1

MELLISSA WITHERS, M.H.S., PH.D.CMORE SERIES

MARCH 19, 201312PM

DESIGNING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

2

Not everything that can be counted counts and not everything that counts can be counted.

--Albert Einstein

3

OVERVIEW

Review What is Qualitative Research? When to use Qualitative vs. Quantitative

Methods

The Steps Sampling Methods Analysis

4

5

WHAT WENT WRONG?

6

A QUICK REVIEWFrom Harris, S. (1991). “You want proof? I’ll give you proof!”: More cartoons from Sidney Harris. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.

7

WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH?

Any type of research that produces findings not arrived by statistical procedures or other means of quantification.

Refers to research about:Person’s livesLived experiencesBehaviors, emotions, feelingsOrganizational functionSocial movementsCultural phenomena

Strauss & Corbin, 1998

8

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

GOALS: Explore, discover, understand, describe

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS:Why?How?

9

CHARACTERISTICS

Starts with general question or problem

Usually no pre-defined hypothesis

Uses a small, purposeful sample (not random)

Often done in naturalistic settings

Creswell, 2009

10

CHARACTERISTICS (cont.)

In-depth analysis

Present results descriptively

Focus on participants’ meanings; holistic account

Emphasize personal experiences and interpretation over quantification

Interpretive; Researcher as key instrument- awareness of own orientations, biases, experiences

11USE QUALITATIVE METHODS…

To explore a topic/population that has previously not been studied

To gain a more holistic, contextualized understanding

To gain insight into possible causal mechanisms

To study behavior in a natural setting (gangs, homelessness, drug use, etc.)

12

USE QUALITATIVE METHODS…

To understand local terms, meaning

To develop survey instruments

To explore quantitative findings

To test feasibility

To test standardized measurements or instruments on different cultures, populations

13

14

15

16

17

18

WHERE DO YOU GO FROM HERE?

19

THE PROCESS

Systematic process!

STEP 1: Decide on sampling procedure

STEP 2: Decide on the specific methods

STEP 3: Decide on how to analyze data

20

HOW TO DESIGN A STUDY…

STEP 1: DECIDE ON A SAMPLING PROCEDURE

How much is known about this topic and population

Clear eligibility/exclusion criteria

Homogeneity of the population

How to gain access to this population

Your resources

21

APPROPRIATE SAMPLE DESIGN DEPENDS ON…

Degree of accuracy required

Range of possible experiences (homogeneity of target group)

Need for statistical analysis

Difficulty reaching your population

Ethical issues

Resources (i.e. time / money)

22

SAMPLING

Adequacy of sample depends not so much on the number of cases

Need for smaller but focused samples rather than large, random samples

Who will you learn the most from?

Depends on the proper specification of the cases to be analyzed

23

SAMPLE SIZE

Required size (n) is often unknown

Recent guidance- n=30 is large enough sample (Dworkin, 2012)

Maximize possibility that all perspectives (positive and negative cases) have been explored

Redundancy in information is often a sign that the sample size is adequate -“saturation point” (Morse, 1995)

24

PURPOSEFUL SAMPLING

Non-probability or non-random sampling

Aim is not statistical representativeness but to gain access to the full range of views, perspectives, themes in the population

Used when there is a limited number of individuals who have the relevant information

Sometimes the only meaningful way to investigate

25

PURPOSEFUL SAMPLING

Select cases rich in information with in-depth understanding

Choose subjects who are in the best position to provide data

“Maximum Variation”

26

PURPOSEFUL SAMPLING

Examples: Snowball Quota Stratified Convenience Homogenous Typical case vs. extreme/deviant/critical case Maximum variation

Patton, 1990

27

PURPOSEFUL SAMPLING-EXAMPLES

Snowball sampling Starting with a small group and asking for further contacts Useful for sensitive topics

Quota sampling Population is stratified and numbers within strata are decided Contacts are made until quotas are full Quotas can be proportional or non-proportional to the population

Confirming or disconfirming cases Other examples to confirm research

Criterion sampling all meet pre-determined criterion--- ex: all dropped out of school,

all in Iraq war

28

PURPOSEFUL SAMPLING-EXAMPLES

Convenience sampling e.g., interviews on the street; simply asking for

volunteers; using clients in clinical or business setting quick, convenient, less expensive not generalizable at all Sometimes only way to reach population

Stratified purposeful sampling Need to stratify in order to make generalizations

about comparisons between groups Each strata will be homogeneous

29SAMPLING EXAMPLES

Sexual practices among men on the down low

Women who use cocaine and who have children under age 5

Why some immigrant Asian women do not seek pre-natal care

Age at first sex among Latino men

Stigma among Mexican parents of children who have cleft lip or palate

30

HOW TO DESIGN A STUDY…

STEP 2: DECIDE ON A METHOD

How detailed you need the results

Potential biases

Your time, $$ and resources

31

METHODS

Depend on research question & theoretical and philosophical framework

Examples of methods:Documentary ResearchParticipant ObservationInterviewsFocus GroupsCase StudiesOral HistoriesObservationsPhotovoice

32

SELF-REFLEXIVITY

Objectivity is not possible (not required)

Acknowledge your framework, experience, perspective

Researcher influences process from the very beginning all the way through (research question)

Requires self-awareness, transparency

Convince the reader that the researcher(s) is sufficiently knowledgeable and will produce trustworthy results

33

RELIABILITY & VALIDITY

Instead, think of:TrustworthinessApplicabilityRespectAuthenticityFairnessCredibilityMeaning in-contextConsistency

34

STRATEGIES TO INCREASE TRUSTWORTHINESS

Detailed description of methods

Continuous checking for representativeness of data and fit between coding categories and data

Multiple members of team for analysis

35

STRATEGIES TO INCREASE TRUSTWORTHINESS

Prolonged contact with informants

Continuous validation of data (member checks)

Self-reflexivity; transparency/competence of researcher

Triangulation

36

Multiple data sources

Multiple kinds of data

Multiple data collection strategies

Subjects(data sources)

Data collection strategies

Kinds of data

TRIANGULATION

37

A WORD ABOUT FOCUS GROUPS

Depends on research question and population

Focus groups not appropriate for sensitive topics

Group dynamics may influence process

Logistically difficult

Often no savings for time & $

38

IRB ISSUES

You should have a qualitative expert help you write the study protocol (methods) and the IRB application

You will need documents such as: Question guides Screening scripts Recruitment materials

39

40

HOW TO DESIGN A STUDY…

STEP 3: DECIDE ON DATA ANALYSIS PLAN

Analysis methods vary

Usually based on looking for patterns, themes, linkages between them

Represent people through and in their own words (Miles & Huberman, 1994)

Examples: content analysis, grounded theory

41

DATA ANALYSIS

Selecting, focusing, simplifying & transforming

Not linear; circular; iterative process

Often occurs simultaneously with data collection

Multiple readings of data

Examination of patterns/themes

42

DATA ANALYSIS

All analytical choices (which codes, quotations to use)

Use of quotes, examples; usually not quantifications

Coding, summaries, clusters: a final report

Miles & Huberman, 1994

43

44

DATA ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

Software such as Atlas.ti, Envivo, Nudist helps organize

Does not do the analysis for you

45

ESTIMATING TIME FOR ANALYSIS

Depends on if you are audio-taping, transcribing (and translating from another language) Getting the transcripts can take TIME

Takes much more time to do the analysis- at least 2 hours of analysis for every hour of interview

Should be analyzed by multiple members of team, and validated by member of the target group

46

TRANSCRIPTION?

The need to transcribe depends on how detailed you want the data to be

If rich, detailed quotes will be helpful to illustrate a complex process, consider transcription

Sometimes you can audiotape and review tapes in order to write notes and come up with major themes without nuanced, contextual quotes

47

TRANSCRIPTION SERVICES

Professional transcription services

Estimate about 60-90 mins for interviews & focus groups

$75-90 per hour of audiotape

Assumes you have clear audio and only two English speakers More speakers or foreign language= higher cost

48

REFERENCES

Creswell, J. (2009) Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. 3ed. Lincoln, NB. Sage.

Dworkin, S.L. (2012) Sample Size Policy for Qualitative Studies Using In-Depth Interviews. Arch Sex Behav ior, 41:1319–1320.

Merriam , S.B. (2002) Qualitative Research in Practice: Examples for Discussion and Analysis. San Francisco, CA. Jossey-Bass.

Miles, M.B. & Huberman, A.M. (1994) Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook. 2ed. Newbury Park, CA. Sage.

Morse, J. M. (1995). The significance of saturation. Qualitative Health Research, 5, 147–149

Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. (1998) Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory. 2ed. Thousand Oaks, CA. Sage.

Patton, M.Q. (2002) Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods. 3ed. Thousand Oaks, CA. Sage.

49

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thank you to my mentors at UCLA:

Dr. Kagawa-Singer Dr. Carole BrownerDr. Paula Tavrow

50

CONTACT INFORMATION:

MELLWIT@YAHOO.COM

THANK YOU!