Destruction of Leviathan, Gustave Dore (1865)

Sovereignty and

the “Subject” of

Modern Politics

in Thomas Hobbes’

Leviathan (1651)

March 24, 2014. SU.

Thomas Hobbes’ Philosophy

(1588-1679)

Heavily influenced by the scientific revolution of the 17th C.

Studied Descartes’ geometrical method and dualistic philosophy

Worked on Galileo’s theory of inertia (and motion) and used this in his“anthropology”

1)Natural philosophy – De Corpore2)Study of man – De Homine3)Civil philosophy – De Cive

Three moments in Hobbes’ philosophy I

1) Hobbes tries to understand movements and interactions of corporeal beings in general (bodies)

Materialist claim: “Incorporeal substance” is an oxymoron. All being (the universe, Nature) is corporeal; all force that exists or applied is corporeal (one body over against another)

Galilean claim: A body should have the same velocity and direction unless a force acts upon it

If there is already velocity (movement) it has primacy to the counter-action.

2) From this initial, natural philosophy to the analysis of movements and motivations of human beings as specific bodies (a unity of cogitation and corporeality)

What keeps human beings in motion (in certain directions)? What hinders this motion? What forces cause movement in humans? What are the motivations?

The answer must be one body’s inner impulses, appetites, passions, hopes, aversions, fears involving external bodies, humans and objects alike.

Three moments in Hobbes’ philosophy II

Three moments in Hobbes’ philosophy III

3) What are the most irreducible, simplest, clearest, most distinct, irrefutable ideas Hobbes can reach about Man’s passions?

[On nosce te ipsum, from Introduction] “…let one man read another by his actions never so perfectly, it serves him only with his acquaintance, which are but few. He thatis to govern a whole nation, must read in himself, not this, or thatparticular man, but mankind, which though it be hard to do, harder than to learn any language or science, yet, when I shall have set downmy own reading [of myself] orderly, and perspicuously the pains leftanother, will be only to consider, if he also find not the same in himself. For this kind of doctrine, admits no other demonstration.”

Certainty of geometrical axioms and demonstrationsSelf-evident propositions serving as the basis of Hobbes’ philosophy

Hobbes’ “self-evident propositions” about Humans

“I obtained two absolutely certain postulates of human nature;one, the postulate of human greed by which each man insists upon his own private use of common property; the other, thepostulate of natural reason, by which each man strives to avoidviolent death.” (from De Cive, Epistle dedicatory)

Fundamental right of nature:Survival, ensuring self-preservation, leading a “peaceful and commodious” life

State of nature, pre-political state:An environment utterly hostile to peaceful (co-)existenceRisk of violent death inflicted by the others

PRECISELY BECAUSE EVERYONE WANTS TO EXERCISE THEIR RIGHT OF NATURE; SEEKS MORE AND MORE POWER

The State of Nature (pre-political state)

Everyone is equal and free; each governs himself; each claims right to everything , even to the bodies of others; unchecked passions

“[In the state of nature, there is] no place for industry; because the fruitthereof is uncertain: and consequently no culture of the earth; no navigation,nor use of commodities that may be imported by sea; no commodious building; no instruments of moving, and removing such things as require much force; no knowledge of the face of the earth; no account of time; no no arts; no letters; no society; and which is worst of all, continual fear, anddanger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish,and short.” (Ch.13)

I have the right to kill or use you because I judge my survival or well-being (natural right) requires it.

Homo homini lupus + Bellum omnium contra omnes = Natural state of insecurity, lack of trust, fear

De Cive (1642)

Frontispiece made by Jean Matheus with input from Hobbes

Jesus delivering thefinal judgment(Religio)

Heaven (Imperium, Dominion, Peace)and Hell (Libertas,State of Nature, War)are on this earth

Natives with crossbows and cannibals eating a girl

By me kings reign, and rulers decree what is just. (Proverbs 8:15)

From bodies to man in his natural condition; then to the citizen, “subject” of politics, civil union and peace (morally superior; rationally preferable condition)

Example of the State of Nature: Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648)

The Miseries of War, Jacques Callot (1633)

Protestant States vs. Roman Catholic StatesWar of supremacy in the Holy Roman Imperial territory (Germany)

English Civil War between Royalists and Republicans (1642-1651) Battle of Naseby, 1645

Example of the State of Nature: Factionism and Civil War (Decomposition of the Body Politic)

Left: Oliver Cromwell (later Protector)Right: Charles I (beheaded in 1649)

How to leave the State of Nature, of constant war? Laws of Nature

Precepts, laws that human reason is able to infer or formulate without the aid of religion or revelation

Rational principles or modes of conduct that should effect self-preservation and well-being of the individual

Overarching principle: “Do not that to another, which you would not have done to yourself.” (Ch. 15)

The 1st Law:“Every man ought to endeavor peace, as far as he has hope of obtaining it,And when he cannot obtain it, that he may seek and use all helps and Advantages of war.” (Ch. 14)

Condition of war for power and domination is pregiven. Enter into peace with those who seek it like you. (Concord with the natural right of self-protection.)

The Laws of Nature cont’dThe 2nd law:

“That a man be willing, when others are so too, as far-forth, as for peace,and defense of himself he shall think it necessary, to lay down the right toall things, and to be contented with as much liberty against other men,as he would allow other men against himself.” (Ch. 14)

Laying down their right to all things, competitors:

Make a (social) contract, enter into a covenant: Civil laws (I’ll resign my freedom and power in the state of nature only if you do the same thing)

The rights of all contracting parties are transferred to someone or to an assembly (the sovereign)

This self-perpetrating, all-powerful sovereign is not accountable to thecontractors but ensures that the subjects abide by that contract

Trading natural liberty and power to Leviathan for law, peace, order, and security (political, civil liberty)

Non est potestas Super Terram quae Comperatur ei.(Job 41.24)

There is no power on earth to becompared to him.

Frontispiece designedby Abraham Bosse in collaboration with Hobbes

The Artificial Body of Leviathan

“[Human] Art goes yet further, imitating that rational and most excellent work of Nature, man. For by art is created that great LEVIATHAN called a COMMONWEALTH, or STATE (in Latin, CIVITAS), which is but an artificial man, though of greater stature and strength than the natural, for whose protection and defense it was intended; and in which the sovereignty is an artificial soul, as giving life and motion to the whole body; the magistrates and other officers of judicature and execution, artificial joints; reward and punishment … are the nerves, that do the same in the body natural; the wealth and riches of all the particular members are the strength; salus populi (the people's safety) its business; counselors, by whom all things needful for it to know are suggested unto it, are the memory; equity and laws, an artificial reason and will; concord, health; sedition, sickness; and civil war, death. Lastly, the pacts and covenants, by which the parts of this body politic were at first made, set together, and united, resemble that fiat, or the Let us make man, pronounced by God in the Creation. (Introduction)

FREE (and rational) ACT OF COVENANTING – FORMING LEVIATHAN. AN ACT YOU CANNOT TAKE BACK and MUST ALWAYS ABIDE BY.

Imaging the Sovereign’s Body (Body Politic)

Unified, monstrous, and absolute, sternly gazing at us. We are supposed to face him with awe. Potestas over the city. His torso the vanishing point, artificial eternity?

The Subjects’ Bodies Forming the Sovereign’s Body

Over 300 bodies all facing the body, looking at the all-powerful Sovereign.

First sketch of the Sovereign’s Body (changed by Hobbes)

Two bodies of the Sovereign and the “Subject”

His own body synonymous with the Commonwealth

Bodies that go into the makingof this representative body (recall the execution of Charles I. Unacceptable.)

Enlarged definition of the“Subject” of modern politics:

Subjects authorize/make a Sovereign (agency)

They willingly subject themselves to this absolutesovereign for the sake of lawand order