Determining Meaning

from Context (1) Dr. H R. Mahboudi

April 2020

In this section, you will review one of the most fundamental vocabulary skills: how

to use context to determine meaning. Before you begin learning and reviewing context

clues, take a few minutes to take this ten-question Benchmark Quiz. These questions

are similar to the type of questions that you will find on important tests. When you are

finished, check the answer key carefully to assess your results. Your Benchmark Quiz

analysis will help you determine how much time you need to spend on using context

as well as the specific words you need to learn in order to increase your vocabulary

power.

Quiz For each question below, use the context of the sentence to determine the

meaning of the italicized word.

1. Make sure the directions are very explicit so that no one makes a mistake.

Explicit means:

a. intricate, complex.

b. clearly and fully stated.

c. chronologically ordered.

d. ambiguous or implied.

e. factual, without expressing opinions.

2. The hotel is teeming with security personnel because the leaders of

several countries are here for a summit meeting.

To teem means:

a. to close down temporarily.

b. to lose business due to circumstances beyond one’s control.

c. to be full of, nearly overflowing.

d. to be under close scrutiny.

e. to enjoy the benefits of.

3. Karen was relieved to learn that the chemicals in her well water were

all benign.

Benign means:

a. natural.

b. dangerous.

c. of local origin.

d. undisturbed.

e. harmless.

4. Although it was futile because he didn’t meet half of the requirements,

Jensen applied for the job anyway because it was his dream position.

Futile means:

a. useless.

b. fruitful.

c. radical.

d. insane.

e. stubborn.

5. Although the plot of the film is admittedly trite, the characters are so

endearing that the movie is highly entertaining despite the old storyline.

Trite means:

a. original.

b. exciting.

c. complex.

d. overused.

e. tragic.

6. Ilka has always emulated her older brother, so it is no surprise that she

is also pursuing a career as a neuroscientist.

To emulate means:

a. to support wholeheartedly.

b. to strive to equal, imitate, or outdo.

c. to be more successful than.

d. to regard as inferior.

e. to feel a strong bond with.

7. Everyone loved Ilona’s idea, and she quickly garnered enough support

for her proposal to present it to the committee.

To garner means:

a. create.

b. propose.

c. demonstrate.

d. withhold.

e. gather.

8. Cy’s attempt to finally complete the marathon was thwarted when he

twisted his ankle in the twenty-third mile.

To thwart means:

a. to injure seriously.

b. to prevent from accomplishing.

c. to support actively.

d. to be excessively competitive.

e. to set aside a long-awaited goal.

9. Aswad has such a caustic sense of humor that most people find his

jokes upsetting rather than humorous.

Caustic means:

a. bitingly sarcastic.

b. relentlessly funny.

c. refreshingly honest.

d. original, cutting edge.

e. arrogant, vain.

10. Sandra is truly an enigma; although she’s lived here for years and

everyone knows her, no one seems to know anything about who she

is or where she came from.

An enigma is:

a. a stranger.

b. an enemy.

c. a newcomer.

d. a mystery.

e. an orphan.

Answers

1. b. Explicit means clearly and fully stated; straightforward, exact. The

context tells you that the directions need to be clear to prevent an

error. If the directions are clearly and fully stated, it will help

ensure that no one makes a mistake.

2. c. To teem means to be full of, to be present in large numbers.

Numerous security personnel typically surround the leader of a

country. If there is a meeting of several foreign leaders, there is

likely to be a great number of security officers in the hotel.

3. e. Benign means not harmful or malignant; gentle, mild, having a

beneficial effect. Choice e is the only answer that makes sense in

the context of the sentence; Karen would logically be worried

about chemicals in her water and relieved if she learned those

chemicals were harmless.

4. a. Futile means useless, producing no result, hopeless, vain. Jensen’s

application is useless because he does not meet the minimum

requirements for the job.

5. d. Trite means repeated too often, overly familiar through overuse.

The key context clue is the phrase “the old storyline,’’ which indicates

that the plot of the movie is overused.

6. b. To emulate means to try to equal or excel, especially by imitation.

The sentence tells you that Ilka is pursuing the same career as her

brother, which indicates that she is trying to equal or outdo him

through imitation.

7. e. To garner means to gather, amass, or acquire. The sentence tells

you that Ilona quickly found the support she needed to present

her idea to the committee; also since the sentence states that people

loved Ilona’s idea, it is logical to conclude that she would

gather their support.

8. b. To thwart means to prevent the accomplishment or realization of

something. Cy’s twisted ankle kept him from realizing his attempt

to complete the marathon.

9. a. Caustic means bitingly sarcastic, cutting; able to burn or dissolve

by chemical action. The main context clue is that people find

Aswad’s jokes upsetting rather than humorous; thus choice a is the

only option that makes sense.

10. d. Enigma means something that is puzzling or difficult to understand;

a baffling problem or riddle. The context tells you that

people know who Sandra is, but no one knows anything about

her; thus, she remains a mystery.

Determining Meaning from

Context (2)

Active reading is one of the most important vocabulary and reading

comprehension skill-building strategies you can employ, and it is a skill you

can practice every day. As you read the daily newspaper, your favorite

magazine, or a good book, have a dictionary handy. Look up as many

unfamiliar words as you can so that your bank of vocabulary words

becomes as large as it can be. This may sound like a contradiction, but if

you make a habit of taking the time to read carefully and actively, you will

actually spend less time learning the meaning of new vocabulary words. By

reading carefully, you will often be able to determine meaning from

context. By reading actively, you will continually expand your bank of

vocabulary words—and the bigger your word base, the more you will

comprehend, and the less time you will spend looking up words.

Ever since you were learning your first words, you have been determining

meaning from context. Context refers to the words and sentences that surround

a particular word and help fix its meaning. For example, notice how

the context of the sentence below helps give the word candor its meaning:

I admire Arun’s candor, but sometimes he can be a bit too honest.

Candor means:

a. attitude.

b. frank, sincere speech.

c. readiness to judge or criticize others.

d. comfort speaking in front of people.

e. irritability.

(CONTEXT: the words and sentences that surround a word or phrase and help

convey its meaning.)

Based on the context of the sentence, only b can be the correct answer. The

speaker tells you that Arun is sometimes too honest, thus signifying that candor

means frank, sincere speech—Arun tells people exactly what he thinks.

There’s really only one “rule” for building your vocabulary: Use it or lose

it. When you are learning a new word, if you don’t use it, you will soon

forget what it means. Write new words down on a vocabulary list. Use

them in emails or letters to friends. Introduce them to members of your

family. Use the words you learn in your everyday communications as much

as possible so they become a permanent part of your vocabulary.

Even if you can’t figure out exactly what candor means, you can tell from the

context whether it is something positive or negative, and this can help you

narrow down your answer choices on an exam. In this case, because the speaker

admires Arun’s candor, you can assume that candor is a positive thing. You can

therefore eliminate choices c and e.

There are four types of context clues that can help you:

1. Restatement

2. Positive/Negative

3. Contrast

4. Specific Detail

This sentence, then, uses two types of context clues: restatement and

positive/negative. The first part of the sentence tells you that candor is a good

thing (positive/negative) while the second part essentially restates the meaning

of the word. Here’s another example of a sentence that uses these two types of

context clues: Hani suddenly found himself destitute, so poor that he could

barely afford to eat.

The context clearly reveals that destitute is not a positive word; it is not a good

thing to be so poor one can barely afford to eat. The context also restates the

meaning of destitute, essentially defining the word within the sentence, so that

you can tell exactly what destitute means: extremely poor.

There are two other types of context clues to watch for. Read the following

paragraph as an example (but don’t look up the italicized words!):

Sarah had worked so hard for the past few weeks that she decided she

owed herself a day of complete indolence. Saturday, she slept until noon,

ordered take-out so she wouldn’t have to cook, and left the dishes in the

sink. She left her chores for another day and spent the afternoon lying on

the couch, reading and watching television. But on Sunday, she was back

to her old assiduous self, and by noon she had already cleaned her whole

apartment, done her grocery shopping, and paid her bills.

How do you know what indolence means? From two more types of context

clues: contrast and specific detail. The first sentence suggests that

indolence is in contrast to working hard, while the second and third sentences

confirm this with specific details. Thus you can determine that indolence means:

a. luxury.

b. hard labor.

c. deep sleep.

d. laziness.

e. household chores.

The answer is d, laziness. The specific details tell you that Sarah did her best to

laze around the house all day. Besides, you know the other answers are

incorrect because Sarah didn’t do anything luxurious (choice a) and she didn’t

do any work or chores (choices b and e). There’s no mention of sleep in the

paragraph, so choice c is also incorrect.

Now let’s look at the context in which assiduous is used. Again, you have two

kinds of context clues: contrast and specific detail. You know that the assiduous

Sarah of Sunday was very different from the indolent Sarah of Saturday

(contrast). You also know what the assiduous Sarah does: she is very, very

busy on Sunday, cleaning and working around the house (specific detail).

Assiduous means diligent, hardworking; persevering, unremitting.

Denotation and Connotation DENOTATION a word’s exact meaning or dictionary definition

CONNOTATION a word’s implied meaning or emotional impact

You already know that some words have more than one meaning. A quack, for

example, is the sound a duck makes, but a quack is also an untrained or

unqualified person who pretends to be a doctor. But words also have another

meaning beyond their denotation or dictionary definition. Each word also has a

connotation—an implied meaning or emotional impact. For example, if you

were to look up the word playful in the dictionary, you might get a definition

similar to that of two of its synonyms, spirited and mischievous. But all three of

these words have different connotations and bring to mind different feelings.

Spirited has a positive connotation and mischievous a negative connotation

while playful is neutral in tone.

When you come across an unfamiliar word, the context will often reveal a great

deal about the connotation of that word, even if it does not provide enough

information for you to determine its denotation. At a minimum, the

connotations of the surrounding words will usually tell you whether the

vocabulary word is positive or negative. Therefore, when you are looking for

context clues, make sure you look at the surrounding words carefully and

consider their denotations and connotations.

Quiz

For each question below, use the context of the sentence to determine the

meaning of the italicized word.

1. The editor, preferring a more terse writing style, cut 500 words from

the 2,000-word article.

Terse means:

a. elegant.

b. factual.

c. descriptive.

d. concise.

e. innovative.

2. Victor Frankenstein spent the last years of his life chasing his elusive

monster, who was always one step of his creator.

Elusive means:

a. unable to be compared.

b. unable to be captured.

c. unable to be forgotten.

d. unable to be avoided.

e. unable to be accepted.

3. Xiu’s timely joke served to diffuse the tension in the room, and the rest

of the meeting was highly productive.

Diffuse means:

a. refuse.

b. intensify.

c. create.

d. soften.

e. thicken.

4. I completely lost track of Tula’s point because she kept digressing to

unrelated topics.

Digress means:

a. to deviate, stray.

b. to regress, revert.

c. to change the tone.

d. to express concisely.

e. to repeat, reiterate.

4. I completely lost track of Tula’s point because she kept digressing to

unrelated topics.

Digress means:

a. to deviate, stray.

b. to regress, revert.

c. to change the tone.

d. to express concisely.

e. to repeat, reiterate.

5. The senator evaded the question by changing the subject and accusing

his opponent of misconduct.

Evade means:

a. to escape or elude.

b. to answer indirectly.

c. to refuse to answer directly.

d. to deceive.

e. to challenge.

5. The senator evaded the question by changing the subject and accusing

his opponent of misconduct.

Evade means:

a. to escape or elude.

b. to answer indirectly.

c. to refuse to answer directly.

d. to deceive.

e. to challenge.

6. Samantha hasn’t said why she’s been so withdrawn lately, but I would

surmise that it is because she is still upset about not being able to go

to camp.

Surmise means:

a. confirm.

b. surprise.

c. believe.

d. deny.

e. guess.

7. The details can be worked out later; what’s important is that we agree

with the crux of my argument, which is that everyone should be held

equally accountable.

Crux means:

a. overall tone.

b. specific fact.

c. main point.

d. logic, reasoning.

e. persuasiveness.

8. Marty kept interrupting the meeting with remarks that were not only

tangential but downright irrelevant.

Tangential means:

a. loosely related.

b. rude and obnoxious.

c. very important.

d. thoughtful, intelligent.

e. obtuse, not intelligent.

8. Marty kept interrupting the meeting with remarks that were not only

tangential but downright irrelevant.

Tangential means:

a. loosely related.

b. rude and obnoxious.

c. very important.

d. thoughtful, intelligent.

e. obtuse, not intelligent.

9. Sunil honed his public speaking skills by practicing in front of a mirror

each day until he felt confident about his abilities.

Hone means:

a. to make a habit of.

b. to sharpen or improve.

c. to reveal, make public.

d. to express clearly.

e. to do repeatedly.

10. The evidence was incontrovertible, and the jury found the defendant

guilty on all charges.

Incontrovertible means:

a. questionable.

b. illegally obtained.

c. indisputable.

d. circumstantial.

e. inconclusive.

11. After listening to the couple speak for a few minutes, Eleanor quickly

discerned that the underlying problem in their relationship was a lack

of trust.

Discern means:

a. to state clearly.

b. to deceive.

c. to complicate.

d. to perceive.

e. to believe.

12. Ivan was writing an article for people who know nothing about

computers, so he had to be sure he didn’t use any jargon that would

confuse readers.

Jargon means:

a. insulting or derogatory language.

b. technical or specialized terminology.

c. slangy, informal speech.

d. sophisticated vocabulary.

e. computer-related jokes.

13. Adolfo often dresses in a rather eccentric way, but his beliefs are as

conservative

as can be.

Eccentric means:

a. standard, status quo.

b. peculiar, uncommon.

c. outmoded, out of style.

d. bright and cheerful.

e. of the highest quality, top-notch.

14. To Hannah, who had never been on a ranch, Ted’s job seemed glamorous

and exotic, but Ted, who had lived on a ranch his whole life,

thought the work was rather mundane.

Mundane means:

a. exceptional.

b. exhausting.

c. dirty.

d. underpaid.

e. ordinary

15. Matthew launched into a tirade when he discovered that his roommate

had once again borrowed something without asking—and broken it.

Tirade means:

a. an escape.

b. a quiet discussion.

c. a nostalgic reverie.

d. a long, angry speech.

e. an amusing anecdote.

16. Although there are dozens of books about Jesse James, Outlaw stands

out among the others for its novel approach to the subject.

Novel means:

a. timely.

b. original.

c. literary.

d. standard.

e. radical.

17. Jorge’s constant flattery deluded Sheila into believing that she was

perfect.

Delude means:

a. to remind.

b. to force.

c. to pressure.

d. to release.

e. to deceive.

18. Although Trevor is unsure of his talent, he has a real penchant for

drawing, so he plans to apply to art school.

Penchant means:

a. strong liking.

b. habit or routine.

c. opportunity.

d. distaste.

e. education.

19. Remembering with fear the German shepherd who bit him long ago,

Aidan gave the poodle a wary glance.

Wary means:

a. tender, loving.

b. evil, hateful.

c. angry, vengeful.

d. guarded, cautious.

e. indifferent.

20. My attempt to make a special anniversary dinner was a complete

debacle, and we ended up just ordering Chinese food.

Debacle means:

a. great success.

b. gourmet cooking.

c. total disaster.

d. amateur behavior.

e. a lesson well learned.

21. Although he meant it as a compliment, Jordan’s remark that Imani’s

poem was “unusual” incensed her, and she stormed out of the room.

Incense means:

a. to please.

b. to anger.

c. to reinforce.

d. to burn.

e. to criticize.

22. Caleigh hated the fact that I was her superior, and she was constantly

trying to undermine my authority by openly challenging every decision

I made.

Undermine means:

a. to weaken.

b. to reinforce.

c. to take over.

d. to scatter.

e. to elevate.

23. Because Candace neglected to study and stayed out late the night

before her exam, she was expecting an abysmal score.

Abysmal means:

a. outstanding.

b. positive.

c. slightly lower than usual.

d. extremely bad.

e. uncharacteristic.

24. Because of the large number of proposals we received, we will only be

able to give each one a cursory review.

Cursory means:

a. thorough, detailed.

b. primary.

c. hasty and careless.

d. performed on a computer.

e. done out of a sense of duty.

25. Fernanda was in a pensive mood as she tried to determine the best way

to resolve her difficulties.

Pensive means:

a. joyous.

b. deeply thoughtful.

c. indifferent.

d. irrational.

e. light-hearted.

ANSWERS

1. d. Terse means concise, using no unnecessary words. The main clue

is that the editor cut the article by 25%, dramatically reducing its

wordiness.

2. b. Elusive means evasive, eluding the grasp; difficult to capture. The

sentence tells you that Dr. Frankenstein was never able to catch

the creature, who constantly escaped his grasp.

3. d. To diffuse means to spread throughout, disperse; to soften or make

less brilliant. Xiu’s joke softened the tension so that the meeting

could be more productive.

4. a. To digress means to turn aside, deviate; to stray from the main

subject in writing or speaking. The speaker loses track of the

point because Tula keeps shifting from the main topic to unrelated

subjects.

5. a. To evade means to elude or avoid by cleverness or deceit; to avoid

fulfilling, answering, or doing. The senator avoids answering the

question by changing the subject.

6. e. To surmise means to infer based upon insufficient evidence, to

guess. The speaker is guessing why Samantha is upset; he doesn’t

know for sure, though, because Samantha hasn’t explained her

withdrawal.

7. c. Crux means the central or critical point or feature, especially of a

problem. The main context clue is that the speaker isn’t concerned

with the details but is focused on getting agreement on the

main point.

8. a. Tangential means only superficially relevant; of no substantive

connection. Marty’s comments are not only tangential but

“downright irrelevant,” which means that they are at best loosely

related to the topic.

9. b. Hone means to sharpen; to perfect, make more effective. The sentence

tells you that Sunil practiced daily, indicating that he

wanted to improve his public speaking skills.

10. c. Incontrovertible means indisputable, undeniable. Because the jury

found the defendant guilty, you can infer that the evidence was

indisputable.

11. d. Discern means to perceive clearly, to distinguish as being distinct.

Eleanor is able to determine the problem through observing the

couple.

12. b. Jargon is the specialized or technical language of a specific trade or

group. Because Ivan’s readers are people who know nothing about

computers, he cannot use terminology used by the computersavvy;

thus, he must avoid jargon.

13. b. Eccentric means deviating from the conventional or established

norm; anomalous, irregular. The context sets up a contrast

between eccentric and conventional.

14. e. Mundane means ordinary, commonplace, dull. The context sets up

a contrast between Hannah’s impression of Ted’s job (glamorous

and exotic) and Ted’s impression of his own job (ordinary, dull).

15. d. A tirade is a long, angry, highly critical speech. The context suggests

that Matthew is angry with his roommate, who has repeatedly

taken things without asking, and this time has even broken

something. He is therefore likely to speak in an angry, critical

way.

16. b. Novel means strikingly new, original, or different. The context

sets up a contrast between the dozens of other books and Outlaw,

which approaches the topic in a new way.

17. e. Delude means to deceive, make someone believe something that is

wrong. Of course, no one is perfect, so the context makes it clear

that Sheila is being deceived into believing something that is not

true. In addition, there is no indication of force or pressure on

Sheila; flattery is a softer, more subtle kind of persuasion.

18. a. A penchant is a strong liking or inclination for something. Trevor

is unsure of his ability, but he plans to apply to art school anyway—

this suggests that he enjoys drawing a great deal.

19. d. Wary means guarded, watchful, cautious. Aidan’s past experience

would logically make him cautious around dogs

20. c. A debacle is a total defeat or failure, a sudden disaster or collapse.

The fact that the speaker ended up ordering Chinese food for

dinner—when an elaborate home-cooked meal had been

planned—indicates that the speaker’s meal was unsuccessful. The

other key context clue is the word attempt, which indicates that

the dinner was a failure.

21. b. To incense is to make someone angry. The context sets up a contrast

between Jordan’s attempt to compliment Imani and her reaction

(storming out of the room), which indicates that she was

angry or upset.

22. a. To undermine is to weaken or injure; to destroy in an underhanded

way. The context tells you what motivates Caleigh’s behavior—

she hates the fact that the speaker is her superior—so she attempts

to weaken his authority by openly challenging his decisions.

23. d. Abysmal means extreme, limitless, profound; extremely bad. The

context tells you that Candace did not study and did not sleep well

the night before the exam; these two facts combined explain why

she would expect a very bad score.

24. c. Cursory means hasty and superficial. The context suggests as conflict

between the number of proposals and the amount of time in

which they can be reviewed.

25. b. Pensive means deeply thoughtful, especially in a serious or melancholy

manner. If Fernanda is trying to work out a problem, she is

likely to be seriously thoughtful. The context does not allow for

joyous, indifferent, or lighthearted response, and it suggests that

she is rationally trying to think things through (determining the

best response).

WORD LIST

abysmal (a˘·biz·ma˘l) adj. 1. extreme, limitless, profound 2. extremely bad.

Related word: abyss.

assiduous (a˘·sij·oo·u˘s) adj. diligent, hardworking; persevering, unremitting.

benign (bi·n¯n) adj. 1. gentle, mild, kind; having a beneficial or favorable

nature or influence 2. not harmful or malignant.

candor (kan·do˘r) n. frank, sincere speech; openness. Related word: candid.

caustic (kaws·tik) adj. 1. able to burn, corrode, or dissolve by chemical

action 2. bitingly sarcastic, cutting.

crux (kruks) n. the central or critical point or feature, especially of a problem.

cursory (kur·so˘·ree) adj. hasty and superficial.

debacle (di·bah·ke˘l) n. 1. a sudden disaster or collapse; a total defeat or failure

2. a sudden breaking up or breaking loose; violent flood waters, often

caused by the breaking up of ice in a river.

delude (di·lood) v. to deceive, make someone believe something that is

wrong. Related word: delusion.

destitute (des·ti·toot) adj. 1. penniless, extremely poor 2. utterly lacking.

diffuse (di·fyooz) v. 1. to spread throughout, disperse, extend 2. to soften,

make less brilliant; (di·fyoos) adj. 1. spread out, scattered, not concentrated

2. wordy, verbose.

digress (di· res) v. to turn aside, deviate, or swerve; to

stray from the main

subject in writing or speaking.

discern (di·surn) v. to perceive clearly; to distinguish, recognize as being

distinct.

eccentric (ik·sen·trik) adj. deviating from the conventional or established

norm or pattern; anomalous, irregular.

elusive (i·loo·siv) adj. evasive, eluding the grasp; difficult to capture,

describe or comprehend.

emulate (em·yu˘·layt) v. to try to equal or excel, especially by imitation.

enigma (e˘·ni ·ma˘) n. something that is puzzling or

difficult to understand;

a baffling problem or riddle.

evade (i·vayd) v. to elude or avoid by cleverness or deceit 2. to avoid fulfilling,

answering, or doing. Related word: evasion.

explicit (ik·splis·it) adj. stated clearly and fully; straightforward, exact.

futile (fyoo·t˘l) adj. useless, producing no result; hopeless, vain.

garner ( ahr·ne˘r) v. to gather and store up; to amass,

acquire.

incense (in·sens) v. to make (someone) angry.

incontrovertible (in·kon·tro˘·vur·t˘·be˘l) adj. indisputable, undeniable.

indolent (in·do˘·le˘nt) adj. 1. lazy, lethargic, inclined to avoid labor 2. causing

little or no pain; slow to grow or heal.

inept (in·ept) adj. 1. not suitable, inappropriate 2. absurd, foolish 3.

incompetent,

bungling and clumsy.

jargon (jahr· o˘n) n. 1. specialized or technical

language of a specific trade

or group 2. nonsensical or meaningless talk.

mundane (mun·dayn) adj. ordinary, commonplace, dull 2. worldly, secular,

not spiritual.

novel (nov·e˘l) adj. strikingly new, original, or different. Related word: novelty.

penchant (pen·cha˘nt) n. a strong liking or inclination (for something).

pensive (pen·siv) adj. deeply thoughtful, especially in a serious or melancholy

manner.

surmise (su˘r·m¯z) v. to infer based upon insufficient evidence; to guess,

conjecture.

tangential (tan·jen·sha˘l) adj. 1. only superficially relevant; of no substantive

connection 2. of or relating to a tanget.

teem (teem) v. to be full of; to be present in large numbers.

terse (turs) adj. concise, using no unnecessary words, succinct.

thwart (thwort) v. to prevent the accomplishment or realization of something.

tirade (t¯·rayd) n. a long, angry, often highly critical speech; a violent

denunciation or condemnation.

trite (tr¯t) adj. repeated too often, overly familiar through overuse; worn

out, hackneyed.

undermine (un·de˘r·m¯n) v. 1. to weaken or injure, especially by wearing

away at the foundation 2. to destroy in an underhanded way.

wary (wair·ee) adj. guarded, watchful, cautious.