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DESIGNING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
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DESIGNING INSTRUCTIONALMATERIALS
Edisi Pertama
Oleh: Konder Manurung
Penerbit
2017
i
Perpustakaan Nasional RI. Katalog Dalam Terbitan (KDT)
DESIGNING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALSKonder Manurung. Palu: Untad Press, 2017x + 152 hal.; 15,5 x 23 cm
ISBN: 978-602-6619-14-3
© Hak Cipta 2017
1. Non Fiksi i. Judul ii. Konder Manurung
Kutipan Pasal 72:Sanksi Pelanggaran Undang-Undang Hal Cipta No. 19 Tahun 20021. Barangsiapa dengan sengaja dan tanpa hak melakukan perbuatan
sebagaimana dimaksud dalam Pasal 2 ayar (1) atau Pasal 49 ayat (1)dan ayat (2) dipidana dengan pidana penjara masing-masing palingsingkat 1 (satu) bulan dan/atau denda paling sedikit Rp1.000.000 (satujuta rupiah), atau pidana penjara paling lama 7 (tujuh) tahun dan/ataudenda paling banyak Rp5.000.000.000 (lima miliar rupiah)
2. Barangsiapa dengan sengaja menyiarkan, memamerkan, mengedarkanatau menjual kepada umum suatu ciptaan atau barang hasil pelanggaranHak Cipta atau Hak Terkait sebagaimana dimaksud pada ayat (1)dipidana dengan pidana penjara paling lama 5 (lima) tahun dan/ataudenda paling banyak Rp500.000.000 (lima ratus juta rupiah).
Penerbit:UNTAD PressJl. Soekarno Hatta KM. 9 PaluSulawesi Tengah 94118
ii
PREFACE
Curriculum and materials development is one of the coursesoffered in the teacher and training education department at highereducation. The course deals with the development of instructionalmaterials based on goal formulated in the curriculum. The goal isgenerated into instructional objectives which are used as the basis toselect and grade instructional materials, to select instructionalstrategies, and to choose media to undertake effective instructionprocess. The instructional objectives are formulated at institution orschool level in a syllabus which covers the theme or topic to betaught. The theme or the topic is generated by teachers into lessonplan which is used as guide during the teaching and learningprocedure. The development of instructional materials is the mainconcern of this book that is based on my experiences in teachingCurriculum and Materials Development course at English EducationDepartment Faculty of Teacher Training and Education TadulakoUniversity in Palu Central Sulawesi Indonesia.
The book can be used as a source for both teachers and learnerswho are interested in curriculum development, syllabus design, andlesson plan preparation and development. Every part of the bookpresents rational and objectives that assist users activate previousknowledge and to help them find strategies to effectively use thebook.
The book is divided into 8 chapters. Chapter 1 describes anddiscuses curriculum in general including curriculum development,formulating instructional goal, need analysis, situation analysis,goals, learning outcomes, and objectives and the chapter is ended upby presenting discussion on curriculum evaluation. Chapter 2 dealswith syllabus design which discusses instructional objectives,syllabus design, approaches to syllabus design, product orientedsyllabus and process oriented syllabus. Chapter 3 covers designinginstructional materials which describes the Role of instructionalmaterials, the types of instructional materials, and preparing anddesigning instructional materials. Chapter 4 discusses designinginstructional materials which covers the role of instructionalmaterials, the types of instructional materials, and preparing anddesigning instructional materials. Chapter 5 introduces instructional
iii
strategies that highlight the factors in providing for effectiveteaching, institutional factor, teacher factors, teaching factor, andlearners factor. Chapter 6 presents discussion on evaluation whichintroduces the purpose of evaluation, constructing tests, and types oftests. Chapter 7 describes and discusses lesson plan that coverstechniques in developing lesson plan, lesson plan structure, andlesson plan components. The book is ended up by presenting aconclusion that highlights the importance of goal and objectives indesigning instructional materials.
The materials presented in the book are based on myexperiences in teaching Curriculum and Materials Developmentclass for more than fifteen years using commercially availablesources and experiences in conducting research dealing withinstructional materials used contextually. Therefore, the book is alsosuitable for use in in-service training program and workshopparticularly those who are interested in developing instructionalpackages.
I realize that the book is not yet perfect and thereforeconstructive comments, arguments, and suggestions are welcomethat can be used as basis to improve the content of the book in thefuture.
Konder Manurung
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE iiTABLE OF CONTENTS ivChapter 1 CURRICULUM AND MATERIALS
DEVELOPMENT 11.1 Rationale 11.2 Instructional Goal 11.3 Instructional Objectives 11.4 Curriculum 11.5 Curriculum Development 31.6 Formulating Instructional Goal 81.6.1 Need Analysis 101.6.2 Situation Analysis 191.7 Goals, Learning Outcomes, and objectives 251.8 Evaluating Curriculum 351.9 Summary and Exercise 37
Chapter 2 SYLLABUS DESIGN 382.1 Rationale 382.2 Instructional Goal 382.3 Instructional Objectives 382.4 Syllabus Design 382.5 Approaches to Syllabus Design 442.6 Product and Process Oriented Syllabus 492.6.1 Product oriented syllabus 492.6.2 Process Oriented Syllabus 522.7 Summary and Exercise 60
Chapter 3 COURSE PLANNING 613.1 Rational 613.2 Instructional Objectives 613.3 What is Course Rationale 613.4 Setting Goals and Objectives 663.5 Describing the Entry and Exit Level 703.6 Choosing Course Content 713.7 Summary and Exercise 77
v
Chapter 4 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 794.1 Rational 794.2 Instructional Objectives 794.3 The Role of Instructional Materials 794.4 The types of Instructional Materials 864.5 Preparing and Designing Instructional Materials 894.6 Summary and Exercise 103
Chapter 5 INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES 1065.1 Rational 1065.2 Instructional Objectives 1065.3 The Factors in Providing for Effective Teaching 1065.3.1 Institutional factor 1075.3.2 Teacher Factors 1095.3.3 Teaching factor 1125.3.4 Learners factor 1145.4 Summary and Exercise 117
Chapter 6 EVALUATION 1186.1 Rational 1186.2 Instructional Objectives 1186.3 The purpose of Evaluation 1186.4 Constructing Tests 1226.5 Types of tests 1246.6 Summary and Exercise 125
Chapter 7 LESSON PLAN 1277.1 Rationale 1277.2 Instructional Goal 1277.3 Instructional Objectives 1277.4 Lesson Plan 1277.5 Techniques in Developing Lesson Plan 1297.6 Lesson Plan Structure 1337.7 Lesson Plan Components 1397.8 Summary and Exercise 144
Chapter 8 CONCLUSION 145REFERENCES
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO CURRICULUM AND MATERIALS
DEVELOPMENT
1.1 Rationale
Curriculum and material Development Course is an obligatory
course offered at English Education Department at Faculty of Teacher
Training and Education at higher education level in Indonesia. This
course is designed to train and prepare students with skill and
knowledge in curriculum and materials development in EFL teaching
and learning. The course covers curriculum, the origin of curriculum,
instructional materials, syllabus, lesson plan and lesson plan
components, and evaluation. The course is pre-requisite to the
microteaching and Seminar in ELT classes at the English Education
Department, Teacher Training and Education Faculty at Tadulako
University. After studying and completing the handbook, the learners
are able to state the criteria to formulate instructional goal in a
curriculum development, formulate instructional objectives in the
syllabus design based on the formulated instructional goal in a
curriculum, design and develop lesson plan as well as to design
evaluation instrument based on the formulated instructional
objectives.
1.2 Instructional Goal
The learners have knowledge on curriculum and material
development theories in EFL teaching and use the knowledge to
2
formulate instructional goal, design syllabus, design instructional
materials, design evaluation instrument, and develop a lesson plan.
1.3 Instructional Objectives
After you complete your study of Chapter 1, introduction to
curriculum and material development, you are able to:
1. define what curriculum is
2. identify factors in developing curriculum
3. explain approaches to formulate an instructional goal
4. planning Goals and Learning Outcomes
1.4 Curriculum
Different authors have defined curriculum differently based on
their perception and the practices they have undertaken in
instructional design and instructional processes. However, the
definitions do not bring about a gap in the meaning of the curriculum
from one definition to the others. They are almost all complementary
to each other concerning the list of subjects for a course and goal to be
attained in particular education level. The following definitions of the
curriculum have been familiar with language education program and
have been referred to as a guide to developing syllabus and
instructional packages.
Candlin (1984) in (Nunan, 1988) highlights that curriculum is
concerned with making general statements about language learning,
learning purpose and experience, evaluation, and the role relationships
of teachers and learners. According to Candlin, it l also contains banks
3
of learning items and suggestions about how these might be used in
class.
Richards, Platt, and Platt (1993) defined curriculum as an
education program containing purpose and means. They proposed the
definition of curriculum as an educational program which states; a)
“The educational purpose of the program (the ends); b) The content
teaching procedures and learning experience which will be necessary
to achieve this purpose (the means); and c) Some means for assessing
whether or not the educational ends have been achieved.” (Richards,
Platt and Platt 1993: 94).
White (1993) highlighted the components of the curriculum in his
definition in which the components are highly related with each other.
White (1993:19) defined “Curriculum theory encompasses philosophy
and value systems; the main components of the curriculum: purposes,
content, methodology and evaluation; and the process whereby
curricula are developed, implemented and evaluated”.
Another definition of the curriculum is all the planned and
unplanned learning experiences that students undergo while in a
school setting (Moore, 2005). Moore further suggested that the
curriculum encompasses the sequence of courses and objectives.
Indonesian government through the Ministry of Technology,
Research, and Higher Education (Menristekdikti) defines that
curriculum is a package of planning and organization on graduates’
achievement (outcomes), instructional materials, instructional process,
and evaluation used as a guide in the study program. It is established
through the decree of the minister of Technology, Research, and
4
Higher Education (Permenristekdikti) Number 44 in 2015 as follows
“Kurikulum adalah seperangkat rencana dan pengaturan mengenai
capaian pembelajaran lulusan, bahan kajian, proses, dan penilaian
yang digunakan sebagai pedoman penyelenggaraan program studi.”
Regarding the aforementioned various definitions of the
curriculum, it is clearly pointed out that curriculum contains three
important factors in a school curriculum. First, curriculum should
contain what a learner should know after the completion of the
curriculum in terms of knowledge which is related to cognitive aspect,
skills which are related to psychomotor aspect, and values which are
related to affective aspect; second, curriculum should provide
guidance on the provision of learning experiences and learning
activities to attain intended learning outcomes; and third, curriculum
should provide guidance on how to plan, measure, and evaluate
teaching and learning in schools or educational systems.
1.5 Curriculum Development
Teaching English as a foreign language (EFL) has been
influenced by the development of communication and information
technology. Both EFL teachers and learners experience the advantages
of involving communication and information technology in the
teaching and learning process. The teachers use the information and
technology to facilitate their teaching and the learners use the
information and technology to increase their motivation and to prevent
boredom during the EFL learning.
5
The EFL teaching and learning mode needs variation. The
variation can be related to the teaching techniques, teaching materials,
teaching media, teaching evaluation, and teaching venue. Since most
of EFL teachers believe that none of EFL teaching techniques is
perfect in itself, the EFL teachers should get sufficient variation in
teaching techniques in order to succeed in EFL teaching. The variation
in teaching technique requires suitable instructional materials.
Therefore professional teachers prepare suitable instructional
materials based on the needs of the learners, the context of teaching,
and the target stated in the curriculum. Consequently, the EFL
teachers should be able to adapt the instructional materials with the
advance of the information and technology.
Development of curriculum intends to bring about better output.
There are some reasons why a curriculum should be developed or
revitalized. First, the formulated goals in the developed curriculum
must respond the development and advancement in science and
technology; second, respond social and political changes; third, fulfill
needs of learners; fourth, respond changes and development in
education; and the last is respond changes in education system itself.
The curriculum development guarantees that the formulated goals are
up-to-date so that it responds and fulfills needs of learners and needs
of learners in relation to the society. It means that the outputs of the
implemented curriculum in any education level respond and suit needs
of society after the completion of their education period. In order to
address the society's needs, the development of curriculum needs a
well-planned goal which is based on results of need analysis. The
6
factors that might affect the change and the development in the
curriculum can be illustrated in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1 Factors affecting curriculum development
The figure indicates that the need for new, changed, developed, or
revitalized curriculum is affected by many factors. The change in the
political system needs adjustment in the curriculum so that the content
of the curriculum fulfill needs from political aspects. Economic and
social changes and development require the curriculum to meet the
changes so that education system can provide learners with insights
and needs in economic and social aspects. The curriculum must also
consider the culture where the curriculum will be implemented so that
it will serve the society appropriately based on their habitual and real
life aspects. The same case applies to the advancement of information,
technology, and sciences that the curriculum must be able to respond
the advancement so that learners are not left behind by the
advancement and sophistication in the development of the information
Curriculum(New/changed/
Developed/revitalized
Politics
Economics
Social
InformationTechnology,Science
Culture
7
and technology, and more importantly, the learners are caught-up with
science development.
The formulation of well-planned goal in the curriculum is derived
from the ability of the curriculum planners and designers to scrutinize
change and development in science and technology, politics,
economic, social, and culture. It means the development of the
curriculum focuses on wide range of aspects so that the curriculum
provides appropriate guidance to respond various needs in the
communities where the education takes place. Therefore it can be
summed up that there are three main focuses when the curriculum is
developed, they are knowledge, skill, values. To actualize these three
aspects, the well-developed curriculum should also provide what kind
of experiences are needed to attain the learning outcomes, and the
technique to plan, measure, and evaluate teaching and learning.
In addition, it is proposed that curriculum development includes
the processes that are used to determine the needs of a group of
learners to develop aims or objectives for a program to address those
needs, to determine an appropriate syllabus, course structure, teaching
methods, and materials, and to carry out an evaluation of the language
program that result from this process (Richards, 2001). It implies that
whenever curriculum is developed or changed the goal must be
reformulated based on needs due to the fact that the stated goal of the
curriculum is used as basic in the development of other instructional
components from syllabus design to assessment and evaluation
aspects.
8
Some experts (for examples, Nicholls and Nicholls, 1972; Nunan
(1989); Richards (2001); Moore (2005)) proposed the process that can
be used to develop curriculum. Nicholls and Nicholls (1972: 4),
describes four stages in developing curriculum:
• The careful examination, drawing on all available sourcesof knowledge and informed judgment, of the objectives ofteaching, whether in particular subject courses or over thecurriculum as a whole.
• The development and trial use in schools of those methodsand materials which are judged most likely to achieve theobjectives which teachers agreed upon.
• The assessment of the extent to which the developmentwork has, in fact, achieved its objectives. This part of theprocess may be expected to provoke new thought about theobjectives themselves.
• The final element is, therefore, feedback of all theexperience gained, to provide a starting point for furtherstudy.
Richards (2001) proposed there are at least four fundamental
questions that have to be answered when it is intended to develop a
curriculum. The answers to the following questions provide education
institutions with data on how to develop a suitable curriculum that
response appropriately needs of learners, society, and learners in
relation to society. The four questions are; 1) What educational
purposes should the school seek to attain?; 2) What educational
experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?;
How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?; and
How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
(Tyler in Richards, 2001: 39)
9
The development process of a curriculum can be graphed briefly
below which is started from aims and objectives as the results of need
analysis, followed by the selection of the contents of the instructional
materials based on the formulated instructional objectives, then the
organization of the instructional materials after selecting materials
from various sources, and finally the development of the evaluation
which is intended to measure the achievement of the stated objectives.
Figure 1.2 Process of curriculum development
According to Richard (2001) the range of planning and
implementation process involved in developing or renewing a
curriculum focus on needs analysis, situational analysis, planning
learning outcomes, course organization, selecting and preparing
teaching materials, providing for effective teaching, and evaluation.
Each of those components will be discussed in the next section.
Aim andobjectives
Content
Organization
Evaluation
NeedAnalysis
10
1.6 Formulating Instructional Goal
The teaching of EFL, in general, is based on the curriculum. As it
has been stated in the previous section that the curriculum contains
goal which has to be attained by the learners at a particular level of
education or program, the goal is generated into a more specific
objective. The term ‘goal' has been used in various terms based on the
implemented curricula.
Some curriculum designers used the term ‘aims’ (Nunan, 1989;
Richards, 2001), some others use the term ‘general instructional
objectives’ (for examples, Kurikulum 1975, Kurikulum 1984, and
Kurikulum 1994/1996) and recently the term ‘standard competence’ is
used (For example, in Competence-Based Curriculum (Kurikulum
Berbasi Kompetensi tahun 2004) and School Based Curriculum
(Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan tahun 2007) and the term
‘core competence’ (for example, Kurikulum 2013) are used to state
‘goal'. Although different terms have been used to state ‘goal' in the
different period used of curricula they convey almost all the same
purpose and meaning and are all derived from the results of need
analysis.
The stated goal, general instructional objectives, standard
competency or core competence are generated into specific
instructional objectives or the basic competencies in the syllabus. The
syllabus contains the themes or topics to be taught in the classroom (It
will be discussed in details in Chapter 2). EFL teachers develop each
theme into a lesson plan which is used to guide a teaching learning
process. In developing the lesson plan, it is expected the EFL teachers
11
to develop the instructional materials contextually (It will be discussed
in details in Chapter 3). However, the problems which are faced by the
EFL teachers are ready-made instructional materials.
The ready-made instructional materials are seldom designed to
meet the needs of learners and are not based on what has been
experienced in EFL teaching-learning context. On the other hand,
teachers are often assigned by the school management to implement
this kind of instructional materials and consequently, the teaching and
learning process is not joyful and become mostly teacher-centered. In
order to avoid this kind of situation, the development of instructional
materials must be based on the instructional goal that has been
formulated based on the need analysis. The following are two factors
to consider so that the statement of goal and instructional objectives
fulfill needs of learners and needs of learners in relation to community
needs. The two factors are needed analysis and situation analysis.
1.6.1 Need Analysis
Curriculum designers, in general, formulate teaching goals based
on results of need analysis. The results of need analysis allow
curriculum designer to predict what a teacher wants his language
learners to do after the teaching-learning process. Richard (2001)
indicated that the ability to formulate goals enables language teachers
to consider in the instructional process what to be attained after the
completion of the teaching-learning process. This is known as
teaching goals that can be drawn based on the results of a needs
analysis or needs assessment.
12
The need analysis is usually based on the experiences faced by
the learners in relation to the teaching and learning process and the
learning strategies. In other words, it is based on difficulties or
problems encountered by language learners both in and out of the
learning process. In addition, need analysis can also be based on
practical experience faced by people while performing their job and
responsibility where they work. It means they are able to locate gap
between what they have learned at a language program and what is
needed in their workplace or still they can provide input in language
needs based on their job experiences.
Nunan (1989) and Richards (2001) noted that needs are often
described in terms of language needs, that is, as the language skills
needed to survive in an English dominant society. It means that a
language learner is able to use the learned language to communicate
his feelings, ideas, and thoughts. He is able to cope with
communication after the completion of a language program. This is in
line with the basic assumptions of curriculum development stating that
a sound educational program should be based on analysis of learners’
needs. The sound educational program is the one which plans and
provides instructional materials contextually based on the learners
need. It is argued that when instructional materials are experienced
based, learners are motivated to learn and to actively participate in an
instructional process (Richards and Roger, 2014; Manurung, 2015).
It is noted that need analysis is the beginning phase in the
planning of any educational program. The need analysis as the
beginning phase was introduced in the 1960s (Richards, 2001) as an
13
element of system approach to curriculum development. This has been
highlighted previously as a philosophy of educational accountability
by Stufflebeam, McCormick, Brinkerhoff, and Nelson (1985). They
highlighted that design of curriculum should be done in a system
where there must be a close relationship from the beginning phase up
to the evaluation. This systemic approach provided language teachers
with a clear goal as the main guide to select and grade instructional
materials.
Need analysis has been widely known in instructional design.
Experts in education and educational technology have implemented
the need analysis in the change, development, or revitalization of the
curriculum. Most curriculum designers and instructional designers or
planners agree that instructional goals are ideally derived through a
process of needs assessment that establishes rather broad indications
of a problem that can be solved by providing a realistic instruction
instructional materials and instructional process.
Richards (2001:52) highlighted that needs analysis in language
teaching may be used for a number of different purposes, for example;
1. To find out what language skills a learner needs in order toperform a particular role
2. To help determine if an existing course adequately addressesthe needs of potential students
3. To determine which students from a group are most in need oftraining in particular language skills
4. To identify a change of direction that people in a referencegroup feel is important
5. To identify a gap between what students are able to do andwhat they need to be able to do
6. To collect information about a particular problem learners areexperiencing (Richards, 2001:52).
14
This implies that it is important to note what the purpose of
conducting need analysis in relation to language skills is. By knowing
the purposes, data on needs are gathered which are used as a
foundation to plan and design achievable instructional objectives. In
other words, the collected data on real needs of learners enable the
formulation of reliable and feasible instructional objectives. Based on
the formulation of these kinds of objectives well planned instructional
materials and learning activities are designed and prepared which in
turn attract learners to get involved in the teaching and learning
process.
In order to formulate a reliable instructional goal, needs analysis
can be administered in a flexible manner. There is no fixed time and
period of when is the appropriate time and period to administered the
need analysis. It is noted that needs analysis may take place prior to,
during, or after a language program (Richard, 2001). Richard (2001)
argued that when the need analysis was done prior to the conduct of
language program, the data were mostly used as basis for the
formulation of instructional goal and instructional objectives, when
the need analysis was conducted during or after a language program
the collected data were used for program evaluation and program
development or program revitalization. This implies that a language
instructor must always keep on taking notes on the instructional
materials preparation, making a record of the teaching learning
process, notes on what has been achieved by the learners and what
problems were faced during the conduct of the language program.
15
Therefore, the need analysis is continuously undertaken by instructors
to bring about a better process in teaching and learning process.
To conduct a needs analysis for the purpose of language program
development can be simple and can also be complex. It means that
language learners’ needs are not always easily determined. The needs
are highly dependent on what focus the learning will be. In other
words, when a language is learned as specific purpose then it is rather
simple to determine the needs due to the fact the intended outputs and
outcomes are easily predicted and consequently the instructional goals
and the selection and organization of instructional materials are more
focused. On the other hand, if a language is learned for general
purposes, needs are rather complex to determine due to the fact that it
is not known what will the emphasis in the language teaching. It
implies that the selection and organization become too general and
consequently the teaching method may not be interesting.
Richard (2001) provide an example as follows; if learners'
language needs to learn a language for very specific purposes, for
example, employment in fields such as tourism, nursing, or the hotel
industry, the information obtained can then serve as a basis for
planning a training program. However, if it is, for example, students
learning English as a secondary school subject in an EFL context, then
the language learning is considered a compulsory subject that is
considered an important part of a child's general education, it is quite
complex to determine the needs. However, even though the students
may not have any immediate perceptions of needs, curriculum
planners will generally have consulted employers, parents, teachers,
16
and others to find out what knowledge of English they expect high
school graduates to achieve. This consultation has brought about a
better instructional goals formulation which is used as a guide in the
selection and organization of instructional materials in almost all
language program.
Different policies in education affect curriculum designers
differently. Insertion of foreign language teaching in the education
system and different education level influence the design and the
formulation of instructional goals. It is noted that in many countries,
the introduction of English or other foreign languages in elementary or
secondary school is based on what curriculum planners consider best
for students to study at school. In other words, it is believed that
curriculum designers have more insight and knowledge to consider
what will be expected from a particular level of education and
therefore they designed and developed curriculum and formulate the
instructional objectives after scrutinizing what particular output of
education level is able to do after the completion of an instruction. It
implies that most topics or theme in language curriculum for this level
are planned by the policy maker under consideration that they are
suitable to the vision and mission of the schools.
This has been the case in the implementation of English teaching
in Indonesia, particularly at elementary and secondary school levels,
where the curriculum is prepared by the Minister of National
education and culture. The instructional goal has been previously
formulated prior to sending the curriculum to schools and topics for
instruction have been determined. The curriculum then is
17
implemented at the school level and teachers are assigned to design
and prepare syllabus by adapting the stated instructional goals. It is
expected that the teachers at school level are able to translate the
instructional goal from the curriculum into more observable,
measurable, or achievable instructional objectives.
Need analysis is generally done for various users in education
system particularly in developing new curriculum and revitalizing
implemented the curriculum. The users of the results of the need
analysis include (Richards, 2001:56);
• curriculum officer in the ministry of education, who may wishto use the information to evaluate the adequacy of existingsyllabus, curriculum, and materials
• teachers who will teach from the new curriculum• learners, who will be taught from the curriculum• writers, who are preparing new textbooks• testing personnel, who are involved in developing end-of-
school assessments• the staff of tertiary institutions, who are interested in knowing
what the expected level will be of students exiting the schoolsand what problems they face.
Complete data in developing curriculum are needed. The data can
be collected from various sources. In general source of data include;
Policy makers, Ministry of education officials, Teachers, Students,
Academics, Employers, Vocational training specialists, Parents,
Influential individuals and pressure groups, Academic specialists, and
Community agencies (Richards, 2001).
The need analysis can be administered based on the scope that has
been previously planned, and the data collection is conducted by a
team which is the compilation of personnel specifically selected for
18
the purpose of doing the analysis. However, school teachers and
school staffs can also be assigned to do need analysis. It is also noted
down that in some language programs, informal need analysis is part
of a teacher's ongoing responsibility. The language teacher prepares
check list to monitor the teaching learning process both the teacher
and the learner's activities prior to, while, and after the teaching.
In order to get complete data for the formulation of instructional
goal, need analysis can be conducted in various techniques. The better
the technique the more complete the collected data will be. Therefore,
it is suggested to use two or more techniques in conducting need
analysis. Richards (2001) argues that since any one source of
information is likely to be incomplete or partial, a triangular
approach (i.e., collecting information from two or more sources) is
advised to gather comprehensive information or data. It implies that
the use of this triangular approach guarantees the formulation of valid,
reliable, and even feasibility of the designed instructional objectives
since the data gathered are based on different sources of information.
The data collected from one source are validated by the data
collected through other sources or techniques. Furthermore, Richards
(2001) propose that it will also be useful to note that aspects or
components which are needed must be well-defined so that real and
contextual information can be gathered efficiently.
Richards (2001:59) propose the technique or procedure that can
be used in collecting data in writing skill. It is useful to collect data
from:
1. Samples of students writing
19
2. Test data on students performance3. Reports by teachers on typical problems students face4. Opinion of experts5. Information from students via interviews and questionnaire6. Analysis of textbooks teaching academic writing7. Survey of related literature8. Examples of writing programs from other institutions9. Examples of writing assignment
By using data as the results of these various sources it guides the
formulation of feasible, measurable, and real needs in writing
instructional goals which then at the school level explain it into more
specific instructional objectives in a syllabus. By using these kinds of
data the curriculum designer in the policy level and the language
teacher in the implementation level or unit are able to prepare and then
to teach contextual instructional materials which in turn will motivate
learners to learn.
There are some procedures for collecting information during a
needs analysis that have been commonly implemented in language
teaching and learning process; Self-ratings, Interviews, Meetings,
Observation, Collecting learner language samples, Task analysis,
Case studies, Analysis of available information. As it has been
highlighted previously, it is of great contribution should two or more
of the procedure or techniques are chosen in order to collect reliable
information to formulate an instructional goal. It also important to
consider the scale of the need analysis whether it is on a large scale or
it is only on a small scale. This scale affects the design of the need
analysis. Richard (2001:64) proposed for example when need analysis
20
is only supposed to assess new group of students in a language
program, the procedure can consist of;
1. Initial questionnaire2. Follow up individual interviews3. Meeting with students4. Meeting with teachers5. Ongoing classroom observation6. Tests
The collected data from these need analysis will provide language
teachers with input on how to prepare, design, and organize
instructional materials that create a joyful teaching atmosphere. The
results of needs analysis in language teaching is useful as a source of
information that guide language program designer to define what is
needed in the program from the very beginning to the end so that the
language program is interesting and more important is that the
language program fulfills needs of learners. The information from
needs analysis in a language program may range from the situation
where the language is used and what are the needed instructional
materials. This information can be summarized as follows (Richards,
2001:64);
1. Situation in which English is frequently used2. Situation in which difficulties are encountered3. Comments most often made by people or learners’
performance4. Perceived difficulties with different aspect of language use5. Preferences for different kinds of activities in teaching6. Common communication problems in different situations7. Frequencies of linguistic items or units in different texts or
situations
21
1.6.2 Situation Analysis
It has been noted in the previous section that the result of the need
analysis is used as the basis to formulate instructional goals. It is
argued that the results of needs analysis provide curriculum designer
and curriculum developers to formulate a more measurable goal.
However, it is also noted that besides need analysis, it is also
necessary to consider situation analysis in the development of
curriculum.
Richard (2001) proposed that in revitalizing curriculum, situation
analysis is also of great importance. He highlighted that if need
analysis or need assessment is used to collect information that can be
used to develop a profile of the language needs of a group of learners
in order to be able to make decisions about the goals and content of
language course, situation analysis deals with context where a
language program is held and what factors affect the conduct of the
language program (Richard, 2001). It implies that the results of
situation analysis are complementary to the results of need analysis in
formulating instructional goals. Situation analysis is needed due to the
fact that language programs are carried out in particular contexts or
situations and therefore the goals are more workable and bring about
better outcomes.
The importance of the situation analysis can also be seen from
other perspectives where the language teaching and learning process
takes place. It is believed in general that the context and the situation
where a language program is implemented is not always the same, and
therefore the differences in the context and the situation might also
22
affect the assignment and implementation of the new or revitalized
curriculum. In a particular school context and situation the change or
the new curriculum may be accepted and implemented, but in other
situation, there may be resistance in the implementation of the change
or new curriculum. This condition depends on the readiness of the
school society and available supporting facilities.
In relation to the relationship of the context and situation in the
implementation of curriculum Richards (2001) highlighted some
variables, such as the design of curriculum, supporting facilities,
human and physical resources, teachers, etc. Richards (2001) argued
that the contexts for language programs are diverse and the particular
variables that come into play in a specific situation are often the
determinants of the success of a program. It means that a designed
curriculum does not always suit various situation and condition. For
example, some language curricula are planned for centrally organized
state school systems where a great deal of direction and support for
teaching is provided, whereas others take place in settings where
there are limited human and physical resources.
Richards (2001) further argued that some proposals for
curriculum change are well-received by teachers, but others may be
resisted. Consequently expected results from the revitalization or the
change in the curriculum do not meet the stated target. It can also be
the case that, in some situations, teachers are well-trained and have
time available to plan their own lesson materials whereas, in other
situations, teachers may have little time for lesson planning and
materials production and simply teach from their textbooks. This is in
23
line with Markee (1997) who argued that each context for a
curriculum change or innovation contains factors that can potentially
facilitate the change or hinder its successful implementation.
There are some factors that must be considered in the conduct of
situation analysis. The factors are related to political, social,
economic, or institutional matters. However, it is important to note
that the results of the situation analysis are used to enrich and to
support the results of the need analysis so that measurable
instructional goal can be well formulated. Therefore, the procedure to
conduct the situation analysis is similar to those involved in needs
analysis (Richards, 2001:92);
a. Consultation with representatives of as many relevant groupsas possible such as parents, students, teachers, administrators,and government officials
b. Study and analysis of relevant documents, such as courseappraisal documents, government report, ministry of educationguidelines and policy paper, teaching materials, curriculumdocuments
c. Observation of teachers and students in relevant learningsettings
d. Surveys of opinions of relevant partiese. Review of available literature related to the issue
Richards (2001) proposed some factors to consider in situation
analysis such as societal factor, project factors, institutional factors,
teacher factors, learner factors, and adoption factors. The aim of
considering societal factors is to determine the impact of groups in the
community or society at large program. These groups include; policy
makers in government, educational and other government officials,
24
employers, the business community, politicians, tertiary education
specialists, educational organization, parents, citizens, and students.
Project factors are related to the design and the product of
curriculum which is agreed that curriculum is designed and developed
by a team of people. Members of the team may be specialists who are
hired specifically for the purpose, they may be classroom teachers and
other staff of a teaching institution as part of their regular duties. The
following project factors need to be considered (Richards, 2001:95);
• Who constitutes the project group and how are they selected?• What are the management and other responsibilities of the
team?• How are goals and procedures determined?• Who reviews the progress of the project and the performance of its
members?• What experience do members of the team have?• How do members of the team regard each other?• What resources do they have available and what budget to acquire
needed resources?• What is the time frame of the project? Is it realistic, or is more or
less time needed?
Richards (2001:98) suggested when related to institutional factors,
the following kinds of questions must be clearly addressed:
1. What leadership is available from the school to support changeand to help teachers cope with change?
2. What are the school's physical resources, including classroomfacilities, media and other technological resources, and libraryresources?
3. What is the role of textbooks and other instructional materials?4. What is staff morale like among English teachers?5. What problems do teachers face and what is being done about
them?6. What administrative support is available from the school and
what is communication like between teachers and the
25
administration?7. What kind of reputation does the institution have for delivering
successful language programs?8. How committed is the institution to attaining excellence?
The most important and key factor in the implementation of new or
changed curriculum is teachers. Richards (2001) concluded that
exceptional teachers can often compensate for the poor quality resources
and materials they have to work from. But inadequately trained teachers
may not be able to make effective use of teaching materials no matter how
well they are designed. In any institution, teachers may vary according
to the following dimensions: language proficiency, teaching
experience, skill and expertise, training and qualifications, morale and
motivation, teaching styles, and beliefs and principle.
Furthermore, Richards (2001) proposed that in planning a language
program it is therefore important to know the kinds of teachers the
program will depend on and the kinds of teachers needed to ensure that
the program achieves its goals. Among the teacher factors that need to
be considered in situation analysis are the following (Richards,
2001:100):
• What kinds of teachers currently teach in the target schoolsor institutions? What are their typical background, training,experience, and motivation?
• How proficient are they in English?• What kinds of beliefs do the teachers typically hold
concerning key issues in teaching?• What teaching loads do teachers have and what resources
do they make use of?• What are the typical teaching methods teachers use and
believe in?• To what extent are teachers open to change?
26
• What opportunities do they have for retraining through in-service or other kinds of opportunities?
• What benefits is the proposed new syllabus, curriculum, ormaterials likely to offer teachers?
Learners are the main stakeholders of the education system and
therefore they are also considered an influential factor in situation
analysis. Richards (2001) suggested that learners are the key participants
in curriculum development projects and it is essential to collect as much
information as possible about them before the project begins. Potential
relevant factors of learners are backgrounds, expectations, beliefs, and
preferred learning styles. Richards (2001:102) identified relevant
learner factors as the following:
• What are the learners' past language learning experiences?• How motivated are the learners to learn English?• What are their expectations for the program?• Do the learners' views on language teaching reflect any culturally
specific factors?• Are they a homogeneous or a heterogeneous group?• What type of learning approach do they favor (e.g., teacher-led,
student-focused, or small-group work)?• What type of content do they prefer?• What expectations do they have for the roles of teachers, learners,
and instructional materials?• How much time can they be expected to put into the program?• What learning resources will they typically have access to?
After the learner factor, another important factor which is the main
concern of situation analysis is adoption factor. Richards (2001) argued
that any attempt to introduce a new curriculum, syllabus, or set of
materials must take into account the relative ease or difficulty of
introducing change into the system. It means the whole elements related
27
to the new curriculum implementation process such as; teachers'
pedagogical values and beliefs, understanding of the nature of language
or second language learning, classroom practices and use of teaching
materials have to be considered so that the expected situation in the
implementation support effective outcomes of the curriculum.
It is understood that some changes in the newly developed
curriculum may be readily accepted, but it can also be possible that
changes in the curriculum have not been known and consequently
resistance in the implementation of the curriculum may be experienced.
Richards (2001:103) proposed the following questions to be asked to
make new, developed, innovated, or revitalized curriculum:
What advantages does the curriculum change offer? Is theinnovation perceived to be more advantageous than currentpractices?
How compatible is it? Is the use of the innovation consistentwith the existing beliefs, attitudes, organization, and practiceswithin a classroom or school?
Is the innovation very complicated and difficult to understand? Has it been used and tested out in some schools before all
schools are expected to use it? Have the features and benefits of the innovation been clearly
communicated to teachers and institutions? How clear and practical is it? Are the expectations of the
innovation statedin ways which clearly show how it can be used in theclassroom?
Responses to the above aforementioned questions bring about
better understanding of the reformed or revitalized curriculum and
consequently the implementation of the curriculum is effective. The
effectiveness is attained due to the fact that possible new situation and
28
condition in the implementation of the curriculum have been
anticipated and predicted.
1.7 Goals, Learning Outcomes, and objectives
Goals and learning outcomes are two important components in
developing curriculum. The goal has been regarded as the most
important one to formulate in curriculum development due to the close
relationship of the formulated goal and the expected results of the
developed curriculum. It is generally believed that appropriate goals
are decided based on the results of the need analysis which is
translated into instructional objectives at the school level.
The result of a well defined or formulated goal in curriculum
development and the precise formulation of instructional objectives
generated from the goals is measurable learning outcome. Learning
outcomes are seen as the effect of the implementation of curriculum
that is the skills learners' are able to do as the effect of the learning
process.
Richards (2001) proposed that there are three important questions
to pose in EFL teaching learning process in relation to goals and
learning outcomes. These questions are; 1) What kind of English?; 2)
At what level of proficiency?; and For what purpose?. The answers to
the three questions, which are commonly based on the results of need
analysis, provide curriculum developer to formulate measurable goals
due to clear types of English to be learned, the proficiency level of
learners who will experience the learning process, and the objective of
the learners to learn a particular language. In addition, the results of
29
situation analysis enable curriculum developer to identify contextual
supporting components in the implementation of the curriculum.
These have been regarded as the most valuable contribution of both
need and situation analyses in curriculum development.
Language educators and educational technology experts (for
examples; Nunan, 1989; Richards, 2001; Dick, Care, and Carey, 2001;
More, 2005; Harmer, 2007; Richards and Rodgers, 2014) noted that
goal‘s formulation affects success in the instructional process. They
agreed that; 1) when specific goals are clearly stated, learners are
motivated to learn to attain the stated goals; 2) when the formulation
of goals is measurable, the teaching and learning process is effectively
conducted; 3) when there is an understandable and sound goal, a
program is effective to achieve the vision; and 4) when a program
describe goals into more specific objectives, a program is effectively
implemented. Those experts also noted that the nature of aims and
objectives in curriculum refer to knowledge which is related to the
cognitive domain, skills which are related to the psychomotor domain,
and values that are related to the affective domain in which learners
need to attain as the results of teaching and learning process. This has
been known as the main concern of curriculum developer due to the
fact that education does not only develop cognitive aspect but also
psychomotor and affective ones.
Implementing curriculum at schools requires a clear
understanding of the formulated goals. Eisner (1992) highlighted five
principles in relation to goals stated in the curriculum indicating what
school should teach and what outcome the school is seeking through
30
the implementation of the curriculum. The five principles are related
to academic rationalism, social and economic efficiency, learner-
centeredness, social reconstructionism, and cultural pluralism.
More importantly, Einer (1992) and Richards (2001) argued that
in developing goals for the educational program, curriculum planners
draw on their understandings both of the present and long-term needs
of learners and of society as well as the planner’s belief and ideologies
about school, learners, and teachers. Richards (2001:114-119)
proposed that these beliefs and values provide the philosophical
underpinning for educational programs and the justification for the
kinds of aims they contain.
1) Academic rationalism; This justification for the aim of
curriculum stresses the intrinsic value of the subject matter and
its role in developing the learner's intellect, humanistic value,
and rationality. The content matter of different subjects is
viewed as the basis for a curriculum and mastery of content is
an end in itself rather than a means to solving social problems
or providing efficient means to achieve the goals of policy
makers. Academic rationalism is sometimes used to justify the
inclusion of certain foreign languages in school curricula,
where they are taught not as a toll for communication but as an
aspect of social studies.
2) Social and economic efficiency; This educational philosophy
emphasizes the practical needs of learners and society and the
role of an educational program in producing learners who are
economically productive. People can improve themselves and
31
their environment through a process of rational planning.
Social, economic, and other needs of society can be identified
and planned for "by task analysis, by forming objectives for
each task, and by teaching skills as discrete units". In language
teaching, social and economic efficiency philosophy leads to
an emphasis on practical and functional skills in a foreign or
second language. Socioeconomic ideology stresses the
economic needs of society as a justification for the teaching of
English.
3) Learner-centeredness; The term learner centeredness groups
together educational philosophies that stress the individual
needs of learners, the role of individual experience, and the
need to develop awareness, self-reflection, critical thinking,
learner strategies, and other qualities and skills that are
believed to be important for learners to develop.
Constructivists emphasize that learning involves active
construction and testing of one's own representation of the
world and accommodation of it to one's personal conceptual
framework. All learning is seen to involve re-learning and
reorganization of one's previous understanding and
representation of knowledge. It is believed that constructivism
has influenced language curriculum design, influencing the
way, for example, listening and reading comprehension are
taught with an emphasis on the prior knowledge, beliefs, and
expectations that learners bring to listening and reading.
32
4) Social reconstruction; Social reconstruction curriculum
perspective emphasizes the roles school and learners can and
should play in addressing social injustices and inequality.
Curriculum development is not seen as a neutral process.
Schools likewise do not present equal opportunities for all but
reflect the general inequalities in society. Schools must engage
teachers and students in an examination of important social
and personal problems and seek ways to address them. This
process is known as "empowerment." Teachers must empower
their students so that they can recognize the unjust system of
class, race, or gender, and challenge them. The curriculum
derived from this perspective focuses on developing
knowledge, skills, and attitude which would create the world
where people care about each other, the environment, and the
distribution of wealth. Tolerance, the acceptance of diversity
and peace would be encouraged. Social injustices and
inequality would be central issues in the curriculum.
5) Cultural pluralism; This philosophy argues that schools
should prepare students to participate in several different
cultures and not merely the culture of the dominant social and
economic group. This means that one cultural group is not
seen as superior to others and the multiple perspectives
representing the viewpoints of different cultural groups should
be developed within the curriculum (Richards, 2001:114-119).
These principles indicate that the statement of goal or aims in the
curriculum should be taken into account; 1) the natural value of
33
subject matter which enables the development of learners’ intellect,
humanistic value, and rationality; 2) the practical and social skills; 3)
the individual needs of learners and their prior knowledge; 4) the role
of school and learners in social interactions; and 5) various culture
background of learners admitted in particular educational program or
schools. Richards (2001) highlighted the importance for the purpose
of goal or aim statement as follows; to provide a clear definition of the
purposes of a program, to provide guidelines for teachers, learners,
and material writers, to help provide a focus of instruction, and to
describe important and realizable changes in learning
This implies that in developing course aims and objectives,
information should be gathered and then further understood what faced
problems or difficulties are in the learners’ part. More importantly, it is
also important to describe in detail learning activities that learners take
part in the instructional process. Therefore, it is expected that the
statement of goals must focus on the changes in the learners as the results
of teaching learning process that will result. In other words, the goal or
aim is stated to determine what learners are able to do as the results of
teaching learning process. The following are some examples of goals
statement (Richard, 2001: 122):
Students will learn how to write effective business lettersfor use in the hotel and tourism industries.
Students will learn how to listen effectively inconversational interactions and how to develop betterlistening strategies.
Students will learn how to communicate information andideas creatively and effectively through writing.
34
Students will be able to communicate in English at a basiclevel for purposes of tourism.
Aims or goals are regarded as broad and general statement of the
teaching and learning process and therefore they are not able to
indicate what is precise to be attained after the teaching-learning
process. The aims or goals can have multiinterpretation due to the fact
that the aims or goals statement is not using operational words.
Richards (2001) argued that aims are very general statements of the
goals of a program. They can be interpreted in many different ways. He
further analysis the statement of aims that have been previously stated as
follows; consider the following aim statement, for example, Students
will learn how to write effective business letters for use in the hotel and
tourism industries. Although this provides a clear description of the
focus of a program, it does not describe the kinds of business letters
students will learn or clarify what is meant by effective business letters
(Richards, 2001: 122). He further suggested that in order to give a more
precise focus to program goals, aims are often accompanied by
statements of more specific purposes. These are known as objectives.
Various terms have been used interchangeably to state objective as
instructional objectives or teaching objectives. It is generally agreed
that an instructional objective refers to a statement of specific changes in
a program that seeks to bring about and results from an analysis of the
aim into its different components (Nunan, 1989; Brown, 1995; Richards,
2001; More, 2005; Harmer, 2007; Degeng, 2013). Richards (2001)
argued that the objectives have the following characteristics; they
describe what the aim seeks to achieve in terms of smaller units of
35
learning, they provide a basis for the organization of teaching activities,
and they describe learning in terms of observable behavior or
performance.
It is agreed that the statement of objective guide activities from the
preteaching up to post-teaching stages in the instructional process. The
statement of objectives provides instructors or teachers to be more specific
in the preparation phase or prior to his teaching and learning process. The
following are the advantages of describing objectives in instructional
process in a particular course (Richards, 2001:123).
1. They facilitate planning: once objectives have been agreedon, course planning, materials preparation, textbookselection, and related processes can begin.
2. They provide measurable outcomes and thus provideaccountability: given a set of objectives, the success or failureof a program to teach the objectives can be measured.
3. They are prescriptive: they describe how planning shouldproceed and do away with subjective interpretations andpersonal opinions.
The following are examples of how goals or aims and objectives
are generated so that they stated a more achievable or measurable
output or outcome in relation to the activity of "understanding
lectures" (as has been a statement in the previous section) (Brown
1995):
Aim
Students will learn how to understand lectures given in English.
Objectives
• Students will be able to follow an argument, theme, or thesis of alecture.
• Students will learn how to recognize the following aspects of a
36
lecture:• Cause-and-effect relationships• Comparisons and contrasts• Premises used in persuasive arguments• Supporting details, used in persuasive arguments
Brown (1995) further stated that the stated objective should;
1) describe a learning outcome. He further provides an example in
writing course as follows; In writing objectives, expressions like will
study, will learn about, will prepare students for are avoided
because they do not describe the result of learning but rather what
students will do during a course. Objectives can be described with
the phrase like will have, will learn how to.
2) Objectives should be consistent with the curriculum aim. The only
objective that clearly serves to realize an aim should be included.
For example, the objective below is unrelated to the curriculum aim;
Students will learn how to write an effective business letter for use
in the hotel and tourism industries. Objective; The student can
understand and respond to simple questions over the telephone.
Because the aim relates to writing business letters, an objective in
the domain of telephone skills is not consistent with this aim. Either
the aim statement should be revised to allow for this objective or
the objective should not be included.
3) Objectives should be precise. Objectives that are vague and
ambiguous are not useful. This is seen in the following objective
for a conversation course; Students will know how to use useful
conversation expressions. A more precise objective would be;
37
Students will use conversation expressions for greeting people,
opening and closing conversations.
4) Objectives should be feasible. Objectives should describe outcomes
that are attainable in the time available during a course. The
following objective is probably not attainable in a 60-hour English
course; Students will be able to follow conversations spoken by
native speakers. The following is a more feasible objective:
Students will be able to get the gist of short conversations in simple
English on topics related to daily life and leisure.
The following objectives (Pratt 1980 in Richards, 2001:124-125)
from a short course on English for travel and tourism designed to
prepare students for travel in English-speaking countries illustrate the
relationship between aims and objectives:
Course aim;
To prepare students to communicate in English at a basic level forpurposes of travel and tourism.
Course objectives:
1. The student will have a reading vocabulary of 300 common wordsand abbreviations.
2. The student will have a listening vocabulary of 300 common wordsplus numbers up to 100.
2. The student can understand simple written notices, signs, andmenus.
3. The student can understand simple questions, statements,greetings, and directions.
4. The student can get the gist of simple conversations in spokenEnglish.
5. The student can pick out unfamiliar phrases from conversations andrepeat them for clarification.
38
6. The student can use in speech 200 common words plus numbersup to 100 for a time, quantity, and price.
7. The student can use about 50 useful survival phrases, questions,requests, greetings, statements, and responses.
8. The student can hold a bilingual conversation, speaking Englishslowly and clearly in simple words.
10. The student can use and understand appropriate gestures.11. The student will have the confidence to initiate conversations in
English, be unafraid of making mistakes, and attempt utterancesoutside his or her competence.
12. The student will be willing to learn from a native speaker'scorrection of his or her errors.
13. The student will have a "success experience" of making himself orherself-understood in, and understand a foreign language.
Objectives can also be stated in term of competencies.
Competency has been used in the naissance of Competency-Based
Language Teaching (CBLT). CBLT seeks to make a focus on the
outcomes of learning a central planning stage in the development of
language programs. CBLT seeks to improve accountability in teaching
through linking instruction to measurable outcomes and performance
standards.
The characteristics of CBLT: Competency-based education has much
in common with such approaches to learning as performance-based
instruction, mastery learning, and individualized instruction. It is outcome-
based and is adaptive to the changing needs of students, teachers and
the community. Competencies differ from other student goals and
objectives in that they describe the student's ability to apply basic and
other skills in situations that are commonly encountered in everyday
life. Thus CBLT is based on a set of outcomes that are derived from an
analysis of tasks typically required of students in life role situations.
39
1.8 Evaluating Curriculum
Evaluation is needed after implementing particular curriculum in an
institution or school. The purpose of curriculum evaluation is to collect
information about different aspects of an education program so that it
is known how the program works and how successfully the curriculum
achieved the learners’ need and the institution’s and school’s vision
and mission. The results of evaluation also bring about possibility to
take decision about the implemented curriculum, whether or not it
needs revision or even change, and more importantly the curriculum
evaluation allows the institution or school to find out whether or not the
implemented curriculum has responded needs of learners, community,
and learners in relation to community or society.
The curriculum evaluation takes place regularly so that decision can
be taken soon after the results are analyzed. Sanders (1992) and Weir
and Roberts (1994) proposed that the curriculum evaluation may focus
on many different aspects, such as:
• Curriculum design: to provide insights about the qualityof program planning and organization
• the syllabus and program content: for example, howrelevant and engaging it was, how easy or difficult, howsuccessful tests and assessment procedures were
• classroom processes: to provide insights about theextent to which a program is being implementedappropriately
• materials of instruction: to provide insights aboutwhether specific materials are aiding student learning
• the teachers: for example, how they conducted theirteaching, what their perceptions were of the program,what they taught
• teacher training: to assess whether training teachershave received is adequate
40
• the students: for example, what they learned from theprogram, their perceptions of it, and how theyparticipated in it
• monitoring of pupil progress: to conduct formative (in-progress) evaluations of student learning
• learner motivation: to provide insights about theeffectiveness of teachers in aiding students to achievegoals and objectives of the school
• the institution: for example, what administrative supportwas provided, what resources were used, whatcommunication networks were employed
• learning environment: to provide insights about theextent to which students are provided with a responsiveenvironment in terms of their educational needs
• staff development: to provide insights about the extent towhich the school system provides the staff opportunitiesto increase their effectiveness
• decision making: to provide insights about how wellthe school staff-principals, teachers, and others - makedecisions that result in learner benefits
The detail and thorough evaluation of the curriculum alert everyone
involved in the program to be responsible for the success of the
curriculum implementation. Kewings and Dudley-Evans (1996)
highlighted that success of curriculum does not only seen from the results
of the tests but it is also seen from the information that has been collected
to enable to take decision and judgment of all aspects of the curriculum,
from planning to implementation.
1.9 Summary and Exercise
The curriculum includes the philosophy, purposes, design, and
implementation of a whole program. A course according to
Hutchinson and waters (1996) is an integrated series of teaching
41
learning experiences, whose ultimate aim is to lead the learners to a
particular state of knowledge. Language curriculum development
describes an interrelated set of process that focuses on designing,
revising, implementing, and evaluating language programs. The
curriculum can be developed and designed in two different
techniques; the first design is to begin by defining what topics need to
be covered in the curriculum, and the second design is to begin by
identifying the desired results and then work backward to develop
instruction. The latter has been called as Backward Curriculum
Design.
Exercise
Describe in detail why the curriculum is developed and needed
at education level/system.
87
Chapter 4
DESIGNING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
4.1 Rational
Designing instructional materials is done after the formulation of
instructional objectives. It is necessary to design the instructional
materials due to its central role to facilitate the achievement of the
instructional objectives. The design of instructional materials concerns
about the ability to know the role of the instructional materials in the
instructional process, the types of instructional materials, and the
preparation of the instructional materials. Instructional materials
contain the content that a student will use to achieve the objectives.
The learners who plan to read this chapter are those who have
understood the instructional goal, instructional objectives, and course
planning components. Therefore it is suggested that learners complete
the three previous chapters prior to starting reading the design of
instructional materials.
4.2 Instructional Objectives
After you complete your study of Chapter 4, designing
instructional materials, you should be able to do the following:
1. To mention the role of instructional materials
2. To describe the types instructional materials
3. To Prepare and design instructional Materials
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4.3 The Role of Instructional Materials
The term instructional material is used interchangeably by
teachers, educators, and institutions with learning material in
instructional process. However, educational technology experts use
the term instructional materials to indicate the use of any selected
topics, information, and resources that are purposively and
scientifically designed and prepared to facilitate the achievement of
the instructional objectives. The instructional materials are supposed
to be interesting, contextual, attractive, and motivated so that learners
are willing to use them both during the face-to-face teaching learning
process in the classroom and independent or autonomous learning out
of the classroom. It is believed that good instructional materials are
designed and developed based on the previously formulated
instructional objectives due to the fact that the use of the instructional
materials is to facilitate the attainment of the instructional objectives.
The instructional materials used in instructional process are
various based on the choice of teachers or instructors. The
instructional materials can be varied from textbook, institutionally
prepared materials, or teachers or instructors own materials. However,
whatever instructional materials are chosen by the teachers or
instructors to facilitate instructional process, the instructional
materials must be based on the level of proficiency of the learners.
Richards (2001) argued that instructional materials are a key
component in most language programs. Whether the teacher uses
textbook, institutionally prepared materials, or his or her own
materials, instructional materials generally serve as the basis for much
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of the language input learners receive and the language practice that
occurs in the classroom. Due to the central role of the instructional
materials, the development of the instructional materials must be well
planned, designed, and prepared.
It has been argued previously that instructional materials are
developed to facilitate the attainment of the instructional objectives.
This argument indicates that the instructional development is done by
teachers at the school level so the developed instructional materials
fulfill needs of learners, society, and learners in relation to society that
has been explicitly translated into the instructional objectives. More
importantly, the attentively developed instructional materials require
teachers’ responsibility to properly implement them in the
instructional process or in the teaching and learning activities so that
the instructional outcomes, what learners are able to do as the result of
the instruction, can be attained and implemented after the completion
of the study in the society.
Some experts have highlighted the role of instructional materials
in instructional process (See for example; Cunningsworth (1975),
Nunan (1989), Richards (2001), Crawford (2002), More (2005),
Hammer (2007), Brown (1995), Manurung, Kawatu and Wahyudin
(2009), Manurung (2015)). Cunningsworth (1975) summarized the
role of materials (particularly textbook) in language teaching as
follows; A resource for presentation materials (spoken and written); A
source of activities for learner practice and communicative interaction;
A reference source for learners on grammar, vocabulary,
pronunciation, and so on; A source of stimulation and ideas for
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classroom activities; A syllabus (where they reflect learning objectives
that have already been determined); A support for less experienced
teachers who have yet to gain in confidence. It implies that the
instructional materials are not only beneficial for learners but also for
teachers.
Richards (2001) also argued that instructional materials are
beneficial for both teachers and learners. He highlighted that some
teachers use instructional materials as their primary teaching resource.
The materials provide the basis for the content of lessons, the balance
of skills taught, and the kinds of language practice students take part
in. In other situations, materials serve primarily to supplement the
teacher's instruction. For learners, materials may provide the major
source of contact they have with the language apart from the teacher.
It implies that the role of instructional materials is not only limited to
the learners’ needs but also for the teachers' responsibility.
More importantly, Crawford (2002) argued that the
instructional materials must be effective. Therefore instructional
materials must be developed properly so that the materials can
motivate effective and joyful learning. Crawford (2002) argued that
the instructional materials must be realistic and contextual. Crawford
(2001:84) argued that effective teaching materials reflect the
following statement;
Language is functional and must be contextualized, Languagedevelopment requires learner engagement in purposeful useof language, the language used should be realistic andauthentic, classroom materials will usually seek to include anaudio visual component, in our modern, technologicallycomplex world, second language learners need to develop the
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ability to deal with written as well as spoken genres, effectiveteaching materials foster learner autonomy, materials need tobe flexible enough to cater to individual and contextualdifferences, and learning needs to engage learners bothaffectively and cognitively.
The instructional materials can also be seen from the technique in
choosing the topics to be presented in the classroom. Manurung
(2015) argued the role of the instructional materials based on the
choice of the topic affects the learners’ achievement in speaking skills.
The study intended to overcome students problems in speaking class
such as; difficulty to begin monologue and dialogue, difficulty to
maintain a conversation or dialogue, difficulty to sum up and conclude
monologue and dialogue, hesitation to be active in the speaking class,
and reluctance to ask questions during the discussion session. To
overcome these problems the students were instructed to choose a
topic in which they are interested in, the topic which is contextual and
based on their interest. He reported that the instruction or technique
was potential to create efficient and joyful learning to overcome the
problems of the students in speaking and to improve their speaking
skills.
Manurung (2015) reported the role of the reading contextual
internet-based instructional materials based on the students’ interest as
follows: Firstly, the topic that the students are interested in motivates
them to read and discuss with others; Secondly, the students should
have got previous knowledge and experiences related to the topics and
consequently there have been at least stock of vocabularies related to
the topics; Thirdly, when the topic is contextual the students get
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opportunities to hear or even to listen to the topics in their daily
encounter and hence help them broaden their understanding of the
topics; and finally, since the topics are internet-based, it can be read
and downloaded from different websites or sources that can enrich
their data and ideas of the topics. It implies that face-to face teaching
in the classroom will be better if it is underpinned by autonomous or
independent learning based on the students learning phase and time
availability.
Manurung (2007) and Manurung, et al (2009) also reported that
the role of autonomous learning materials and integrating the local
content material into learning materials development improve the
achievement in the instructional process. Manurung (2007) reported
the results of the study in the use of autonomous learning materials in
teaching and learning process in a course at an English Department.
The results of the study revealed that the use of autonomous learning
materials improved the attainment of the instructional objective. He
further argued that the role of autonomous learning is as follows;
The better achievement of the students in the present study inthe Structure course can be understood due to the fact that thematerials provided in the form of a module are easier for thestudents to understand than the materials in the textbook formwhich was used in the previous semester. The autonomouslearning module was developed by using simple language,examples, picture, provision of the objectives, both thegeneral and the specific objectives, and answer key(Manurung, 2007:8).
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It implies that there are at least five factors underpinned the role
of the autonomous instructional materials to improve the mastery or
the attainment of the instructional materials. The five factors are;
1) the use of simple language in the writing of the materials; It is
important to consider the language used in writing the instructional
materials. The language used must be simple so that learners
understand the instructional materials properly;
2) the provision of the context based examples; the presence of
contextual examples enables learners to use them in their daily
lives by remembering what has been illustrated in the examples;
3) the provision of media in the form of a picture; the provision of the
pictures, which is generally called as media, in the teaching
learning materials contextualize and facilitate the learning process.
The pictures help learners understand the situation and the context
where the language is used;
4) the clear statements of instructional objectives in the instructional
materials; the provision or the appearance of instructional
objectives in each part of the instructional materials remind and
guide learners to find out what to achieve in the section or modules;
and
5) the provision of answer keys. The provision of answer keys is
regarded as feed back in instructional design. The learners can
measure they achievement of the instructional materials by using
the provided answer keys. It implies that they can repeat whatever
materials are not yet achieved after consulting their worksheet with
the answer keys.
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It is suggested that these factors be considered in the development
of instructional materials due to the fact that they contributed to the
improvement of the learners’ achievement. It is important to note that
this kind of instructional materials can be used as a supplement to the
core instructional materials or text book.
Manurung et al (2009) also argued that the insertion of local
content can be done to supplement the core instructional materials in
the instructional process. The role of the local content provides
learners with real examples that can be directly experienced during
and after the instructional process. The study reported that the
teaching materials were developed by integrating local values into the
topics stated in the school based curriculum employed by the junior
high schools. The findings are as follows;
The presence of some related local objects in thedevelopment of the teaching materials makes them differentfrom commercially created materials. Autonomous and joyfulEFL teaching materials are motivating due to their ability tosimplify the language used in the development of thematerials. The writing of the instruction into two languagesenables students to clearly understand what to do in eachtopic or unit. The choice of the related local objects or placesand the insertion of pictures of those objects or places candirectly show the students the reality. The possibility todirectly see the objects motivate learners to use English intheir real life and enable them to memorize the words, theterm, and the sentences. The provision of answer key in themodule also permits the learner to measure their ownachievement. The possibility to measure the students ownachievement without the presence of their EFL teacher ortheir other friends release them from the feeling of being shyif particular exercise has not been done correctly. Thematerials covered in the module attract the EFL learners to
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use them. Since each module covers simple and short unit, theboredom to study can be avoided (Manurung, et al., 2009:8-9).
It implies that instructional materials are better to be developed by
the teachers so that authentic materials are found. The use of authentic
materials assists learners to activate their prior knowledge during the
teaching learning process. More importantly, the use authentic
materials bring the learners to their real life and therefore the
instructional materials that they have learned can be directly
implemented.
4.4 The types of Instructional Materials
Instructional materials are developed based on the formulated
instructional objectives. The instructional materials are translation of
the instructional objectives which are taught during the face-to-face
teaching to attain what is expected a learner is able to do as the results
of instruction. In other words, the achievement of the outcome of the
program is facilitated by the well prepared and designed instructional
materials. Therefore, it is highly recommended, as it has been
previously proposed in the previous section, that the designed and
developed instructional materials must be based on the formulated
instructional objective in the school syllabus.
Instructional materials can be seen and divided based on the
sources used during the design and development period. Most experts
(See for examples, Finocchiaro & Brumfit (1983); Brady (1987);
Brumfit (1987); Nunan (1989); Cunningsworth (1995); Richards
(2001); Cameron (2003); Harmer (2007)) agreed that instructional
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materials can be either purposively designed formally based on
curriculum chosen by an institution or designed and developed based
on selected and compiled materials at school teachers' level. The two
types of instructional materials are referred to created or authentic
instructional materials. The created instructional materials are referred
to the instructional materials designed purposively by the institution to
be used based on the chosen and implemented curriculum while the
latter is referred to the instructional materials developed at the school
level designed and developed by the school teachers based on the
contextual real-life materials compiled based on the formulated
instructional objectives in the school syllabus or lesson plan.
Richards (2001) argued that when plans regarding the role of
materials in a language program are made, an initial decision concerns
the use of authentic materials versus created materials. Authentic
materials refer to the use in the teaching of texts, photographs, video
selections, and other teaching resources that were not specially
prepared for pedagogical purposes. Created materials refer to
textbooks and other specially developed instructional resources. It is
important to note down that some experts revealed that authentic
materials are preferred over created materials due to the fact that they
contain authentic language and reflect real-world uses of language
compared with the specially designed and planned content of created
material (Richards (2001); Kathrol (2002); Manurung (2009;2015)).
Created materials are commonly used and chosen by the school to
be used in the teaching learning process. It is due to the fact that the
created materials have been previously prepared by the central
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government after developing curriculum to be implemented. Therefore
the created materials have been available commercially after deciding
the implementation of the curriculum. The created instructional
materials are usually developed together with workbooks, cassettes,
and teachers' guides that have been considered supportive in the
success of language teaching in general.
It has been experienced in language teaching that created materials
have been widely used. Richards (2001) further argued that textbooks
are used in different ways in language programs. For example, a reading
textbook might be the basis for a course on reading skills, providing
both a set of reading texts and exercises for skills practice. A writing
textbook might provide model compositions and topics for students to
write about. A grammar textbook might serve as a reference book and
provide examples as well as exercises to develop grammatical
knowledge. A speaking text might provide passages for students to read
and discuss. A listening text together with audiocassettes or CDs might
serve as the primary listening input in a listening course.
The use of commercial textbooks in teaching has both advantages
and disadvantages, depending on how they are used and the contexts for
their use. Among the principal advantages are: They provide structure
and syllabus for a program; They help standardized instruction; They
maintain quality; They provide a variety of learning resources; They
are efficient; They can provide effective language models and input;
They can train teacher; and They are visually appealing (Richards,
2001).
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Should an institution decided to use created materials in form of
textbook, Cunningsworth (1975) proposed four criteria to evaluate
them prior to deciding to use it for teaching learning process. The four
criteria are; 1) they should correspond to learners’ need. They should
match the aims and objectives of language learning program; 2) They
should reflect the uses (present or future) that learners will make of
the language. Textbook should be chosen that will help equip students
to use the language effectively for their own purposes; 3) They should
take account of students’ needs as learners and should facilitate their
learning process, without dogmatically imposing a rigid “method”;
and 4) They should have a clear role as a support for learning. Like
teachers, they mediate between the target language and the learners.
Therefore it is necessary to note down that the use of textbook must be
continuously evaluated so that the materials covered in the textbook
are up-to-date and can follow the advancement and development of
the society.
In sum, it can be stated that each instructional material has its
own strengths and weaknesses, so, therefore, it is suggested that
teachers use both types of instructional materials to complement each
other. It is highlighted and argued that in many language programs,
teachers thus use a mixture of created and authentic materials because
both have their advantages as well as limitations. Furthermore, the
distinction between authentic and created materials is becoming
increasingly blurred, because many published materials incorporate
authentic texts and other real-world sources (Richards, 2001).
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4.5 Preparing and Designing Instructional Materials
Instructional materials play important role in teaching learning
process in any education system. It contributes to the success of
learners to achieve the formulated goals in the curriculum. Due to the
central role of the instructional materials, it is necessary to take
account of the preparation and design procedures.
The preparation and designing procedures have been introduced
by some experts in educational technology. The preparation and
design are usually called as Instructional Design (ID). The ID is a
term that have been used in educational system to describe what have
been done by expert in preparing, designing, developing and
implementing each instructional step from the pre-teaching activity,
prior to the real teaching in the classroom, during the real teaching in
the classroom, and after the classroom teaching which is known as
assessment and evaluation. Most of the experts in educational
technology called the process and technique as an Instructional Design
(ID) consisting of some steps (Reigeluth, 1983); Dick and Carey,
(1990); Rothwel and Kazanas, (1992); Gagne, Briggs, and Wager
(1992); Gentry (1994); Dick, Carey, and Carey (2001), Reiser (2002)).
They argued that ID is needed to effectively achieve the developed
goals of education and training program.
Different experts introduced and viewed ID from different
perspectives nevertheless they were complementary to each other.
Reigeluth (1983) viewed ID based on its role and argued that the ID as
the implementation of teaching and learning theories that are used to
facilitate someone’s learning. Dick and Carey (1990) and Dick, Carey,
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and Carey (2001) viewed ID as a system and they proposed the term
systemic approach in the development of instructional materials due to
the fact that there were some elements that must be used that cannot
be neglected any of the element in the preparation and design of
instructional materials.
Rothwel and Kazanas, (1992) viewed ID from the perspective of
working improvement and argued that the formulation of the ID is
highly related to the improvement of working quality and
organization. Gagne, Briggs, and Wager (1992) viewed ID from the
provision of assistances to the learners and they proposed that the ID
should provide learners with assistance in the learning process so that
they can attain the instructional objectives. Gentry (1994) viewed the
ID in relation to the management and proposed that the
implementation of ID is related into management aspect of an
institution or program, Reiser (2002) supported Dick, Carey, Carey’s
(2001) idea that viewed the ID as systemic series of procedures which
is used to develop consistent education and training program.
There have been some ID models used by experts in educational
technology and education system. The most commonly used are
ADDIE Model, Dick & Carey, Kemp Model, IPDM, and Three-Phase
Design Model. These models have been widely used in designing
instructional materials in an educational institution and have
successfully implemented.
One of the ID models in the development of instructional
materials is known as ADDIE. ADDIE is known as—Analysis,
Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation (Reiser, 2002).
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Reiser (2002) and Prammanee (2016) have noted that there are five
phases in ADDIE model. The phases are; phase 1 Analysis; this phase
identifies problems as main factor to formulate the instructional goals
and objectives; Phase 2 Design; this phase is related to some
components that are systematically done so that the first component
supports the next one to create an effective output; Phase 3
Development; this phase is related to the role of the designer and
developer to create, assemble, review, and revise the content; Phase 4
Implementation; this phase includes development of training
procedures for both facilitator and learners, includes the course
curriculum, learning outcomes, method of delivery, and testing
procedures and for the learners the procedures development includes
training on teaching aids and registration; Phase 5 Evaluation; this
phase consists of formative and summative.
Dick and Carey’s model is well known as a systematic approach
due to the close relationship of each component in the design of
instructional materials. Dick and Carey (1990), Dick and Carey (1996)
and Dick, Carey and Carey (2001) proposed nine steps in their
systematic approach to the design and development of instructional
materials. The steps are; Step 1 Identify Instructional Goal; Step 2
Conduct Instructional Analysis; Step 3 Write Performance Objectives;
Step 4 Develop Assessment Instruments; Step 5 Develop Instructional
Strategy; Step 6 Develop and Select Instruction; Step 7 Design and
Conduct Formative Evaluation; Step 8 Revise Instruction; and Step 9
Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation.
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Morrison, Ross, and Kemp’s Model is well known as Kemp
Model in the educational system. This model was proposed based on
the continuous cycle of the use of each ID element from planning,
design, development to assessment that ensure the creation of
effective instruction (Morrison, Ross, Kemp, 1985; 1994). Kemp
Model consisted of nine elements, as follows; 1) Instructional
Problems Identification; 2) Learners Characteristics Exploration; 3)
Task Analysis; 4) Statement of Instructional Objectives; 5) Content
Sequencing; 6) Instructional Strategies; 7) Instructional Planning and
Development; 8) Evaluation Instruments Development; and 9)
Resource Selection (Morrison, 1985; Morrison, Ross, Kemp, 1994).
IPDM model was introduced by Reigeluth (1983) in order to have
an effective instruction process. IPDM model is introduced based on
the perspective that instructional process is effective if it is supported
by other components such as project management, information
handling, resource acquisition and allocation, ID project personnel,
and facilities (Gentry, 1994). IPDM model is introduced by applying
eight components in the development of instructional materials as
follows; 1) Needs analysis; 2) Adoption; 3) Instructional Design; 4)
Production; 5) Prototyping; 6) Product Installation; 7) Ongoing
Operation; and 8) Ongoing Instructional Unit Evaluation (Gentry,
1994).
Another commonly used ID model, particularly in the
development of online instructional materials is 3PD which stands for
Three Phase Design Model. This ID model was introduced by Sims,
Dobbs, and Hand (2002) and Sims and Jones (2003). They prepare
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and develop the ID model through a three-step process; develop
functionality, evaluate/elaborate/enhance, and maintain. The
instructional materials developed based on this model are almost all
used for online and independent learning where learners minimize the
dependent on the developer and educational designer. Sims, Dobbs,
and Hand (2002) and Sims and Jones (2003) introduced the phases of
3PD as follows; Phase I: Prepare Functional Components; Phase II:
Evaluate, Elaborate and Enhance; and Phase III: Maintain.
In sum, it can be argued that the design of effective instructional
materials needs ID model so that the instructional materials are
systematically and scientifically designed to meet and fulfill needs of
learners. It also implies that the use of effective instructional materials
in an education program provides learners with sufficient knowledge
and skills which are needed as the outcome of the program after the
completion of the program and therefore a contribution to the society
can be easily measured as professional workers.
Should the ID models are implemented in the design of
instructional materials, the product either in the form of created or
authentic materials must be evaluated to find out whether it is suitable
or not for the particular program. The evaluation will also provide
designers, users, as well as institutions to improve or even revise the
content so that the instructional materials facilitate efficiently the
attainment of the formulated instructional objectives.
The technique of evaluating instructional materials or textbooks is
suggested by Richards (2001) by asking following questions; Is there
a well-developed curriculum that describes the objective syllabus and
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content of the program or will this be determined by the textbook?;
Will the book or textbook series provide the core of the program, or is
it one of the several different books that will be used?; Will it be used
with small class or large ones?; and Will learners be expected to buy a
workbook as well as or should the textbook provide all practice
students need?
The answers to the above-aforementioned questions provide the
institution with information of the effective use of instructional
materials or textbooks. The requirement and perspectives on the
choice of the instructional materials become realistic and contextual.
Richards (2001) further suggested the criteria of an effective and
suitable textbook for the language program. He highlighted the
following to identify a suitable textbook for a language program as
follows; The textbook should correspond to learners’ need; The
textbook should match the aims and objectives of language learning
program; the textbook should reflect the usages (present or future) that
learners will make of the language; Textbook should be chosen that
will help equip students to use the language effectively for their own
purposes; The textbook should take account of students’ needs as
learners and should facilitate their learning process, without
dogmatically imposing a rigid “method”; The textbook should have a
clear role as a support for learning. Like teachers, they mediate
between the target language and the learners.
It is necessary to note that the institution’s program or the
language program to be considered in preparing or developing
instructional materials. The advantages of considering the institution’s
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program or the component of language program in developing and
preparing instructional materials are the creating of institutionally or
language program based instructional materials. The sort of
instructional materials provides real-life and contextual instructional
materials that can motivate learners to use them (Block, 1991;
Manurung, 2009; 2015).
This is in line with Richards (2001) who highlighted the four
advantages of this kind of instructional materials as follows; 1)
Relevance: materials can be produced that are directly relevant to
students' and institutional needs and that reflect local content, issues,
and concerns; 2) Develop expertise: developing materials can help
develop expertise among staff, giving them a greater understanding of
the characteristics of effective materials; 3) Reputation: institutionally
developed materials may enhance the reputation of the institution by
demonstrating its commitment to providing materials developed
specifically for its students; 4) Flexibility: instructional materials
prepared and produced within the institution can be revised or
adapted as needed, giving them greater flexibility than a commercial
course
book.
Apart from the presence of ID models in preparing and designing
instructional materials, it is also of great importance to consider the
effectiveness of the developed instructional materials. Therefore it is
seen as important to consider the nature of instructional materials
development as has been highlighted by Shulman (1987) that the
preparation of effective teaching materials is similar to the processes
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involved in planning and teaching a lesson. The preparation of
instructional materials is intended to create materials that can serve as
resources for effective learning. Since the purpose of the instructional
preparation is to created effective learning, then it is suggested that the
writer of the instructional materials begin the preparation and the
writing of the instructional materials by understanding the stated goal
in the curriculum and then seeks to create a set of activities that enable
that goal to be reached.
In order to prepare effective instructional materials to underpin
effective and efficient learning it is necessary to follow steps that have
been introduced in instructional design. By following these steps the
instructional materials are able to respond learners’ need. There are
some experts that have proposed the criteria of good and effective
instructional materials (Schulman (1987); Block (1991); Rowntree
(1997); Tomlinson (1998). Schulman (1987) proposed four phases of
process of material development as follows; phase 1; preparation:
critical interpretation and analysis of texts, structuring and segmentation,
development of a curricular repertoire, and clarification of purposes;
phase 2; representation: use of a representational repertoire that
includes analogies, metaphors, examples, demonstrations, explanations,
and so forth; phase 3; selection: choice from among an instructional
repertoire that includes modes of teaching, organizing, managing, and
arranging; phase 4; adapting and tailoring to student characteristics:
consideration of conceptions, preconceptions, misconceptions, and
difficulties; language, culture, and motivations; and social class, gender,
age, ability, aptitude, interests, self-concepts, attention.
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Rowntree (1997) proposed good materials in relation to teachers’
professional job and responsibility. Teachers must make sure that the
instructional materials that they have chosen and developed should;
Arouse the learners' interest; Remind them of earlier learning; Tell
them what they will be learning next; Explain new learning content to
them; Relate these ideas to learners' previous learning; Get learners to
think about new content; Help them get feedback on their learning;
Encourage them to practice; Make sure they know what they are
supposed to be doing; Enable them to check their progress; and Help
them to do better. It implies that the role of the teachers not only to
develop the instructional materials but they also have to activate
previous knowledge of the learners, provide assistance and feedback,
motivate learners to learn, and guide the learners in both teaching and
practicing.
Tomlinson (1998) also proposed the criteria of instructional
materials. The instructional materials were regarded as the facilities
for learners to achieve what has been stated as the objective of the
instruction. More importantly, it is noted that instructional materials
would be used by learners with different learning styles.
Consequently, the instructional designers or the teachers have to
thoroughly select and grade the materials particularly in the
preparation phase.
Tomlinson (1998) proposed the following criteria for good
language teaching materials; Materials should achieve impact;
Materials should help learners feel at ease; Materials should help
learners to develop confidence; What is being taught should be
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perceived by learners as relevant and useful; Materials should require
and facilitate learner self-investment; Learners must be ready to
acquire the points being taught; Materials should expose the learners
to language in authentic use; The learners' attention should be drawn
to linguistic features of the input materials should provide the learners
with opportunities to use the target; Language to achieve
communicative purposes; Materials should take into account that the
positive effects of instruction are usually delayed; Materials should
take into account that learners have different learning styles; Materials
should take into account that learners differ in affective attitudes;
Materials should permit a silent period at the beginning of instruction;
Materials should maximize learning potential by encouraging intellec-
tual, aesthetic, and emotional involvement that stimulates both right
and left brain activities; Materials should not rely too much on
controlled practice; Materials should provide opportunities for
outcome feedback.
The aforementioned criteria imply that when it is decided to
prepare and design instructional materials, it is necessary to have a
complete understanding of the instructional objectives and refer back
to the results of the need analysis. This preview provides data both
and the instructional materials designed and learners who are going to
use them. Thus, it will provide designers or teachers with information
on the organization of the instructional materials. This phase will also
have an implication on the creation of learning activities or exercise.
The exercise or the learning activities are those scientifically plan
and designed to be used during the teaching learning process or out of
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the classroom to underpin the instructional materials to achieve the
formulated objectives. It is considered difficult to write and decide the
types of exercises that will be used. This is due to the fact that the
exercise must engage learners in the use of skills and processes related to
specific language teaching objectives (Richards, 2001). Richards further
argued that review of the exercise types used in current commercial
textbooks is a good starting point. It implies that the exercises found in the
textbooks can be used as a guide to designing a more contextual one based
on the setting where the teaching learning process takes place.
There are some important components in writing materials for
instruction. It is important to manage the writing of the materials so that
they fit what is expected as the outcomes of a program. Richards (2001)
highlighted that material writing projects are of different scope and
dimensions. Some may be the responsibility of an individual teacher;
others may be assigned to a team of writers. This is highly dependent
on the types of materials to be produced in a program or in an
institution.
Richards (2001) proposed the management of a team-based
writing project involves addressing the following issues: Selecting the
project team: how many people will take part in the project and what
will their roles and responsibilities be? In a large-scale project, the
following people might be involved:
• Project director: responsible for overall management of theproject, for setting goals and ensuring that targets are met, andfor liaising with all parties involved
• Writers: those responsible for writing all components of thecourse
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• Media specialist: a person who can help with such aspects asuse of audiovisual materials and computer software
• Editor: a person who reviews everything the writers haveproduced and prepares the final version of the materials forpublication or duplication
• Illustrator: someone responsible for preparing and selecting artand illustrations
• Designer: the person who is responsible for the layout, typestyle, graphics, and the overall format of the materials(Richards, 2001:268).
As has been highlighted and discussed in the design of
instructional materials in the previous section, Richards (2001) also
proposed several stages of materials project writing so that the ones
expected by the program or the institution may be produced. The
stages are; First draft; Comments on the first draft; Second draft;
Further comments; Tryout of the materials; Final revisions of
materials. This stage has been in line with the steps or phases that
have been proposed by ID design model that has been discussed in the
previous section.
In order to get an effective instructional material, it is important
to do a pilot study. Davison (1998) notes the importance of the
piloting of instructional materials to indicate whether or not they are
work or not, fulfill the objectives or not, appropriate in level, content,
approach or not, whether they are related to teachers expectation and
stages of development , and whether they promote effective learning
or not.
Richards (2001) highlighted that piloting the materials involves
trying out materials with a representative group of learners and
teachers before they are made available for wider use in order to
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identify problems or faults in them that can be identified before they
are used more widely. Piloting seeks to find answers to the following
questions (Richards, 2001:269)
• Are the materials comprehensible and the instructions clear?• Do they contain any editorial or content errors?• Is the pacing of the materials appropriate?• Do the materials do what they are supposed to do? Do they
address learners' needs?• Is there sufficient quantity of practice material?• Are the materials sufficiently interesting and engaging?The last step in the preparation and designing instructional
materials is related to monitoring. Richards (2001) argued that no
matter what form of materials teachers make use of, whether they
teach from textbooks, institutional materials, or teacher-prepared
materials, the materials represent plans for teaching. They do not
represent the process of teaching itself. As teachers use materials they
adapt and transform them to suit the needs of particular groups of
learners and their own teaching styles.
These processes of transformation are at the heart of teaching and
enable good teachers to create effective lessons out of the resources
they make use of. It is useful, therefore, to collect information on how
teachers use course books and other teaching materials in their
teaching. The information collected can serve the following purposes:
To document effective ways of using materials; To provide feedback
on how materials work; To keep a record of additions, deletions, and
supplementary materials teachers may have used with the materials;
To assist other teachers in using the materials.
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It is believed that the use of instructional must be monitored and
evaluated. The monitoring system implemented in the implementation
of instructional materials provide teachers and learners opportunities
to comment, argue, and propose things to perfectly revised and
improved the instructional materials so that they can facilitate
efficiently the attainment of the objective of the program (Richards,
2001; Manurung, 2009). Richards (2001:270) further proposed the
form of monitoring as follows;
observation: classroom visits to see how teachers usematerials and to find out how materials influence the qualityof teaching and interaction that occurs in a lesson; feedbacksessions: group meetings in which teachers discuss theirexperience with materials; written reports: the use ofreflection sheets or other forms of written feedback in whichteachers make grief notes about what worked well and whatdid not work well, or give suggestions on using the materials;reviews; written reviews by a teacher or group of teachers ontheir experience with a set of materials and what they liked ordisliked about them; and students’ review: comments fromstudents on their experience with materials.
It implies that improvement and revision of the instructional
materials are important. The data and source of the revision not only
based on the teachers but also the students. The use of both teachers'
and students' experiences as the source of the revision makes the
instructional materials more interesting and fulfill needs of the
learning and on the other hand allow teachers to effectively present
the materials during the teaching and learning process.
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4.6 Summary and Exercise
One of the most important components in the instructional
process is instructional materials. The instructional materials are used
to facilitate the achievement of the stated goals in curriculum and the
formulated objectives in the syllabus. Instructional objectives, which
are formulated by using measurable or operational verbs based on
Bloom Taxonomy, is generated or translated from goals. The
instructional objectives are used as a guide to prepare and design the
instructional materials to ensure that the prepared and designed
instructional materials fulfill needs of learners, society, and learners in
relation to society.
Selection and gradation are two terms that are commonly used in
the development of the instructional materials. Selection refers to the
activities where designer, developer, or teacher selects related
materials from various resources, and grading is the activities in
grading or organizing the selected materials. The selection process
ensures that the selected materials are sufficient both in quantity and
quality so that the output and the outcomes of the learning meet the
goals stated in the curriculum where the learners are able to do what
they are expected to do as the results of instruction. The grading or
organization, on the other hand, is the activities to classify the selected
instructional materials so that they can be planned and organized
properly. The gradation and organization are related to the ability of
the designer, developer, or teachers to analyze and synthesize then to
classify the instructional materials into simple or complex. The simple
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instructional materials are considered to be easier for the learner to use
and understand, while the complex ones are considered to be difficult.
Based on the theory of contrastive analysis, the simple or easy
instructional materials are planned to be taught first and then followed
by the more and the most complex ones. The simple or easy
instructional materials are expected to be stepping stone for the
learners to face the complex instructional materials and motivate them
to use the materials. More importantly, by presenting the simple or
easy instructional materials first, the learners are guided step by step
to effectively and efficiently master the whole prepared instructional
materials for a particular course or program.
Well prepared and designed instructional materials whether it is a
textbook or created material which is prepared by the institution or
authentic materials which are prepared and developed mostly by
teachers are of great importance and contribution in the instructional
process. They can be used as the main resource for both teaching and
learning and the basis for learners' activities in the classroom or out of
the classroom. The teaching materials provide effective and efficient
steps in achieving the target that an institution or a program has
determined.
However, it is suggested that should an institution decide to use
textbooks or created materials, they should be supplemented by
authentic materials. The textbook or created materials provide learners
with common sense while authentic materials provide them with real
world use of the teaching materials where learners can apply them
directly in their daily lives. The use of authentic materials permits the
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learners to experience what they have learned and consequently, the
learned materials are kept in their long term memory and readily used
when they are needed.
Exercise
1. Explain in detail how to design instructional materials.
2. What are the roles of the instructional materials in the teaching and
learning activities process?
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Chapter 7
LESSON PLAN
7.1 Rationale
Lesson Plan is designed by teachers to guide the teaching
learning process and to outline what students need to learn and how it
will be done effectively during the class time to achieve the
formulated instructional objectives. The lesson plan is the topic
studied after knowing what a curriculum is in the instructional
process, how to generate the goals in the curriculum to the syllabus,
and how to prepare and design instructional materials. The lesson plan
is expected to be the topic for discussion in curriculum and material
development as the last requirement of Curriculum and material
Development Course offered in the fifth semester at the English
Education Department at the Faculty of Teacher Training and
Education at higher education level. This course is designed to train
and prepare the students with skills and knowledge in preparing and
developing a lesson plan, identifying and explaining lesson plan
components, and practicing teaching and learning by applying the
prepared and designed lesson plan.
7.2 Instructional Goal
Learners have knowledge on curriculum and material
development theories in EFL teaching and use the knowledge to
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formulate instructional goal, design syllabus, design instructional
materials, design evaluation instrument, and develop a lesson plan.
7.3 Instructional Objectives
After you complete your study of Chapter 8, Lesson Plan, you are
able to:
1. define lesson plan
2. develop a lesson plan
3. explain techniques in developing a lesson plan
4. describe the structure of the lesson plan
5. analyze components of a lesson plan
7.4 Lesson Plan
The lesson plan is the most specific instructional package that is
prepared and designed by teachers at school or institutional level. The
development of a lesson plan is expected to provide well planned and
structured activities in teaching and learning process. Teachers are
able to undertake effective teaching after planning and arranging what
students need to learn, how it will be done effectively during the class
time and how the achievement of the learners are assessed. Therefore,
it is advised that a teacher plans lesson after identifying the learning
objectives that have been formulated in the course syllabus.
The detail and thorough understanding of the instructional
objectives allow the teachers to design appropriate learning activities
and develop strategies to effectively present the instructional materials
and the learning activities, to measure the learner's achievement and to
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obtain feedback on student learning. Lasley, Matczynski, and Rowley
(2002:84) argued that the intent of instruction planning is to determine
what students should accomplish, and then to plot a course of action
(instructional model and strategies) that facilitates students’
accomplishment of objectives. Moore (2005) argued that lesson plan
should reflect the individual needs, strengths, and interest of the
teachers and students. It implies that lesson plan contained what
learners have to learn that assists teachers organize contents,
materials, time, instructional strategies, and assistance in the
classroom.
Teachers plan lesson plan to help them and their students to
achieve instructional objectives by providing effective teaching. The
lesson plan is a carefully and scientifically organized instruction
package that contains information on school or institution identity,
what learners should attain after the implementation or teaching of the
lesson plan, instructional materials, teaching method, teaching and
learning process, media and resources, and evaluation. The lesson plan
helps teachers and learners to conduct effective teaching and learning
process due to the fact that the instructional packages have been
attentively prepared and designed. In other words, the lesson plan
contains what learners need to learn and how it will be taught
effectively to attain the formulated objectives during the allocated
teaching hour or time in the classroom. The components of a lesson
plan will be discussed in detail in Section ...
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7.5 Techniques in Developing Lesson Plan
Lesson plan preparation and development is one of the main
responsibilities of teachers. It is advised that teachers know how to
develop a lesson plan and that it is obliged that a teacher must have a
lesson plan and bring the lesson plan during the teaching time in the
classroom. This is helpful due to the fact that the teachers are more
organized in the presentation of the instructional materials and the
conduct of the learning activities. There have been recommendations
on how to develop an effective and efficient lesson plan (Moore,
2005; Milkova, 2012). Moore (2005) put emphasis on the levels of
planning from general to specific levels while Milkova (2012)
describe detail steps in developing the lesson plan.
Milkova (2012) argued that a lesson plan is a map for a teacher in
teaching and learning and therefore the lesson plan must be planned
carefully and scientifically. Milkova proposed six steps to guide the
preparation and creation of the lesson plan; 1) Outline learning
objectives; 2) Develop the introduction; 3) Plan the specific learning
activities (the main body of the lesson); 4) Plan to check for
understanding; 5) Develop a conclusion and a preview; and 6) Create
a realistic timeline.
Outlining learning objectives is related to the teacher’s ability to
determine what learners to learn and be able to do at the end of class.
In order to specify the objectives for student learning, it is suggested
to answer the following questions: 1) What is the topic of the lesson?;
2) What do I want students to learn?; 3) What do I want them to
understand and be able to do at the end of class?; and 4) What do I
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want them to take away from this particular lesson?. She further
suggested that once you outline the learning objectives for the class
meeting, rank them in terms of their importance. This step will
prepare you for managing class time and accomplishing the more
important learning objectives in case you are pressed for time
(Milkova, 2012:2).
Developing the introduction is related to the way to activate prior
knowledge and to investigate how well a learner master the topic that
you have in the lesson plan based on the instructional objectives. After
knowing the learning objectives in the first step, which is organized by
the teacher based on the order of their importance, it is time to design
the specific activities to get students to understand and apply what
they have learned. Milkova (2012) suggested that to start the teaching
and learning process with a question or activity, “How many of you
have heard of X? Raise your hand if you have.” You can also gather
background information from your students prior to class by sending
students an electronic survey or asking them to write comments on
index cards.
It is suggested that the following questions to be answered in
relation to the development of an introduction; 1) How will I check
whether students know anything about the topic or have any
preconceived notions about it?; 2) What are some commonly held
ideas (or possibly misconceptions) about this topic that students might
be familiar with or might espouse?; and 3) What will I do to introduce
the topic? (Milkova, 2012:2).
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Planning the specific learning activities (the main body of the
lesson) is related to the instructional materials and learning activities.
Milkova (2012) suggested preparing several different ways of
explaining the material (real-life examples, analogies, visuals, etc.) to
catch the attention of more students and appeal to different learning
styles. She further argued that as you plan your examples and
activities, estimate how much time you will spend on each. It is
suggested to answer the following questions to help design the
learning activities: 1) What will I do to explain the topic?; 2) What
will I do to illustrate the topic in a different way?; 3) How can I
engage students in the topic?; 4) What are some relevant real-life
examples, analogies, or situations that can help students understand
the topic?; and 5) What will students need to do to help them
understand the topic better? (Milkova, 2012:2).
Planning to check for understanding is related to the ability of a
teacher to find out whether or not the instructed instructional materials
have been attained by learners. As the topics, examples, and learning
activities have explained and illustrated in the previous step, a teacher
must check for student understanding to make sure that the learners
are learning and have mastered what has been taught. In order to be
able to design and prepare the right way to check learners
understanding (Milkova, 2012:3) suggested to answer the following
questions; 1) What questions will I ask students to check for
understanding?; 2) What will I have students do to demonstrate that
they are following?; and 3) Going back to my list of learning
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objectives, what activity can I have students do to check whether each
of those has been accomplished?
Developing a conclusion and a preview is related to the way a
teacher summarizes what has been taught in a lesson plan. It is
important to go over and summarize the taught materials in order to
know whether or not the main point of the teaching materials has been
mastered by the learners. Milkova (2012:3) proposed that the
development of a conclusion and preview can be done in a number of
ways:
you can state the main points yourself ("Today we talkedabout…"), you can ask a student to help you summarizethem, or you can even ask all students to write down on apiece of paper what they think were the main points of thelesson. You can review the students' answers to gauge theirunderstanding of the topic and then explain anything unclearthe following class. Conclude the lesson not only bysummarizing the main points but also by previewing the nextlesson. How does the topic relate to the one that's coming?This preview will spur students' interest and help themconnect the different ideas within a larger context.
Creating a realistic timeline, the last step in preparing a lesson
plan is related to the way a teacher manage the time in presenting
instructional materials in a lesson plan. The creation of a realistic
timeline is highly related to the ability of the teacher to set the
instructional objective, instructional materials, learning activities, and
evaluation. Incapability to prepare the instructional materials in a
lesson plan according to the time allocated causes ineffective
presentation of the materials. In other words, the teacher runs out of
time without covering particular instructional materials that have been
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planned. It implies that there must be a realistic amount of
instructional material in the lesson plan so that they can be covered
effectively according to the allocated time.
Milkova (2012) argued that a list of ten learning objectives is not
realistic, so narrow down your list to the two or three key concepts,
ideas, or skills you want students to learn. This technique allows the
teacher to cover the planned instructional materials and consequently
create a joyful teaching due to the fact that there is sufficient time for
both teacher and learners to interact. It is necessary to note that the
ability of the teacher to prepare and plan realistic timeline in a lesson
plan provide opportunities to be more flexible and ready to adapt to
the specific classroom environment.
Milkova (2012:4) proposed the following strategies for creating a
realistic timeline: 1)Estimate how much time each of the activities will
take, then plan some extra time for each; 2) When you prepare your
lesson plan, next to each activity indicates how much time you expect
it will take; 3) Plan a few minutes at the end of class to answer any
remaining questions and to sum up key points; 4) Plan an extra
activity or discussion question in case you have time left; and 5) Be
flexible – be ready to adjust your lesson plan to students’ needs and
focus on what seems to be more productive rather than sticking to
your original plan.
7.6 Lesson Plan Structure
The lesson plan is used as a guide for both learners and teachers
to effectively achieve the formulated instructional objectives. The
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lesson plan describes what will be studied and attained by the learners,
how the instructional materials are effectively presented, and how the
achievement of the learners is measured. More (2005) argued that
although there are various format of lesson plan and various details
contained in a lesson plan, in general, the structure of a lesson plan
consists of three elements; 1) the set induction (cognitive set); 2) the
lesson itself (instructional strategies); and 3) the lesson closure
(Moore, 2005:137).
The set induction is related to teachers’ activities to draw learners'
attention. It is necessary to take into account that the ability to draw
the attention of the learners early in the beginning of teaching learning
process, allow effective presentation of instructional materials. Moore
(2005) and Milkova (2012) highlighted that the set induction is what
teachers do at the outset of a lesson to get students’ undivided
attention, to arouse their interest, and to establish a conceptual
framework for the information that follows. It implies that the teachers
have to be able to begin the teaching learning process properly that it
can be stepping stone to the main content of the instruction and to
draw full attention of learners to next step in teaching. In most ID and
instructional process the set induction is also known as apperception
where the teachers draw students’ attention, activate prior knowledge,
and motivate the students. These activities are also called as pre-
activities in three phase techniques.
More (2005) propose some activities that can be done in the set
induction period or how to set the stage to each, as follows; opening
activity-related to the homework assignment or some recent lesson;
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Stand quietly-doing nothing and students will soon focus their
attention on you; talking in a very low voice-most of us want to hear
what we cannot hear and the low voice will attract attention; share a
story to attract the students' attention. More (2005) even further
suggested that the class can be also begun with; 1) a discrepant event
or an interesting demonstration; show pictures, pictures in visible spot,
models, or diagram and ask the students to guess what it is about or
what comments they can say about any of the objects that you use to
begin the class; 2) posing a provocative question and presenting a
hypothetical problem-for example, What would happen if …? And
“How do you account for …?”. All of these activities have been
known as the advance organizer. An advance organizer is defined as
plan remarks that provide students a "what to look for" frame or
reference (Ausubel, in Moore 2005).
Drawing students’ attention early at the beginning of a lesson is
considered important to warm up students and to get their attention.
This has been the case in instruction that it is necessary to inform
them the objectives of the lesson early at the beginning after the set
induction or the conduct of plan organizer. The earlier the learners
know what they are expected from a lesson, the more they learn from
a lesson and consequently the better their achievement will be.
The second part of the lesson plan structure is the lesson itself
(instructional strategies) which is directly related to what is to be
taught and how to teach them to achieve the formulated objectives.
The part is also known as while activities or main activities in the
three-phase technique in instruction. In the lesson or instructional
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strategies it is argued that it is important for teachers to address the
following questions so that the main or the while activities in the
instructional process can be efficiently conducted: How will you teach
the objectives you have targeted?; What will the students read?; Is a
short lecture the best method for presenting the information, or would
an inquiry lesson better suit your purpose?; Should the students work
individually or in the group?; and Would a guest speaker be
beneficial, or would a field trip serve your objectives better? (Moore,
2005:140).
The main part of the lesson consists of the content to be taught or
the instructional materials and the instructional strategies to teach or to
present the instructional materials during the teaching learning
process. The instructional materials are those prepared and organized
on the basis of the formulated instructional objectives while the
instructional strategies are related to methodology and the lesson
procedure. These are related to the choice of approach, method, or
strategies used to present the lesson and followed by teaching and
procedures or learning activities based on the approach, method or
strategies chosen. In order to better achieve the instructional
objectives, the procedures or the sequence of steps must be planned
thoroughly including the learning activities or practices so that
learners can directly experience what they are being taught.
Practice can be classified into guided or independent. Guided
practices are those which are acted out by the assistance and
encouragement of a teacher, for example, oral that can be done
directly after the presentation of the instructional materials. This kind
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of practice can be used to signal whether a learner has followed and
understood what was taught or not. On the other hand, independent
practice is the practice which is acted out by learners without
assistance or encouragement of teachers. The independent practice is
generally in homework manner.
The final step in instructional materials or the content of the
lesson is an evaluation. These can be related to the stage of teaching
that has been set; identified the objectives, developed the strategies,
and planned for practice. The final step is providing an evaluation of
students' learning. The evaluation items have directly measured the
attainment of the formulated instructional objectives. Therefore the
evaluation items must be prepared and developed based on what are
expected learners to be able to do.
Effective presentation of the prepared and designed content of
lesson plan is highly dependent on the methodology applied by
teachers. Instructional methods influence learners’ active participation
during the teaching learning process. In general, the methodology in
the instructional process is broadly classified into teacher –centered
and student-centered learning. The teacher centered method considers
the teachers and the prepared and designed instructional are the only
sources of knowledge. The nature of this method is that students
acquire knowledge by listening to the teachers, by reading a textbook,
or both. In other words, the students are a passive recipient of
information (Moore, 2005). On the other hand, Student centered
learning needs students to be active in the instruction. The students are
actively involved in the teaching and learning process.
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Since the method holds an important role in teaching and learning
activities, it is important for the teacher to select the method
attentively. It is important to consider; 1) maturity level and
experience of learners, 2) abilities, needs, and interests, 3)
environment and related environment (space available, time of day,
weather), and 4) time devoted to teaching the content). For more
information consult Table 5.2 in the previous section to highlight the
differences between the teacher's centered method and the student's
centered methods that have long been adopted in language teaching.
Table 7.1 Lesson Plan Structure Concepts
Component DescriptionSet Induction Activity at outset of a lesson to get students’
undivided attention, to arouse their interest, and toestablish a conceptual framework
Instructional Strategy The methodology and procedure. It is the global planof a lesson
Methodology Planned patterned behaviors that are definite steps bywhich the teacher influences learning
Procedure Sequence of steps designed to lead students to theacquisition of the desired learning
Closure An activity designed to pull a lesson together andbring it to a logical conclusion
(Adopted from Moore, 2005:147)
The third part of lesson plan structure is the lesson closure which
is known as post activities in the three phase technique in instruction.
This stage is important in the instructional process due to the fact that
it provides both teachers and students indication of the completion of
the teaching of content or topics. A closure activity or post activities
must provide a logical conclusion; it should pull together and organize
the concept learned; it should consolidate the main concepts and ideas
and integrate them within the students’ existing cognitive structure; it
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should enable students to organize the new materials in relation to
itself and to other lessons; it shows the relationship between the major
ideas and ties together the part of the lesson (Moore, 2005). Closure
activities can be done by demonstration of what has been taught,
asking questions, or in-class assignment. The summary of the lesson
plan structure can be illustrated in Table 7.1.
7.7 Lesson Plan Components
The lesson plan is used to guide the process of the instructional
process so that the objectives of the instruction are effectively
attained. The preparation and design of a lesson plan must be well
programmed and therefore it is advised to previously understand the
goal of the instruction that has been written down in the curriculum.
The goal that has been generated into objectives in the syllabus is used
as the stepping stone to prepare, design and fill in all components of a
lesson plan.
In Indonesian education system, lesson plan is prepared and
developed by teachers. The lesson plan final version is usually
discussed among teachers from a different school of the same level
prior to its implementation in the instructional process. A lesson plan
can be prepared for single or one meeting or for more than one
meeting. In general, the components of a lesson plan include; Identity,
Core Competence, Basic Competence, Indicator of the Achievement
of the Competence, Instructional Materials, Instructional
Models/Strategies, Instructional Media, Instructional Activities, and
Evaluation of the Achievement of the Students. The main part of the
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lesson plan is divided into; pre-activities, while-activities, and post-
activities.
In Indonesia education system, the components of a lesson plan
are established through the regulation of Minister of Education and
Culture for elementary school, junior and senior high school, and
through the regulation of Minister of Research, Technology, and
Higher Education. The latest version of lesson plan for elementary
school, junior and senior high school level in Indonesia is based on
2013 curriculum which is based on the Minister of Education and
Culture Regulation No. 65 in 2013 on Lesson Plan Components and
No. 65 in 2016 on Standard of Process (Permendikbud No. 65 in 2013
and Permendikbud No. 22 in 2016). The components of the lesson
plan and their description are described in Table 7.3 which is started
from the identity, the name of the school, to the evaluation which
measures the achievement of the objectives.
Based on Table 7.2, it is noted there are at least 13 components of
a lesson plan that have to be prepared by teachers. Each of the
components must support each other and they cannot be separated
from one component to another. Two of the most important
relationship of those components that must be thoroughly understood
by teachers when they prepare their lesson plan is first the
development of the instructional materials and the instructional
objectives, and second the relationship of evaluation and the
instructional objectives.
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Table 7.2 The components of a lesson
No Components Description1 School identity Name of the school2 Course Identity Name and code of the course or theme/subtheme3 Year or
class/Semester/Meeting
The level in which a learner is or the classroom groupingbased on school level/in which semester (Semester oneor two)/Which meeting is the topic taught (Meeting 1, 2or …)
4 Topic The topic of the instructional materials to be taught5 Time allocation The total time allocated (2 x 35, 2 x 40, 2 x 45, or 2 x 50
minutes) by considering the number of the theme to becovered, allocated time for the course in a semester, andthe basic competence that has been formulated to becover in a semester.
6 InstructionalObjectives
The objectives that have been formulated based on thebasic competence by using operational verbs coveringaffective, cognitive, and psychomotor domains.
7 BasicCompetence
The competence that has to be attained at the end of theinstructional process
Indicator The statement to indicate that the formulated/expectedoutput and outcome have been attained after theinstructional process
8 InstructionalMaterials
Cover the instructional materials to be taught based onthe instructional objectives including learningactivities/exercise/tasks
9 InstructionalMethods
The methods which are used to create joyfulinstructional process based on the characteristics of thelearners and the basic competence
10 InstructionalMedia
Media which are used to present instructional materialsso that the learning process is effective and joyful
11 Resource Any resource which is available related to topic ortheme of the instructional materials
12 InstructionalProcedure/Steps
The instructional procedure is done based on three phasetechniques; pre-activities, while/main-activities, andpost-activities
13 Evaluation Covers test instrument that measures the ability of thestudents to achieve the formulated objectives
Adapted from the Minister of Education and Culture Regulation No. 65 in 2013 onLesson Plan Components and No. 65 in 2016 on Standard of Process
The development of the instructional materials in the lesson plan
must be based on the formulated instructional objectives. In other
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words, the instructional objectives guide the teachers to select, design,
develop and organize the instructional materials. More importantly,
the instructional objectives are used as the basis to look for any related
resources that can support effective teaching. The ability of the
teachers to translate and generate instructional objectives into
instructional materials effectively facilitates the achievement of the
objectives. The ability of the teacher to develop the instructional
materials based on the constructed instructional objectives shows the
teachers ability to fulfill requirements of professional teachers issued
by the education and culture department in Indonesian education
system since 2005.
The same case applies to the relationship of the instructional
objectives and the evaluation. The teachers must be able to thoroughly
understand the objectives so that the instructional materials are
developed accordingly and more importantly, the evaluation
instrument is developed based on what has been taught to measure the
achievement of the students on the taught materials. In other words,
the evaluation instrument must be prepared and designed so the
instrument measure whether or not the formulated objectives have
been achieved.
The lesson plan is prepared based on the proposed form from the
institution. In Indonesian education system the format is prepared and
proposed by Minister of Education and Culture (Mendikbud) from
elementary to senior high school, and minister of Research,
Technology, and Higher Education (Menristekdikti) for higher
education level. Table 7.3 is an alternative to a lesson plan framework
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and format adapted from Minister of Education and Culture
Regulation No. 65 in 2013 on Lesson Plan Components and No. 65 in
2016 on Standard of Process.
The Table illustrates that a lesson plan consists of five main parts.
The first is the identity in which it describes from the school where the
teaching is held up to time allocated or the period of teaching to
complete and attain the formulated core competence for particular
theme or topic in the lesson plan.
The second part is from the description of the core competence up
to the approach and method. The third is the description of the
teaching learning process based on the approach and method chosen to
present the developed instructional materials in the face to face
teaching.
The forth part is describing tool, media, and source used to
facilitate the planned instructional materials so that the teaching and
learning process is effective and enjoyable. The ability of the teacher
to facilitate the planned and designed instructional materials during
the teaching and learning process is manifested in his ability to choose
tool, media, and source. The presence of suitable media during the
teaching learning process is believed to motivate learners to learn and
to use the prepared instructional materials. More importantly, the
teaching is enjoyable. The last is the description of evaluation. How to
measure the achievement of the learners after the teaching and
learning process completed based on the formulated instructional
objective, including home assignment and the provision of feedback
for both the exercises or tasks and the evaluation items.
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Table 7.3 Lesson plan components and format
Satuan Pendidikan : ….………………………..Kelas/Semester : …………………………..Mata Pelajaran : …………………………..Topik : …………………………..Pertemuan Ke- : …………………………..Alokasi Waktu : .…………………………..A Kompetensi Inti
B. Kompetensi Dasar
C. Indikator pencapaian kompetensi
D. Tujuan pembelajaran
E. Materi ajar
F. Pendekatan & Metode pembelajaran
Pendekatan : ScientificStrategi : Cooperative LearningTeknik : Example Non ExampleMetode : Penugasan, Tanya Jawab, Diskusi Dan Ceramah
G Kegiatan PembelajaranKegiatan Deskripsi Alokasi WaktuPendahuluan ……………………………IntiPenutup
H Media/Alat dan Sumber Belajar- Alat dan Bahan- Sumber Belajar
I Penilaian Proses dan Hasil Belajar- Teknik- Bentuk- Instrumen (Tes dan Non tes)- Kunci dan Pedoman penskoran- Tugas
Palu, …. ……., 20..MengetahuiKepala Sekolah Guru,(……………………..) (………………………..)NIP. ………………. NIP. …………………….
Adapted from the Minister of Education and Culture Regulation No. 65 in 2013 onLesson Plan Components and No. 65 in 2016 on Standard of Process
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7.8 Summary and Exercise
The lesson plan is needed to provide an effective teaching
process. The lesson plan is used by teachers as a guide when the
teacher conducts or presents the instructional materials in the
classroom. The lesson plan is designed and developed based on the
syllabus. The objectives stated in the syllabus are used to guide the
selection of the instructional materials, method, and media. The
components and the structures of a lesson plan are prepared by the
policy makers based on the national education standard from the
minister of education and culture. It is the responsibility of the school
teachers to design and develop a lesson plan based on the provided
lesson plan components and structures. The lesson plan must be
brought to the classroom every time a teacher is scheduled to teach
due to the fact that the activities from the opening to the closing
activities have been noted down in the lesson plan.
Exercise
1. Find out a Lesson plan of an English class from an SMP or SMA
teacher and analyze each of the analyze each of the components of
the lesson plan
2. Choose one theme found in a school syllabus for SMP or SMA and
develop a lesson plan on the theme.
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Chapter 8
CONCLUSION
The effective instructional process needs well planned
instructional packages. The preparation and design of good
instructional packages require effort from decision maker and
teachers. Decision makers have to thoroughly design curriculum and
teachers translate the goals formulated in the curriculum into feasible
and measurable instructional objectives which are used as a guide to
prepare and design joyful teaching and teaching process.
Curriculum in Indonesian education system is designed at the
government level and through minister's regulation or decree, the
curriculum is established to be formally implemented. The curriculum
then is translated into syllabus at institution level which is then used as
the basis for teachers to prepare and design a lesson plan. The
preparation and design of lesson plan are done at the school level.
School teachers in the same school or schools teachers in a region of
the same course may work together to design a lesson plan. The well-
known term used when schools teachers gather to prepare and design
lesson plan in Indonesia is MGMP (Musyawarah Guru Mata
Pelajaran) where teachers of the same course from different schools
in a region meet and discuss regularly to prepare and design a lesson
plan.
In educational technology and Instructional design, it is agreed
that curriculum covers the philosophy, purposes, design, and
163
implementation of a program while syllabus deals with specification
and organization of course contents. Lesson plan, on the other hand, is
the description of all scientific activities for a course which is
generated from the syllabus to be implemented in the classroom for
one or more meetings or teaching periods.
The lesson plan is a guide for teachers to conduct effective
teaching. Since the lesson plan is a guide, teachers are suggested to
bring the lesson plan during the teaching and learning process and
follow the steps in the face to face teaching. In order to get better
lesson plan, the teachers should make notes and comments every time
the lesson plan is implemented. The notes and arguments are used as
the basis of the lesson plan revision. This kind of teachers' work
manner keeps them updated with the instructional materials and
activities that bring about contextual instruction. The contextual
instruction provides learners with real life activities and experiences
that enable them to directly implement the knowledge in their daily
encounters and consequently, the knowledge is kept in the learners
long term memories which in turn can be spontaneously applied. It
implies that the teachers should create quality teaching.
The quality teaching provides skillful outputs and the outcomes of
the teaching directly meet needs of the stakeholders. The quality
teaching is actualized if, first, the curriculum is designed based on the
real needs; second, the syllabus is thoroughly designed based on the
curriculum; and third, the lesson plan contains contextual instructional
materials and scientifically planned learning activities. Therefore, the
164
quality teaching is achieved through the collaboration of various
factors such government, institution, teachers, society, and learners.
165
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