliability and validity.

4 Determine if the source is valid and

reliable. Compare the source with other informa-tion on the topic to deter-mine if the source is valid, or accurate. Use what you know of the author to deter-mine if the source is reliable, or a respected source of information.

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Defi ne the SkillMuch of your research will come from books and periodicals and also from electronic media. Electronic media are digital sources of information such as the Internet and electronic databases. Because a great deal of research information has been digitized, it is often available through electronic sources. The Internet is one such electronic medium. Electronic databases are digital collections of records, books, periodicals, and other refer-ence material. They can be found in most libraries. Using both the Internet and data-bases requires that you employ careful search techniques.

Learn the SkillUse the following strategies to learn to use electronic media.

Apply the Skill1 Who created the Web site pictured above?2 Do you think the Web site above presents a balanced or biased point of view? How can you tell?3 What other keyword search terms might you use to find information on state transportation projects?

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Using Electronic Media

2 Conduct a careful search. Use data-

bases and Internet search engines to identify possible sources of information. Use your list of keywords to search for sources. Be sure to analyze the search results carefully to deter-mine if they are appropriate for your needs. You may need to adjust your topic or keywords based on the information you find.

4 Cite your sources. Be sure to keep information about where you located

your sources. Write down Web site URLs and the names of electronic databases.

3 Evaluate your sources. Once you have located several sources, inves-

tigate who wrote or created each one. Determine if the sources are balanced, reliable, and valid. Do not use sources that are questionable.

1 Determine the information you need. Identify what specific information

you need to search for. Write down keywords associated with your topics.

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Defi ne the SkillAn important critical thinking skill is synthesizing information. Synthesizing information means combining information from different sources. Each source you use might provide different information on a particular topic or issue. Synthesizing the information from all of your sources will help you to produce a new idea, point of view, or interpretation.

Learn the SkillUse the following strategies to practice synthesizing information from multiple sources.

Apply the Skill1 Are the sources above valid and reliable? How can you tell?2 What similarities and differences exist between the two sources?3 What conclusions can you draw based on the information in these two sources?

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Democrats Republicans

Federal Election Commission

House Senate

$200

$175

$150

$125

$100

$75

$50

$25

$0

TOTAL CAMPAIGN CONTRIBUTIONS IN THE 2006 CONGRESSIONAL ELECTION

gv10se_elecht010b_A2nd pass8-24-07

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Synthesizing Information from Multiple Sources

1 Evaluate each source. Analyze each source to determine if the source is valid and reliable.

Determine if the various sources are comparable.

2 Examine the information from each source. Identify the key facts presented in

each source separately. Make a list of the informa-tion each source provides.

3 Compare the information from your various sources. Identify similarities and dif-

ferences between the sources and analyze relation-ships between the sources.

4 Synthesize the information from the sources. Draw conclusions based on the

information from each of your sources. Use your conclusions to create your own interpretation, point of view, or idea on the topic.

Chapter 12, Section 2

Contributions by PACs After individual dona-tions, PACs are the most important source of campaign funding. In the 2006 House and Senate races, about 25 percent of the money raised came from PACs. This figure compares to about 60 per-cent that came from individuals’ donations. Some candidates receive more PAC money than others, however. For example, in Tom DeLay’s final race in 2004, almost half of his campaign funds came from PACs.

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Defi ne the SkillA multimedia presentation is a speech or presentation that uses a variety of media to present information to an audience. Multimedia presentations are used to help speakers convey engaging messages to their audiences. These presentations might include text, graphics, audio, video, and even animation.

Learn the SkillUse the following strategies to create a multimedia presentation.

Apply the Skill1 Use a table like the one above to prepare a multimedia presentation on the principles

of the U.S. Constitution.2 What types of media might help enhance your presentation? Why?

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Creating a Multimedia Presentation

NOTES FOR PRESENTATION TYPES OF MEDIA AVAILABILITY OF MEDIA

• Bill is introduced into the House and Senate.

• video of news report; computer animation

• video from school library

• Bill is assigned to committee. • text; chart listing different committees

• word processor or spread sheet program in computer lab

• Committee debates bill, makes changes, and votes.

• graphic organizer showing the actions taken in committee

• computer graphics program in computer lab

• Bill reaches floor where it is debated and voted on.

• text; audio of floor debate; graph of results of floor vote

• audio recordings available on Internet

• Bill goes to conference committee.

• text listing changes and summarizing debate

• word processor in computer lab

• Approved bill goes to president for signature.

• video or photo of president sign-ing bill into law

• video from school library

• If vetoed, bill goes back to Congress for further action.

• text; chart of bills that have been successfully overridden

• word processor or spread sheet program in computer lab

TOPIC: HOW A BILL BECOMES A LAW

1 Plan yourpresentation. Deter-

mine the main points of your presentation and con-duct research to prepare. Write an outline or take notes on your key points.

2 Determine what types of media best

suit your presentation. Music, audio, graphs, and charts are some of the media to consider. Keep in mind any time constraints you may have. Make a list of ways in which you might present certain information in your presentation.

3 Identify the media available to you.

Consider what equipment and software are neces-sary to use the types of media you have identified. If necessary, revise your list of ways to present informa-tion.

4 Prepare and deliver the presentation.

Use your outline to help guide your presentation. Use available resources to prepare the multimedia content. Practice your entire presentation before deliver-ing it to your audience.

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Define the SkillMaking decisions is a skill that people use every day. Making decisions involves gathering information, weighing possible options, and deciding on a course of action. Making reasoned decisions is an important critical thinking and citizenship skill.

Learn the SkillUse the following strategies to practice making decisions on a public policy issue.

Apply the SkillUse a graphic organizer like the one above to make a decision regarding the need for campaign finance reform.

Citizens in Lincoln City have petitioned the city to institute term limits for city council members.

Situation

• City council members in Lincoln City may serve an unlimited number of 4-year terms.

• Three current council members have each served for more than 15 years.

• All three council members in question are extremely popular among their constituents.

• Incumbents have more experience with city business than first-time council members.

• Council members with more tenure tend to have more say in what issues come up for discussion.

Facts

Institute new rules limiting city council members to two three-year terms. Possible consequences: • The city council will have new, inexperienced

members every few years.• There will be less chance of members dominating

city business.• Citizens may feel that they are being prevented from

electing experienced candidates.

Option 1

Do not institute any term limits.Possible consequences:• Experienced council members will

strengthen city government.• Council members could serve for many

years, monopolizing city business.• Citizens may feel they have no say in

electing council members.

Option 2

Institute new rules limiting city council members to two three-year terms.

Decision

Making Decisions

1Identify the situation that calls for a decision. Determine if the

situation needs a decision and clarify what exactly needs to be decided.

2 Gather information. Conduct research and ask questions to learn

more about the situation.

3 Analyze possible options. Use your research to develop possible

options to address the situation.

4 Predict consequences of each option.

Consider possible outcomes associated with each option. Evaluate possible negative and positive effects.

5 Decide on a course of action. Use the information you gathered

and your analysis of possible options to help you reach a final decision.

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Defi ne the SkillSolving problems is a process for finding solutions to difficult situations. It involves asking questions, identifying and evaluating information, analyzing a variety of solutions, and making judgments. Knowing how to solve problems is an important citizenship skill.

Learn the SkillUse the following strategies to solve problems.

Apply the Skill1 Use a graphic organizer like the one above to address the problem of a rise in graffiti at a local park.2 Do you think your solution would be successful in solving the problem? Explain.

Solving Problems

Option 1: might persuade more people to vote, but could be expensiveOption 2: might help boost voter turnout, but might not always be possibleOption 3: might not substan-tially increase voter turnout and could be costly

Evaluation

An advertising campaign to encourage voters to participate in local elections increased voter turnout by 7 percent and cost an estimated $500,000.

Solution

Voter turnout in local elections in the town of Blue River has dropped steadily in recent years.

Problem

• In 1997 voter turnout for local elections averaged 51 percent of registered voters.

• In 2007 voter turnout for local elections averaged 37 percent of registered voters.

• While the town’s population has grown dramatically since 1997, the number of registered voters has only increased slightly.

• When local elections coincide with state or national elections, voter turnout increases dramatically.

Facts

Option 1: Start a campaign to encourage registered voters to vote in local elections.Option 2: Move the date of all local elections to corre-spond with state or national elections.Option 3: Start a campaign to increase the number of regis-tered voters in the town.

Possible Options

2 Gather information. Research and ask questions to learn more

about the problem.

4 Evaluate your options. Weigh each possible option. Consider their

advantages and disadvantages.

5 Choose and apply a solution. After comparing your

options, choose the one that seems best and apply it to solve your problem.

6 Evaluate the solution. Once you have implemented your solution,

evaluate whether it solves the problem. If this solution does not work, go back to your list of options and start again.

3 Identify possible solutions. Based on your research, list possible

options for solving the problem.

1Identify the problem. Study the issue to learn about the problem.

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Documents

Developed in Partnership with - Amazon S3 · Dr. Luis Ricardo Fraga is a Russell F. Stark University Professor of Political Science, Associate Vice Provost for Faculty Advancement,