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REPORTDOCUMENTATIONPAGE I REPORT NUMBER 2. GDVT ACCESSION NO

DNA 6031F I L. T I T L E (and Subtltle)

REFERENCE MANUAL Background Materials for the CONUS Volumes

'. AUTHOR(s)

Steve Rohrer, Martha Wilkinson

1. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS

Science Applications, Inc, J R B Associates Division 5400 Westpark Drive YcLean, Virginia 22102 1. CONTROiL lNG OFFICE NAME AND ADDRESS

Director Defense Nuclear Agency Washington, D.C. 20305

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5 T Y P E O F R E P O R T h PERIOO COVERED

NTPR Reference Manual 6 PERFORMING ORG. REPORT NUMBER

J R B 2-816-03-423-00 8. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER(8)

DNA 001-79-C-0473

10. PROGRAM ELEMENT, PROJECT, TASK AREA (L WORK UNIT NUMBERS

Subtask U99QAXMK506-08

12 R E P O R T D A T E

25 April 1983

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UNCLASSIFIED

6. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (ol thla Report)

Approved for public release; d i s t r i b u t i o n unlimited.

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8. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

This work was sponsored by the Defense Nuclear Agency under RDT&E REISS Code B350079464 U99QAXMK50608 H2590D. For sale by National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA 22161.

19. K E Y WORDS (Continus on reveree sidm I f necosoey mad Identify by block number)

Atomic structure Radiation standards Atmospheric nuclear weapons Radiation Radiation health concepts Radiation protection

This report provides supplementary information to the series and shot volumes. The information includes a glossary; list of acronyms; explanations of radiation health concepts, radiation measurement, radiation detection, radiation protection, and radiation standards; and a list of data and document sources.

LQ. A B S T R A C T (7hathm - mvwrw .id I H fdsntlfy by block numbor)

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PREFACE

From 1945 to 1962, the United States Government, through the Manhattan Engineer District and its successor agency, the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), conducted 235 atmospheric nuclear weapons tests at sites in the United States and in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. In all, an estimated 220,000 Department of Defense (DOD) participants, both military and civilian, were present at the tests.

In 1977, 15 years after the last above-ground nuclear weapons test, the Centers for Disease Control* noted a possible leukemia cluster among a small group of soldiers present at Shot SMOKY, a test of Operation PLUMBBOB, the series of atmospheric nuclear weapons tests conducted in 1957. Since that initial report by the Centers for Disease Control, the Veterans Administration has received a number of claims for medical benefits from former military personnel who believe their health may have been affected by their participation in the weapons testing program.

In late 1977, the DOD began a study to provide data to both the Centers for Disease Control and the Veterans Administration on potential exposures to ionizing radiation among the military and civilian participants in the atmospheric nuclear tests. The DOD organized an effort to:

0 Identify DOD participants in the atmospheric nuclear weapons tests and other nuclear tests

0 Determine the extent of the participants' exposure to ionizing radiation

I

*The Centers for Disease Control are part of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (formerly the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare).

1

0 Provide public disclosure of information concerning participation by DOD personnel in the atmospheric nuclear weapons tests and other nuclear tests.

Two sets of volumes have been published to present information on the atmospheric nuclear tests. One set of volumes documents participation in the testing in the southwestern United States, and the other set documents participation in the oceanic testing. Each set of volumes is organized by operation and by shot to identify and describe the activities of DOD participants, radiological safety procedures used, and radiation exposures of

individuals.

Certain terms and concepts are used repeatedly in the volumes. These include scientific and technical terms and basic concepts of radiation physics, dosimetry, and protection. The purpose of this manual is to provide the reader with a reference f o r understanding these terms and concepts as they are used in the reports on the continental testing program. This volume contains a list of document and data sources and a list of acronyms commonly used. In addition, it includes four appendices: Appendix A , a glossary of technical terms; Appendix B, a list of announced U.S. nuclear tests; Appendix C, a radiological standards matrix for the U.S. nuclear test series; and Appendix D, a list of the nuclear detonations conducted bv other nuclear powers through 31 December 1981.

The Defense Nuclear Agency Action Officer, Lt Col H. L. Reese, USAF, under whom this work was done, wishes to acknowledge the research and editing contribution of numerous reviewers in the military services and other organizations in addltion to those writers llsted in block 7 of DD Form 1 4 7 3 .

2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

CHAPTER

1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A NUCLEAR DETONATION . . . . . . 11 1.1 Atomic Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.2 Fission and Fusion Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1.3 Description of a Nuclear Detonation . . . . . . . . . 17

1.3.1 Fireball Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 1.3.2 Blast Wave Formation in Air . . . . . . . . . . 19

2 BASIC RADIATION PHYSICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2.1 Types of Ionizing Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2.1.1 Alpha Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2.1.2 Neutron Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.1.3 Beta Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.1.4 Gamma Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

2.2 Radiation Resulting from a Nuclear Detonation . . . . 28 2.2.1 Initial Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.2.2 Residual Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2.3 Fallout from Nuclear Detonations . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1

3 RADIATION MEASUREMENT. INSTRUMENTATION. AND PROTECTION . . 33

3.1 Units of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 3 . 2 Radiation Detection. External Exposure . . . . . . . . 34

3.2.1 Radiation Survey Instrumentation . . . . . . . 34 3.2.2 Personnel Dosimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3 . 3 Radiation Measurement. Internal Exposure . . . . . . . 39

3 . 3 . 1 Air Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1 3.3.2 Water and Food Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2

3

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

CHAPTER PAGE

3.3.3 Bioassays/Riological Sampling . . . . . . . . . 42 3.3.4 Whole-body Counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.4 Radiation Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 3.4.1 Protection against External Radiation

Exposures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 3.4.2 Other Protective Measures . . . . . . . . . . . 44

4 DEVELOPMENT OF RADIATION PROTECTION STANDARDS . . . . . . . 46

4.1 Development of the Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 4.2 Chronologv of Radiation Protection

Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

5 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION . 55

5.1 Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 5.2 Chronology of Biological Effects . . . . . . . . . . . 56 5.3 Factors That Influence Biological Effects . . . . . . 57

5.3.1 Type of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 5.3.2 Total Amount of Radiation Absorbed . . . . . . 57 5.3.3 Rate of Radiation Absorption . . . . . . . . . 58 5.3.4 Area or Portion of the Body Exposed . . . . . . 59 5.3.5 Relative Sensitivity of Certain Body

Cells and Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 5 .3 .6 Species and Individual Variability . . . . . . 59

5.4 Clinical Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 5.4.1 Acute Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 5.4.2 Long-term Effects of Radiation Exposure . . . . 62

S.5 Health Effects of Internal Radiation Exposure . . . . 6 5

APPENDICES

A GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

B ANNOUNCED UNITED STATES NUCLEAR TESTS. JULY 1945 THROUGH DECEMBER 1982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

C RADIATION EXPOSURE STANDARDS. U.S. NUCLEAR TEST SERIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

4

TABLE OF CONTENTS ( C o n t i n u e d )

APPENDICES PAGE

D FOREIGN NUCLEAR DETONATIONS, THROUGH DECEMBER 3 1 , 1 9 8 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 7 5

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE

l - l a P r i n c i p l e o f G u n - a s s e m b l y N u c l e a r D e v i c e . . . . . . . . 16

l - l b P r i n c i p l e of I m p l o s i o n - t y p e N u c l e a r D e v i c e . . . . . . . 16

1 - 2 S c h e m a t i c R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f T o r o i d a l C i r c u l a t i o n w i t h i n t h e R a d i o a c t i v e C l o u d f r o m a N u c l e a r D e t o n a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

1-3a M e r g i n g o f I n c i d e n t and R e f l e c t e d W a v e s a n d F o r m a t i o n of Mach Y C o n f i g u r a t i o n of Blast F r o n t s . . . . . . . . 23

1 -3b Ou tward Mot ion of t h e Blast Wave n e a r t h e S u r f a c e i n t h e Mach R e g i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 3

3-1 F i l m B a d g e H o l d e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3 - 2 P o c k e t Dosimeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

5

DOCUMENT AND DATA SOURCES

The following libraries and document repositories were researched to acquire the references used to produce the CONUS series and shot volumes.

Air Force Special Weapons Center - Air Force Weapons Laboratory

Kirtland Air Force Base Albuquerque, New Mexico

Technical Library

Army War College Carlisle, Pennsylvania

Defense Atomic Support Information Analysis Center General Electric Tempo Santa Barbara, California

Defense Nuclear Agency Technical Library Alexandria, Virginia

Defense Technical Information Center Cameron Station Alexandria, Virginia

Department of Energv Historical Archives Germantown, Maryland

Federal Archives and Records Center San Bruno, California

Lexington-Bluegrass Army Depot Activity Technical Library Lexington, Kentuckv

Library of Congress Washington, D.C.

Marine Corps Archives Historical Center Navy Yard Washington, D.C.

Marine Staff College Library Quantico, Virginia

Modern Military Branch National Archives and Records Service Washington, D.C.

6

National Atomic Museum Kirtland Air Force Base Albuquerque, New Mexico

National Personnel Records Center S t . Louis, Missouri

National Technical Information Service Springfield, Virginia

Nevada Operations Office Archives Department of Energy Las Vegas, Nevada

Nuclear Regulatorv Commission Library Bethesda, Maryland

Office of Air Force History Bolling Air Force Base Washington, D.C.

Simpson Historical Research Center Library Maxwell Air Force Base Montgomery, Alabama

Sixth Army Headquarters Presidio San Francisco , California

Washington Records Center Suitland, Maryland

7

LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

This section provides a list of acronyms and abbreviations used frequently in the reports on the U.S. nuclear test series. These acronyms are used in both the reports and the bibliog- raphies included with each published volume.

AEC Atomic Energy Commission (its functions are now performed by the Department of Energy and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission)

AEDS Atomic Energy Detection System

AFB Air Force Base

AFSWC Air Force Special Weapons Center

AFSWP Armed Forces Special Weapons Project (now Defense Nuclear Agency)

AFTAC Air Force Technical Applications Center

AWS Air Weather Service

BCT Battalion Combat Team

BAY BUSTER-JANGLE Y (intersection of BUSTER and JANGLE roads with Mercury Highway)

CBR Chemical, biological, and radiological

CDR Camp Desert Rock

CETG Civil Effects Test Group

CONUS Continental United States

CTO Continental Test Organization

DASA Defense Atomic Support Agency (now Defense Nuclear Agency, Department of Defense)

DMA Division of Military Application (part of the AEC)

DNA Defense Nuclear Agency

DOD Department of Defense

DOE Department of Energy

8

DWET

EDR

EG&G

FCDA

FCSU

FCWT

GZ

HE

HumRRO

I BDA

J TO

kt

LASL

LRL

LVT

M A U D

MED

M LC

NASWF

NBS

NML

NPG

NRDL

NTO

NTS

NTSO

Directorate Weapons Effects Tests

Exercise Desert Rock

Edgerton, Germeshausen, and Grier, Incorporated

Federal Civil Defense Administration

Field Command Support Unit

Field Command Weapons Test

Ground zero

High explosives

Human Resources Research Office

Indirect Bomb Damage Assessment

Joint Test Organization (renamed NTO in 1957)

Kiloton

Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory

Lawrence Radiation Laboratory

Landing vehicle tracked

[Committee for the] Military Application of Uranium Detonation

Manhattan Engineer District

Military Liaison Committee

Naval Air Special Weapons Facility

National Bureau of Standards

Naval Material Laboratory

Nevada Proving Ground (renamed Nevada T e s t Site in 1955)

Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory

Nevada Test Organization

Nevada Test Site

Nevada Test Site Organization

9

"

OCAFF

OCDM

O R 0

PDT

PST

r a d

Radex

REECo

rem

R / h

SAC

SF00

swc TAC

UCKL

USAF

USPHS

UTM

VLH

W ETG

O f f i c e , C h i e f o f Army F i e l d F o r c e s

Of f i ce of C i v i l a n d D e f e n s e M o b i l i z a t i o n

Operations R e s e a r c h O f f i c e

P a c i f i c D a y l i g h t T i m e

P a c i f i c S t a n d a r d T i m e

Rad ia t ion a b s o r b e d d o s e

R a d i o l o g i c a l e x c l u s i o n

R e y n o l d s E l e c t r i c a l a n d E n g i n e e r i n g C o m p a n y

R o e n t g e n e q u i v a l e n t man

R o e n t g e n per h o u r

S t r a t e g i c Air Command

S a n t a F e O p e r a t i o n s O f f i c e , D e p a r t m e n t of E n e r g y

Special Weapons Command

T a c t i c a l Air Command

U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a R a d i a t i o n L a b o r a t o r y ( n o w L a w r e n c e L i v e r m o r e N a t i o n a l L a b o r a t o r y )

U n i t e d S t a t e s Air F o r c e

U n i t e d S t a t e s P u b l i c H e a l t h Serv ice

U n i v e r s a l T r a n s v e r s e Mercator

V e r y l o n g r a n g e

W e a p o n s E f f e c t s T e s t Group

10

CHAPTER 1

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A NUCLEAR DETONATION

T h i s c h a p t e r p r o v i d e s a basis f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g how a

n u c l e a r d e t o n a t i o n w o r k s a n d how t h e f o rces released by a n u c l e a r d e t o n a t i o n c a n c a u s e d e s t r u c t i o n . T h e d i f f e r e n t f o r m s o f e n e r g y

released a re d e s c r i b e d , a l o n g w i t h a n e x p l a n a t i o n of how t h i s

e n e r g y i s p r o d u c e d d u r i n g t h e d e t o n a t i o n .

I n g e n e r a l , a n u c l e a r d e t o n a t i o n , as well a s a n o n - n u c l e a r e x p l o s i o n , r e s u l t s from t h e very r a p i d release of a l a r g e a m o u n t of e n e r g y w i t h i n a l i m i t e d space. A n u c l e a r d e t o n a t i o n i s c h a r -

a c t e r i z e d by a n almost i n s t a n t r e lease of e n e r g y t h a t c a u s e s a t r e m e n d o u s i n c r e a s e i n temperature a n d p r e s s u r e . E x p a n s i o n of

t h i s area of h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e a n d p r e s s u r e p r o d u c e s a s h o c k o r b l a s t wave t h a t m o v e s o u t w a r d f r o m t h e c e n t e r of t h e d e t o n a t i o n .

T h e e n e r g y of t h e s h o c k or b l a s t w a v e d i s s i p a t e s w i t h i n c r e a s e d

d i s t a n c e from t h e p o i n t of d e t o n a t i o n . T h e s h o c k w a v e i n t h e a i r

i s referred t o a s t h e " b l a s t wave." I n water o r i n t h e g r o u n d , t h e term " s h o c k wave" i s llsed b e c a u s e t h e e f f e c t i s l i k e t h a t of

a s u d d e n i m p a c t o r s h o c k .

N u c l e a r d e v i c e s a r e similar t o c o n v e n t i o n a l e x p l o s i v e s i n

t h a t t h e i r d e s t r u c t i v e a c t i o n i s d u e m a i n l y t o t h e b l a s t a n d s h o c k w a v e s . H o w e v e r , there are s e v e r a l ba s i c d i f f e r e n c e s

b e t w e e n n u c l e a r a n d r e g u l a r h i g h - e x p l o s i v e d e v i c e s . N u c l p a r d e v i c e s c a n re lease t h o u s a n d s o r m i l l i o n s o f times more e n e r g y

t h a n d o n o r m a l c o n v e n t i o n a l e x p l o s i v e s . T e m p e r a t u r e s p r o d u c e d b y

a n u c l e a r d e t o n a t i o n a r e much h i g h e r t h a n t e m p e r a t u r e s c rea ted by c o n v e n t i o n a l e x p l o s i o n s . A f a i r l y l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of t h e e n e r g y re leased i s thermal r a d i a t i o n : p r i m a r i l y u l t r a v i o l ~ t , v i s i b l e l i g h t , a n d i n f r a r e d r a d i a t i o n . T h i s i n t e n s e thermal r a d i a t i o n

11

c a n c a u s e s k i n b u r n s a n d f l a s h b l i n d n e s s a n d s t a r t f i res a t c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s t a n c e s from t h e p o i n t of d e t o n a t i o n . Two other

d i f f e r e n c e s a r e t h a t a n u c l e a r d e t o n a t i o n releases h i g h l y p e n e t r a t i n g a n d p o t e n t i a l l y h a r m f u l i o n i z i n g r a d i a t i o n a n d t h a t

t h e r e s i d u e s of some n u c l e a r d e t o n a t i o n s a re r a d i o a c t i v e f o r l o n g p e r i o d s of time a n d c a n be d e p o s i t e d o v e r a l a r g e a rea .

1.1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

A l l s u b s t a n c e s a r e c o m p o s e d o f o n e o r more of 9 2 n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g e l e m e n t s o r p o s s i b l y a number of m a n - m a d e e l e m e n t s . T h e smallest p a r t of a n e l e m e n t t h a t can e x i s t and s t i l l r e t a i n

t h e cha rac t e r i s t i c s of t h a t e l e m e n t i s a n atom. E a c h atom

c o n s i s t s o f a c e n t r a l n u c l e u s s u r r o u n d e d b y a number of

e l e c t r o n s . The n u c l e u s i s composed of p a r t i c l e s c a l l e d p r o t o n s a n d n e u t r o n s . T h e s e p a r t i c l e s h a v e a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l m a s s e s ,

b u t p r o t o n s are p o s i t i v e l y c h a r g e d , w h i l e n e u t r o n s are n e u t r a l . The re fo re , t h e n u c l e u s h a s a n e t p o s i t i v e c h a r g e . An atom i s

n e u t r a l , h o w e v e r , b e c a u s e t h e p o s i t i v e c h a r g e of i t s p r o t o n s i s e x a c t l y b a l a n c e d b y t h e n e g a t i v e c h a r g e of e lec t rons t h a t

s u r r o u n d t h e n u c l e u s .

T h e n u m b e r o f p o s i t i v e p r o t o n s b a l a n c e d b y a n e q u a l n u m b e r of n e g a t i v e e l e c t r o n s r e m a i n s c o n s t a n t i n a l l atoms of t h e same

e l e m e n t . H o w e v e r , t h e number of n e u t r o n s may v a r v . The atomic number of a n e l e m e n t i n d i c a t e s t h e n u m b e r o f p r o t o n s i n t h e

n u c l e u s , a n d t h e mass number refers t o t h e sum of t h e number of

p r o t o n s a n d n e u t r o n s . The atomic n u m b e r o f a p a r t i c u l a r e l e m e n t i s c o n s t a n t , b u t i t s mass number may v a r y . Atoms of a n e l e m e n t t h a t h a v e t h e same atomic n u m b e r b u t h a v e d i f f e r e n t mass n u m b e r s a r e c a l l e d " isotopes" of t h a t e l e m e n t . F o r e x a m p l e , n o r m a l

h y d r o g e n has t h e atomic number 1 w i t h a mass number of 1 ; i t s

n u c l e u s c o n t a i n s a s i n g l e p r o t o n a n d n o n e u t r o n s ( 1 + 0 = l ) , a n d i t s p o s i t i v e c h a r g e i s b a l a n c e d b y a s i n g l e n e g a t i v e l y c h a r g e d

e l e c t r o n . D e u t e r i u m i s a n i so tope of h y d r o g e n w i t h o n e p r o t o n

12

and one neutron in its nucleus, giving it a mass number of 2 (1 + 1 = 2 ) . Tritium is another isotope of hvdrogen; it has one proton and two neutrons. Therefore, its atomic number remains as 1, while its mass number increases to 3 (1 + 2 = 3 ) .

In a conventional explosion, the energy released is produced by the rearrangements of atoms in R chemical reaction. In a nuclear explosion, however, the energy released is caused by

reactions occurring within the nuclel~s itself. The force between the components of the nucleus ( p r o t o n s and neutrons) is many times greater than the force between atoms. This accounts for the tremendous amount of energy released by a nuclear detonation. There are two tvpes of nuclear reactions that lead to these large releases of energy: "fission," the splitting of the nucleus of a heavy atom (for example, uranium) into two or more lighter nuclei, and the joining of two very light nuclei, such as hydrogen nuclei, to form a heavier nucleus, such as the helium nucleus.

1.2 FISSION AND FUSION REACTIONS

The elements normally used to produce nuclear detonations from fission reactions are certain isotopes of uranium and plutonium, such as uranium-235 and plutonium-239. The fission process is usuallv initiated when a free neutron penetrates the nucleus of the atom (uranium or plutonium), csusing the nucleus to become unstable and to split into two or more smaller parts. Energy, two or more additional neutrons, and two or more gamma ravs are normallv released when the nucleus splits. The smaller, lighter nuclei that result from this process are called "fission fragments" o r products. These fission fragments are usually radioactive and contribute to the radiation emitted from a nuclear detonation. The fission of 2.5 pounds of uranium could release as much energy as 20 kilotons of TNT. The uranium required for a 20-kiloton detonation must be greater than 2.5

13

p o u n d s , h o w e v e r , b e c a u s e t h e f i s s i o n r e a c t i o n i s n o t 100 p e r c e n t e f f i c i e n t a n d o n l y p a r t o f t h e u r a n i u m i s f i s s i o n e d .

A l t h o u g h two or th ree n e u t r o n s may be p r o d u c e d f o r e v e r y

n u c l e u s t h a t u n d e r g o e s f i s s i o n , n o t a l l of these n e u t r o n s will

c a u s e a d d i t i o n a l f i s s i o n s . Some o f t h e n e u t r o n s e s c a p e f r o m t h e

mater ia l , w h i l e o t h e r s are absorbed b y atoms of n o n - f i s s i o n a b l e mater ia l s . A " c h a i n r e a c t i o n " o f f i s s i o n s m u s t o c c u r i n order t o s u s t a i n t h e f i s s i o n p r o c e s s . T h i s r e q u i r e s t h a t a t l e a s t o n e

n e u t r o n f r o m each n u c l e u s t h a t i s s p l i t be a v a i l a b l e t o c a u s e

f u r t h e r f i s s i o n i n g . I f t h e n e u t r o n s a r e l o s t a t a fas ter ra te

t h a n t h e y a r e f o r m e d by f i s s i o n , t h e c h a i n r e a c t i o n i s n o t s e l f -

s u s t a i n i n g ; t h a t i s , s u f f i c i e n t e n e r g y w i l l n o t be released f o r a n u c l e a r d e t o n a t i o n t o o c c u r . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o

m i n i m i z e t h e escape of n e u t r o n s a n d m a x i m i z e t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of

n e u t r o n s w i t h t h e n u c l e i of t h e f i s s i o n a b l e material.

T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l wags t o m i n i m i z e t h e e s c a p e of n e u t r o n s

a n d m a x i m i z e t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n . One way i s t o i n c r e a s e t h e mass o f t h e f i s s i o n a b l e mater ia l a t c o n s t a n t d e n s i t y so t h a t t h e r a t i o

o f s u r f a c e area t o mass i s decreased. T h e same r e s u l t c a n be

a c h i e v e d by c o m p r e s s i n g a c o n s t a n t mass i n t o a smaller v o l u m e so t h a t t h e s u r f a c e area i s decreased. I f t h e r a t i o of t h e s u r f a c e a r ea t o mass i s l a r g e , too m a n y n e u t r o n s w i l l e s c a p e , p r e v e n t i n g

a s u s t a i n i n g c h a i n r e a c t i o n . S u c h a c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f f i s s i o n a b l e

mater ia l i s ca l led " s u b c r i t i c a l . " H o w e v e r , a s t h e mass o f t h e

mater ia l i s i n c r e a s e d o r i t s v o l u m e i s decreased by c o m p r e s s i o n ,

t h e r e l a t i v e loss of n e u t r o n s c a n be decreased t o t h e p o i n t t h a t

8 s e l f - s u s t a i n i n g r e a c t i o n i s poss ib l e . T h i s c o n f i g u r a t i o n i s

known a s a " c r i t i c a l mass."

F o r n u c l e a r w e a p o n s , a m e r e l y c r i t i c a l mass i s i n s u f f i c i e n t

t o a c h i e v e d e t o n a t i o n . R a t h e r , a s u p e r c r i t i c a l mass i s n e c e s s a r y so t h a t t h e r e a c t i o n s w i l l m u l t i p l y r a p i d l y . T h i s c a n be

a c h i e v e d by two d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d s . F i r s t , a s u p e r c r i t i c a l mass

14

can be attained by bringing together two barely subcritical masses. This method, called gun assemblv, usually employs ~t

cylinder in which an explosive propellant is used to propel one subcriticfil piece of fissionable material into the other. Figure 1-la illustrates the principle of the gun-assembly nuclear device. The second method, called implosion, is based on the principle that strong compression of a subcritical mass of

fissionable material increases its density, thereby causing it to attain criticality or supercriticslity. This is achieved by

completely surrounding a subcritical mass of uranium or plutonium with high explosives, a s shown in Figure 1-lb. Detonation of

the high explosives results in a strong implosive compression of the fissionable materials and the consequent attainment of supercriticalitv.

A fusion reaction occurs when a pair of nuclei, usually isotopes of hydrogen, unite to form the nucleus of a heavier atom. This union is accompanied by a release of energy. Two isotopic forms of hydrogen are commonly used in fusion reactions: deuterium, with one proton and one neutron, and tritium, with one proton and two neutrons. These isotopes must be sufficiently concentrated at a high temperature and pressure to achieve a self-sustaining fusion reaction. A great deal of energy must be supplied t o initiate fusion between nuclei. Raising the fusion materials to very high temperatures can begin and sustain fusion reactions, which are therefore called "thermonuclear" reactions or processes.

Temperatiires reaching tens of millions of degrees are needed to initiate fusion reactions, Fission explosions can provide the energy and heat required to initiate the fusion process in a thermonuclear device.

15

Subcritical Subcritical Mass Mass

Supercritlcal Mass

Explosive Propellant

(BEFORE FIRING) (IMMEDIATELY AFTER FIRING) THEN EXPLODES

Figure 1-la: PRINCIPLE OF GUN-ASSEMBLY NUCLEAR DEVICE (GLASSTONE AND DOLAN)

Subcritical Mass 7

Implosion

Chemlcal Explosive

Compressed Supercritical

Mass

(BEFORE FIRING) (IMMEDIATELY AFTER FIRING) THEN EXPLODES

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~

Figure 1-lb: PRINCIPLE OF IMPLOSION-TYPE NUCLEAR DEVICE (GLASSTONE AND DOLAN)

1.3 DESCRIPTION OF A NUCLEAR DETONATION

C e r t a i n p h e n o m e n a a re c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a n u c l e a r d e t o n a -

t i o n . T h e s e phenomena w i l l v a r y d e p e n d i n g o n t h e d e s i g n o f t h e

n u c l e a r d e v i c e , t h e m e t e o r o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s , t h e t e r r a i n w h e r e

t h e d e t o n a t i o n o c c u r s , a n d t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e d e t o n a t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . D e t o n a t i o n s t h a t o c c u r h i g h

e n o u g h a b o v e t h e g r o u n d t o p r e v e n t t h e r e s u l t i n g f i r e b a l l f r o m t o u c h i n g t h e s u r f a c e are c a l l e d " a i r b u r s t s . " D e t o n a t i o n s a t a l t i t u d e s g r e a t e r t h a n 100,000 f e e t a re termed " h i g h - a l t i t u d e " b u r s t s . A " s u r f a c e b u r s t " takes p l a c e o n t h e g r o u n d su r face o r

a t a n a l t i t u d e low e n o u g h t o allow t h e f i r e b a l l t o t o u c h t h e

e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . U n d e r g r o u n d a n d u n d e r w a t e r b u r s t s o c c u r b e n e a t h

t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e e a r t h o r w a t e r , r e s p e c t i v e l v . T h e p o i n t of

d e t o n a t i o n of a s u r f a c e b u r s t is ca l led " g r o u n d z e r o . " T h e area

o n t h e g r o u n d i m m e d i a t e l y a b o v e o r below t h e p o i n t o f d e t o n a t i o n o f a h i g h a l t i t u d e b u r s t , a n a i r b u r s t , o r a n u n d e r g r o u n d o r

u n d e r w a t e r d e t o n a t i o n i s c a l l e d " s u r f a c e z e r o , " " g r o u n d z e r o , " o r " s u r f a c e g r o u n d zero."

T h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s describe i n g e n e r a l terms t h e phenom-

e n a t h a t r e s u l t from a n u c l e a r d e t o n a t i o n .

1 .3 .1 F i r e b a l l F o r m a t i o n

A n u c l e a r d e t o n a t i o n c a u s e s a t r e m e n d o u s a n d e x t r e m e l y r a p i d

i n c r e a s e i n t e m p e r a t u r e a n d p r e s s u r e a t t h e p o i n t of d e t o n a t i o n .

T e m p e r a t u r e s t e n s of m l l l i o n s of d e g r e e s a n d p r e s s u r e s m i l l i o n s of times t h a t of a m b i e n t a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e a r e g e n e r a t e d a lmost i n s t a n t l y . B e c a u s e o f t h e g r e a t h e a t , a l l t h e ma te r i a l s

o f t h e n u c l e a r d e v i c e a r e v a p o r i z e d . The s u r r o u n d i n g a i r 1s

heated t o e x t r e m e l y h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s , w h i c h l eads t o t h e

f o r m a t i o n of a h o t a n d h i g h l y i n c a n d e s c e n t mass of a i r r e f e r r e d

t o a s t h e " f i r e b a l l . " T h e f i r e b a l l t h e n r ad ia t e s t h e r m a l e n e r g y i n t h e form of u l t r a v i o l e t , v i s i b l e l i g h t a n d i n f r a r e d r a d i a t i o n .

17

High levels of neutron and gamma radiation are also emitted as a result of nuclear reactions in the weapon and its debris,

The effects of the thermal radiation emitted from the early fireball depend on the energy yield of the detonation, the tvpe of combustible material, the meteorological conditions, and the distance from the point of detonation. At a distance of two kilometers, for example, thermal radiation from a 20-kiloton detonation can ignite paper and dry wood and cause severe skin burns.

A large pulse of electromagnetic radiation is also emitted from the fireball within a microsecond of the detonation. This electromagnetic pulse can interfere with communications and even damage electronic equipment far from the detonation.

The fireball continues to expand. Within two milliseconds after the detonation, all parts of the fireball reach approximately the same temperature. The fireball is then called an 'I isothermal sphere . I '

After the detonation, a blast wave is formed and is driven

outwa.rds bv the force of the explosion. The tremendous pressure and temperature caused by passage of this blast front make the air opaque. Consequently, the fireball is obscured by a laver of luminous opaque air. Within milliseconds, however, this blast- heated air is cool enough so that the highly incandescent fireball is visible through the blast-front.

The fireball reaches its maximum size about one second after the detonation. A s the fireball expands, it continually rises and draws in more air. This growth is accompanied by a decrease in temperature. The peripheral lavers of the fireball cool first, imposing a drag or slowing effect on the exterior surface of the ascending fireball. This brings about a characteristic

18

c h a n g e i n s h a p e . The s p h e r i c a l mass t e n d s t o d e v e l o p i n t o a to ro id - shaped ( o r d o u g h n u t - s h a p e d ) c o n f i g u r a t i o n . A s i t a s c e n d s ,

t h e t o r o i d u n d e r g o e s v i o l e n t i n t e r n a l c i r c u l a t o r y m o t i o n s t h a t

draw i n a i r f r o m b e n e a t h t h e t o r o i d a n d t h o r o u g h l y c i r c u l a t e t h e

h o t g a s e s , a i r , a n d d e b r i s . F i g u r e 1 -2 shows t h e t o ro ida l

c i r c u l a t i o n w i t h i n t h e r a d i o a c t i v e c l o u d . The t o r o i d - s h a p e d

f i r e b a l l cools as i t r ises u n t i l i t s e n e r g y has d i s s i p a t e d a t h i g h e r a l t i t u d e s . By t h i s p o i n t , t h e v a p o r i z e d n u c l e a r materials

h a v e b e e n t h r o u g h l y m i x e d w i t h water d r o p l e t s , d u s t , a n d d e b r i s

t h a t may h a v e b e e n s u c k e d i n t o t h e e x p a n d i n g f i r e b a l l .

H u g e a m o u n t s o f d i r t a n d debris c a n be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e

f i r e b a l l when a n u c l e a r d e t o n a t i o n o c c u r s o n o r n e a r t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . T h e r a d i o a c t i v e c loud f o r m e d w i t h i n a n d a r o u n d t h e

c o o l i n g f i r e b a l l c o n t i n u e s t o rise u n t i l i t s t a b i l i z e s a t a n a l t i t u d e t h a t i s d e p e n d e n t o n y i e l d a n d a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t i o n s .

T h e r a d i o a c t i v e c l o u d from v e r y h i g h - y i e l d d e t o n a t i o n s may

p e n e t r a t e t h e t r o p o p a u s e a n d e n t e r t h e s t r a t o s p h e r e .

1 .3 .2 B l a s t Wave F o r m a t i o n i n Air

The b l a s t wave i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r much of t h e damage t o s t r u c t u r e s a n d ma te r i a l s t h a t r e s u l t s f r o m a n u c l e a r d e t o n a t i o n . The e x p a n s i o n of t h e i n t e n s e l y h o t g a s e s a t e x t r e m e l y h i g h p r e s s u r e s i n t h e f i r e b a l l causes a b l a s t wave t o f o r m , w h i c h

m o v e s o u t w a r d a t h i g h v e l o c i t y . The m a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h i s

wave i s i t s s h a r p l y i n c r e a s e d p r e s s u r e . P e a k o v e r p r e s s u r e ( p r e s s u r e e x c e e d i n g t h e a m b i e n t a i r p r e s s u r e of 14 .7 p o u n d s p e r

s q u a r e i n c h a t sea l e v e l ) c a n be many times g r e a t e r t h a n t h e a m b i e n t p r e s s u r e . T h e passage of t h e b l a s t w a v e c a u s e s h i g h

w i n d s t o f o l l o w , a n d t h e forces e x e r t e d by these w i n d s are

referred t o a s " d y n a m i c p r e s s u r e . " T h e o v e r p r e s s u r e , c o m b i n e d

w i t h d y n a m i c p r e s s u r e , c a n c a u s e m u c h d a m a g e . Table 1-1

i n d i c a t e s t h e d y n a m i c p r e s s u r e s a n d w i n d v e l o c i t i e s a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h v a r i o u s p e a k o v e r p r e s s u r e s .

19

Updraft Through Center of Toroid

Figure 1-2: SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF TOROIDAL CIRCULATION WITHIN THE RADIOACTIVE CLOUD FROM A NUCLEAR DETONATION (GLASSTONE AND DOLAN)

20

I

Table 1-1: PEAK OVERPRESSURE, DYNAMIC PRESSURE AND MAXIMUM WIND VELOCITY IN AIR CALCULATED FOR AN IDEAL BLAST FRONT (GLASSTONE AND DOLAN)

Peak Overpressure (Pounds Per Square Inch)

200

150 100 72 50 30 20 10 5 2

Peak Dynamic Pressure (Pounds Per Square Inch)

330 222 123 74 41 17 8.1 2.2 0.6 0.1

Maximum Wind Velocity (Miles Per

Hour)

2,078

1,777

1,415 1,168

934 669 502 294

163

70

A s t h e d y n a m i c p r e s s u r e d i m i n i s h e s , t h e o v e r p r e s s u r e a l s o

decreases u n t i l i t a c t u a l l y becomes n e g a t i v e , or less t h a n

a m b i e n t a i r p r e s s u r e . A p a r t i a l vacuum i s t h e n p r o d u c e d , a n d t h e

a i r is s u c k e d back toward t h e p o i n t of d e t o n a t i o n . T h i s

" n e g a t i v e p h a s e " of t h e b l a s t wave las ts f o r a l o n g e r p e r i o d of

time t h a n t h e " p o s i t i v e p h a s e " of o v e r p r e s s u r e .

F o r a g i v e n f i x e d loca t ion n e a r t h e p o i n t o f d e t o n a t i o n , a

series of p r e s s u r e c h a n g e s are e v i d e n t o v e r a per iod of t ime,

For a sho r t i n t e r v a l a f t e r t h e d e t o n a t i o n , t h e r e i s n o c h a n g e i n

t h e a m b i e n t a i r p r e s s u r e s i n c e i t takes some time f o r t h e b l a s t wave t o t r a v e l f r o m t h e p o i n t of d e t o n a t i o n t o t h e g i v e n

l o c a t i o n . T h i s a r r i v a l time d e p e n d s o n t h e e n e r g y y i e l d of t h e

n u c l e a r d e v i c e a n d t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e d e t o n a t i o n . F o r

e x a m p l e , a t a d i s tance of 1.6 kilometers from a d e t o n a t i o n of

2 1

20 k i l o t o n s , t h e a r r i v a l time i s a b o u t th ree s e c o n d s , w h i l e f o r a o n e - m e g a t o n d e t o n a t i o n , t h e time i s o n l y 1 .4 s e c o n d s .

When t h e i n c i d e n t b l a s t wave from a n a i r b u r s t s t r i kes t h e

e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , i t i s r e f l e c t e d . For a g i v q n l o c a t i o n o n t h e

s u r f a c e , t h e i n c i d e n t a n d r e f l e c t e d b l a s t w a v e s will occur a t t h e

same time. A t l o c a t i o n s a b o v e t h e r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e , h o w e v e r , two s e p a r a t e b l a s t w a v e s a r e e v i d e n t , t h e f i r s t b e i n g t h e

i n c i d e n t b l a s t w a v e a n d t h e s e c o n d t h e r e f l e c t e d w a v e . I n i t i a l l v , t h e two w a v e s t r a v e l a t t h e same s p e e d . H o w e v e r , as t h e r e f l e c t e d w a v e t r a v e l s t h r o u g h a i r p r e v i o u s l y h e a t e d a n d

c o m p r e s s e d b y t h e i n c i d e n t w a v e , i t t r a v s l s a t a g r e a t e r s p e e d a n d e v e n t u a l l y o v e r t a k e s a n d merges w i t h t h e i n c i d e n t w a v e . T h i s p r o c e s s of w a v e i n t e r a c t l o n i s c a l l e d "Mach r e f l e c t i o n , " a n d t h e

r e g i o n w h e r e t h e two w a v e s m e r g e i n t o o n e f r o n t i s termed t h e

"Mach r e g i o n . I '

F i g u r e 1-3a i n d i c a t e s t h e m e r g i n g o f t h e i n c i d e n t and r e f l e c t e d w a v e s . T h e i n c i d e n t w a v e m o v e s o u t w a r d s a n d d o w n w a r d s ,

w h i l e t h e r e f l e c t e d w a v e m o v e s o u t w a r d s a n d u p w a r d s . T h e s i n g l e w a v e f r o n t formed from t h e m e r g i n g of these two w a v e s i s c a l l e d

t h e "Mach stem." The o v e r p r e s s u r e a t t h e Mach stem is g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t o f e i t h e r t h e i n c i d e n t o r r e f l e c t e d s h o c k wave . The

p o i n t a t w h i c h t h e i n c i d e n t w a v e , r e f l e c t e d w a v e , a n d Mach stem

meet i s t h e " t r i p l e p o i n t . " As t h e r e f l e c t e d w a v e c o n t i n u e s t o o v e r t a k e t h e i n c i d e n t w a v e , t h e t r i p l e p o i n t rises a n d t h e h e i g h t

of t h e Mach stem i n c r e a s e s , a s s h o w n i n F i g u r e 1-3b. The

b e h a v i o r a n d d e s t r u c t i v e c a p a b i l i t i e s of t h i s merged wave are i d e n t i c a l t o those d e s c r i b e d p r e v i o u s l y f o r b l a s t w a v e s i n

g e n e r a l .

T h e d i s tance f r o m t h e d e t o n a t i o n a t w h i c h t h e Mach stem forms d e p e n d s o n t h e y i e l d of t h e d e t o n a t i o n a n d t h e h e i g h t of

t h e b u r s t a b o v e t h e g r o u n d . I n g e n e r a l , t h e Mach stem forms a t i n c r e a s i n g d i s t a n c e s f r o m g r o u n d z e r o a s t h e y i e l d i s d e c r e a s e d

22

Incident Wave

Reflected Wave

Triple Point

a b C

Figure 1-3a: MERGING OF INCIDENT AND REFLECTED WAVES AND FORMATION OF MACH Y CONFIGURATION OF BLAST FRONTS (GLASSTONE AND DOLAN)

-E 3- I \I/

R - Reflected Wave I - Incident Wave

R

R '

Region of Regular I Reflection

Region of Mach Reflection

i 1

Figure 1-3b: OUTWARD MOTION OF THE BLAST WAVE NEAR THE SURFACE IN THE MACH REGION (GLASSTONE AND DOLAN)

2 3

o r a s t h e h e i g h t i s i n c r e a s e d . For a s u r f a c e d e t o n a t l o n , how-

e v e r , t h e Mach stem forms i m m e d i a t e l y , s i n c e t h e I n c i d e n t a n d

r e f l e c t e d b l a s t w a v e s m e r g e i n s t a n t l v . The c o m b i n e d b l a s t w a v e s

t h e n m o v e o u t w a r d s f r o m t h e e x p l o s i o n i n a d i r e c t i o n h o r i z o n t a l

t o t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . T h e b e h a v i o r a n d e f f e c t of t h e b l a s t w a v e f r o m a n y t y p e of n u c l e a r d e t o n a t i o n are i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e

m e t e o r o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s , a l t i t u d e of t h e d e t o n a t i o n , t e r r a i n , a n d t h e a b i l i t y of t h e s u r f a c e t o r e f l e c t t h e b l a s t wave.

A n u c l e a r d e t o n a t i o n b e n e a t h o r on t h e s u r f a c e p r o d u c e s a

g r o u n d s h o c k t h a t sets t h e s u r r o u n d i n g e a r t h i n motion. T h i s

s h o c k wave i s p r o d u c e d p r i m a r i l v b y d i r e c t i n t e r a c t i o n of t h e

e x p l o s i v e e n e r g y w i t h t h e g r o u n d . A s w i t h t h e a i r b l a s t w a v e , t h e g r o u n d shock w a v e t r a v e l s o u t w a r d a n d s t e a d i l y decreases i n e n e r g y a n d e f f e c t w i t h i n c r e a s i n g d i s t a n c e from t h e p o i n t of

d e t o n a t i o n .

T h e g r o u n d s h o c k wave can d a m a g e s t r u c t u r e s b u r i e d i n t h e

g r o u n d o r i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e g r o u n d . T h e e x t e n t of damage d e p e n d s o n t h e s i z e , s h a p e , a n d f l e x i b i l i t y of t h e s t r u c t u r e a n d

e q u i p m e n t , t h e y i e l d a n d l o c a t i o n of t h e d e t o n a t i o n , a n d t h e

s t r u c t u r e ' s d i s t a n c e from t h e p o i n t o f d e t o n a t i o n . I n g e n e r a l ,

s t r u c t u r e s m u s t be r e l a t i v e l y c lose t o t h e d e t o n a t i o n t o e x p e r i -

e n c e s i g n i f i c a n t g r o u n d s h o c k e f f e c t s .

When a n u c l e a r d e v i c e i s d e t o n a t e d o v e r a f l a t , r e l a t l v e l y

d r v s u r f a c e t h a t r e f l e c t s t h e r m a l e n e r g y , a h o t laver of a i r is p r o d u c e d n e a r t h e s u r f a c e . T h i s thermal l a y e r , r e f e r r e d t o a s

t h e "preshock thermal l a y e r , " c a n c a u s e t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a n a u x i l i a r y b l a s t w a v e , c a l l ed a "precursor ." T h e p r e c u r s o r m o v e s

i n a d v a n c e of t h e m a i n b l a s t w a v e a n d r e m a i n s close t o t h e

s u r f a c e a s i t m o v e s o u t w a r d s from g r o u n d zero.

T h e f o r m a t i o n of a p r e c u r s o r may a l t e r t y p i c a l b l a s t wave

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c o n s i d e r a b l y . T h e p e a k o v e r p r e s s u r e a t t h e b l a s t

24

front may be reduced and be less sharply delineated than under ideal conditions. Oscillations of the dynamic pressure and

overpressure may a l s o occur. These alterations caused by the

precursor may or may not be apparent in a particular nuclear detonation, and the effects cannot be generalized.

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CHAPTER 2

BASIC RADIATION PHYSICS

Nuclear detonations produce ionizing radiation, in addition to blast effects and heat. This chapter defines ionizing radiation and describes the various types of radiation associated with a nuclear detonation. In addition, this chapter discusses the major phases of radiation emissions from a nuclear detonation, the types of radiation that characterize each phase, and the interaction of these radiations with the surrounding medium.

2.1 TYPES OF IONIZING RADIATION

Nuclear radiations resulting from a nuclear detonation consist of alpha and beta particles, neutrons, and gamma ravs. These radiations have sufficient energy to strip an electron from an atom, either directly or indirectly, leaving a positively charged particle and a negatively charged free electron. The process of stripping an electron from an atom is called "ionization," and the resulting positively charged particle and negatively charged electron are called an "ion pair." Because ions are highly reactive, they can disrupt chemical processes and cause biological damage.

2.1.1 Alpha Radiation

Alpha particles are composed of two protons and two neutrons and thus haye a double positive charge. Alpha particles are identical to the nucleus of a helium atom. Because of their relatively large mass and charge, they readilv interact with nearby atoms. I n their passage through matter, alpha particles lose their energy rapidly and produce a great deal of ionization

26

in a short distance. They have a range of only a few centimeters in air and are incapable of penetrating clothing or even the outer layer of unbroken skin. Therefore] alpha radiation poses no external exposure hazard. However, alpha-emitting materials can enter the body by ingestion, inhalation] or through broken skin and may possibly constitute a hazard.

2.1.2 Neutron Radiation

Neutrons are uncharged nuclear particles. They can travel hundreds of meters in air and readily penetrate tissue or other matter. Because neutrons are electrically neutral, ionization produced by their interaction with matter is almost totallv indirect. For example, when a neutron collides with a hydrogen atom, the neutron transfers some or all of its energy to the nucleus. If enough of the kinetic energy of the neutron is transferred, the nucleus can be knocked free from its bond with other atoms. This positively charged nucleus then causes ionization as it travels through matter. A s neutrons collide with nuclei in their path, they lose energy and are eventually absorbed (captured) by the nuclei. When these neutrons are absorbed] the absorbing nucleus may emit ionizing radiation, such as a gamma ray.

2.1.3 Beta Radiation

Beta particles are ejected from excited, unstable nuclei and are physically identical to electrons moving at high speed. Beta particles may, however, be either negatively or positively charged. Unlike alpha particles] which are emitted at well- defined energy levels from a given radionuclide, beta particles are emitted with a range of energies up to some maximum value. The mass of a beta particle at rest is the same as the mass of an electron] about 1 / 1 , 8 0 0 that of a proton. Beta particles produce ionization in matter, but because of their exceedinglv small mass

27

and great velocity, they do not produce nearly as much ionization per unit of distance as do alpha particles. Beta particles may travel several meters in the air before being absorbed. In more dense material, such as body tissue, high-energy beta particles may travel up to a centimeter. Clothing normally provides adequate protection from beta radiation. Therefore, beta radiation is a hazard only when beta-emitting materials are elther in direct contact with the skin or are inhaled or

ingested.

2.1.4 Gamma Radiation

Gamma radiation is a form of electromagnetic energy. Gamma rays are parcels of energv called photons with no electrical charge and no rest mass. Other tvpes of electromagnetic energy include visible light, radio waves, microwaves, and X-rays.

Gamma rays are emitted from the nucleus as excess energy as a result of some nuclear de-excitation. They are emitted wlth well-defined energies for a given radionuclide. Gamma rays of several different energies can be e,jected simultaneously. In general, gamma rays have ranges of hundreds of meters in air, and they can readily penetrate matter. Because they are highly penetrating, gamma rays pose a significant external exposure hazard. Dense materials, such as lead and steel, are often used as shields against gamma radiation.

2.2 RADIATION RESULTING FROM A NUCLEAR DETONATION

The radiation resulting from a nuclear detonation has been categorized as "initial" and "residual .I1 Initial radiation is defined as the radiation emitted from the fireball and radioactive cloud within the first minute after the detonation. Initial radiation includes "prompt" radiation, which is emitted

28

almost simultaneously with the detonation. Residual radiation is the radiation emitted from radioactive fission products, unused nuclear material, and neutron-induced radioactive materials more than one minute after the detonation.

2.2.1 Initial Radiation

Initial radiation includes gamma rays, neutrons, and alpha and beta particles; however, because of the extremelv short ranges of alpha and beta particles, they are of little consequence as a potential hazard.

Gamma ravs emitted as initial radiation originate in a num-

ber of ways. First, gamma rays result from the fission process itself. Second, the neutrons that escape without producing fur- ther fissioning may interact with or be captured by nonfission- able material, such as the weapon case or nitrogen in the air. These interactions may produce excited, unstable nuclei that release the excess energv as gamma rays. Finallv, gamma ravs are also emitted by the radioactive fission products that are produced in the detonation.

Neutrons are a l s o part of the initial radiation emitted during a nuclear detonation. Essentially all of the neutrons are released either in the fission or fusion process. All fusion neutrons and more than 99 percent of the fission neutrons are emitted almost immediately. These are referred to as "prompt" neutrons. The remaining fission neutrons, called "delayed" neutrons, are released within the first minute and also constitute part of the initial radiation.

2.2.2 Residual Radiation

By definition, residual radiation is that radiation emitted more than one minute after the detonation. The source, extent, and significance of this radiation are influenced by factors such

29

as the design and yield of the nuclear device, the location of the detonation with respect to the earth's surface, and meteorological conditions.

The residual radiation from a weapon detonated high in the air emanates primarily from the radioactive fission products, unfissioned nuclear material (plutonium, uranium, or both), and weapon debris made radioactive by neutron-activation. These sources of radiation vary with the yield and design of the nuclear device. F o r example, a thermonuclear (fission-fusion) device would produce fewer radioactive fission products than a pure fission device of the same yield. The weapon design, which encompasses factors such as size and materials, a l s o influences the quantity and type of neutron-induced activity produced.

These radiation sources are of little consequence a s long as they remain in the air; however, eventually they settle to the ground as "fallout." The time until fallout is a function of the height and yield of a detonation; that is, the greater the yield, the higher the radioactive debris will be lifted and the longer it will take to fall to the ground.

In surface or low-altitude detonations, elements and minerals in the soil can be made radioactive by interaction with neutrons. For example, neutrons released by such nuclear detonations can transform the stable isotope of sodium, an abundant element in most soils, into radioactive sodium-24. Other common soil constituents that can be neutron-activated include manga- nese, iron, silicon, and aluminum. Neutron activation can also make many of the metals used in building materials radioactive. These materials then contribute to residual radiation.

I

30

2.3 Fallout from Nuclear Detonations

Generally, fallout represents an acute hazard only when the nuclear detonation occurs on or near the surface of the earth. In surface or low air detonations, the fireball actually touches the ground and vaporizes some of the rock, soil, and other materials that are in the area. These materials, along with the fission products and unfissioned nuclear material, are then in a gaseous form within the fireball and are carried aloft as the fireball ascends. Dust and other particles that have been carried aloft by the fireball become contaminated as they are thoroughly mixed with the vaporized nuclear debris.

Eventually these radioactive particles cool, condense, and either fall back to the earth or remain suspended in the atmosphere for indefinite periods of time. Early fallout is defined as that which reaches the ground during the first 24 hours following a nuclear detonation. The early fallout contains the larger, heavier particles and can produce fairly high levels of radioactive contamination over large areas. Delayed fallout, which reaches the ground more than 24 hours after the detonation, consists of very fine particles that settle in low concentrations over a considerable portion of the earth's surface. The radioactivity level of delayed fallout is greatly reduced as a result of radioactive decay during the relatively long time the particles remain in the upper atmosphere. The radionuclides with short half-lives contribute more prominently to early fallout, while those with longer half-lives become prominent in delayed fallout. This occurs because the short-lived nuclides have usually decayed by the time the delayed fallout settles to the earth's surface.

The immediate concern related to fallout is the external exposure hazard from beta and gamma radiation produced by the fission products. Many different fission products are included in the fallout. Fission products are a complex mixture of over 300 different nuclides of 35 or more elements, and practically

31

all of these nuclides are radioactive. In general, the gamma radiation from fission products taken as a whole decreases with time according to the following approximation: for everv seven- fold increase in time, the gamma intensity decreases by a factor of ten. For example, the gamma intensity seven days after the explosion is about one-tenth of that occurring one day after the explosion. This rule is applicable for up to six months following the detonation. After six months, the gamma intensity decreases even more rapidly.

The uranium or plutonium components of the weapon that do not fission are a lso a part of the nuclear fallout. These elements have extremely long half-lives of thousands of years. Because they emit primarily alpha particles, fallout particles containing uranium and plutonium do not constitute an external exposure problem but can be hazardous if inhaled or ingested.

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CHAPTER 3

RADIATION MEASUREMENTy INSTRUMENTATION, AND PROTECTION

This chapter explains basic units of radiation measurement and briefly describes instruments used to detect and to measure radiation. The chapter also outlines the basic principles of radiation protection.

3.1 UNITS OF RADIATION

The roentgen, abbreviated R , is the unit that expresses the amount of ionization that gamma or X-radiation produces in air. One roentgen of gamma radiation forms 2.08 x l o9 ion pairs per cubic centimeter of air. When converted to units of energy, this is equivalent to the deposition of 88 ergs per gram of air at standard temperature and pressure. It is important to note that the roentgen is a measure of the gamma or X-radiation intensitv or exposure in air, not a measure of radiation dose.

The rad (radiation absorbed dose) is the unit currently used to express the dose absorbed from any ionizing radiation in any material. A rad is defined as the absorption of 100 ergs of

energy per gram of material, regardless of the type of radiation involved. Exposure to 1 roentgen of X or gamma radiation results in an absorbed dose of approximately 1 rad.

The rem (roentgen equivalent man) is the unit of biological dose equivalent. Dose equivalent is defined as the product of the absorbed dose (in rads) and other necessary modifving factors such as the quality factor ( Q F ) , which takes into account the effectiveness of a particular type of radiation in producing

33

biological damage. This makes it possible to express the radiation dose in terms of a common unit for all ionizing radiation. F o r internal organ dose calculations, a distribution factor (DF) is also used. This factor adjusts the dose equivalent to allow for nonuniform distribution of the radioactive material within the organ.

3.2 RADIATION DETECTION, EXTERNAL EXPOSURE

Since the human senses are incapable of perceiving ionizing radiation, special instruments are necessary to detect radiation. This section describes various methods used to detect and measure radiation.

3.2.1 Radiation Survey Instrumentation

Several different types of portable survey instruments can detect and measure the intensitv of ionizing radiation. A l l of these instruments measure radiation indirectly by detecting and evaluating an event (primarily ionization) caused hv the radiation in some medium. The types of instruments differ primarily in the medium in which the event takes place and in the method by which this event is detected and measured. Most portable survey instruments fall into two general categories: gas ionization detectors and scintillation detectors. The gas ionization detector takes advantage of the ionization produced when radiation passes through a gas; the scintillation detectors depend on the property of certain materials to emit light (scintillate) when struck by ionizing radiation.

Gas Ionization Detectors

As the name implies, this category of detectors uses a gas as the detection medium. The typical detector consists of a cylindrical or rectangular chamber with a wire strung through the

3 4

center. This central wire is insulated from the chamber walls and has a positive charge. The chamber is filled with air or a gas such as argon, and this gas-filled space serves as the sensitive volume. Radiation that enters tho sensitive volume ionizes the gas. This produces free electrons, which, because they are negatively charged, are attracted to the positively charged central wire, also known as the anode. A s these electrons are collected on the anode, they neutralize and reduce the charge. This reduction in charge can be measured and used as an indication of the amount of radiation present.

The three basic types of gas ionization detectors are the ionization chamber, t h e proportional counter, and the Geiger-Mueller detector. The primary difference between these detector types is the amount of voltage differential applied between the central anode and the chamber wall.

The ionization chamber instrument operates at a voltage potential just great enough to collect all of the free electrons produced by the ionizations taking place in the chamber. Bv

increasing this voltage, the free electrons produced bv the original ionizing event can be accelerated to the point that thev cause additional ionization as they are attracted toward the central anode. These secondary ionizations also produce electrons that are attracted to the anode adding to the neutraliza- tion of the charge. I f the voltage differential is greatlv increased, ionization can be amplified to the point that nearly all of the gas in the chamber is ionized whenever a single ionizing event takes place. This greatly increases the sensitivity of the detector. Geiger-Mueller detectors operate at such a voltage and are thus best suited for monitoring low-level radiation where high sensitivity is needed. Ionization chamber instruments are the least sensitive of the gas ionization detectors; therefore, they are generally used as high-range instruments. Proportional counters, which operate at an intermediate voltage, are not commonly used for field survevs.

35

Gas ionization instruments can be used to detect all forms of ionizing radiation. Since the radiation must penetrate the chamber before it can be detected, the type of radiation to be measured must be considered in the chamber design. For example, the chamber walls of an alpha radiation detector must be constructed of an ultra-thin material that will allow entrv of

the alpha particle. On the other hand, the chamber walls of a gamma detector can be fairly substantial because gamma rays are highly penetrating. The chamber walls of beta-gamma detectors normally have a thin window of mica or other light material that can be opened or closed depending on whether or not beta particles are to be detected.

Scintillation Detectors

Another kind of portable s u r v e y meter is the scintillation detector. This detector consists of a phosphorescent material that emits light, or scintillates, when irradiated and a system to convert the light into electrical energy, amplify it, and measure the electrical output. Scintillation detectors can detect alpha and beta particles, and they are especially efficient in measuring gamma radiation.

3.2.2 Personnel Dosimetry

Film badges and pocket dosimeters are generally used to determine the wearer's cumulative external exposure to X-radiation or gamma radiation. These devices are worn by personnel working in a radiation environment.

Film Badges

Photographic film is sensitive to ionizing radiation in much the same manner that it is to light. Processed or developed film that has been exposed to radiation will exhibit a darkening or increased optical density that can be related to the degree of

36

e x p o s u r e . T h i s o p t i c a l d e n s i t y c a n be m e a s u r e d w i t h a d e n s i -

tometer a n d c o m p a r e d w i t h a c a l i b r a t e d s t a n d a r d t o es t imate t h e

e x p o s u r e . U s i n g t h i s t e c h n i q u e , p h o t o g r a p h i c f i l m w o r n i n t h e

form of a b a d g e c a n m e a s u r e an i n d i v i d u a l ' s c u m u l a t i v e gamma

r a d i a t i o n e x p o s u r e .

T v p i c a l l y , t h e f i l m i s wrapped i n a l i g h t - t i g h t p a p e r packet l i n e d w i t h a v e r y t h i n l a y e r of lead . T h i s t h i n l ave r o f l e a d

h a s two p u r p o s e s . F i r s t , i t f i l t e r s o u t v e r y low e n e r g y gamma r a y s , w h i c h are of l i t t l e b io logica l s i g n i f i c a n c e b u t c a u s e a

d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e c h a n g e i n t h e o p t i c a l d e n s i t y o f t h e f i l m . S e c o n d , t h e lead l a v e r h e l p s t o i n t e n s i f y t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f h i g h

e n e r g y gamma r a d i a t i o n w i t h t h e f i l m . T h e f i l m packet i s p l a c e d

i n s i d e a p l a s t i c h o l d e r c l i p p e d t o t h e o u t e r c l o t h i n g . The b a d g e

i s u s u a l l y w o r n o n t h e ches t . F i g u r e 3-1 p r e s e n t s a d r a w i n g of a t y p i c a l f i l m b a d g e h o l d e r .

P h o t o g r a p h i c f i l m w i l l r e s p o n d t o t h e i o n i z i n g e f f e c t s o f

a n v r a d i a t i o n t h a t reaches i t . The l e a d - l i n e d p a p e r w r a p p e r w i l l

f i l t e r o u t a l p h a r a d i a t i o n a n d w i l l a l s o a t t e n u a t e v e r y low

e n e r g y b e t a r a d i a t i o n . T h e p l a s t i c f i l m h o l d e r w i l l absorb most o f t h e o the r be ta r a d i a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , t o d e t e c t be ta r a d i a t i o n

e x p o s u r e , a "window" i s commonlv p r o v i d e d i n t h e f i l m h o l d e r . G a m m a r a d i a t i o n w i l l e a s i l y pene t ra te t h e p l a s t i c h o l d e r . T h u s , by c o m p a r i n g t h e e x p o s u r e due t o gamma recorded bv t h e "closed"

p o r t i o n o f t h e f i l m w i t h t h e e x p o s u r e d u e t o beta a n d gamma

recorded b y t h e " o p e n " p o r t i o n , t h e p a r t a t t r i b u t a b l e m a i n l y t o

be t a c a n be e v a l u a t e d .

A l t h o u g h n e u t r o n r a d i a t i o n is n o t d i r e c t l y i o n i z i n g , f i l m

c a n be u s e d t o record n e u t r o n e x p o s u r e s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , n e u t r o n f i l m d o s i m e t r y was i n i t s i n f a n c y a t t h e time of t h e n u c l e a r

tests a n d was n o t u s e d o t h e r t h a n e x p e r i m e n t a l l y .

37

38

Direct-reading Dosimeters

Film badges must be processed before they can furnish information on radiation exposure. Direct-reading pocket dosimeters, on the other hand, provide instantaneous information on cumulative exposure. These dosimeters are used primarily to measure X-radiation or gamma radiation.

Pocket dosimeters are typically about the size and shape of a writing pen, a s indicated in figure 3-2. The dosimeter consists of a small ionization chamber coupled to a miniature electrostatic meter and an optical reading system. A charge is applied to the chamber so that the electrostatic meter reads zero. As radiation ionizes the air in the chamber, the applied charge is dissipated. The loss of charge is directly proportional to the radiation exposure. The accumulated exposure can be determined at any time by aiming the instrument at a light source and reading a scale. The dosimeter can be used again after it has been recharged. The operating range of pocket dosimeters varies considerably; typical ranges are 0 to 200 mR and 0 to 10 R .

I f a pocket dosimeter is dropped or jarred, it can discharge and indicate an exposure when none has actually occurred. Dosimeters may a l s o leak their charge in conditions of high humidity. For these reasons, two dosimeters are usually worn close together, and the lowest reading is taken as the exposure estimate.

3.3 RADIATION MEASUREMENT, INTERNAL EXPOSURE

Radioactive material may enter the body by ingestion, inhalation, or, in certain cases, by direct penetration of the skin (absorption or through an open wound). Once inside the body, the material continues to be a source of radiation exposure until it is eliminated through biological processes, radioactive decay, or a combination of both.

39

Figure 3-2: POCKET DOSIMETERS (SMITH)

40

To calculate the dose resulting from internal deposition, it is first necessary to estimate the quantity of radioactive material that has entered the body. Once this has been estimated, calculations based on many factors, such as the chemical, physical, and radiological properties of the material as well as its biological fate, are used to figure the dose received by the individual.

The following paragraphs briefly summarize methods used to determine the quantity of radioactive material that may have entered the body.

3.3.1 Air Sampling

Samples of airborne radioactive material are customarily collected by drawing a known volume of air through a filter and analyzing the filter in a laboratory. The physical state of the airborne material dictates the type of filter required. For example, a paper filter of good quality can be used to sample most airborne particulate matter. For gaseous material, such as certain iodine compounds, an activated charcoal filter must be used to collect the material by adsorption on the filter media. Air also can be sampled by simply collecting a known volume in a special container, such as an evacuated bottle. The air is then transported to the laboratory for analysis using appropriate instrumentation. The amount of radioactive material inhaled can be calculated by multiplying the airborne concentration (quantity per unit volume) by a standard breathing rate and volume and the duration of exposure. Since the retention of radioactive particles in the lung depends on the size of the particles, the calculation may also consider the particle sizes.

Swabbing the nasal passages with moistened cotton swabs and analyzing the swabs for radioactivity is often used as an indicator of possible inhalation exposure. However, this technique cannot quantify the exposure.

41

3 . 3 . 2 Water and Food Sampling

Samples of water or food can also be submitted to special laboratories for analysis. Again the amount of intake is calculated bv multiplying the concentration of radioactive material in the water or food bv the quantity of water or food ingested.

3 . 3 . 3 Bioassays/Biological Sampling

In certain cases, samples of body tissue, exhaled breath, or excreta (urine and feces) can be analyzed in a laboratory to determine the quantity of radioactive material within the body. Such determinations require knowledge of the biological characteristics of particular radionuclides in order to calculate the amount of intake.

3.3.4 Whole-body Counting

A whole-body counter is useful when the internal source is a gamma radiation emitter. This device employs a heavily shielded enclosure large enough to hold the person being monitored in an environment with low background radiation. This allows measurement of extremely low levels of radiation emitted from sources within the body.

The previous sections have presented the general methodology used to determine an individual's exposure to external and internal ionizing radiation. The following section discusses the methods f o r reducing exposure to external and internal radiation.

3.4 RADIATION PROTECTION

The basic principle of radiation protection is to minimize an individual's exposure to ionizing radiation. External radiation exposure is reduced by lessening or eliminating the amount

42

o f r a d i a t i o n t h a t i m p i n g e s u p o n t h e b o d y . Among t h e most e f f ec - t i v e m e a n s of r e d u c i n g e x t e r n a l e x p o s u r e a r e u s i n g S h i e l d i n g

m a t e r i a l , i n c r e a s i n g t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e s o u r c e of r a d i a t i o n ,

a n d r e d u c i n g e x p o s u r e time. A m e t h o d f o r r e d u c i n g i n t e r n a l

e x p o s u r e is t o p r e v e n t i n t e r n a l d e p o s i t i o n t h r o u g h t h e u s e of

p r o t e c t i v e e q u i p m e n t , s u c h as resp i ra tors .

The i n t e n s i t y o f r a d i a t i o n d e c r e a s e s i n i n v e r s e p r o p o r t i o n

t o t h e s q u a r e of t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m a p o i n t s o u r c e . I n g e n e r a l terms, t h i s m e a n s t h a t f o r e v e r y d o u b l i n g o f d i s t a n c e a w a y f r o m

t h e r a d i a t i o n s o u r c e , t h e r a d i a t i o n i n t e n s i t y decreases b y a

f a c t o r of f o u r . T h e r e f o r e , i n d i v i d u a l s c a n be p r o t e c t e d from

e x p o s u r e s i m p l y b y k e e p i n g them away from t h e s o u r c e o f rad ia -

t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , a p e r s o n located 100 meters f r o m a gamma

r a d i a t i o n p o i n t s o u r c e w o u l d be e x p o s e d t o o n e - q u a r t e r o f t h e

r a d i a t i o n t o w h i c h a p e r s o n located 50 meters from t h e s o u r c e w o u l d be e x p o s e d . T h i s e x a m p l e p e r t a i n s o n l y t o a n i n d i v i d u a l e x p o s e d t o a p o i n t s o u r c e of r a d i a t i o n , n o t f r o m a s o u r c e

d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r a l a r g e area ( s u c h a s f a l l o u t d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r a

l a r g e s u r f a c e a r e a ) .

A n o t h e r method of r e d u c i n g r a d i a t i o n e x p o s u r e i s t o i n s e r t s h i e l d i n g mater ia l b e t w e e n t h e r a d i a t i o n s o u r c e a n d t h e

p e r s o n n e l . Normal c l o t h i n g p r o v i d e s a d e q u a t e p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t a l p h a a n d l o w - e n e r g y be ta p a r t i c l e s . S p e c i a l s h i e l d i n g i s

r e q u i r e d f o r gamma a n d n e u t r o n r a d i a t i o n s , h o w e v e r , s i n c e t h e y c a n r e a d i l y p e n e t r a t e m a n y materials. H i g h - d e n s i t y m a t e r i a l s , s u c h as lead a n d i r o n , a r e commonly u s e d i n gamma r a y s h i e l d s ; h o w e v e r , these mater ia l s a l o n e are n o t a s e f f e c t i v e a g a i n s t n e u t r o n s . T o s h i e l d e f f e c t i v e l y a g a i n s t n e u t r o n s , t h e

mater ia l (s) m u s t f i r s t slow t h e n e u t r o n a n d t h e n absorb i t .

Materials s u c h a s i r o n or barium are c o m m o n l y u s e d t o d e c e l e r a t e v e r y h i g h - s p e e d n e u t r o n s t o a n intermediate s p e e d . T h e s e

"

43

i n t e r m e d i a t e - s p e e d n e u t r o n s are t h e n slowed f u r t h e r by t h e u s e of

ma te r i a l s c o n t a i n i n g e l e m e n t s o f low atomic w e i g h t ( f o r e x a m p l e ,

water or p a r a f f i n ) u n t i l t h e n e u t r o n s reach a p o i n t where t h e y

c a n be absorbed by mater ia ls s u c h a s b o r o n or h y d r o g e n .

The t h i r d me thod of c o n t r o l l i n g r a d i a t i o n e x p o s u r e i s t o

k e e p e x p o s u r e t o a minimum by l i m i t i n g t h e a m o u n t o f time i n d i - v i d u a l s s p e n d i n r a d i a t i o n a r e a s . G a m m a r a d i a t i o n i n t e n s i t i e s

c a n be m o n i t o r e d b y s u r v e y meters. T h e s e d a t a o n e x p o s u r e r a t e s c a n t h e n be u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e l e n g t h of time i n d i v i d u a l s c a n

s t a y i n a n a rea before r e a c h i n g a p r e d e t e r m i n e d e x p o s u r e l e v e l .

R a d i a t i o n e x p o s u r e c a n be f u r t h e r m i n i m i z e d bv a l l o w i n g t h e

r a d i o a c t i v i t y i n a n area t o decay t o safe l e v e l s before

p e r m i t t i n g e n t r y o f p e r s o n n e l . R a d i a t i o n emitted from a r a d i o a c t i v e s o u r c e s t e a d i l y decreases w i t h t i m e , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e

h a l f - l i f e of t h e r a d i o a c t i v e mater ia l .

3 .4 .2 O t h e r P r o t e c t i v e M e a s u r e s

T o p r o t e c t p e r s o n n e l from i n t e r n a l e x p o s u r e , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o p r e v e n t them f r o m i n h a l i n g o r i n g e s t i n g r a d i o a c t i v e mater ia l a n d a l s o t o p r e v e n t r a d i o a c t i v e mater ia l s from e n t e r i n g t h e body

t h r o u g h a w o u n d . A n t i c o n t a m i n a t i o n c l o t h i n g a n d r e s p i r a t o r y

e q u i p m e n t c a n be u s e d t o p r o t e c t i n d i v i d u a l s from i n t e r n a l e x p o s u r e .

A n t i c o n t a m i n a t i o n C l o t h i n g

A n t i c o n t a m i n a t i o n c l o t h i n g c o n s i s t s g e n e r a l l y o f c o v e r a l l s , shoe c o v e r s , g l o v e s , a n d caps . T h e s p e c i f i c t y p e of c l o t h i n g

worn i s d i c t a t e d by weather c o n d i t i o n s , work t o be p e r f o r m e d , a n d

a n t i c i p a t e d c o n t a m i n a t i o n l e v e l s . The p r o p e r wear of a n t i c o n t a m -

i n a t i o n c l o t h i n g , u s e d e i t h e r i n place o f o r o v e r r e g u l a r a p p a r e l , i n c l u d e s o v e r l a p p i n g c o v e r a l l c u f f s o n g l o v e s a n d boots

a n d s e c u r i n g t h e c u f f s w i t h t a p e . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e c o v e r a l l s a re

44

buttoned and taped at the neck. Removal of this clothing upon leaving a contaminated area helps to control the spread of radioactive material into uncontrolled areas.

Respiratory Protective Equipment

Respiratory protective devices are designed to prevent individuals from inhaling radioactive materials. Some respirators remove the contamination from the inhaled air, while others supply clean air from an uncontaminated source.

An air-purifying respirator consists of a cartridge or canister through which the air is inhaled. Contaminants are removed by filtration, absorption, or adsorption. Particulate matter is effectively removed by filtration, but gases and vapors must b e absorbed or adsorbed by special chemicals or activated charcoal. The filtration system is contained in cartridges that attach to the respirators.

An air-supplying respirator receives air from either an air line or a portable air supply tank. Air-supplying respirators give the most complete respiratory protection against airborne radioactivity.

The efficiency of any respirator, whether air-purifying or air-supplying, depends upon its fit. If the respirator does not fit properly, it may leak and not protect adequately. The mask should always be checked for proper fit before use.

45

CHAPTER 4

DEVELOPMENT OF RADIATION PROTECTION STANDARDS

This chapter addresses the evolution of protection guidelines for external exposure to radiation as developed by national and international authorities. The chapter discusses changes in the terminologv used in radiation protection before concluding with a chronology of radiation protection milestones.

4.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE STANDARDS

Scientific recognition and identification of ionizing radiations occurred in the late 19th century. In 1895, Wilhelm Roentgen observed that photographic film darkened when placed near an operating cathode tube. He demonstrated that invisible rays emanating from the cathode tube were responsible for darkening the film. He called these invisible rays "X-rays. '' In 1896,

Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium emitted similar kinds of rays. These rays, along with X-rays, were shown to produce electrical charges in air, and for this reason were referred to as "ionizing radiations.''

While continuing his work on X-rays, Roentgen discovered that most materials, including human tissue, were transparent to X-rays. This discovery led directly to medical and scientific uses of X-rays and launched the modern field of radiology.

Early radiographic equipment consisted of a simple X-ray tube that was completely unshielded: no attempts were made t o control the X-ray exposure of either the patient or the operator. By the end of 1896, many operators of X-ray devices were complaining of skin and eye irritations. These health effects were not considered serious, however, and no effort was made to

46

reduce or eliminate these symptoms until 1903, when an English radiologist expressed concern over the extensive exposure received by X-ray machine operators. Because of this concern, many radiologists began wearing protective clothing to reduce exposure to X-rays. This clothing included gloves and aprons lined with lead, eye goggles, and face shields. Such individual protective measures were later abandoned in favor of protective shielding built into the X-ray apparatus itself.

By the early 1920s, it was known that continued exposure to X-rays produced a reddening or erythema of the skin. The amount of X-radiation needed to produce this reddening was called the "erythema dose." The determination of this amount was a crude and subjective estimate of the dose since the extent of biological effect varied widely depending on the exposure, time of exposure, and individual tolerance. However, the erythema dose was the first attempt at quantifying radiation exposure.

It was soon realized that a more precise measure was required to quantify exposure to ionizing radiation. A standardized set of exposure criteria was needed to properly describe human exposure to radiation. In 1925, an international committee, called the International Commission on Radiological Units and Measurements (ICRU), was established to evaluate the problem of human exposure to radiation and to recommend standardized units and measurements that could be used to quantify radiation exposure. In 1928, this committee recommended adopting the roentgen as the standard unit of X-radiation exposure. Although the roentgen became a common unit for measuring radiation, it is a physical unit of exposure in air rather than a biological measure of absorbed dose.

Actual protection standards were not addressed until 1928, when the International X-ray and Radium Protection Commission was formed. This group is now the International Commission on Radio-

47

logical Protection (ICRP). In 1929, a similar organization, the American Advisory Committee on X-ray and Radium Protection, was founded in the United States. In 1934, the ICRP made its first recommendation of a tolerance level of exposure: 0.2 roentgens per day. Largely because of World War 11, the ICRP did not meet between 1937 and 1950, and this recommended limit remained in effect until 1950.

Like the ICRP and the ICRU, the American Advisory Committee

on X-ray and Radium Protection discontinued most of its work during World War 11. In the United States during the early 1940s, the major efforts in the radiation field were directed toward the development of nuclear weapons. The weapons program led to a vastly expanded radiation industry that called for an increased understanding of radiological control and safety measures. This awareness was reflected by the American Advisory Committee's recommendation that occupational exposure to radiation should be limited to 0.1 roentgen p e r dav. This recommended limit was used for radiation workers on the Manhattan Project.

After World War 11 , the American Advisory Committee reorgan- ized as the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP). In 1949, the NCRP made a number of basic decisions regarding radiation exposure, including the recommendation to lower the permissible dose to 0 . 3 roentgens per week. In addition, it recommended the adoption of Relative Biological Effectiveness ( R B E ) its a means for calculating absorbed dose from different types of radiation.

The NCRP introduced the term "permissible dose" in 1949 to

describe the maximum radiation dose that could be safelv received by an individual. The NCRP adopted this new term because data from biological studies showed that it could not be assumed that all effects have a threshold dose, below which n o effects would

48

result. In the case of genetic damage, effects might be expected at very low doses. The term "tolerance dose," which had been used up to that time, seemed to suggest a dose below which no effects would occur.

The change in terminology did not entirely eliminate the ambiguities associated with interpretation of radiation protection terms. "Permissible dose" does not explain who or what gives "permission" to receive a particular dose of radiation, especially since the NCRP is not a regulatory agencv and onlv makes recommendations about radiation protection measures. Terms that have been used synonymously with permissible dose have been "tolerable , I 1 "acceptable," and "allowable" dose. The specific application of these terms has been much debated, but for practical purposes, they can all be used when referring to a standardized maximum limit on the dose of radiation received hv an individual. The NCRP, however, has continued to use "permissible dose" when describing recommended radiation dose limits.

In 1950, the ICRP made new recommendations based on the data collected by the NCRP. T h e ICRP recommended at that time that the weekly exposure limit be lowered to 0.3 roentgens to agree with the NCRP recommended limit.

A t a joint meeting in 1953, t h e ICRP and the ICRU recom-

mended a new radiation unit, the rad. The rad, in contrast to the roentgen, is a unit of absorbed dose, not a unit of exposure. The ICRP and the ICRU also identified another new term, the rem, as the absorbed dose of any ionizing radiation that had the same biological effectiveness as one rad of X-radiation. The dose in rem was equal to the dose in rads multiplied by the appropriate RBE.

In 1956, because of concern over long-term exposures at low dose rates and possible genetic effects, both the NCRP and the

49

ICRP independently recommended reducing the permissible exposure level for radiation workers to 5 rem per vear. Thev also recommended that the total accumulated dose over the lifetime of an individual be restricted according to the age-proration for- mula D=5(N-18), where D is the total accumulated dose and N is the individual's age in years. Therefore, a radiation worker 28

years of age s h o u l d not have an accumulated lifetime dose greater than 50 rem [ 5 ( 2 8 - 1 8 ) = 5 0 ] . The NCRP and the ICRP adopted the age-prorated limit for whole body exposure in 1957.

Because of the increasing u s e of radiation and the potential exposure of the general population to radiation, several studies were commissioned and new organizations and agencies were established in the 1950s t o study problems related to radiation exposure. The National Academy of Science commissioned the Biologi- cal Effects of Atomic Radiation (BEAR) studv in 1955, which was continued as the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation (BEIR) study in 1972. The United Nations established its own scientific committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) in 1955.

Based on the findings of these studies, the ICRP and NCRP sug- gested an exposure limit for the general population of 0.5 rem per year.

The U.S. Federal Radiation Council (FRC) was formed by Executive Order in 1959 to guide Federal agencies in setting standards and criteria for radiation exposure. Before 1959, the Federal government had been using standards based on recommendations of the NCRP, ICRP, and the National Academy of Science. In 1960, the FRC adopted a basic set of standards essentially the same as that developed bv the NCRP in 1957. In 1970, the FRC was decommissioned and incorporated into the newly formed Environ- mental Protection Agency (EPA). The EPA had the responsibility of recommending radiation standards and limits pertaining to the environment in general.

I

For the most part, the guidelines for exposure to ionizing radiation set in 1957 by the NCRP and the I C R P have remained unchanged to the present time. In 1963, however, the NCRP and the I C R P recommended that the RBE be replaced by the Quality Factor ( Q F ) . Before 1963, the RBE was used to convert the dose in rads to the dose equivalent in rem. The RBE was an experi- mentally determined value that related the biological damage

caused by one type and energy of radiation to the damage caused by any other radiation. The QF is used as the multiplier to convert the absorbed dose (rads) to units of human dose equivalency (rem). Each type and in some cases each energy of radiation is assigned a specific QF based on its ability to produce ionization and its linear energy transfer value. In 1971, after completing a ten-year study and review of basic radiation protection criteria, the NCRP determined that no ma,jor changes should be made in the 1957 recommendations. Its statements of 1971 are currently used for radiation protection work.

This section has summarized significant developments in radiation protection standards. Since the first basic standards for radiation protection were established in 1934, they have been reduced twice. The first change, from 0.1 roentgen per day to 0.3 roentgens per week, occurred in 1949. The second change, from 0.3 rem per week to 5 rem per year, a threefold reduction, occurred in 1956. The reduction of the permissible standards has been based on theoretical concepts concerning genetic risks and on observed biological effects in animals, not on observed effects in humans. The radiation exposure standards currently used for human protection are as follows:

51

Dose Limi t Occupational Exposure Period ( rem 1

Whole body, head and trunk, Calendar Quarter 1.25' blood-forming organs, lens of the eye, gonads

Skin Calendar Quarter 7.5

Hands, forearms, feet, Calendar Quarter 18.75 and ankles

*Can be raised to 3 if when added to the accumulated occupational dose to the whole body, the total does not exceed 5(N-18) rem where N equals the individual's age in years at his last bir thday.

4.2 CHRONOLOGY OF RADIATION PROTECTION STANDARDS

This section summarizes events in the development of the radiation protection standards discussed in the preceding section.

1910-1920s: The "erythema dose" was identified and commonly used as an indicator of excessive exposure to X-radiation.

1928: The international commission that became the ICRU was formed. This commission adopted the "roentgen" as the international unit of radiation measurement. Although not a radiation protection unit, all subsequent radiation measurements and units were directly or indirectly based on the roentgen.

1934: The American Advisory Committee on X-rav and Radium Protection (now the NCRP) recommended a "tolerance dose" of 0.1 roentgen per day for radiation workers. The ICRP recommended a tolerance dose of 0.2 roentgens per day for radiation workers.

52

1949: The NCRP recommended a "permissible dose" of 0.3 roentgens per week. The NCRP recommended adoption of the terms "RBE" and "permissible dose."

1950: The I C R P adopted the NCRP 1949 recommendation of

0.3 roentgens per week permissible dose for radiation workers.

1953: The I C R P and ICRU introduced the units "rad" and "rem" t o express radiation absorbed dose.

1956: Both the NCRP and I C R P independently recommended lowering the permissible dose for radiation workers to 5 rem per year. In addition, they proposed a limit of 0 .5 rem per year for the general population.

1957: The NCRP and the I C R P adopted the "age-proration principle" of lifetime dose. According to this principle, the total accumulated dose an individual can receive over his lifetime is equal to 5 ( N - 1 8 )

rem, where N is the individual's age in vears.

1959: The FRC was established bv Executive Order to provide guidance to all Federal agencies proposing radiation standards and guidelines.

1960: The FRC developed its first set of standards, which were essentially the same as the 1957 standards of

the NCRP and I C R P , and proposed a permissible dose of 5 rem per gear.

1963: The I C R P recornmended adoption of the QF, instead of the RBE, to determine dose equivalency in humans. The commission also recommended that the RBE

53

continue to be used in experimental work but not in radiation protection.

1970: The authority of the FRC was transferred to the EPA.

1971: The NCRP completed a ten-year studv and review of radiation protection criteria. Basically, the council did not change the 1957 recommendations.

I

Appendix C presents data on radiation exposure standards specific to the U . S . nuclear test series.

54

CHAPTER 5

BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

Exposure to radiation that produces ionization can damage biological systems, as has been known for some time. The first documented case of human injury occurred only a few months after Iilhelm Roentgen announced the discovery of X-rays in 1895.

Since that time, much has been learned about exposure to ionizing radiation. However, many unknowns remain.

This chapter briefly summarizes some of the pertinent knowledge on biological effects. This general discussion is not intended as a full exposition of the biological effects of radiation. Rather, it presents key material drawn from basic sources such as The Medical Effects of Nuclear Weapons by the Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute, "Health Aspects of

Nuclear heapons Testing" by the Atomic Energy Commission, the BEIH 111 Report prepared by the Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiations, Glasstone and Dolan's The Effects of Nuclear Weapons, The Health Physics Technician Training Manual edited by Stroscheir and Maeser, and Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation by the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. (See the reference list for bibliographic information concerning these reports.) The reader should consult these and other volumes for a comprehensive presentation of this complex and controversial topic.

5.1 EXPOSURE

Individuals can be exposed to radiation from a nuclear detonation in several different ways. Persons located close to the detonation can be exposed to high levels of initial neutron and gamma radiation, even if they are adequately protected from the thermal and blast effects. Persons can be exposed to the

55

-

r e s i d u a l r a d i a t i o n from n e u t r o n - i n d u c e d r a d i o a c t i v i t y i n t h e s o i l a n d f r o m r a d i o a c t i v e f a l l o u t t h a t s e t t l e s t o t h e g r o u n d . I n t h e

former case , t h e e x p o s u r e i s c o n s i d e r e d " e x t e r n a l " ( t h a t i s , t h e r a d i a t i o n s o u r c e is l o c a t e d o u t s i d e t h e b o d y ) . I n t h e l a t t e r case , t h e e x p o s u r e c a n be e x t e r n a l o r " i n t e r n a l " i f t h e rad io-

a c t i v e mater ia l is t a k e n i n t o t h e body by i n h a l a t i o n , i n g e s t i o n ,

o r d i r e c t l y t h r o u g h t h e s k i n ( t h r o u g h a n o p e n w o u n d or i n some cases by a b s o r p t i o n ) . R a d i a t i o n e x p o s u r e s t h a t o c c u r w i t h i n a

r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t p e r i o d of time, a r b i t r a r i l y t a k e n a s 2 4 h o u r s , a r e termed " a c u t e e x p o s u r e s . 1 1 E x p o s u r e s t h a t o c c u r o v e r a l o n g e r

period of time are d e f i n e d as " c h r o n i c e x p o s u r e s . ' '

5 .2 CHRONOLOGY OF BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

T h e o b s e r v a b l e b i o l o g i c a l e f fec ts of a c u t e e x p o s u r e s

n o r m a l l y fol low a s e q u e n t i a l p a t t e r n . F o r c h r o n i c e x p o s u r e s ,

t h i s p a t t e r n may n o t be r e c o g n i z a b l e s i n c e these e f f e c t s o v e r l a p o n e a n o t h e r . G e n e r a l l y , h o w e v e r , t h e c h r o n o l o g y f o l l o w s t h e

p a t t e r n d e s c r i b e d below.

A time l a g , c a l l e d t h e l a t e n t p e r i o d , o c c u r s b e t w e e n t h e

i n i t i a l r a d i a t i o n e x p o s u r e a n d t h e f i r s t de t ec t ab le b i o l o g i c a l e f f e c t . T h i s p e r i o d c a n v a r y g r e a t l y . T h e l a r g e r t h e r a d i a t i o n e x p o s u r e , t h e s h o r t e r t h e l a t e n c y p e r i o d . T h e e f f e c t s t h a t

a p p e a r w i t h i n m i n u t e s , d a y s , o r weeks are a r b i t r a r i l y termed

" a c u t e " e f f ec t s . T h o s e a p p e a r i n g y e a r s , d e c a d e s , o r e v e n g e n e r a t i o n s l a t e r a r e c a l l e d " l o n g - t e r m " e f f ec t s . F o l l o w i n g t h e

l a t e n t per iod is a s t a g e of d e m o n s t r a b l e e f f e c t s , s u c h a s l o s s o f h a i r , a n d p o s s i b l y a p e r i o d o f r e c o v e r y , s i n c e some b i o l o g i c a l

e f f e c t s a r e s u b j e c t t o r e c o v e r y . For e x a m p l e , h a i r l o s t a s a

r e s u l t of r a d i a t i o n e x p o s u r e w i l l r e t u r n i f t h e i n d i v i d u a l

s u r v i v e s t h e i n i t i a l e x p o s u r e . T h e r e may, h o w e v e r , be r e s i d u a l d a m a g e f r o m w h i c h there i s n o r e c o v e r y . S u c h r e s i d u a l d a m a g e is t h e bas i s f o r l o n g - t e r m e f f e c t s .

56

5.3 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Several factors determine the extent of biological damage caused by radiation. These factors include the type of radiation absorbed by the body, the total amount of radiation absorbed by the body, the rate of exposure, the portion of the body exposed, the relative sensitivitv of certain body tissues to radiation, and individual variability in response to equivalent radiation dose.

5.3.1 Type of Radiation

The amount of radiation absorbed in a tissue is a function of the type and energy of the incident radiation. In most cases, alpha and beta radiation will be completely absorbed by body tissue, while gamma rays and neutrons may be only partially absorbed. F o r a given type of radiation, the greater its energy, the greater its penetration ability. However, the penetration ability of different types of radiation of equal energy varies widely. For instance, a high-energy alpha particle will not penetrate the outer layer of skin, whereas a fairly low-energy gamma ray will easily penetrate well into or even through the entire body. To consider another factor relative to the different types of radiation, living cells demonstrate a greater biological response to highly ionizing particles (such as alpha particles) that rapidly transfer their energy during transit than to radiations (such as beta particles and gamma rays) that do not transfer as much energy per unit of path length through tissue. In other words, some types of radiation are more effective than others in producing damage.

5.3.2 Total Amount of Radiation Absorbed

The amount of radiation absorbed is commonly termed "dose." As with most hazardous o r toxic agents, there is a quantitative relationship between the extent of damage, or effect, and the

57

dose received. The latency period for an observed effect, as stated earlier, usually decreases with increases in dose.

In considering almost all acute effects, there is a threshold dose below which the effect does not appear. For example, if a person were to expose groups of experimental animals to increasing levels of gamma radiation and look for an effect, such as vomiting, within one week after the exposure, he or she would observe a threshold dose below which none of the animals vomited. Once this threshold dose was exceeded, the percentage of animals vomiting would increase rapidly until the effect was observed in all exposed animals.

Today, many experts do not believe there is a threshold dose for most of the long-term biological effects. It is reasonably well established that the genetic effects of radiation follow a linear or a "non-threshold" dose-effect relationship. Consider- able evidence from animal experiments indicates that life span shortening and possibly carcinogenic effects also follow this relationship. More sensitive means of measuring these effects are, however, needed to confirm this relationship.

5.3.3 Rate of Radiation Absorption

The rate at which the radiation dose is received is a critical factor for most acute radiation effects. For example, in most cases, a given dose will produce much less of an effect if delivered over a period of several days rather than in a single exposure. This fact supports the theory that some recovery occurs between exposures. On the other hand, if permanent radiation damage results in some of the long-term effects, rate of radiation absorption is probably not a factor.

58

5.3.4 Area or Portion of the Body Exposed

Large doses of radiation that would be lethal if applied to the whole body can be administered to portions of the body without apparent danger. Therapeutic radiation doses are a prime example.

5 . 3 . 5 Relative Sensitivity of Certain Body Cells and Tissues

All cells and tissues are not equally sensitive to radiation. Several factors influence their degree of sensitivity. In general, cells and tissues that are rapidly growing or are being continually renewed or replaced are the most sensitive to radiation damage. Other factors include the degree of cell or tissue specialization and structure. The most radiosensitive tissues and cells include the lymphoid tissue (particularly lymphocytes), reproductive tissue, spleen, immature blood cells found in bone marrow, and the cells lining the gastrointestinal tract. The least sensitive tissues are bone, muscle, and nerve. Since the blood-forming organs, such as the spleen and bone marrow, are extremely radiosensitive, any shielding of these areas would materially lessen the effect of a whole body exposure.

5.3.6 Species and Individual Variability

Responses to equal radiation doses vary considerably among animal species and even within species. For example, a whole body exposure to 250 roentgens would be lethal to approximately 50 percent of exposed guinea pigs. Approximately 875 roentgens would be required to produce the same effect in rabbits.

5.4 CLINICAL EFFECTS

The clinical effects of exposure to ionizing radiation can range from a minor reddening of the skin (erythema) to death. The time interval between the exposure and the onset of these

59

effects generally depends on the amount of radiation absorbed in the critical body organs.

5.4.1 Acute Effects

"Radiation sickness" is the term commonly used to describe the acute effects of radiation exposure. These effects or symptoms are collectively referred to as "acute radiation syndrome." The following information summarizes the acute effects expected from increasing levels of radiation exposure of humans.

Doses of 25 to 100 rem

The individual receiving a radiation dose of 25 to 100 rem may show no sign of illness and should be able to continue with normal activities. This dose may produce slight changes in the blood, primarily a decrease in the number and in the composition of white blood cells. Doses of less than 25 rem normally cause no observable effects in the exposed individual.

Doses of 100 to 200 rem

A radiation dose ranging from 100 to 200 rem will result in illness but the effects should not be fatal. The initial phase, which persists for two or three days after exposure, will be characterized by slight fatigue, nausea, or vomiting. The latent period that follows may last up to two weeks. Complete recovery occurs in the final phase, unless complications occur due to infections or other injuries. Although the number of white blood cells decreases significantly, this decrease is usually not serious, and the white cell count customarilv returns to normal by the final phase of the illness.

Doses of 200 to 1,000 rem

The probability of survival is good at the lower end of this range but poor at the upper end. The initial phase, which continues for two or three days, has the characteristic symptoms

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associated with doses of 100 to 200 rem. The symptoms then discontinue, and the latent phase occurs for about two weeks. In this stage, the individual may feel relatively good and may even resume normal activities. The final phase occurs when earlier symptoms return, accompanied by diarrhea, fever, and loss of hair. Internal hemorrhaging also occurs at this time, and spontaneous bleeding from mucous membranes is common. Damage to the blood-forming organs (bone marrow) causes a severe depletion of the white blood cells. This leads to increased susceptibility to infection, which can be a serious complicating factor. If the resultant infection is not controlled, it can spread to vital organs and cause death. In general, for doses less than 600 rem, recovery i s possible if infections or other complications do not occur. F o r doses exceeding 600 rem, however, the chances f o r

survival are minimal even if no complications arise. Death usually occurs within two to eight weeks following exposure.

Doses over 1 , 0 0 0 rem

Doses ranging from about 1 , 0 0 0 to 5,000 rem cause irrepara- ble damage to the gastrointestinal and central nervous systems. Radiation damage to the gastrointestinal tract leads to infection, which causes severe diarrhea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and high fever. Damage to the central nervous system, usually from doses greater than 2,000 rem, causes complete loss of neuromuscular activity, intermittent stupor, and respiratory paralysis. For all doses exceeding 1,000 rem, death usually occurs within a few days of exposure.

Beta Burns

Beta radiation, generally considered an internal hazard, may be an external exposure hazard if particles emitting beta radiation are deposited on bare human skin. This exposure can cause a characteristic type of radiation skin burn called "beta burn .

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Information concerning the development and healing of beta burns has been obtained from observations of Marshall Islanders inadvertently exposed to fallout during a nuclear test at the Pacific Testing Ground. Particles from the early fallout settled on the bare skin of individuals. Within 48 hours, the contaminated individuals experienced an itching and burning sen- sation of the skin. These symptoms abated after one or two days but recurred about two or three weeks later. They were accompanied by loss of hair and burn lesions on the skin. The burns were usually limited to the outer layer of skin. After formation of a dry scab, the lesions healed rapidly, leaving an area of abnormal pigmentation. Normal pigmentation was usually restored after several months. Beta burns occurred only on parts of the body not protected by clothing o r other materials, such as the scalp, neck, and forearms.

5.4.2 Long-term Effects of Radiation Exposure

Some consequences of ionizing radiation may not become apparent until years after the time of exposure. Although these effects may occur later in life, they are most likely the result of changes induced in the cells and tissues at the time of radiation exposure. These effects may also become manifest following chronic, or long-term, exposure to levels of radiation that may not cause observable acute radiation sickness. The exact causes of these health effects and the reasons why a long latency period is required before they become apparent are not completely known.

Late-developing health effects include cataracts, leukemia and other types of cancer, retarded development of children exposed in utero, and genetic or hereditary effects. Since all of these effects also occur naturally, it is extremely difficult to identify specifically a radiation-induced long-term effect.

Cataracts, which are an opaqueness of the eye lens, occur commonly in elderly persons but are rare in individuals less than

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40 years of age. Cataracts were found in a number of Hiroshima and Nagasaki survivors considered too young to have developed natural cataracts. Numerous animal experiments have shown that neutron and, to a lesser extent, gamma radiation can cause cataracts. The available data strongly suggest that cataract formation is a threshold phenomenon. It has been estimated that acute neutron or gamma doses greater than 200 rem are necessary to cause cataracts in humans. The threshold for doses spread over a period of months is much higher. It usually takes a latency period of several months to years after exposure before cataracts become apparent in an individual.

Ninety percent of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki survivors who contracted leukemia received radiation doses greater than 200 rem (based on the best dose estimates currently available), but not all who received such a high dose developed the disease. This demonstrates the variance in susceptibility, mentioned earlier, within species. The data from the Hiroshima and Nagasaki survivors and other sources indicate that there is no threshold dose for leukemia and that the probability of causing leukemia is roughly proportional to the whole body dose. According to the 1977 report of the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR), an additional 15 to 25

cases of leukemia can be expected per million man-rads of dose of radiation such as X-rays or gamma rays. In other words, 98 cases of leukemia can be expected to occur naturally in a population of 1,000,000 persons. If each of these persons was to receive a radiation dose of 1 rad, an additional 15 to 25 cases would be expected.

Similar statistics have been developed for other types of cancer. While the scope of this manual does not permit a detailed review of the literature, the following example using data from the 1977 UNSCEAR report does provide good summary information. In a typical group of 10,000 Americans, national cancer statistics indicate that about 1,600 will eventually die

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of cancer. These are "natural" cancer deaths, not caused by exposure to excess man-made ionizing radiation. This estimate is so approximate that a variation of 50 to 100 such deaths would not be regarded as abnormal. Now, if each of these 10,000

individuals was exposed to 1 rem of ionizing radiation, cancer statistics show that there will be only one additional cancer death over the lifetimes of the 10,000 individuals. Thus, if the variation in natural cancer deaths ranges from 1,500 to 1,700 out of 10,000 individuals, and if a dose of 1 rem to each of these 10,000 individuals causes a statistical increase of only one more death, it is understandable that medical science has difficultv in identifying this effect with precision.

Information about abnormal prenatal and postnatal development of children following exposure to radiation comes from the Hiroshima and Nagasaki survivors. Pregnant women who received gamma and neutron doses greater than 200 to 250 rem (estimated) experienced an increased rate of stillbirths and of infant mortality within a year of b i r t h . The increases in infant mor- talities were significant only, however, when the mothers had been exposed during the last three months of pregnancy. Mothers who received doses greater than about 200 rem during the first three months of pregnancy delivered live infants, but a slight increase in the prevalence of mental retardation was noted. Some of the infants also experienced malformations of the teeth caused by radiation damage to the pulp and roots of the teeth.

The genetic or hereditary effects of nuclear radiation have not been documented in humans. Information about this subject comes exclusively from laboratory studies on experimental animals with relatively short generation times. Unfortunately, these data cannot be extrapolated to humans with any degree of certainty. It is possible, however, that excessive radiation exposure to the reproductive organs could cause changes in the genetic material of the chromosomes.

6 4

It has been known for some time that ionizing radiation is carcinogenic, that is, that it causes cancer. The mechanism for cancer production is not yet understood. The first recorded cases were skin cancers on the hands of early X-rav workers. Since then, the relationship between cancer in humans and radiation exposures has been documented in several cases. Notable examples include the:

a Occurrence of bone cancers among the first workers who applied a radium compound to watch dials

0 Increased incidence of leukemia among early radiologists and the survivors of the atomic bombings at Hiroshima and Nagasaki

a Increased incidence of thyroid cancers in certain patients treated by X-ray therapy.

The first evidence of increased incidence of leukemia among the Hiroshima and Nagasaki survivors appeared in 1947; the disease reached its peak in 1951 to 1952, five to seven years after the bombing.

5.5 HEALTH EFFECTS OF INTERNAL RADIATION EXPOSURE

Radioactive material can enter the body through an open wound, by inhalation, or by ingestion. Radiation exposure from these internal sources continues until the radioactivity completely decays or the source is eliminated from the body. Radioactive materials, upon entering the body, can be concentrated in certain organs or tissues, causing significant radiation exposure to these tissues. Internal deposition of the radioactive materials depends largely upon their chemical composition. For example, radioisotopes of iodine will follow the same metabolic pathways as normal iodine and become localized in the thyroid gland. Radioisotopes of cerium and strontium, chemically similar to calcium, are "bone-seekers" and become incorporated into the bone tissues.

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The size of the particle affects its entry and deposition into the body by inhalation. Larger particles are usually filtered out by the nose and upper air passages and are prevented from entering the lungs. Smaller particles not filtered out can reach the inner passages of the lungs. I f the particles are soluble in body fluids, they will be dissolved and will enter the bloodstream, where they will be transported to other body tissues or be eliminated from the body. If the particles are insoluble, they can remain in the lungs for long periods of time, until removed by normal body processes. The extent of damage t o the lungs caused by these inhaled particles apparently depends on the size of the particles, the type of radiation omitted, and the length of time in the lungs. Internal exposure of the lungs may lead to lung cancer, pneumonitis, or fibrosis.

Radioactive material can also enter the body through ingestion. Soluble particles are digested and enter the bloodstream, where they can be carried to other tissues or be eliminated from the body through the kidneys. Insoluble particles are carried through the gastrointestinal system and are eventually eliminated in the fecal matter.

The length of time a particular radioactive substance remains in the body depends on its "biological half-life." The biological half-life refers to the time required for the body to eliminate, through natural processes, half of the initial concentration of the radioactive substance. The combination of radiological and biological half-lives leads to the "effective half-life," which is a measure of the net rate of loss of a radioactive substance from the body by both decay and biological elimination. The total radiation dose delivered to the body or to a particular organ or tissue depends on the substance's effective half-life, the total quantity of the material in the organ or tissue, and the nature and energy of the radiation emitted from the material.

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In general, alpha- and beta-emitting substances taken internally can cause much more localized tissue damage than gamma-emitting substances. This occurs because alpha and beta radiations deposit essentially all of their energy within a small volume of tissue. It must be understood that this is a general description of the relative internal hazards associated with the different types of radiation. Very few radioactive substances emit only one type of radiation. Practically all beta emitters also emit gamma radiation, as do most alpha emitters. Therefore, deposition of radioactive substances in the body usually results in internal exposure to a variety of different types and energies of radiation.

A number of potentially harmful radionuclides are produced in a nuclear detonation. The number of radionuclides is too large to permit discussion of all of them here, but several of the more important radionuclides that occur as part of the fallout are discussed below.

Several different radioisotopes of iodine are in the fallout, and all of them are capable of entering the body and becom- ing deposited in the thyroid gland. This may lead to cancer of

the thyroid or some other metabolic change that disrupts the normal functioning of the gland. Other fission products include strontium-89, strontium-90, and barium-140. Strontium-89 and barium-140 have relatively short half-lives of a few weeks and represent a short-term radiation hazard. Strontium-90, however, has a half-life of 29 years and constitutes a long-term radiation hazard. All three of these radionuclides are biochemicallv similar to calcium and, upon entry into the body, are rapidly deposited into bone tissue. Strontium-90 is a special hazard because it is a major component of delayed fallout that occurs months or years after a nuclear detonation. It makes its way into the body primarily through plant food. Strontium-90 is a beta emitter and can cause serious localized damage to bone tissue. Experiments in animals indicate that large concentrations of strontium-90 can produce bone necrosis, bone tumors or

67 I

cancers, and leukemia. These health effects have also been observed in some humans.

Cesium-137 is another long-lived component of delayed fallout. It has a half-life of 30 years and decays by beta particle and gamma ray emission. Because delayed fallout continues to be deposited on the earth's surface for years, the amount of cesium- 137 and strontium-90 in plants and animals has accumulated over the years. If contaminated plants and animals are consumed by humans, the concentration of cesium-137 can build up within the body. Upon entry into the body, cesium-137 is usually dissolved and distributed uniformly throughout the body tissues. Because of this uniform distribution, the entire body can be irradiated by both beta and gamma radiation as the cesium-137 decays.

In addition to fission products, radioactive fallout may also contain some unfissioned plutonium, uranium, or both. These radionuclides emit alpha particles and are therefore hazardous if taken internally. In addition to being internal radiation hazards, they are chemically toxic. If taken into the body, they become localized primarily in the liver and bones. They have a long effective half-life and are capable of damaging these tissues. These radionuclides have been shown to produce malig- nancies in both liver and bone tissues of experimental animals.

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REFERENCES

Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute. The Medical Effects of Nuclear Weapons. Bethesda, MD.: AFRRI. 1977. 300 Pages.

Atomic Energy Commission. "Health Aspects of Nuclear Weapons Testing." Washington, D.C.: Atomic Energy Commission. 1964. 56 Pages.

Atomic Energy Commission. Nuclear Terms: A Brief Glossary. Oak Ridge, TN.: Atomic Energy Commission. 1967. 80 Pages.

Blatz, H. Introduction to Radiological Health. New York, NY.: McGraw-Hill Book Co. 1964. 288 Pages.

Brodskv, Allen B., ed. Handbook of Radiation Measurement and Protection, Section A , Volume 1: "Phvsical Science and Engineering Data. I' Cleveland, OH. : The CRC Press, Inc. 1978. 691 Pages. index.

Bureau of Radiological Health, Publication No. 2016. Radiological Health Handbook. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Washington, D.C.: USGPO. 1970 (Rev. Ed. ). 458 Pages. index.

Clark, G., ed. Encyclopedia of X-rays and Gamma Rays. New York, NY.: Reinhold Publishing Co. 1963. 1325 Pages.

Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiations. The Effects on Populations of Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation: 1980. [Short Title: BEIR 111.1 National Research Council. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. 1980. 524 Pages.

Defense Atomic Support Agency, Field Command, Nuclear Training Directorate. Basic Nuclear and Radiation Physics. Albuquerque, NM.: DASA, FC. 1967- 98 Pages. index.

Defense Atomic Support Agency, Field Command, Nuclear Training Directorate. Handbqok. of Radiation Detection. Albuquerque, NM.: DASA, FC. 1967. 95 Pages.

Department of Energv, Nevada Operations Office; Los Alamos National Laboratory; Lawrence Livermore National Laboratorv; and Sandia National Laboratories. "Announced United States Nuclear Tests, Julv 1945 through December 1981." fLas Vegas, NV.: DOE/Nevada Operations Office. 1 NVO-209 (Rev. 2). Januarv 1982. 68 Pages.

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Ehrlich, A. The Medical and Health Sciences World Book. Boston, MA.: Houghton Mifflin Company. 1977. 448 Pages.

Glasstone, Samuel; Dolan, Philip J. The Effects of Nuclear Weapons. 3rd Edition. Department of Defense and Department of Energy. Washington, D.C.: USGPO. 1977. 653 Pages. index.

Johns, H.; Cunningham, J. The Physics of Radiology. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas Publ. 1974. 790 Pages.

Moe, M. J.; Lasuk, S. R. Radiation Safety Technician Training Course - Part I. Argonne, Illinois: Atomic Energy Commission. 1964. 153 Pages.

National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Basic Radiation Protection Criteria. Washington, D.C.: NCRP. NCRP Report #39. 1971. 135 Pages. index.

National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Instrumentation and Monitoring Methods f o r Radiation Protection. Washington, D.C.: NCRP. NCRP Report #57. 1978. 77 Pages.

Reynolds Electrical and Engineering Company, Inc. "Radiological Safety Handbook for the Nevada Test Site 1957." Camp Mercury, Nevada: REECo. 1957. 29 Pages.

Smith, Francis S . , L t Col, USAF. USAF Radiac Equipment. Kirtland AFB, NM.: [USAF] Directorate of Nuclear Safetv, Life Sciences Advisory Group. LSAG 62-1. June 1962. 170 Pages.

Stroscheir, H. W.; Maeser, P. M., eds. Health Physics Technician Training Manual. Idaho: Atomic Energy Commission. 1966. 289 Pages.

Taylor, L. Radiation Protection Standards. Cleveland, OH.: The CRC Press. 1971. 110 Pages.

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation; 1977 Report to the General Assembly. [Short Title: UNSCEAR Report.] New York, NY. : UN. 1977. 725 Pages.

Wang, Y. ed. Handbook of Radioactive Nuclides. Cleveland. OH.: The CRC Press. 1969. 952 Pages. index.

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APPEND1 X A

GLOSSARY

71

APPENDIX A

GLJOSSARY

T h e f o l l o w i n g s c i e n t i f i c a n d t e c h n i c a l terms a re u s e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e series a n d s h o t v o l u m e s o n c o n t i n e n t a l a t m o s p h e r i c n u c l e a r w e a p o n s t e s t i n g .

ABSORBED DOSE

ACTIVITY

ACUTE R A D I A T I O N EXPOSURE

ACUTE R A D I A T I O N SICKNESS

AFTERWINDS

A I R BURST

T h e a m o u n t of e n e r g y a b s o r b e d p e r u n i t mass of i r r a d i a t e d material . A b s o r b e d d o s e i s m e a s u r e d i n rads .

T h e ra te o f d e c a y of r a d i o a c t i v e mater ia l e x p r e s s e d a s t h e n u m b e r o f r a d i o n u c l i d e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n s p e r u n i t time. T h e u n i t of a c t i v i t y i s t h e cur ie .

S h o r t - t e r m e x p o s u r e t o r a d i a t i o n , g e n - e r a l l y d e f i n e d t o be t h e t o t a l e x p o s u r e r e c e i v e d w i t h i n a p e r i o d of 24 h o u r s .

T h e c o m p l e x of s y m p t o m s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e s i c k n e s s c a u s e d b y e x c e s s i v e e x p o s u r e t o i o n i z i n g r a d i a t i o n . T h e s e v e r i t v of t h e s i c k n e s s d e p e n d s o n t h e d o s e o f r a d i - a t i o n r e c e i v e d b y t h e i n d i v i d u a l .

Wind c u r r e n t s se t u p i n t h e v i c i n i t v o f a n u c l e a r e x p l o s i o n d i r e c t e d toward t h e b u r s t cen ter , r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e u p d r a f t w h i c h a c c o m p a n i e s t h e rise o f t h e f i r e b a l l .

T h e e x p l o s i o n o f a n u c l e a r w e a p o n a t s u c h a h e i g h t t h a t t h e e x p a n d i n g f i r e b a l l d o e s n o t t o u c h t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e .

A I R SAMPLING T h e p r o c e s s of c o l l e c t i n g c e r t a i n v o l u m e s for RADIOACTIVITY of a i r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e l e v e l o f r a d i o -

a c t i v i t y i n t h e a i r .

ALPHA PARTICLES A f o r m o f p a r t i c u l a t e r a d i a t i o n e m i t t e d f r o m t h e n u c l e i of c e r t a i n r a d i o a c t i v e elements. An a l p h a p a r t i c l e i s composed o f two n e u t r o n s a n d two protons a n d i s i d e n t i c a l t o t h e n u c l e u s o f a h e l i u m a t o m , h a v i n g a d o u b l e p o s i t i v e c h a r g e . An a l p h a p a r t i c l e c a n n o t p e n e t r a t e c l o t h i n g or t h e o u t e r l a y e r o f s k i n , so

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APPENDIX A (Continued)

AMBIENT PRESSURE

ATOM

ATOMIC ENERGY

ATTENUATION OR ABSORPTION

A2 IMUTH

it is not an external exposure hazard. Such a particle is extremely hazardous, however, if exposure occurs internally.

The standard atmospheric pressure at a specific location and time.

The smallest particle of an element that still retains the characteristics of that element. Every atom consists of a positively charged central nucleus, which carries nearly all the mass of the atom. The nucleus is generally composed of uncharged neutrons and positively charged protons. It is surrounded by electrons that carry a negative charge.

Energy released by various nuclear reactions, such as fission, fusion, or radioactive decay. Great amounts of energy are released during fission and fusion processes. It is this energy that makes nuclear weapons far more powerful than conventional explosives. Nuclear energy is another and a more appropriate label for this energy.

The process by which radiation intensitv is decreased when it passes through matter. The decrease in intensity is due to absorption and scattering of the radiation energy by the atoms of the attenu- ating material.

Horizontal direction expressed as the angular distance between the direction north and the observer's heading. The azimuth is usually measured from true north as the reference direction clock- wise through 360 degrees.

BACKGROUND RADIATION Naturally occurring radioactivity in the (NATURAL) environment or within the body. The

primary sources of this energy are cosmic rays and certain minerals present in the earth and in tissues of the body.

BETA BURNS Skin lesions caused by deposition of beta-emitting fallout particles onto bare human skin.

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BETA PARTICLE

BHANGMETER

BIOASSAY

A charged particle of very small mass emitted spontaneously from the nuclei of certain radioactive elements. Physically, the beta particle is identical to an electron moving at high speed.

An optical device for determining the yield of a nuclear detonation.

The determination of the concentration of materials, including radioactive materials, within the body by sampling and analyzing tissue or body fluids.

BIOLOGICAL HALF-LIFE The time required for the amount of a specified element which has entered the body to decrease to half of its initial concentration as a result of natural, biological processes.

BLAST

BLAST WAVE

BREAKAWAY

BURST

CALIBRATION

CAPTURE, NEUTRON

CHAIN REACTION

The force released as a shock wave traveling through the air from the detonation of an explosive device.

A pulse of air, propagated by an explosion, in which the pressure increases sharply at the front. The blast wave is accompanied by strong winds.

The onset of a condition in which the shock front in the air moves away from the exterior of the expanding fireball produced by a nuclear detonation.

An explosion or detonation.

The determination of the variation of a measuring instrument from a set standard to ascertain necessary ad.justment or correction factors.

The process by which a nucleus acquires an additional neutron.

A reaction that stimulates its own repe- tition, usually referring to fission or fusion reactions.

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CHECKPOINTS OR Locations established to control entry CHECK STATIONS into restricted areas.

CHRONIC RADIATION Long-term exposure to radiation, gen- EXPOSURE erally defined as the total exposure

received over a period greater than 24 hours.

CLOUD SAMPLING

CLOUD STEM

CLOUD TRACKING

The process of collecting samples of the cloud resulting from a nuclear detonation to determine the amount of airborne radioactivity, both particulate and gaseous, contained in the cloud. This was usually conducted by specially equipped aircraft . The visible column of debris (and possibly dust and water droplets) extending upward from the point of burst of a nuclear device.

The process of using either radar or aircraft to monitor the drift of a cloud resulting from a nuclear detonation.

COMMAND POST EXERCISE A military exercise usually conducted only by the Headquarters Staff; a dry run of the exercise without field units.

CONTAINED UNDERGROUND An underground detonation at such a depth BURST that none of the radioactive debris

escapes into the atmosphere.

CONTAMINATION, The presence of unwanted radioactive RADIOACTIVE material on or within areas, objects, or

persons.

CONTROLLED AREA An area to which personnel access is controlled for administrative, security, or safety purposes.

COORDINATES

CRITICAL MASS

CUMULATIVE DOSE

A set of numbers and/or letters used to specify a location on a map.

The quantity or mass of fissionable material that will support a chain reaction.

The total dose resulting from repeated exposure to radiation.

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CURIE (Ci)

DAUGHTER PRODUCT

DEBRIS, NUCLEAR

DECAY, RADIOACTIVE

DECONTAMINATION

DENSITOMETER

DEVICE, NUCLEAR

DISINTEGRATION, NUCLEAR

DOSE

A measure of radioactive quantity, the amount of radioactive materiBb that decays at a rate of 3.7 x 10 nuclear disintegrations per second. A millicuyie is one-thousandth of a curie ( 3 . 7 x 10 disintegrations per second) and a microcurig is one-millionth of a curie ( 3 . 7 x 10 disintegrations per second).

Nuclides, either stable or radioactive, resulting from the radioactive decay of other nuclides.

The radioactive material remaining after a nuclear detonation. It consists of fission products, products of neutron capture, and uranium and plutonium that did not fission.

The spontaneous emission of radiation, generally alpha or beta particles, often accompanied by gamma rays. The radiation is emitted by an unstable isotope. As a result of the emission, the radioactive isotope is converted into a different element which may or may not be radioactive.

The reduction in the effect of contaminating radioactive material or the removal of contaminating radioactive material from a structure, area, object, or person.

An instrument for measuring the degree of darkening of developed photographic film in a film badge.

A nuclear explosive device, commonly referred to as an atomic or nuclear weapon, engineered to produce a detonation with some predetermined characteristics.

The decay of an unstable nucleus by the emission of particles and/or photons. See PHOTON.

See ABSORBED DOSE or DOSE EQUIVALENT.

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DOSE EQUIVALENT

DOSE RATE

DOSIMETER

DOSIMETRY

DYNAMIC PRESSURE

EFFECTIVE HALF-LIFE

ELECTROMAGNETIC PULSE

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION OR ENERGY


The absorbed dose expressed in terms of its biological effect. It is the product of the absorbed dose in rads multiplied by a quality factor and any modifying factors. The dose equivalent is expressed in rem.

The dose of ionizing radiation received per unit of time, usually expressed in rads (or rem) per hour or in multiples or submultiples of these units.

An instrument for measuring and recording the total accumulated dose of (or exposure to) ionizing radiation. Instruments worn or carried by individuals are called personnel dosimeters.

The theories about and applications of the techniques involved in measuring and recording radiation doses and dose rates. Its practical application includes the use of various types of radiation detection instruments to measure radiation.

The air pressure resulting from the mass air flow (or wind) behind the shock front of a blast wave.

The time required for a radioactive element contained in an animal body to diminish by 50 percent as a result of the combined action of radioactive decay and biological elimination.

The sharp pulse of electromagnetic energy produced when a nuclear detonation occurs at the earth's surface or at high alti- tudes. The intense energy can damage sensitive electronic equipment.

The propagation of varying electric and magnetic fields through space at the speed of light in a wave motion. Familiar electromagnetic radiations include visible light, ultraviolet light, microwaves, and gamma radiation.

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ELECTRON A particle of very small mass, carrying a unit negative charge. Electrons orbiting the nucleus are present in all atoms. Their number equals the number of positive charges (or protons) in the nucleus of an electrically neutral atom.

EXPOSURE, RADIANT The total amount of thermal radiation energy received per unit area of exposed surface. It is usually expressed in calories per square centimeter.

EXPOSURE, X or GAMMA A measure of the ionization produced by RADIATION gamma (or X) rays in air. The exposure

rate, exposure per unit of time, is commonly used to indicate the gamma radiation intensity of a source. The unit of exposure is the roentgen (R).

FALLOUT

FILM BADGE

FIREBALL

FISSION

The descent to the earth's surface of particles contaminated with radioactive material as a result of a nuclear detonation. The term a l s o applies to the contaminated particulate matter itself.

A personnel dosimeter utilizing photographic film to measure the radiation dose received by the wearer. The badge is usually clipped to an outer garment above waist level. The dose is calculated from the degree of film darkening that results from exposure to radiation.

The luminous sphere of h o t gases that forms a few thousandths of a second after a nuclear detonation.

The splitting of a heavy nucleus into two or more radioactive nuclei, accompanied by the release of a large amount of energy and generally one or more neutrons and one o r more gammas. Fission is usually initiated by neutrons, but it can also occur spontaneously.

FISSION FRAGMENTS The nuclei formed as a result of the fissioning of a nucleus.

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FISSION PRODUCTS

FLASH BURN

The nuclei (fission fragments) formed by fission, plus the nuclides formed bv the radioactive decay of the fission fragments. Fission products are a complex mixture of over 300 isotopes of 35 or more elements. Practically all of these isotopes are radioactive.

A skin burn caused by exposure to the thermal radiation produced by a nuclear detonation.

FLUX OR FLUX DENSITY The number of gamma-ray photons, neutrons, particles, or the amount of energy crossing a unit surface area per unit of time.

FORWARD AREA

FUSION

GAMMA RAYS

GEIGER-MUELLER DETECTOR

GENETIC EFFECTS

GROUND WAVE

The operational area of the Nevada Test Site north of Camp Mercury and Camp Desert Rock. More specifically, the area includes Frenchman Flat, Yucca Pass, and Yucca Flat.

The formation of a heavier nucleus from two lighter nuclei, accompanied by the release of a large amount of energy.

A form of electromagnetic radiation emitted spontaneously from the nuclei of certain radioactive elements, often in conjunction with the emission of alpha or beta particles. Gamma rays also result from other nuclear reactions, such as fission and neutron capture. Gamma rays are identical to X-rays, except that they originate within the nucleus. Gamma rays travel great distances in the air and can easily penetrate most substances.

A type of instrument that detects and measures ionizing radiation. It is the most widely used instrument for routine surveys of contaminated areas.

Hereditary changes or effects passed from an individual to his or her offspring.

A shock wave formed in the ground by the blast from an explosion.

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GROUND ZERO (GZ) OR SURFACE ZERO (SZ)

HALF-LIFE, RADIOLOGICAL

HEALTH PHYSICS

HEIGHT OF BURST

HIGH ALTITUDE BURST

HOT PARK

The point on the ground vertically below or above the center of a nuclear burst; frequently abbreviated G Z . This is also referred to as surface zero, especially for underwater bursts.

The time required for a radioactive substance to lose half of its activity by radioactive decay.

The branch of radiological science dealing with the protection of personnel from exposure to ionizing radiation.

The height above the earth's surface at which a device is detonated.

A detonation at an altitude over 100,000 feet.

An area of the Nevada Test Site specially designated for isolating contaminated equipment and vehicles registering over 0.007 roentgens per hour after decontamination. Contaminated items remained in the hot park until normal decay reduced radiation intensities to acceptable levels.

INDUCED RADIOACTIVITY Radioactivity produced in certain materials as a result of the capture of neutrons. In a nuclear detonation, neutrons induce radioactivity in the weapon debris as well as in the surroundings.

INITIAL NUCLEAR RADIATION

INTENSITY, NUCLEAR RADIATION

Nuclear radiation (essentially neutrons and gamma rays) emitted from the fireball and the cloud during the first minute after a nuclear explosion. One minute is the time required for the source of part of the radiations (such as fission products in the cloud) to attain such a height that only insignificant amounts of radiation from the cloud reach the earth's surface.

The amount of energy of anv radiation incident on an area. This term, usually applied to gamma radiation, expresses the exposure rate (in R/hour) at a given location.

80


INTERNAL EMITTERS Radioactive material deposited in the body. Internal deposition i s the result of inhalation, ingestion, or entrance through an open cut.

I ON See IONIZATION.

IONIZATION The removal of an electron from an atom, leaving a positively charged i o n . The detached electron and the remaining ion are referred to as an ion pair.

IONIZATION CHAMBER A type of instrument that detects and DETECTOR measures ionizing radiation.

IONIZING RADIATION Electromagnetic radiation (gamma rays or X-rays) or particulate radiation (alpha particles, beta particles, or neutrons) capable of producing ions in its passage through matter.

ISOINTENSITY CONTOUR Maps on which lines represent areas of MAPS equal radiation intensity or exposure

rates. These are often improperly referred to as isodose contour maps.

ISOTOPES

KILO-

LD-50 DOSE

Atoms of the same element with identical numbers of protons but different numbers of neutrons. They have the same atomic number but a different mass number.

A prefix denoting 1,000. For example, one kiloton means 1,000 tons.

The dose of an agent required to kill, within a specified period, 50 percent of the individuals in a large group of animals or organisms. For example, LD-50/30 is a lethal dose to 50 percent of the organisms in 30 days.

LIMITED RADIOLOGICAL An area of contamination with radiation EXCLUSION AREA levels between 0.01 and 0.1 roentgen of

gamma radiation per hour or between 1,000 and 10,000 counts of alpha radiation per 55 square centimeters. Only necessary personnel with film badges were permitted to enter these controlled areas.

81


LINEAR ENERGY TRANSFER (LET )

MACH STEM

MEGA-

MICROBAROGRAPH

MONITORING

NEUTRON

NEVADA TEST SITE (NTS)

NUCLEAR DETONATION

The unit used to express the amount of energy transferred as ionizing radiation that passes through and interacts with a material.

The shock or blast wave formed by the merging of the incident and reflected blast waves from a nuclear detonation. The Mach stem is the leading edge of the blast wave as it moves outward from the point of detonation. The location on the ground where the Mach stem forms is called the Mach region.

A prefix denoting 1,000,000. For example, one megaton means 1,000,000 tons.

An instrument that measures and records small changes in atmospheric pressure.

The procedure or operation of locating and measuring radioactive contamination by means of survey instruments. Persons engaged in this activity are referred to as radiological monitors.

The constituent particles, along with protons, of the nucleus of an atom. Neutrons are uncharged and have a mass number of one. They are used to initiate the fission process, and large numbers of them are produced in fission and fusion processes. They constitute a significant portion of the prompt radiation from both fission and fusion detonations. Neutrons travel great distances in the air and can readily penetrate most substances.

The region in southeast Nevada set aside for the continental atmospheric nuclear weapons testing program. Prior to 1955, this area was called the Nevada Proving Ground.

A general name given to any explosion in which the energy released results from reactions involving atomic nuclei, either fission or fusion or both.

82


NUCLEAR RADIATION

NUCLEUS

NUCLIDE

OFFS ITE

ONS I TE

ORDNANCE EQUIPMENT

Radiation emitted from unstable nuclei. Important nuclear radiations are alpha and beta particles, gamma rays, and neutrons. All nuclear radiations are ionizing radiations, but the reverse is not true. X-rays, for instance, are included among ionizing radiations, but they are not nuclear radiations since they do not originate from atomic nuclei.

The small, central, positively charged region of an atom which carries essentially all the mass. Except for the nucleus of hydrogen-1, which is a single proton, all atomic nuclei contain both protons and neutrons. The number of protons determines the total positive charge, or atomic number. The total number of neutrons and protons, called the mass number, relates to the mass of the atom. The nuclei of isotopes of a given element contain the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. Thus, they have the same atomic number, and so are the same element, but they have different mass numbers and masses. The nuclear properties of an isotope of a given element are determined by both the number of neutrons and the number of protons.

An atomic species distinguished by the composition of its nucleus, that is, by the number of protons and the number of neutrons.

The area outside the boundaries of the Nevada Test Site.

The total area encompassed by the Nevada Test Site, including Camp Mercury, Frenchman Flat, Yucca Pass, and Yucca Flat.

Weapons, ammunition, and related equipment used by military personnel.

83


OVERPRESSURE

PHANTOM

The transient pressure, exceeding the ambient atmospheric pressure, that is produced at the leading edge of the blast wave from a nuclear detonation. Over- pressure is expressed in pounds per square centimeter.

Material that approximates the characteristics of human tissue. Absorbed dose in humans can be simulated by exposing a phantom to radiation and measuring the dose received.

PHOTOMULTIPLIER TUBE An electronic device that converts light impulses into an amplified electrical signal. These tubes are used in scintillation detectors.

PHOTON

PHOTORECONNAISSANCE AIRCRAFT

PIBAL

PRECURSOR

PROMPT RADIATION

PROTON

QUALITY FACTOR

A unit of electromagnetic radiation having a discrete amount of energy but no rest mass or electrical charge.

Specially equipped aircraft used to take aerial photographs of a specific target.

A system measuring low-altitude wind direction and velocity.

An air pressure wave that moves ahead of the main blast wave from a surface or low-air nuclear detonation.

Radiation emitted from a nuclear detonation within a microsecond of detonation. It consists mainly of neutron and gamma radiation.

An atomic particle with a single positive charge and with a mass close to that of a neutron. Protons are constituents of all nuclei. The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines its atomic number.

The factor used to convert the absorbed dose, in rads, to the dose equivalent, in rem. The quality factor has an assigned value for each type of ionizing radiation, based on the linear energy transfer (LET) of the radiation.

84


RAD

RADIAC

RADIATION

RADIOACTIVITY

The unit of absorbed radiation dose that represents the absorption of 100 ergs of ionizing radiation per gram of absorbing material, such as body tissue.

A generic term designating radiological measuring instruments and equipment. The term is derived from the words Radio- activity Detection, Indication, and Computation.

The spontaneous emission of alpha or beta particles, neutrons, or gamma ravs from the nuclei of unstable isotopes. As a result of this emission, the radioactive isotope decays into another isotope that may or may not also be radioactive. Ultimately, as a result of one or more stages of radioactive decay, a stable (nonradioactive) end product is formed.

RADIOLOGICAL EXCLUSION An area within the Nevada Test Site with AREA radiation levels exceeding either 0.1

roentgen of gamma radiation per hour or 10,000 counts of alpha radiation per minute per 55 square centimeters. Entry of personnel into such an area was restricted.

RADIOLOGICAL MONITOR An individual trained in the use of radiation detection instruments and in the assessment of radiological hazards.

RADIOLOGICAL SURVEY An effort to determine the distribution of radiological contamination and exposure rates in an area.

RADIONUCLIDE A radioactive atomic species.

RAWINSONDE A device that measures high-altitude wind direction and velocity.

a5


RELATIVE BIOLOGICAL A factor used to compare the biological

ionizing radiation. It is the ratio of the amount of absorbed radiation required to produce a given effect, to a standard radiation (gamma rays or X-rays of a specific energy) required to produce the same effect. The term is normally used in the field of experimental radiobiology and not for human radiation protection.

EFFECTIVENESS (RBE) effectiveness of different types of

REM

REP

RESIDUAL NUCLEAR RADIATION

RESPIRATOR

RESUSPENSION

ROENTGEN

The unit of dose equivalent, which is the amount of any ionizing radiation that produces the same biological effect as one rad of gamma or X-radiation. The rem is the product of the absorbed dose (rads) times the quality factor and any other modifying factor.

An obsolete unit of absorbed dose measurement. The rep measured energy transferred to soft tissue by radiation. The current unit of absorbed dose is the rad.

Nuclear radiation, chiefly beta particles and gamma rays, that persists after the first minute following a nuclear detonation. The radiation is emitted mainly by fission products and materials in which radioactivity has been induced by the capture of neutrons.

A device worn over the mouth and nose to prevent the inhalation of hazardous material.

The process of returning to the air material that was once airborne and had settled to the ground surface. Resuspen- sion can result from natural occurrences, such as wind, or from such activities as personnel movement and vehicular traffic.

A unit of exposure to gamma radiation or X-radiation. It is the quantity of ga ma rays or X-rays that produces 2.08 x 10 ion pairs in a cubic centimeter of air at standard temperature and pressure. An exposure of one roentgen is approximately equal to an absorbed dose of one rad in soft tissue.

!I

1

86

APPENDIX A ( C o n t i n u e d )

SCATTERED RADIATION R a d i a t i o n d e f l e c t e d from i t s o r i g i n a l p a t h as a r e s u l t o f c o l l i s i o n s w i t h p a r - t i c l e s , atoms, or m o l e c u l e s i n i t s p a s - s a g e t h r o u g h a i r or mat ter .

SHIELDING Any material or o b s t r u c t i o n t h a t a b s o r b s r a d i a t i o n a n d t h u s t e n d s t o p ro tec t p e r - s o n n e l f r o m e x p o s u r e . A moderately t h i c k lager o f a n y o p a q u e material w i l l p r o v i d e s a t i s f a c t o r y s h i e l d i n g f r o m thermal r ad i - a t i o n , b u t a c o n s i d e r a b l e t h i c k n e s s of material o f h i g h d e n s i t y may be n e e d e d t o p r o v i d e s h i e l d i n g f r o m gamma r ays .

SHOCK (BLAST) FRONT The f r o n t of a s h o c k wave and t h e re la - t i v e l y s h a r p b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e p r e s - s u r e created by a n e x p l o s i o n a n d t h e a m b i e n t p r e s s u r e , I t i s referred t o a s a shock f r o n t when i n g r o u n d or water a n d as a b l a s t wave when i n a i r .

SHOCK WAVE

SLANT R A N G E

SOMATIC EFFECTS

SPECTROMETER

SPECTRUM

SURFACE BURST

A c o n t i n u o u s l y p r o p a g a t e d p r e s s u r e p u l s e o r w a v e i n i t i a t e d b y t h e e x p a n s i o n of t h e h o t gases p r o d u c e d i n a n e x p l o s i o n . A shock w a v e i n a i r is g e n e r a l l y referred t o as a b l a s t wave.

T h e d i s t a n c e m e a s u r e d t o a p o i n t o n t h e g r o u n d f r o m t h e p o i n t of d e t o n a t i o n i n t h e a i r .

T h e n o n g e n e t i c h e a l t h e f f e c t s o b s e r v e d i n a n i n d i v i d u a l e x p o s e d t o a h a r m f u l s u b - s t a n c e , s u c h as n u c l e a r r a d i a t i o n . T h e c h a n g e s i n blood c e l l s t h a t o c c u r follow- i n g a r a d i a t i o n dose o f 50 t o 100 rem is a somatic e f f e c t .

An electronic d e v i c e u s e d t o m e a s u r e i n t e n s i t i e s a n d e n e r g i e s o f r a d i a t i o n s .

A r a n g e o f v a l u e s o f a c e r t a i n q u a n t i t y : f o r e x a m p l e , a n e n e r g y s p e c t r u m .

T h e e x p l o s i o n of a n u c l e a r d e v i c e a t a h e i g h t a b o v e t h e s u r f a c e less t h a n t h e r a d i u s o f t h e f i r e b a l l . An e x p l o s i o n i n w h i c h t h e d e v i c e i s d e t o n a t e d o n t h e s u r f a c e i s c a l l e d a c o n t a c t s u r f a c e b u r s t or a t r u e s u r f a c e b u r s t .

87

- "" "


THERMONUCLEAR

THRESHOLD DOSE

TNT EQUIVALENT

VENTING

WASHOUT

An adjective referring to the process in which very high temperatures are used to bring about the fusion of hydrogen nuclei with the accompanying liberation of energy. A thermonuclear device is one in which part of the explosive energy results from thermonuclear fusion reactions. The high temperatures required are obtained by means of a fission explosion.

The radiation dose level below which no health effects may occur. There seem to be different threshold doses for different types of radiation and health effects. There may not even be a threshold for certain effects, such as genetic and carcinogenic ones.

A measure of the energy released in the detonation of a nuclear device expressed in terms of the quantity of TNT that would release the same amount of energy when exploded. The basis of the TNT equivalence is that the explosion of one ton of TNT releases one billion calories of energy.

The release of radioactive materials to the atmosphere from a deep underground detonation. Normally, the detonation would be deep enough to contain the detonation completely.

The removal of radioactive particles from a nuclear cloud by precipitation when the particles are below a rain or snow cloud. When the nuclear cloud is within a rain or snow cloud, the removal of radioactive particles from the nuclear cloud is known as rainout or snowout.

WHOLE-BODY EXPOSURE The uniform exposure of the entire body to radiation, in contrast to the irra- diation of only a part of the bodv.

X-RAYS Penetrating electromagnetic radiation similar to gamma rags but of non-nuclear origin and of lower energy.

88

YIELD


The total effective energy released in a nuclear detonation. It is usually expressed in terms of the TNT equivalent required to produce the same energy release in an explosion. Nuclear detonation yields are commonly expressed in kilotons or megatons (thousands or millions of tons) of TNT equivalent.

Many of the definitions cited above have been adapted from Glasstone and Dolan; Atomic Energy Commission, Nuclear Terms; and Bureau of Radiological Health Pub1 No. 2016.

89

90

APPENDIX B

ANNOUNCED U N I T E D STATES NUCLEAR TESTS

,JULY 1945 THROUGH DECEMBER 1982*

* P r e p a r e d b y t h e O f f i c e o f P u b l i c A f f a i r s of t h e U.S . Depar tment o f E n e r g y , N e v a d a O p e r a t i o n s O f f i c e , J a n u a r v 1983 ( p u b l i c a t i o n number NVO-209, Rev. 3 ) .

APPENDIX B

ANNOUNCED UNITED STATES NUCLEAR TESTS

JULY 1945 THROUGH DECEMBER 1982

This document lists chronologically and alphabetically by event name a1 1 nuclear tests conducted and announced by the United States from July 1945 through December 1982, with the exception of the GMX experiments. The 22 GMX experiments, conducted at the Nevada Test Site (NTS) between December 1954 and February 1956, were "equation-of-state" physics studies that used small chemical explosives and small quantities of plutonium. Several tests conducted during Operation Dominic involved missile launches from Johnston Atoll. Several of these missile launches were aborted, resulting in the destruction of the missile and nuclear device either on the pad or in the air.

On August 5, 1963, the United States and the Soviet Union signed the Limited Test Ban Treaty which effectively banned testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere. U.S. nuclear tests conducted prior to that date have been announced and are listed in this document. Some tests conducted underground since the signing o f the Treaty and designed to be contained completely have not been announced. Information concerning these events is classified. Occa- sionally, the code name and detonation date o f an unannounced test is declassified which permits its listing in subsequent revisions to this document.

Data on United States tests were obtained from and verified by the Department of Energy's three weapons laboratories--Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico; Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, Cali- fornia; and Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico. Addition- ally, data were obtained from public announcements issued by the Atomic Energy Commission and its successors, the Energy Research and Development Administra- tion and the Department of Energy, respectively.

Test Dates

Time and date for all events listed in this document were converted from local time to Greenwich C i v i l Time (GCT). The event date listed is the GCT date for the event.

Test Series

U.S. nuclear tests were conducted on an intermittent basis from 1946 to October 1958. Each series of tests during that period was given a name, such as Operation Crossroads, 1946; Operation Sandstone, 1948; and Operations Ranger, Greenhouse, Buster, and Jangle in 1951.

On November 1, 1958, the United States entered into a unilateral testing moratorium announced by President Eisenhower with the understanding that the U.S.S.R. would also refrain from conducting tests. The Soviet Union broke that moratorium in September 1961 with a series of large tests.

APPENDIX B (continued)

On September 15, 1961, the U.S. resumed testing on a year-round basis. The tests are listed by fiscal year. For example, FY 1963 tests--which began July 1, 1962, and extended through June 30, 1963--were in the Operation Storax series.

Also after the resumption of testing, the U.S. conducted Operation Dominic I in the Pacific between April and November of 1962 and Operation Dominic I 1 at the Nevada Test Site in July of 1962.

In 1976, the Federal Government changed the fiscal year to begin on October 1 and end on September 30. Accordingly, the FY 1976 series, Operation Anvil, did not end on June 30 but was extended through September 30, 1976, a period o f 15 months.

Test Yields

The nomenclature for test yields varied according to information policy governing specific years. In some cases, no yield information has been released; in a few cases, the terms "very slight" and "slight" were used without amplification. Except for tests where specific yields or relative specific yields such as "about 2 kt," "several Mt," "less than 0.1 k t , " etc., were announced, test yields are given in these terms:

1945 through 1963:

Low (less than 20 kt) Intermediate (20 to 200 kt)-all tests except Operation Dominic I Intermediate (20 to 1,000 kt)-Operation Dominic I Submegaton ( less than one M t , but more than 200 kt) Megaton Range Low Megaton (from one to several Mt)

1964 through February 1976:

Less than 20 kt 20 to 200 kt 200 to 1,000 kt

March 1976:

During a series of high-yield tests conducted during this month, two ranges were added, and the 200 t o 1,000 kt range was dropped.

200 to 500 kt 500 to 1,000 kt

Since March 1976:

On March 31, 1976, the Soviet Union and the United States agreed to 1 imit the maximum yield of underground tests to 150 kt. The yield ranges now reported are :

93

Less than 20 kt 20 to 150 kt

APPENDIX E (continued)

Test Locations

The first test of a nuclear weapon was in the atmosphere on July 16, 1945, at Alamogordo, New Mexico. At various times between June 1946 and November 1962, atmospheric and underground tests were conducted by the United States in the Marshall Islands, Christmas Island, and Johnston Atoll in the Pacific Ocean; and over the South Atlantic Ocean. Between January 1951 and July 1962, atmospheric and underground nuclear tests were conducted at the Nevada Test Site.

Since July 1962, all nuclear tests conducted in the United States have been underground and most of them have been at the NTS. Some tests were conducted on the Nellis Air Force Base Bombing Range; in central and northwestern Nevada; in Colorado, New Mexico, and Mississippi; and on Amchitka, one of the Aleutian Islands off the coast of Alaska.

Test Types and Purpose

The definition of terms used in this document appears in the Glossary of Terms. "Type" refers to the method of deployment of the nuclear device at time of detonation such as "tower," ''tunnel," "airdrop," etc. "Purpose" indicates whether the test was part of the weapons development program, a DOD effects test, a joint U.S./U.K. test, or was part of some special program that involved the use of nuclear devices. In the Sumnary preceding the chronological listing of nuclear tests, the sum of all tests conducted underground (tunnel, shaft, and crater events) appears as "Total Underground." With the exception of five underwater tests, the remaining events appear as "Total Atmospheric.

Categorization of a test as "atmospheric" or "underground" should not be used in all cases as an indicator that radioactivity from the test was or was not detected. Unless otherwise noted, all nuclear tests that took place at NTS or the Bombigg Range prior to September 15, 1961, produced radioactivity detected off site. On the other hand, unless otherwise noted, no test taking place at NTS or the Bombing Range on or after September 15, 1961, produced an uncontrolled release of radioactivity.

Test Totals for Nevada Test Site

DOE'S Nevada Operations Office, when discussing off-site detection of radiation from tests, sometimes has used the term ''atmospheric'' to describe any test where the release of radioactivity to the atmosphere was anticipated and was a factor in test planning. Nineteen tests (nine crater and ten shaft) listed in this document as "underground" have been categorized elsewhere as atmospheric since they were not "designed to be contained." See the following table for a comparison of test totals listed by the placement criterion used in this document with those listed by the "designed to be contained" criterion.

r

*See Glossary of Terms for definition of "off site."


CATEGORIZATION OF NTS NUCLEAR TESTS

Placement C r i t e r i o n (Th is Document)

A. Atmospheric

Containment Design C r i t e r i o n (Sometimes Used in Pub l i c D iscuss ion )

A. Not Designed t o be Contained (Atmospheric)

Aboveground--NTS

100( 1 -I_ Aboveground 105 Aboveground--Bombing Range 5 ( 2 )

B Subtotal (Atmospheric)

8. Underground

Shaft--Unstemmed Hole

Crater

Shaft--Stemmed

r Unstemned 9

I -

-

Crater 10

Subto ta l 124

B. Designed t o be Contained

433 - Shaft

Tunnel 49 -Tunnel

Subtotal (Underground) 501 Subtotal

TOTAL 606 TOTAL

433

49

4 82

606

(1 )Cons is t s o f 84 weapons o r weapons e f f e c t s t e s t s and 16 s a f e t y t e s t s , a l l of which were conducted " i n t h e air" a t t h e NTS.

(2 )Cons is ts o f four s to rage- t ranspor ta t ion tes ts and one s a f e t y t e s t " i n t h e a i r "

(3)Nine events were conducted underground i n unstemmed ho les t o m in im ize bu t no t

on the Bombing Range.

e l i m i n a t e t h e r e l e a s e o f r a d i o a c t i v i t y t o t h e atmosphere. Because incandescent gases were released, these tests are sometimes r e f e r r e d t o as "Roman candles."

(4)Ten tests were designed to be crater ing tests, hence not designed to be con- ta ined. Sulky on December 18, 1964, f a i l e d t o produce the expected crater, b u t because placement was i n a shaf t , a lbe i t sha l low, it i s l i s t e d i n t h i s document as a s h a f t t e s t .

APPENDIX B ( con t inued)

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Airburst

Airdrop

Atmospheric

Bal loon

Barge

Crater

Joint U.S.-U.K.

KT

MT

NTS

Off Site

The explosion o f a nuclear weapon at such a height that the expanding fireball does not touch the earth's surface prior to the time the fireball reaches its maximum luminosity. The airburst reported in this document resulted from the detonation of a device fired from a 280-mm cannon.

A nuclear device dropped from an aircraft and exploded in the atmosphere.

A test conducted aboveground or above water, i.e., in the open air.

A nuclear device suspended from a balloon and exploded in the atmosphere.

A nuclear device exploded from a barge moored in the lagoon at Enewetak or Bikini.

A nuclear device placed shallow enough underground to produce a throw-out of earth when exp 1 oded . A nuclear test conducted jointly by the United States and the United Kingdom under a coopera- tive agreement in effect between the two countries since August 4, 1958.

A kiloton. The energy of a nuclear explosion that is equivalent to an explosion of 1,000 tons of TNT.

A megaton. The energy o f a nuclear explosion that is equivalent to an explosion of one million tons of TNT.

The Nevada Test Site, a 1,350-square-mile area in southern Nevada in Nye County and about 65 miles northwest of Las Vegas.

The detection of radioactivity off site is defined as detected outside the Test Range Complex, an area that includes both the Nevada Test Site and the adjacent government-controlled Nellis Air Force Range.

96


A n o t a t i o n t h a t r a d i o a c t i v i t y was detected on s i t e o n l y i s made fo r t es ts f rom wh ich t he re was an unp lanned re lease o f rad ioac t i v i t y i n to t he atmosphere t h a t was no t de tec tab le beyond the boundaries o f t h e T e s t Range Complex.

On S i t e

P lowshare

Rocket

Safety Experiment

Seismic Cal ibrat ion

Shaf t

Storage-Transpor tat ion

S u r f ace

T

Thermonuclear Device

Tower

Tunne 1

A p p l i c a t i o n o f nuc lear explos ives to develop peaceful uses for atomic energy. The program i s no longer act ive.

A nuclear device launched by rocket and exploded i n the atmosphere.

Experiment designed t o c o n f i r m a nuclear explos- i o n will not occu r i n case o f an acc identa l detonat ion o f the explos ive assoc iated wi th the device.

A n u c l e a r t e s t t o e v a l u a t e s e i s m i c e f f e c t s of an underground explosion.

A nuc lear dev ice exploded a t the bot tom of a d r i l l e d o r mined v e r t i c a l h o l e . Some sa fe ty t e s t s were se t o f f at the bo t tom o f unstemned d r i l l ed ho les , p roduc ing a "Roman candle" ef fect .

Detonat ions of combinat ions o f h igh exp los ives and nuc lear mater ia ls des igned to s tudy d i s t r i b u t i o n o f n u c l e a r m a t e r i a l s d u r i n g accidents i n seve ra l t r anspor ta t i on and storage conf igura t ions .

A nuc lear dev ice p laced on o r c l o s e t o t h e earth 's surface.

A ton . Equ iva len t to a ton o f TNT.

A "hydrogen bomb. I'

A nuc lear dev ice mounted a t t h e t o p o f a s t e e l o r wooden tower and exploded i n the atmosphere.

A nuc lear dev ice exploded a t the end of a long h o r i z o n t a l d r i f t mined i n t o a mountain or mesa i n a way tha t p laces t he bu rs t po in t deep w i t h i n the ear th .

97


Underground nuclear test conducted i n a tunnel o r a t the bo t tom o f a d r i l l e d h o l e o r s h a f t . Some underground nuclear tests were not designed t o c o n t a i n a l l r a d i o a c t i v i t y , e.g., c r a t e r i n g tes ts o r sa fe ty exper iments .

UG

uw Vela Uniform

Weapons E f f e c t s

Weapons Related

Y i e l d

A nuclear test conducted underwater.

Department o f Defense (DOD) program designed t o i m p r o v e t h e c a p a b i l i t y t o d e t e c t , i d e n t i f y , and locate underground nuclear explosions.

A n u c l e a r t e s t t o e v a l u a t e t h e c i v i l o r m i l i t a r y e f f e c t s o f a nuc lear detonat ion on var ious ta rge ts , such as m i l i t a r y hardware.

A nuclear detonation conducted f o r the purpose o f t e s t i n g a nuc lear dev ice in tended fo r a s p e c i f i c t y p e o f weapon system.

The t o t a l e f f e c t i v e e n e r g y r e l e a s e d i n a nuc lear explos ion. It i s u s u a l l y expressed i n terms o f equivalent tonnage of TNT requ i red to p roduce the same energy re lease in an explosion.

AF'PENDIX B (continued)

N d m 6 6

c N c

* -1 z 0

Lu Lli c

a w e O W .v) e o

c hJ C

t d

lr

c d

W

4 U W w o c

U c U z 2 c U . VI

d

t 9

0 c

2 9 t

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131

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v) t 2

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132

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APPENDIX B ( c o n t i n u e d )

Q W c' 0 6

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n

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APPEiJDIX B (continued)

158

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APPENDIX B (cont h u e d )

165

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APPENDIX B ( c o n t i n u e d )

E


IA c V (L' W t

0

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167

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t - c Y Y f-2 U N N

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c c z z

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t

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Y

C r A w t c v

- 1 I L w L L w w

n w

APPENDIX C

RADIATION EXPOSURE STANDARDS U.S. NUCLEAR TEST SERIES*

*Summary of dose limits p r o v i d e d in the continental and oceanic series volumes.

169

APPENDIX C

RADIATION EXPOSURE STANDARDS U.S. NUCLEAR TEST S E R I E S

OlERAT I OU

m n m (Alamgordo, NM) 7/16/45

s&Qnm (Eneuetak J 4/1414a- 5/15/40

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3.9 R/13 r t s ; 0.1 Rlday. not t exceed 0 .7Rfweek

3.P (9-4 only unless reduced

3/17/53- by Test Dlrec tor 6/4/53

WN (Bikfnl

3.0 R113 wk 0.3 Rlrt

3Ilfi4- 15 r d y 5/14/54

3 . W 1 3 weeks; auqmnted by .3R rek a f t e r t h a t E n w t a k )

I

A E i ~ s D r v . of

unwbl IC 1 zed expo- ~ r t 8-29'1 sure of 3.9R. 3P

d P V O V &

Cloud s m p l e r s r e c m n d s expo- radroective I"3R/operatron, When t ranspor t ing

8-29's.T-33'~. sure level be senplcr, a f r c r y w t r c l p a n t r exceeaed 1 .I1 of test par-

F - 8 4 ' s ; c l w d ra ised above 3R t rackers. 8-79'1,

exposure leve l o f

8-25 s

C m m s 8 4 l i n a i r c r a f t t o t a l N/A R E of Mn f o r

KC approved n r g c n c y exposure of 25R t o t a l I

o m r a t ion

Cloud s a w l e r s 6R f o r e r a t i o n l i m t t c d t o 20 ra te of a c u m u l a t l o n F-84'S:Cloud d!/h then t rans- of MPE

k l r c r a t t crew Eo 1 1 m i t s se: gn

t racker 's 8-29's 1 B - t s i porting samolcs

of r e d l w c t ~ v e I

noud samplers' F d l ' s ; Cloud t rackers . 8-25's 8-50.8-29'1

uas author ized i n

nunths nrndarron of tne TD as t o operat ional necessi ty

170

APPENDIX C (Continued)

U E C W E I I D E D W S E Ll l l lTS I T mQI1CT R O U T I N E RE CLOUD W t E R S DESERT ROCK fF'€ClAl B ( 0 V p S R E M R K S

RCRP I m p FRC I 1 . 1 1 U n l v Cloud t r ack4 I Avvrox. IU wdter I !

(PJCfflC) 5/14/55

N/A VRR authorized s k p l e COI l ec to rs

ZOR/overatlon I

REWIN6

E m e t a b ) ( B i k i n i ,

5/5/56- 7/22/56

on 1 y 3.W/13 weeks Za, ( g m n r only)

au thor ized fo r operat ional m r i o d W/A

Emrgtncy WE 600 persons erceea- R l o a r a t f o n , e4 3.9R exposure

zatim t o exceed WE I i n f t s granted

I

Avthorr- limit I I 1

1 8/18/58

""""

8127/58- (South At lant ic) None

9/6/58

N/A

(HTS) 9/19/58- 5 m / y e a r tino hardtack 1 i z d by T.R. t o v a l l c d rn c a w of ! 10/30/58 neutron get ZSR

m q m c y expo- , accidental or

sure.

u 11 S l o p e r a t ion Handbook 59 pre- AFSUP) author- N/A atro par t i c i pa - 3 rm/quer te r Provisions of :#?> 1 1 personnel (FC/ IUR-IbR l o r those

D O M I N I C I 3 m / 1 3 4 Over 69e 19:3R/1 5 r m l y wks, % / p a r

Johnston Islands; 1 1 1 1 (avq) 12 1 (mole body g m u ) and Eastern 1 r m / y e a r Under age 19:1.25R

19 had t o evacuate , f f cmulatTvc dose

* Selected abbreviations used in this radiological matrix are: AFB Air Force Base

Cd r Commander

CJTF Commander Joint Task Force

D BM Division of Biology and Medicine, AEC

DR Desert Rock

FC F i e l d Command

FRC Federal Radiation Council

H&N Holmes and Narver, Inc.

ICRP International Commission on Radiological Protection

171

APPENDIX C

RADIATION EXPOSURE STANDARDS U.S. NUCLEAK TEST SERIES

RECOWEIQEO DOSE CINITS I T M E K T ROUTIIE WE*

OPERATION

TRINITY 5R/2 month period

7/16/45

CROffRoADS ( B i k i n i )

7/25/46 7/1/46-

O.1Rlday not t o t x c n d 50-6oR i n 2 Uks. If ind lv ldua l rsce ived

60R i n 2 a s . he 1OR i n one day o

was withdrawn frm opera t ion

0.1RI24 hrs. not t o c x c n d 3R for the opcrat ron

s / o p e r a t m , f o r p r s o n ~ l p a r t i c i p a t i n g in GREENHOUSE; AEC workers: 3.RM

RNSER 0.3 R l w k 0.3 R/* W S ) 1/27/51- 2/6/51

GREEMVSE 3.9 R/13 rLs; (Enmetat)

5/25/51

mmERJUIGLE 3Rf3 nonth (WS) 10/22/51- 11/29/51

910151- 0.1 Rlday; not t exceed 0. T A / m k

per1 d

o(T9 R l o o c r a t l o n 411152- 6/5/52 411/52- o(T9 I R l o o c r a t l o n

6/5/52 I I I I I I I I 1 1 I I

TVT I I I I I I ;1.~10cerat lon - (Enewetat) 11/1/51- 11/16/52

gemma only

( B i k i n i 0.3 RIwk

15 r n l y

3.0 R I 1 3 wk 3.W13 weeks; augnrnted by .3R

Eneuetak) week af te r that

511 4/51

am ~ E R S

knned sampler a i r c r a f t flnt used at R M l C E n

D m 8-17s UScd as Cloud Sampler

3.W for 13 wk. optrat ton; c loud saw1 ing a i r c r a f M!PS 8-29's

Cloud samplers:

F-84's; cloud 8-29'S,T-33'S.

8-25's t rackers: 579's

Crews 011 sanplin a i r c r a f t : t o t a l WE o f 2OR for operat lorq

Cloud sanplers

t r acke r ' s 5 2 9 ' s F-81's;Cloud

b B-25

2OR ( g n n r on ly ) Special WE o f

Fdl's. Cloud noud samplers:

t rackers: 8-25'1 B-50.B-29's

DESERT ROC): SPECIAL EROUPS R E M K S

evacuate before 30 r l n . if g a m read- l n g w t s l d e s h e l t e r reached 1R/h, put

evacuate if alDha on gar nnsks 1

readlng nacned 5

N/A

Cloud trackers adhered t o s m standards as

CROSSROADS N/A other un i ts a t

approved cmly by Hlgncr exposures

Cdr/JTF7 k rndrv%-

ed from fu r ther dual M S p-oh lb i t -

exposure fo r 30 days Cloud sampling a i r -

N/A receive up t o out of l nd lsn Sogs.

W A

Publ ic could craf t in NV ooeratcc

ZSR */out danger

AF8. A l l sanolcrs r e w i r e d t o wear oxygen masks

I !

1R t o t a l (OR I ) h11 obstrvcrs Blology L Medi - 3R (OR I 1 6 won film badges c ine aarccd t o

K C ' S O l V . of

Ill) (MI n . l r r ) u n p u b l ~ c i zed exposure o f ).¶. 3R WE could k exceeded if Test O i rec tor approved

r e c a n d s expo- rad ioac t ive lR-u( /oprs t ron ; men t ranspor t ing

1.1'1 of t t s t p a r -

ra ised above 3R ncrnbctl were exposure leve l o f sure level be samples. aircrew t l c lpan ts exceeded

lvnited t o l M l h 5 . W

bEc approved

sure of 25R t o t a l

A l r c ra f t cpcw Yo llnits set cm

W h when t rans- o f MPE

of rad lo rc t i ve pmt 1 ng YEVI es

mater ia l mPt w l v e r

N /A emergency expo-

6~ for opera t i on I im i t cd t o 20 r a t e o f atcumulatron

WN, Suqcons approved by Dir.,

Genera 1 krimun received n8s 7.8 R

W I S Juthor i Z e d i n

months nmdat ion of the TD as to operat ronal necessi ty

172


RECC#MEWDED DOSE LlMlTS BY AGENCY RoufIR WE CLWD W C E R S OCSERT ROCK SPZClU 6 R o u P S REKWKS

ICRP FRC

(Pac i f i c ) 3/14/55

sample co l l ec to rs uere aut hor I zed

REWl16

f neuetak ) ( B i k i n t ,

5 / 5 / 5 6 - 7 / 2 2 / 5 6 J only

3.9R/13 uee&s 2OR ( g a m a m l y ) authorized fo r o p r a t l o n a l p r i o d N/A

Enugency WPf

WE l im i t s wan ted zatlm t o exceed

td 3.9R exposure 7Riooerattm. 600 persons exceed-

. A u t h h - llnit

and Eastern

S(W-18)rm /I3 m k s

7/17/61

Cnon (Carlsbad, W) 12/10/61 Sedan (NT5) 7/6/62

cstabl lshed by Test Di rec to r W a n Shot

sure. I kone brave emergency WE ~

N/A Em?n)cncy Wf: 5OR. Pen. under a g e (

R If cumulative dose I 1 ZSR 19 had t o evacuate j

reached 1 R I

I I I I

I I I prsonnel exvosum uas 300 nA. Averaae , i

* Selected abbreviations used in this radiological matrix are: AFB Air Force Base

Cdr Commander

CJTF Commander Joint Task Force

D BM Oivision of Biology and Medicine, AEC

DR Desert Rock

FC Field Command

FRC Federal Radiation Council

H&N Holmes and Narver, Inc.

ICRP International Commission on Radiological Protection

173


JTF

MPE

NBS

NCRP

NTS

R

TD

TG

TM

Joint Task Force

Haximum Permissible Exposure

National Bureau of Standards

National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements

Nevada Test Site

Roentgen

Test Director

Task Group

Test Manager

174

APPENDIX D

FOREIGN NUCLEAR DETONATIONS -- THROUGH DECEMBER 31, 1982*

T o t a l E v e n t s f o r U.S.S.R. - 314

T o t a l E v e n t s fo r B r i t a i n - 35

T o t a l E v e n t s f o r France - 4 3

T o t a l E v e n t s fo r C h i n a - 25

T o t a l E v e n t s for I n d i a - 1

T o t a l E v e n t s for Unknown - 0

*Prepared by Department of E n e r g y , J a n u a r y 1983.

175

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DISTRIBUTION LIST

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY

A v i a t i o n H i s t o r y U n i t ATTN: L i b r a r y

Bureau o f M e d i c i n e and Surgery ATTN: A s s t . f o r M e d i c a l S u r g e r y

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Marine Corps Dev & Educat ion Command ATTN: J. C. B r e c k i n r i d g e L i b

Mar ine Corps H is to r ica l Center 2 c y ATTN: Code HDH-2

Marine Corps Nuc Test Personnel Review ATTN: Code MSRB-60

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N a v a l H i s t o r i c a l C e n t e r ATTN: Operat ional Arch ives Branch

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DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

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Naval Surface Weapons Center ATTN: L i b r a r y

Naval War Co l lege ATTN: P r o f e s s o r 8 L i b r a r i e s

Naval Weapons Center ATTN: Code 343 (FKA6A2) Tech Svcs

Naval Weapons E v a l u a t i o n F a c i l i t y ATTN: L i b r a r y

205

DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY (Cont inued)

Navy Depar tment L ib rary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Navy Nuc lear Power School ATTN : L i b r a r y

Navy Nuclear Test Personnel Review 2 cy ATTN: W. L o e f f l e r

N i m i t z L i b r a r y ATTN: Documents & Reports Dept

O f f i c e o f t h e J u d g e Adv Gen ATTN: Code 73

U.S. Merchant Marine Academy ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U.S. Naval Air S t a t i o n L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r y

DEPARTMENT OF THE A I R FORCE

Aerospace Defense Command ATTN: H i s t o r i a n

Air Force Communications Command ATTN: H i s t o r i a n

Air F o r c e I n s t i t u t e o f T e c h n o l o g y ATTN: L i b r a r y

Air F o r c e L o g i s t i c s Command ATTN: H i s t o r i a n

Air Force Nuclear Test Personnel Review ATTN: HQ USAF/SGES

Air Force Systems Command ATTN: H i s t o r i a n

Air Force Techn ica l App l i ca t i ons Ctr ATTN: H i s t o r i a n

Air Force Weapons L a b o r a t o r y ATTN: Tech L i b r a r y

Air Nat ional Guard ATTN: H i s t o r i a n

Air T r a i n i n g Command ATTN: H i s t o r i a n

Air U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN. AUL-LSE

M ~ l i t a r y Airllft Command ATTN: H i s t o r i a n

P a c i f i c Air Forces ATTN: H i s t o r i a n

S t r a t e g i c Air C o n a n d ATTN: H i s t o r i a n ATTN: NRI -STINFO, L i b r a r y

DEPARTMENT OF THE A I R FORCE (Cont inued)

T a c t i c a l Air Comnand ATTN: H i s t o r i a n

U.S. Air Force Academy L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r y

U.S. Air Force Occupat ional & Env Heal th Lab ATTN: NTPR

USAF School o f Aerospace Medicine ATTN: S t r u g h o l d L i b r a r y

DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY

Department o f Energy ATTN: OMA

Nevada O p e r a t i o n s O f f i c e

2 cy ATTN: R. N u t l e y ATTN: Hea l th Phys ics D iv

Human H e a l t h & Assessments D i v ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY CONTRACTORS

Holmes & Narver , Inc ATTN: JNATDR, Fir Greene

Lawrence Livermore Nat ional Lab ATTN: T e c h n i c a l I n f o D e p t L i b r a r y

Los A lamos Nat ional Laboratory ATTN: M. Walz, ADLA MS A183 ATTN: D. Cobb, ESS MSS 0466

2 cy ATTN: L i b r a r y 2 cy ATTN: ADPA MMS 195

R e y n o l d s E l e c t r i c a l & Engr Co, I n c ATTN: C I C ATTN: W . Brady

Sandia Nat ional Lab ATTN: C e n t r a l L i b r a r y ATTN: W . H e r e f o r d

OTHER GOVERNMENT AGENCIES

U.S. P u b l i c H e a l t h S e r v i c e ATTN: G. Ca ldwe l l

C e n t r a l I n t e l l i g e n c e Agency ATTN: O f f i c e o f M e d i c a l S e r v i c e s

Dept o f H e a l t h & Human Svcs ATTN: O f f i ce o f Genera l Counse l

Exec Ofc o f t h e P r e s i d e n t Management & Budget Ofc L i b

ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

L i b r a r y o f Congress ATTN: L i b r a r y S e r v i c e D i v i s i o n ATTN: Science & Technology Dlv ATTN: S e r i a l & G o v t P u b l i c a t i o n

3

206

OTHER GOVERNMENT AGENCIES (Continued)

Nat ional Arch ives ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Nat ional Atomic Museum ATTN: H i s t o r i a n

Department o f Commerce ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Occupational Safe ty & Hea ATTN: L i b r a r y

l t h Admin

11 ty O f f i c e o f H e a l t h & D isab i ATTN: R. Copeland

O f f i c e o f Workers Compensation Pgrm ATTN: R . Larson

U.S. Coast Guard Academy L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U.S. House o f Representa t ives 2 cy ATTN: Committee on Armed Services

U.S. House o f Representa t ives ATTN: Subcorn i t tee on Hea l th & Env i r

U.S. Senate ATTN: Committee on Veterans Affairs

U.S. Senate ATTN: Committee on Veterans A f f a i r s

Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Providence, RI

ATTN: D i r e c t o r

Veterans Admin is t ra t ion Washington, D.C.

ATTN: Board o f Ve teran Appeal

Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - Ofc Central Washington, D.C.

ATTN: Dept Veterans Benef i t , Central Ofc ATTN: D i r e c t o r

Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Montgomery, AL


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Anchorage, A K


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Phoenix, A Z


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO L i t t l e Rock, AR


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion -RO Los Angeles, C A



Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO San Francisco, CA


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Denver, CO

ATTN : D i r e c t o r

Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Har t fo rd , CT


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Wilmington, DE


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO S t . Petersburg, FL


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO At lan ta , GA


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Honolulu, H I


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Chicago, I L


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Sea t t l e , WA


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Ind ianapo l is , I N


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Des Moines, I A


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Wichi ta, KS


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO L o u i s v i l l e , KY


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO New Orleans, LA


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Togus, ME


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Ba l t imore , MD


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Boston, MA


207


Veterans f idmin is t ra t ion - RO S t . Paul, MN


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Jackson, MS


Veterans Admin ls t ra t ion - RO Hunt ington, WV

ATTN. D i r e c t o r

Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO S t . Louis, MO


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO F o r t H a r r i s o n , MT


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO L lnco ln , NE


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Reno, NV


Veterans Admin ls t ra t ion - RO Manchester, NH


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Newark, NJ


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Milwaukee, WI


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO A1 buquerque, NM


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO B u f f a l o , NY


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion -RO New York, NY

ATTN: D l r e c t o r

Veterans Admin ls t ra t ion -RO Winston Salem, NC

ATTN. 01 r e c t o r

Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Fargo, ND


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Cleveland, OH


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Muskogee, O K


OTHER GOVERNMENT AGENCIES (Con t inued l

Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Por t1 and, OR


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO P i t t sbu rgh , PA


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Ph i l ade lph ia , PA


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO APO San Franc isco

ATTN . D i r e c t o r

Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO San Juan, Puer to Rlco


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Columbia, SC


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Sioux F a l l s , SD


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Houston, TX


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Waco, TX


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO S a l t Lake City, UT


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Whi te River Junct ion, VT


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Roanoke, VA


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Cheyenne, W Y


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO San Diego, CA


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO Boise, I D


Veterans Admin is t ra t ion - RO D e t r o i t , MI


208


Veterans admin is t ra t ion - RO Nashv i l l e , TN


The White House ATTN: Domestic P o l i c y S t a f f

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE CONTRACTORS

Advanced Research & App l i ca t i ons Corp ATTN: H. Lee

JAYCOR

10 cy ATTN: Hea l th & Environment Div

Kaman Tempo

ATTN: A. Nelson

ATTN: E. M a r t i n ATTN: DASIAC

Kaman Tempo ATTN: R. M i l l e r

Kaman Tempo 10 cy ATTN: C . Jones

Nat iona l Academy of Sciences ATTN: C. Rob ine t te ATTN: Medical Follow-up Agency ATTN: Nat ional Mater ia ls Advisory Board

P a c i f i c - S i e r r a Research Corp ATTN: H. Brode, Chairman SAGE

R & D Associates ATTN: P . Haas

Science Appl icat ions, Inc ATTN: Tech L i b r a r y

Sc ience Appl icat ions, Inc 10 cy ATTN: L. Novotney

OTHER

Adam State Col lege ATTN: G o v t P u b l i c a t i o n L i b

Akron Publ ic L ibrary ATTN: Govt P u b l i c a t i o n L i b r a r i a n

Alabama S t Dept o f A rch i ves & H i s t o r y ATTN: M i l i t a r y Records D i v i s i o n

U n i v e r s i t y o f Alabama ATTN: Reference Dept/Documents

U n i v e r s i t y o f A l a s k a ATTN: D i r e c t o r o f L i b r a r i e s

Un ive rs i t y o f A laska ATTN: Govt P u b l i c a t i o n L i b r a r i a n

OTHER (Continued)

A lbany Pub l ic L ib rary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Alexander City S t a t e J r C o l l e g e ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

A1 legheny College ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

A l l e n County Publ ic L ibrary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

A1 toona Area Publ i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

American S t a t i s t i c s I n d e x ATTN: Cathy Jarvey

Anaheim Publ i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Andrews L ib ra ry , Co l l ege o f Wooster ATTN: Government Documents

Ange lo S ta te Un ivers i ty L ib rary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Angelo Iacoboni Pub L i b ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Anoka County L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Appalachian State Univers i ty ATTN: L i b r a r y Documents

A r i zona S ta te Un ive rs i t y L ib ra ry ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U n i v e r s i t y o f Ar izona ATTN: Gov Doc Dept , C. Bower

Arkansas Col lege Library ATTN: L i b r a r y

Arkansas LI b r a r y Comm ATTN: L i b r a r y

Arkansas State Univers i ty ATTN: L i b r a r y

U n i v e r s i t y o f Arkansas ATTN: Government Documents Div

Aust in Col lege Ar thur Hopk ins L ib rary


A t l a n t a P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN: I v a n A l l e n Dept

A t lan ta Un ivers i ty Center ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

209

OTHER (Cont inued) OTHER (Continued)

Auburn Univ a t Montgomery L i b ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

E. Davis Schwartz Mem L i b ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Bangor Publ ic L ibrary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Bates Co l lege L ib rary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

B a y l o r U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN: Docs Dept

B e l o i t C o l l e g e L i b r a r i e s ATTN: S e r i a l s Docs Dept

BemidJ i State Col lege ATTN: L i b r a r y

BenJamin F. Fe inbe rg L ib ra ry S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e

ATTN: Government Documents

B le rce L ib ra ry , Ak ron Un ive rs i t y ATTN: Government Documents

Bos ton Pub l lc L ib rary ATTN: Documents Department

Bowdoin Co l lege ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Bowl lng Green Sta te Un iv ATTN. L ib Govt Docs Services

B r a d l e y U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: Govt P u b l i c a t i o n L i b r a r i a n

B r a n d e i s U n i v e r s i t y L i b ATTN: Documents Sec t ion

Brigham Young U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Brigham Young U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: Documents C o l l e c t i o n

Brookhaven Nat ional Laboratory ATTN: Techn ica l L ib ra ry

Brook lyn Co l lege ATTN: Documents D i v i s i o n

Broward County L ibrary Sys ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Brown U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

B u c k n e l l U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: Reference Dept

B u f f a l o & E r i e Co Pub L i b ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

B u r l i n g t o n L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

C a l i f o r n i a a t F r e s n o S t a t e U n i v L i b ATTN: L i b r a r y

C a l i f o r n i a a t San D iego Un ivers i ty ATTN: Documents Department

C a l i f o r n i a a t S t a n i s l a v s S t C l g L i b ATTN: L i b r a r y

C a l i f o r n i a S t Po ly techn ic Un iv L ib ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

C a l i f o r n i a S t Un iv a t No r th r i dge ATTN: Gov Doc

C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e U n i v a t Long Beach L i b ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

C a l i f o r n i a U n i v L i b r a r y ATTN: Govt Publ icat ions Dept

C a l i f o r n i a U n i v L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

C a l i f o r n i a U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN: Govt Documents Dept

C a l i f o r n i a U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN: Documents Sec

California U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: Government Documents Dept

C a l v i n C o l l e g e L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a n a n

C a l v i n T. Ryan L i b r a r y Kearney State College

ATTN: Govt Documents Dept

Car l e ton Co l l ege L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

C a r n e g i e L i b r a r y o f P i t t s b u r g h ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Carneg ie Me l lon Un ivers i ty ATTN: D i r e c t o r o f L i b r a r i e s

210

I

OTHER (Cont inued)

Carson Regional L lbrary ATTN: Gov Pub l i ca t i ons Un i t

Case Western Reserve U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U n i v e r s i t y o f Cen t ra l F lo r i da ATTN: L i b r a r y Docs Dept

Cen t ra l M ich igan Un ive rs i t y ATTN: L i b r a r y Documents Sec t ion

Cent ra l M issour i S ta te Un iv ATTN: Government Documents

Cen t ra l S ta te Un ive rs i t y ATTN: L i b r a r y Documents Dept

Central Washington Universi ty ATTN: L i b r a r y Docs Sec t ion

Cent ra l Wyoming Co l l ege L ib ra ry ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Char leston County L lbrary ATTN: L l b r a r i a n

Char lo t te & Mechlenburg County Pub L i b ATTN: E . C o r r e l l

Chattanooga Hamilton Co ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Chesapeake Pub L i b System ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Ch icago Pub l ic L ib rary ATTN: Governments Publ lcat ions Dept

S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Ch icago Un ive rs i t y L ib ra ry ATTN: D i r e c t o r o f L i b r a r i e s ATTN: Documents Processing

C i n c i n n a t i U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Claremont Colleges Libs ATTN: Doc C o l l e c t i o n

Clemson U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: D i r e c t o r o f L i b r a r i e s

Cleveland Pub1 i c L l b r a r y ATTN: Documents C o l l e c t i o n

C leve land S ta te Un iv L ib ATTN: L l b r a r i a n

Coe L i b r a r y ATTN: Documents D i v i s i o n

OTHER (Continued)

Co lga te Un iv L ib ra ry ATTN: Reference L ibrary

Colorado State Univ L ibs ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Co lo rado Un ive rs i t y L ib ra r ies ATTN: D i r e c t o r o f L i b r a r i e s

Columbia U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN: Documents Service Center

Columbus & F r a n k l i n Cty P u b l i c L i b ATTN: Gen Rec D iv

Compton L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Connect icu t S ta te L ib rary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U n i v e r s i t y o f Connect icut ATTN: Govt o f Connect icut

Connect icu t Un ivers i ty ATTN: D i r e c t o r o f L i b r a r i e s

C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y L i b ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Corpus C h r i s t 1 S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y L i b ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Cu lver City L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Cur ry Co l lege L ib rary ATTN: L l b r a r i a n

Dal las County Publ ic L ibrary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

D a l l a s P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Da l ton Jr Co l l ege L ib ra ry ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Dartmouth College ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Davenpor t Publ ic L lbrary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Davidson College ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Dayton & Montgomery C i t y Pub L l b ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U n i v e r s i t y o f Dayton ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

211

OTHER (Continued OTHER (Cont inued)

Decatur Pub l ic L ib rary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Dekalb Comm C o l l So Cpus ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Delaware Pauw U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U n i v e r s i t y of Delaware ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

D e l t a C o l l e g e L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

D e l t a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Denison Univ L ibrary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Denver Pub l ic L ib rary ATTN: Documents D iv

Dept o f L i b & Arch ives ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

D e t r o i t P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

D ick inson S ta te Co l lege ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Drake Memorial Learning Resource Ctr ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Drake Un ive rs i t y ATTN: Cowles L i b r a r y

Drew U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Duke U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: Pub l i c Docs Dept

Du lu th Pub1 1c L i b r a r y ATTN: Documents Sec t ion

Ear lham Col lege ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Eas t Caro l i na Un ive rs i t y ATTN: L i b r a r y Docs Dept

Eas t Cent ra l Un ivers i ty ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

East I s l i p P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

East Orange Publ ic L ib ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

East Tennessee Sta te Un iv Sher rod L ib ATTN: Documents Dept

East Texas S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ATTN : L i bra ry

Eastern Branch ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

E a s t e r n I l l i n o i s U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Eastern Kentucky Univers i ty ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

E a s t e r n M i c h i g a n U n i v e r s l t y L i b ATTN: Documents L i b n

Eastern Montana Co l l ege L ib ra ry ATTN: Documents Dept

Eastern New Mexico Univ ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Eastern Oregon C o l l e g e L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Eastern Washington Univ ATTN. L i b r a r i a n

E l Paso P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN: Documents E Geneology Dept

E lk0 County L ibrary ATTN. L i b r a r i a n

E l m 1 ra Co l 1 ege ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

E l on Col 1 ege L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Enoch P r a t t F r e e L i b r a r y ATTN: Documents O f f i c e

Emory U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

E v a n s v i l l e E Vanderburgh County Pub L i b ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

E v e r e t t P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

F a i r l e i g h D i c k i n s o n U n i v ATTN: Deposi tory Dept

F l o r i d a A & M Univ ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

F l o r i d a A t l a n t i c U n i v L i b ATTN: D i v o f P u b l i c Documents

F l o r i d a I n s t i t u t e o f Tech L i b ATTN: Federal Documents Dept

F l o r i d a I n t l Un iv L ib ra ry ATTN: Docs Sec t ion

212

OTHER (Con t 1 nued)

F l o r i d a S t a t e L i b r a r y ATTN: Documents Sec t ion

F l o r i d a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Fond Du Lac P u b l i c L i b ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

F o r t Hays S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

F o r t Wor th Pub l ic L ib rary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Free Pub L i b o f E l i z a b e t h ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Free Pub l ic L ib rary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

F r e e p o r t P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Fresno County Free Library ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Gadsden Publ i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Garden Publ i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Gardner Webb Co l lege ATTN: Documents L i b r n

Gary P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Georgetown Univ L i b r a r y ATTN: Govt Docs Room

G e o r g i a I n s t o f Tech ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Georgia Southern College ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Georgia Southwestern Col ATTN: D i r e c t o r o f

1 ege ’ L i b r a r i e s

Georgia State Univ L ib ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U n i v e r s i t y o f Georgia ATTN: Dir o f L i b r a r i e s

Glassboro State Col lege ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Gleeson L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

OTHER (Continued)

Government Pub l i ca t i ons L ib ra ry ” ATTN: D i r e c t o r o f L i b r a r i e s

Grace1 and Col l ege ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Grand Forks Publ ic Ci ty-County L ibrary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Grand Rapids Publ ic L ibrary ATTN: D i r e c t o r o f L i b r a r i e s

Greenvi l le County L ibrary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Guam RFK Memor ia l Un ivers i ty L ib ATTN: Fed Depos i to ry Co l l ec t i on

U n i v e r s i t y o f Guam ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Gustavus Adolphus College ATTN: L i b r a r y

Hardin-Simmons U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

H a r t f o r d Publ i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Harvard Co l lege L ib rary ATTN: D i r e c t o r o f L i b r a r i e s

Harvard Co l lege L ib rary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U n i v e r s i t y o f Hawaii ATTN: Government Docs C o l l e c t i o n

Hawa i i S ta te L ib ra ry ATTN: Federal Documents U n i t

U n i v e r s i t y o f Hawaii a t Monoa ATTN: D i r e c t o r o f L i b r a r i e s

U n i v e r s i t y o f H a w a i i ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Haydon Burns L ib ra ry ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Henry Ford Comm Col lege L1 b ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Herber t H. Lehman Co l lege ATTN: L i b r a r y Documents D i v i s i o n

H o f s t r a U n i v L i b r a r y ATTN: Documents Dept

Hol 1 1 ns Col1 ege ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Hoover I n s t i t u t i o n ATTN: J . Bingham

213

OTHER (Cont inued) OTHER (Cont inued)

Hopk insv i l l e Corn Co l l ege ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U n i v e r s i t y o f Houston, L i b r a r y ATTN: Documents D iv

Houston Pub l ic L ib rary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Hoy t Pub l i c L ib ra ry ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Humboldt State Col lege L ibrary ATTN: Documents Dept

Hunt ing ton Park L ib rary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Hu tch inson Pub l i c L ib ra ry ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Idaho Pub l i c L lb & I n fo Cen te r ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Idaho S ta te L ib ra ry ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Idaho S ta te Un ive rs i t y L ib ra ry ATTN: Documents Dept

U n i v e r s i t y o f I d a h o ATTN. Documents Sect ATTN: Dir o f L i b r a r i e s

U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s , L i b r a r y ATTN: Documents Sec t ion

I l l i n o i s S t a t e L i b r a r y ATTN: Government Documents Branch

I l l i n o i s U n i v a t Urbana Champaign ATTN: P. Watson, Documents L i b r a r y

I l l i n o i s V a l l e y Comm C o l l ATTN: L i b r a r y

I n d i a n a S t a t e L i b r a r y ATTN: Serial Sect lon

Ind iana S ta te Un ive rs i t y ATTN: Documents L i b r a r i e s

I n d i a n a U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN: Documents Department

Ind ianapo l is Mar ion Cty Pub L i b r a r y ATTN. Socia l Sc lence Div

Iowa S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN: Govt Documents Dept

Iowa u n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN: Government Documents Dept

B u t l e r U n i v e r s i t y , I r w i n L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Isaac Delchdo Col l ege ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

James Madison U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Je f fe rson County Pub l ic L ib ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Jersey City Sta te Co l lege ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Johns Hopk ins Un ivers i ty ATTN: Documents L i b r a r y

John J. Wr igh t L ib ra ry , La Roche Col lege ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Johnson Free Publ ic L ib ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Kahu lu i L lb ra ry ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Kalamazoo P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Kansas City P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN: Documents D iv

Kansas S t a t e L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Kansas S ta te Un iv L ib ra ry ATTN: Documents Dept

Uni v e r s i t y o f Kansas ATTN: D i r e c t o r o f L i b r a r i e s

Ken t S ta te Un ive rs l t y L ib ra ry ATTN: Documents D iv

Kentucky Oept o f L i b r a r y & Archives ATTN: Documents Sec t ion

Un ive rs i t y o f Ken tucky ATTN: Governments P u b l i c a t i o n Dept ATTN: D i r e c t o r of L i b r a r i e s

Kenyon Col1 ege L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Lake Forest Col lege ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Lake Sumter Comm Co l1 L ib ATTN : L i b r a n an

Lake land Pub l i c L ib ra ry ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

214

OTHER (Continued) OTHER (Continued)

Lancaster Regional L ibrary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Lawrence U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: Documents Dept

Lee Library, Br igham Young U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: Documents & Map Sect ion

L i b r a r y & S t a t u t o r y D i s t r i b u t i o n & Svc 2 cy ATTN. L i b r a r i a n

L i t t l e Rock P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Long Beach Pub l L ib rary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Los Angeles Publ ic L ibrary ATTN: S e r i a l s D i v U.S. Documents

Lou is iana S ta te Un ive rs i t y ATTN: Government Doc Dept ATTN: D i r e c t o r o f L i b r a r i e s

L o u i s v i l l e F r e e Pub L i b ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

L o u i s v i l l e U n i v L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Lyndon B. Johnson Sch o f Pub A f f a i r s L i b ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Maine Marit ime Academy ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Maine U n i v e r s i t y a t Oreno ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U n i v e r s i t y o f Maine ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Manchester C i ty L ib rary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Mankato S ta te Co l l ege ATTN: Govt Publ icat ions

Mantor L i b r a r y Univ o f Maine a t Farmington

ATTN: D i r e c t o r o f L i b r a r i e s

Marathon County Publ i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Marshal 1 Brooks L ibrary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U n i v e r s i t y o f M a r y l a n d ATTN: McKeld in L ib r Docs Div

U n i v e r s i t y o f Maryland ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U n i v e r s i t y o f Massachusetts ATTN: Government Docs Col lege

McNeese State Univ ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Memphis Shelby County Pub L i b & I n f o Ctr ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Memphis S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Mercer Un ivers i ty ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Mesa County Pub l ic L ib rary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U n i v e r s i t y o f Miami , L ibrary ATTN: Government Pub l i ca t i ons

Miami P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN: Documents D i v i s i o n

Miami Univ L i b r a r y ATTN: Documents Dept

Miche l Or radre L ib rary U n i v e r s i t y of Santa C lara

ATTN: Documents D lv

M ich igan S ta te L ib ra ry ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

M i c h i g a n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Michigan Tech U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b r a r y Documents Dept

U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n ATTN: Acq Sec Documents U n i t

M idd lebu ry Co l l ege L ib ra ry ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Mi 1 l e r s v i 11 e State Col1 ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

M i l n e L i b r a r y S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y o f New York

ATTN: Docs L i b r n

Milwaukee Pub L i b ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Minneapo l is Pub l ic L ib ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Minnesota Div o f Emergency Svcs ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Mino t S ta te Co l lege ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Mississippi S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

215

OTHER ( C o n t i n u e d )

U n i v e r s i t y o f M i s s i s s i p p i ATTN: D i r e c t o r o f L i b r a r i e s

M i s s o u r i U n i v a t Kansas C i t y Gen ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

M i s s o u r i U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN: Government Documents

M . I . T . L i b r a r i e s ATTN L i b r a r i a n

M o b i l e P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN G o v e r n m e n t a l I n f o D i v i s i o n

M o f f e t t L l b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

M o n t a n a S t a t e L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

M o n t a n a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U n i v e r s i t y o f M o n t a n a ATTN: Documents Div

Moorhead S ta te Co l l ege ATTN: L i b r a r y

M t P r o s p e c t P u b l i c L i b ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

M u r r a y S t a t e U n i v L i b ATTN: L i b r a r y

Nassau L i b r a r y S y s t e m ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Na t rona Coun ty Public L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

N e b r a s k a L i b r a r y C o r n ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Un iv o f Nebraska a t Omaha ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

N e b r a s k a W e s t e r n C o l l e g e L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U n i v o f N e b r a s k a a t L i n c o l n ATTN. D i r e c t o r o f L i b r a r i e s

U n l v o f Nevada a t Reno ATTN: Governments Pub Dept

U n l v o f Nevada a t Las Vegas ATTN: D i r e c t o r o f L i b r a r i e s

New H a m p s h i r e U n i v e r s i t y L i b ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

New H a n o v e r C o u n t y P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

N e b r a s k a U n i v e r s i t y ATTN A c q u i s i t i o n s D e p t

OTHER ( C o n t i n u e d )

New M e x i c o S t a t e L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

New M e x i c o S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b Documents D i v

U n i v e r s i t y o f New Mexico ATTN: D i r e c t o r o f L i b r a r i e s

U n i v e r s i t y o f New O r l e a n s L i b r a r y ATTN: Govt Documents Div

New O r l e a n s P u b l i c L i b ATTN: L i b r a r y

New Y o r k P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

New Y o r k S t a t e L i b r a r y ATTN: Doc C o n t r o l , C u l t u r a l Ed Ctr

New Y o r k S t a t e U n i v a t S t o n y B r o o k ATTN: M a i n L i b Doc Sect

New Y o r k S t a t e U n i v C o l a t C o r t l a n d ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

S t a t e U n i v of New York ATTN: L i b r a r y Documents Sec

S t a t e U n l v o f New York ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

New Y o r k S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: Documents Center

S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y o f New York ATTN: Documents Dept

New Y o r k U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN: Documents Dept

Newark F ree L ib ra ry ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Newark Pub1 i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

N i a g a r a F a l l s Pub L i b ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

N i c h o l l s S t a t e U n i v L i b r a r y ATTN: Docs D i v

N ieves M. F l o r e s M e m o r i a l L i b ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

N o r f o l k P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN: R. P a r k e r

N o r t h C a r o l i n a A g r i E Tech S ta te Un iv ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U n i v o f N o r t h C a r o l i n a a t C h a r l o t t e ATTN: A t k i n s L i b r a r y D o c u m e n t s D e p t

U n i v o f N o r t h C a r o l i n a a t G r e e n s b o r o , L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

216

OTHER (Cont inued) OTHER (Continued)

Nor th Caro l i na Cen t ra l Un ive rs i t y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

N o r t h C a r o l i n a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Nor th Caro l ina Un ivers i ty a t Wi lm ing ton ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U n i v e r s i t y o f Nor th Caro l lna ATTN: BA SS D i v i s i o n Documents

Nor th Dakota S ta te Un ivers i ty L ib ATTN: Docs L i b r a r i a n

U n i v e r s i t y o f North Dakota ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

North Georgia Col lege ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Nor th Texas S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Nor theas t M issour i S ta te Un ivers i ty ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

N o r t h e a s t e r n I l l i n o i s U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b r a r y

Nor theas tern Oklahoma State Univ ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Nor theas tern Un ivers i ty ATTN: Dodge L i b r a r y

Nor the rn A r i zona Un ive rs i t y L ib ATTN: Government Documents Dept

N o r t h e r n I l l i n o i s U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Northern Iowa U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b r a r y

Northern Michigan Univ ATTN: Documents

Nor thern Montana Co l l ege L ib ra ry ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Northwestern Michigan Col lege ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Northwestern State Univ ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Nor thwestern State Univ L ibrary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Nor thwes te rn Un ive rs i t y L ib ra ry ATTN: Govt Publ icat ions Dept

Norwal k Pub1 i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U n i v e r s i t y o f Not re Dame ATTN: Document Center

Oakland Comm Col lege ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Oakland Publ ic L ibrary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Oberl i n Col 1 ege L 1 b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Ocean County College ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Ohio State University ATTN: L i b r a r i e s Documents D i v i s i o n

O h i o U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN: Docs Dept

Oklahoma C i t y U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Oklahoma City U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Oklahoma Dept of L i b r a r i e s ATTN: U.S. Govt Documents

U n i v e r s i t y o f Oklahoma ATTN: Documents D iv

Old Dominion U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: Doc Dept Univ L ibrary

O l i v e t C o l l e g e L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Omaha Pub L ib Clark Branch ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Oregon S t a t e L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U n i v e r s i t y o f Oregon ATTN: Documents Sec t ion

Ouach i ta Bap t i s t Un ive rs i t y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Pan American U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Passa ic Pub l ic L ib rary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Paul K lapper L ibrary ATTN: Documents Dept

Pennsylvania State L ibrary ATTN: Government Pub l ica t ions Sec t ion

217


Pennsy lvan ia S ta te Un ivers i ty ATTN: L i b r a r y Document Sec

Un ive rs i t y o f Pennsy lvan ia ATTN: D i r e c t o r o f L i b r a r i e s

Penrose L i b r a r y U n i v e r s i t y o f Denver

ATTN: Penrose L i b r a r y

Peor ia Pub l i c L ib ra ry ATTN: Business, Science & Tech Dept

F r e e L i b r a r y o f P h i l a d e l p h i a ATTN: Govt Publ icat ions Dept

P h i l i p s b u r g F r e e P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN : L i b r a r y

Phoen ix Pub l ic L ib rary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U n i v e r s i t y o f P i t t s b u r g ATTN: Documents O f f i c e G 8

P l a i n f i e l d P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Popu la r C reek Pub l i c L ib D is t r i c t ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

A s s o c i a t i o n o f P o r t l a n d L i b ATTN. L i b r a r i a n

P o r t l a n d P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

P o r t l a n d S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN. L i b r a r i a n

Prescot t Memor ia l L ib Lou is iana Tech Univ


P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN: Documents D i v l s i o n

Providence Col lege ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Prov idence Pub l ic L ib rary ATTN: L l b r a r i a n

C i n c i n n a t i & Hami l ton County Publ ic L ibrary ATTN L i b r a r i a n

P u b l i c L i b r a r y o f N a s h v i l l e and Davidson County ATTN L i b r a r y

Un ive rs i t y o f Puer to R ico ATTN: Doc & Maps Room

Purdue U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Quinebaug Val ley Community Col ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Ralph Brown Draughon L i b Auburn U n i v e r s i t y

ATTN: Microforms & Documents Dept

Rapid City P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Read ing Pub l ic L ib rary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Reed C o l l e g e L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Reese L i b r a r y Augusta College


U n i v e r s i t y o f Rhode I s l a n d L i b r a r y ATTN: Govt Pub1 i ca t i ons O f f i ce

U n i v e r s i t y o f Rhode I s l a n d ATTN: D i r e c t o r o f L i b r a r i e s

R ice Un ive rs i t y ATTN: D i r e c t o r o f L i b r a r i e s

Richard W . Norton Mem L i b Lou is iana Co l lege


Richland County Pub L i b ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U n i v e r s i t y o f Richmond ATTN: L i b r a r y

R i v e r s i d e P u b l l c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U n i v e r s i t y o f R o c h e s t e r L i b r a r y ATTN: Documents Sec t ion

Rutgers Un lvers i ty , Camden L i b r a r y ATTN. L i b r a r i a n

Rutgers S ta te Un ivers i ty ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Ru tge rs Un ive rs i t y ATTN: Government Documents Dept

Ru tge rs Un ive rs i t y Law L i b r a r y ATTN: Federal Documents Dept

Sal em C o l l e g e L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Samford U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

San An ton lo Pub l i c L lb ra ry ATTN: Bus Science & Tech Dept

218

I

OTHER (Continued) OTHER (Continued)

San Diego County Library ATTN: C. Jones, Acquis i t ions

San D iego Pub l i c L ib ra ry ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

San D iego S ta te Un ive rs i t y L ib ra ry ATTN: Govt Pubs Dept

San Franc isco Pub l ic L ib rary ATTN: Govt Documents Dept

San Franc isco State Col lege ATTN: Govt Pub C o l l e c t i o n

San Jose State Col lege L ibrary ATTN: Documents Dept

San Luis Obispo Ci ty-County L ibrary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Savannah Pub & E f f i ngham L ib t y Reg L i b ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

S c o t t s b l u f f P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Scranton Pub l ic L ib rary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

S e a t t l e P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN: Ref Doc Asst

Se lby Pub l i c L ib ra ry ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Shawnee L i b r a r y System ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Shreve Memorial L ibrary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

S l l a s Sronson Pub l ic L ib rary ATTN. L i b r a r i a n

Simon Schwob Mem L i b Columbus Co l lege


Sioux City P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Skidmore College ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

S l i ppe ry Rock S t a t e C o l l e g e L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

South Caro l ina S ta te L ib rary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Un ive rs i t y o f Sou th Caro l i na ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Un ive rs i t y o f Sou th Caro l i na ATTN: Government Documents

South Dakota Sch o f Mines & Tech ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

South Oaknta State Library ATTN: Federal Documents Department

Un ivers i ty o f South Dakota ATTN: Documents L i b r a r i a n

South F l o r i d a U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Southdale-Hennepin Area Library ATTN: Government Documents

Southeas t M issour i S ta te Un ivers i ty ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Southeastern Massachusetts Universi ty L ibrary ATTN: Documents Sec

Un ive rs i t y o f Sou the rn Alabama ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN: Documents Dept

Southern Connect icut State Col lege ATTN: L i b r a r y

Southern I l l i n o i s U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Southern I l l i n o i s U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: Documents Ctr

Southern Method is t Un ivers i ty ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Un ive rs i t y o f Sou the rn M iss i ss ipp i ATTN: L i b r a r y

Southern Oregon College ATTN: L i b r a r y

S o u t h e r n U n i v e r s i t y i n New Or leans, L ibrary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Southern Utah State Col lege L ibrary ATTN: Documents Department

Southwest Missouri State College ATTN : L 1 b r a r y

Southwestern Univers i ty o f Lou is iana , L ib ra r ies ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Southwestern Universi ty School of Law L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

219


Spokane P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN: Reference Dept

S p r i n g f i e l d C i t y L l b r a r y ATTN: Documents Sec t lon

S t . Bonaventure Un ivers i ty ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

S t . Joseph Publ ic L ibrary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

S t . Lawrence U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

S t . L o u i s P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L l b r a r i a n

S t . Pau l Pub l i c L ib ra ry ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s l t y L i b r a r y ATTN: Govt Documents Dept

S t a t e H i s t o r i c a l SOC L i b ATTN: Docs Ser ia l s Sec t i on

S ta te L ib ra ry o f Massachuse t t s ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

S t a t e L i b r a r y o f Ohio ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y o f New York ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Stetson Univ ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U n i v e r s i t y o f S teubenv i l l e ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Stockton & San Joaqu in Pub l ic L ib ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Stock ton S ta te Co l lege L ib rary ATTN: L l b r a r i a n

S u p e r i o r P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Swarthmore C o l l e g e L i b ATTN: Reference Dept

Sy racuse Un ive rs i t y L ib ra ry ATTN: Documents D iv

Tacoma P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r l a n

Tampa, H i l l sborough County Pub l ic L ib ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Temple U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Tennessee Techno log ica l Un lvers i ty ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U n i v e r s i t y o f Tennessee ATTN: Dir o f L i b r a r i e s

T e r t e l i n g L i b r a r y Co l l ege o f I daho


Texas A & M U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U n i v e r s i t y o f Texas a t A r l i n g t o n ATTN: L i b r a r y Documents

U n i v e r s i t y o f Texas a t San Antonio ATTN: L i b r a r y

Texas C h r i s t i a n U n i v e r s l t y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Texas S t a t e L i b r a r y ATTN: U.S. Documents Sect

Texas Tech U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN: Govt Docs Dept

Texas U n i v e r s i t y a t A u s t i n ATTN: Documents C o l l

Texas U n i v e r s i t y a t E l Paso ATTN: Documents and Maps L i b

U n i v e r s i t y o f T o l e d o L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

To ledo Pub l lc L ib rary ATTN: Social Science Dept

Tor rance C iv ic Center L ib rary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Traverse City P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Trenton Free P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

T r i n i t y C o l l e g e L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

T r i n i t y U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN: Documents C o l l e c t i o n

T u f t s U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN: Documents Dept

Tu lane Un ive rs i t y ATTN: Documents Dept

U n i v e r s i t y o f T u l s a ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

UCLA Research L ib rary ATTN: P u b l i c A f f a i r s Svc/US Docs

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OTHER (Continued)

Uniformed Svcs Un iv o f t he H l th Sc i ATTN: LRC L i b r a r y

U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r i e s ATTN: Dir o f L l b r a r i e s

Upper Iowa Co l lege ATTN: Documents C o l l e c t i o n

Utah S ta te Un ivers i ty ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U n i v e r s i t y o f U t a h ATTN: Spec ia l Co l l ec t i ons

U n i v e r s i t y o f U t a h ATTN: Dept o f Pharmacology ATTN: D i r e c t o r o f L i b r a r i e s

Va lenc ia L ib ra ry ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

V a n d e r b i l t U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN: Govt Docs Sect

U n i v e r s i t y o f Vermont ATTN: D i r e c t o r o f L i b r a r i e s

V i rg in ia Comonwea l th Un ive rs i t y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

V i r g i n i a M i l i t a r y I n s t i t u t e ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

V i r g i n l a P o l y t e c h n i c I n s t L i b ATTN: Docs Dept

V i r g l n i a S t a t e L i b r a r y ATTN: Ser ia l s Sec t i on

U n i v e r s i t y o f V i r g i n i a ATTN: Pub l i c Documents

OTHER (Continued)

Vo lus la County Pub l ic L ib rar ies ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Washington State Library ATTN: Documents Sec t ion

Washington State Univers i ty ATTN: L i b Documents Sec t ion

Washington U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r i e s ATTN: Dir o f L i b r a r i e s

U n i v e r s i t y o f Washington ATTN: Documents D iv

Wayne S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Wayne S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y Law L i b r a r y ATTN: Documents Dept

Weber S ta te Co l l ege L ib ra ry ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Wagner Col lege ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Wesleyan U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: Documents L i b r a r i a n

West Chester State Col l ATTN: Documents Dept

West Covina L ibrary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U n i v e r s i t y o f West F l o r i d a ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

West H i l l s Community C o l l ATTN : L i bra ry

West Texas S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b r a r y

West V i r g i n i a C o l l o f Grad S tud ies L ib ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U n i v e r s i t y o f West V i r g i n i a ATTN: D i r o f L i b r a r i e s

Wester ly Pub1 i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Western Caro l ina Univers i ty ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Western I l l i n o i s U n i v e r o i t y L i b ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Western Washington Univ ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Western Wyoming Cornun i t y Co l l ege L ib ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Westmoreland Cty Corn Coll ATTN: Learning Resource Ctr

Whl tman Col lege ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Wich i ta S ta te Un iv L ib rary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

W i l l i a m & Mary Co l lege ATTN: Docs Dept

W i l l i a m A l l e n W h i t e L i b r a r y Emporia Kansas Sta te Co l lege

ATTN: Govt Documents D iv

Wi l l i am Co l l ege L ib ra ry ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

W i l l i m a n t i c P u b l i c L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Wlnthrop Col lege ATTN: Documents Dept

U n i v e r s i t y o f Wisconsin a t Whitewater ATTN: Governments Documents L i b r a r y

221

OTHER (Continued)

Wisconsin Milwaukee U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Wisconsin Oshkosh U n i v e r s i t y ATTN. L i b r a r i a n

Wisconsin P l a t t e v l l l e U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Wisconsin U n i v e r s i t y a t Stevens P o i n t ATTN: Docs Sect ion

U n i v e r s i t y o f Wisconsin ATTN: Govt Pubs Dept

U n i v e r s i t y o f Wisconsin ATTN: Acquis i t ions Dept

Worcester Publ ic L ibrary ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

OTHER (Continued)

Yale University ATTN: D i r e c t o r o f L i b r a r i e s

Yeshiva U n i v e r s i t y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Yuma C i t y County L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

Wr ight State Univ L ibrary ATTN: Govts Documents Dept

klyoming S t a t e L i b r a r y ATTN: L i b r a r i a n

U n i v e r s i t y o f Wyoming ATTN: Documents Div

222

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