DESIGn - ADRIANO PAOLELLA€¦ · DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL EDITORS Peter Burrows , RMIT, Melbourne, Australia. Daria Loi, Intel, USA. Bill Cope ,

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DESIGnPrinciples & Practices:An International Journal

DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL

VOLUME 1, NUMBER 3, 2007

http://www.Design-Journal.com

DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL http://www.Design-Journal.com First published in 2007 in Melbourne, Australia by Common Ground Publishing Pty Ltd www.CommonGroundPublishing.com. © 2007 (individual papers), the author(s) © 2007 (selection and editorial matter) Common Ground Authors are responsible for the accuracy of citations, quotations, diagrams, tables and maps. All rights reserved. Apart from fair use for the purposes of study, research, criticism or review as permitted under the Copyright Act (Australia), no part of this work may be reproduced without written permission from the publisher. For permissions and other inquiries, please contact <[email protected]>. ISSN: 1833-1874 Publisher Site: http://www.Design-Journal.com DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL is a peer refereed journal. Full papers submitted for publication are refereed by Associate Editors through anonymous referee processes. Typeset in Common Ground Markup Language using CGCreator multichannel typesetting system http://www.CommonGroundSoftware.com.

DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL

EDITORS Peter Burrows, RMIT, Melbourne, Australia. Daria Loi, Intel, USA. Bill Cope, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA. EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD Genevieve Bell, Intel Corporation, USA Michael Biggs, University of Hertfordshire, UK Thomas Binder, Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, Denmark Jeanette Blomberg, IBM Almaden Research Center, USA Eva Brandt, Danmark Designskole, Denmark Monika Büscher, Lancaster University, UK Patrick Dillon, Exeter University, UK Kees Dorst, TUe, The Netherlands and UTS, Australia Ken Friedman, Norway and Danmark Designskole, Denmark Bill Gaver, Goldsmiths University of London, UK Judith Gregory, Institute of Design, USA and University of Oslo, Norway Clive Holtham, City of London University, UK Hiroshi Ishii, MIT Media Lab, USA Gianni Jacucci, University of Trento, Italy Mary Kalantzis, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA Maria Cecilia Loschiavo dos Santos, University of São Paulo, Brazil Terence Love, Curtin University, Australia Ezio Manzini, Politecnico of Milano, Italy Julian Orr, Work Practice & Technology Associates, USA Mahendra Patel, Leaf Design, India Toni Robertson, University of Technology Sydney, Australia Terry Rosenberg, Goldsmiths University of London, UK Keith Russell, University of Newcastle, Australia Chris Rust, Sheffield-Hallam University, UK Liz Sanders, Make Tools, USA Lucy Suchman, Lancaster University, UK Ina Wagner, Technical University of Vienna, Austria Dvora Yanow, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands

About the Journal

The Design Journal is a site of discussion exploring the meaning and purpose of 'design', as well as speaking in grounded ways about the task of design and the use of designed artefacts and processes. The resulting conversations weave between the theoretical and the empirical, research and application, market pragmatics and social idealism. In professional and disciplinary terms, journal traverses a broad sweep to construct a transdisciplinary dialogue which encompasses the perspectives and practices of: anthropology, architecture, art, artificial intelligence, business, cognitive science, communication studies, computer science, cultural studies, design studies, education, e-learning, engineering, ergonomics, fashion, graphic design, history, information systems, industrial design, industrial engineering, instructional design, interior design, interaction design, interface design, journalism, landscape architecture, law, linguistics and semiotics, management, media and entertainment, psychology, sociology, software engineering, technical communication, telecommunications, urban planning and visual design. The journal is relevant for academics in the design and applied sciences, professions, social sciences and humanities, research students, design practitioners, industry-based designers, professionals and managers, public administrators and trainers and industry consultants. The Design Journal is fully peer-reviewed with a rigorous refereeing process to ensure a high standard of quality. The editors and advisory board comprise leading scholars in the education field.

Scope and Concerns

Design Practices The business of design is in a state of flux. The roles, the tasks and the personae of designers are changing. No longer the technical expert, the heroic aesthete or the inspired individual of our earlier modern past, the contemporary designer has to draw upon dispersed sources of creativity and innovation. Collaboration, today, is key. The paradox of increasing specialisation is the need for a more broad-ranging and holistic integration of design tasks, working between and across design disciplines. Design is becoming an ever-more social, indeed sociable, process. The imperative to collaborate, moreover, extends well beyond the domain of professional interaction and working in design teams. It also extends to the relationship with the users, clients and consumers of design. Designers today need to build deeply collaborative relationships with design's 'public'. Participatory design and user-centred design are just two key phrases that describe this imperative. Broadly speaking, the balance of agency is shifting from the knowing designer who creates what is good for grateful consumers, to a dialogue which involves more careful and systematic processes of user consultation, research, co-design, testing, evaluation and continuous redesign. The emerging design democracy turns the designer into conversationalist, facilitator, mentor and pedagogue—destabilising the legacy self-understanding of the designer as artist, technocrat and expert. The new politics of design plays through tensions between historical roles and contemporary expectations. Along the way, what's lost and what's gained? What's inherently difficult, and what's intrinsically liberating? As soon as the balance of agency shifts, a polymorphous, polyvalent social world presents itself. 'Any colour you like, as long is it's black', said the heroic Henry Ford, who conveniently assumed that every consumer in his mass market had identical needs and interests. But as soon as you start talking niche markets, useability and customisation, you discover diversity in an ever more dazzling range of hues and shades—local and global, of different abilities and disabilities, of ages and genders and affinities. The paradox of today's design democracy is that designing for everybody means designing for many different interests and uses. Then there are new forms of social insistence: that designers work to objectives of sustainability, access, safety and the social good. These are the stuff of regulation and compliance. Or, if you will internalise these insistences, they are the stuff of professional ethics.

These are some of the things that are, quite simply, changing the job of being an architect, urban planner, industrial designer, engineer, visual designer, web designer, knowledge manager, communications or media designer, fashion designer, researcher or educator. Design Modalities Design's modalities are also in a state of flux, its working tools of representation, communication, visualisation and imagination. Digitisation of text, sound, and still and moving image is one important site of transition. This has spawned new practices of modelling and simulation, of prefiguring the real in the virtual. It has also created the virtual as a design end-in-itself. The result is a new multimodality and synaesthesia, or the imperative to cross between modes. Designers need to able to 'do' professional design discourse, as they speak and write their way through complex collaborations with co-designers. They need to be able to 'do' visualisation as they image design alternatives and picture them into reality. They need to be able to represent spatial realities, prefiguring the three dimensional through the two dimensional and turning plans into tactile artefacts, manipulable objects, architectural spaces and navigable landscapes. Today's media inventions have become the mothers of design necessity. Nor is this innovation simply for innovation's sake. It is also for the most practical of reasons: the increasing need to document for the purposes of planning and project management, regulation and compliance, risk assessment and risk management, and project specification and contractual clarity. Design Principles So, what is this thing design? What is the design of something? And what does it mean to 'do' design. The word 'design' has this fortuitous double meaning, simultaneously describing intrinsic structure or morphology, and an act of construction. Design is inherent, whether its sources are organic, unconscious, common sense or the professional work of a 'designer'. Design in this sense is structure, form and function. Design is also an act, a process of transformation. The narrative of design runs like this: take the available designs in the world (inherent to found objects, architectures, landscapes, processes, human relationships, cultures). Then engage in the act of designing, or rework and revoice these designs. This is never just a business of reproduction and replication. It always involves an injection of the designer's social interests and cultural experiences—their subjectivity and identity, no less. The residue, as the narrative draws to a

momentary close, is the world transformed, no matter in how small a way. But the world is never quite the same again, and the redesigned is returned to the world, becoming traces of transformation that join the repertoire of available designs—new openings to new design narratives. Such a view contrasts with older understandings of design in which designers as much as the users of their designs were passive recipients or at best agents in the reproduction of received, sanctioned and authoritative design forms. This may have been appropriate for a world that set store on stability and uniformity. But today's world is a place of change and diversity. Designing, in a dynamic, transformative sense, can be enabling, even emancipatory. It is a process of changing the world. In this spirit, the International Journal of Design Principles and Practices will range from theoretical reflection on the nature of design to case studies of design practice and from research-based perspectives to the experience-based perspectives of design insiders.

Table of ContentsDesign Hermeneutic Dialogues with Graphic Design 1The Process of InterpretationLuz del Carmen Vilchis Esquivel

Interdisciplinary and Participatory Design in the Context of Healthy Schools 7Interdisciplinary working in participation: a case studyWendy Mayfield, Katie Hill

Designing for Privacy Compliance and Performance Management in Health Care 13Liam Peyton, Sepideh Ghanavati, Daniel Amyot

The Position of Concept in Landscape Design Process 27Mohsen Faizi, Mehdi Khakzand

Addressing Cultural, Social, Environmental Sustainability in Architecture 39The Approach of Five Contemporary Australian ArchitectsAdriano Paolella, Giamila Quattrone

An Application of AHP in the Selection of Fashion Trends for Specific Target Groups53

Gozde Goncu, Nigan Bayazit

An Investigation into the Nature of Resonance in Visual Communication Design 65Veronika Kelly

Form and Function in Web Design 71A Humanistic PerspeciveDenise Wood

Economic Evaluation of Design 79Siva Ram Vemuri

Crowdsourcing Creativity 87Participative Design on the InternetAlexandre Joyce

DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL,VOLUME 1, NUMBER 3, 2007

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Design Hermeneutic Dialogues with Graphic Design: The Processof InterpretationLuz del Carmen Vilchis Esquivel, CUMULUS, Mexico

Abstract: The graphic designer, in the professional methodologic process takes important decisions based in the conceptof dialogue, also the people that receives the graphic message makes an interpretation. This dialogic implications arecondicionated by semiotic situations determinated by prejudgments and contextual conditions.These dialogic events areexplained in the base of understanding the visual communication moments like a spiral dinamic movement (going far awayfrom the classical hermeneutic circle) in a sort of sequence of spheres (loading in space, like the Sloterdijk Spheres Theorythat means a contemporary way of looking at globalization). It is a new way of thinking and focusing graphic design theory,in the essence of a phylosophical point of view that makes conceptual relations considerating the design idea like a particleof the knowledge universe. This is, in this researching line, a way of open the design to humanistic world, as a compromisewith the human being and the future of visual culture.The visual language is the visual thinking vehicle, the most importantresource of graphic design because it is declarated in design expresions and makes the generation of knowledge aboutvisuality phenomenon in which the dialogue is basic as comprehension posibility condition because it allows to be close tothe essence of the communication fact and all the acts that compose the proyectual process ans design objects. These iscondicionated bay the context, the moment and the interpretation as a link with visual text. Interpretation is a phylosophicalaction, an hermeneutic action. It is presented first like a problem beside the comprehension needings. Their element are:experience –previous knowledge-, logic –organized thinking-, true pretentious- and method – thinking form-.The compre-hension is undertanded like developing, a mode of representation with the language resources of understanding and expresionvery close to dialogue completing a basic condition: “to talk from the same but not from the similar”. The cuestion, indialogue, profundizes in the totality of a nos arbitrary process, something that Heidegger named an “event” with knowingperspectives in the circle of the human-historic existence. Then the authentic sense is the extraordinary asking. Gadamer,in his hermeneutic conception, that is a Heidegger heritage, accepts facts interpretation like understanding with the guideof tradition; this is argumented in the base of language wich posibility is in the hermeneutic circle. The hermeneutic circlemeans the return to the tradition each time that we ask the meaning of something. I apply this principles to the graphicdesign process in the frame of a communication diagram that changes tha traditional ponit of view. I believe that graphicdesigners work in spiral thinking ( that´s why I make an integration of Sloterdijk Spheres theory), in front of several hermen-eutic and semiotic moments (the dialogue moments). Also the perceptor has an interpretation moment, asking and answeringto the graphic design object. This paper talks about mi research work with two disciplines: graphic design and phylosophyin specific aspects: the proyectual process and the hermeneutic thinking.

Keywords: Graphic Design, Design Hermeneutics, Design Semiotics, Graphic Design Method, Visual Communication

VISUAL LANGUAGE, A vehicle of visualthought, is the most important resource ingraphic design, its importance is declaredin the design’s expressions and in the cre-

ation of knowledge of the phenomenon of visuality,where dialogue is fundamental as a condition ofpossibility of comprehension, because it allows ap-proaching the essence of a communicative fact andthe series of events that constitute the design processand the designed objects, all of these conditioned bythe context, the moment and the interpretation aslinks to the text.Interpretation, as any philosophical act, is presen-

ted first as a problem linked to the need to compre-hend, whose elements are: experience –which implies

previous knowledge–, logic –which supposes organ-ization of the thought–, pretension of truth –under-stood as propositions that are articulated among eachother– and method –as a fundamental way of think-ing.Comprehension is understood as unconcealment,

a manner of representing whose resource of under-standing and expression is language, whose essentialcondition – dialogue – obeys a fundamental condi-tion: “to speak of the same thing through that whichis not similar…”1

The question, in dialogue, searches deeply withinthe totality of a non-arbitrary process; it is an incidentthat Heidegger named an event in which perspectivesof knowledge influence “the circle of a human-his-

1 Beda Alleman. Hölderlin and Heidegger. Fabril Editora, Argentina, 1965. (Col. Libros del Mirasol), pg. 122


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torical existence”2, where the authentic meaning isfound when the extraordinary is asked about. Ga-damer, in his conception of hermeneutics, acceptsthe interpretation of facticity, understood as compre-hension guided by the tradition and the resources oflanguage.In order for dialogue to exist, the events provide

the conditions of question and answer. This is wherethe vehicle of hermeneutics lies, where discursivepossibilities – language and tradition - becomepresent for comprehension, “a conversation is trulyaccomplished, where the other comes out to the en-counter, [this serves] for any form of approaching atext”3, which in the case of visuality, is relatedthrough perception.Visual experiences, which are satisfiers of neces-

sities, have intentionality and direction toward a stateof things, they specify paradigms, and so their con-tent equals a complete proposition in which visualperception is a relation between the mind and theworld. The intentional experience has a conscioussense, unlike the perceptual experience, which islimited to physical conditions.In graphic design, as an intentional and perceptual

experience, hermeneutic action discovers the horizonof visual text, of the interpreters that participate inthe dialogic processes of communication and thedifferent contexts of the comprehension processwhose dialogic power is generated from intersubject-ive horizons; Gadamer considers that in the dialoguethere is a medial aspect that integrates horizons (thefield of vision that includes all that is visible from aspecific point) and traditions (resulting from the fu-sion of history and comprehension).4 This is carriedout through a process that integrates the estrangementof appearances, the assumption of ignorance, theexercising of memory, the return to categories suchas essence, truth and being, and ethical practice,“displacement, trajectory, effort, movement, all thesebelonging to this idea of a conversation…”5

The design process is a conversation that involvesreciprocity as a shared knowledge and a sustainedsaying between issuer-designer, designer-internalissuer, and internal issuer-designer; the result, thevisual communication of graphic design, must bebased on intentionality and understanding. “The re-lationships between words and concepts, on the onehand, concepts and things, on the other, are notequivalent. We can call the first relationship (words-

concepts) “semantic” and the second relationship(concepts–things) “representative” […] both casesrepresent an intentional reference…”6

Dialogue in design, is the result of visual languageknowledge, and this visual language includes tech-nical mastery as well as functional rules combinedwith the conscience of what is said. The differentcodes are the resources and the sense is the back-ground of visual communication reflecting intentions,without going around the persuasive arguments7 thatthe dialogue supposes, ineludible basis of interpreta-tions.The dialogic course in the design process supposes

in addition to comprehension, a resulting efficiencyof visual communication. The excessive care of theform and the forgetting of sense provoking the lackof dialogue and increasing the loneliness of the indi-viduals, generates subjects that cannot resist advert-ising trends and accept ephemeral pseudo-myths thatdevaluate the importance of memory and the criticalspirit, and the forgetting of others predominates,falling into what Baudrillard calls “the anorexic cul-ture: a culture of disgust, of expulsion, of anthro-poemia, of rejection”8. Phenomena such as market-ing, styling, packing or the creation of an image arepractices induced by the forms of production, promo-tion and consumption that reduce or cancel the pos-sibility of communication and the conditions of dia-logue, affirms Rubert de Ventós9 who, alluding tothe visionary viewpoint of Tomás Maldonado, coin-cides on the progressive hypertrophy of the mediadue to technical, economic, and political dominantsthat are imposed according to the needs of someproductivist systems. Tomás Maldonado, declaredsince 1953:

The communicative act is carried out accordingto rules that the involved parties are familiarwith, and so the participant of a dialogue – in-tentionally performs simultaneously as an inter-preter and depends on the language in twoperspectives, the syntactic mastery and the un-derstanding of what occurs through the lan-guage, this is where the hermeneutic problemthat is immersed in the game of language lies.

The materializations of the visual language, whosemost important quality is communication, make ap-parent the following functions: they reproduce cul-

2 Martin Heidegger. Introduction to Metaphysics. Ed. Nova, Buenos Aires, 1980, pg. 453 Hans-Georg Gadamer. The Hermeneutic Circle. Cátedra, Madrid, 1995, pg. 374 Vicente Muñiz Rodríguez. Introduction to the Philosophy of Language. Ed. Anthropos, Barcelona, 1989. (Col. ATT Philosophy, 18), pg.67 and 685 Michel Foucault. The Hermeneutics of the Subject. Eds. Piqueta, Madrid, 1994, pg. 876 Alejandro Llano. The Enigma of Representations. Ed. Síntesis, Madrid, 1999. (Colección Hermeneia, 5), pg. 1257 Francisco García Olvera. Inter Alia Hermeneutics. UNAM, México, 1995, pg. 148 Gianni Vattimo. Around Postmodernity. Ed. Anthropos, Barcelona, 1989. (Col. ATT Hermeneusis, 4), pg. 27 and 289 Xavier Rubert de Ventós. Las metopías. Montesinos editor, Barcelona, 1984. pg. 83–90

DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL, VOLUME 12

turally or update traditions, they socially integratethe individuals, and they interpret the social necessit-ies of visual communication. What the interpreterlooks for is to understand. Among themost importantimplications are the object’s distance, the context’sinfluence, the suppositions, and the comprehensionprior to a communication. Habermas affirms that theinterpreter function cannot be dodged, because adeliberate dialogue and the sense that results of itcan only be understood in a process of communica-tion, which can turn into a dependence of the contextand a non-neutral interpretation.10

The visual text is a form of hermeneutic dialogue,and is presented in different discursive forms of in-tersubjectivity, which are always, in the form of un-veiling, answers to questions. This hermeneutic anddialogic relationship, with its character of theory ofcomprehension, allows understanding that the visuallanguage is a necessary mediation for approachingreality, always expressing a surplus of meaning inthe different graphic design media.Hermeneutics, and therefore interpretation, is

manifested in theories and praxis, like the actions ofa tolerant philosophy whose links with rhetoric andpersuasion presume that in every comprehensionthere is self-criticism, this is how the hermeneuticparadigm has displaced the traditional model of thetheory of knowledge by the dialogic model, pointingout to two trajectories in visual communication: avertical one that refers to identity and tradition anda horizontal one that involves the mediation of inten-tionality, the message and the means. Therefore, thegraphic design is interpretable, and if the process inwhich it is immersed were ignored, the clear under-standing of the concept that it expresses would beobstructed.The communicative function of the graphic design

as an intentional object widens its transforming capa-city, it belongs to the field of comprehension – ofboth verbal and visual languages, it is worth men-tioning, because both form part of design codes– andis expressed in the dialogic relationship between theissuer of the message and the receiver; the receiverand the communicator of the message; the commu-nicator and the one who visualizes it, as in any dia-logue, its occurrence “is analogous to a game […]to converse, dialogue, is to enter a gamewith another[…] a genuine dialogue is not directed, it is not ma-nipulated beforehand”11, the dialogue in graphicdesign is considered an event without previousagreement.My studies on the phenomena that appertain to

graphic design and regarding how designers in dif-ferent periods have seen and represented messages,

led me to affirm that every relationship with thegraphic designed object transmits an intentionalcommunication that is not exclusively perceptual, itis descriptive because the interpreter defines bound-aries and relates its characteristics, and it is explicat-ive because it fathoms its significant structures. Thus,design is understood as a carrier of form, of symboliccontents and elements of social validation.Each designed object must be comprehended un-

der the most adequate perspective: interpretation hasto do here with the hidden sense that must be re-vealed, where each graphic design object representsa comprehensible sense that needs interpretation.The graphic design objects, whose intentionality

is focused on visual communication and which areunderstood as visual texts, integrate dialogic linksbecause they present semantic spectra that requirebeing differentiated, that is, being thought, whosepossible reading is subject to the considerations ofcomprehension. It is therefore worth speaking, coin-ciding with Mauricio Beuchot, of the hermeneuticquestion in graphic design in which the main object-ive is the validation of contexting.Every question inquires an interpretative answer

accompanied by interpretative argumentation alwayslooking for comprehension, what does this designmean? What is it trying to say? Whom is it directedto? What does it tell me? Or, what does it tell menow?And other questions that have specific borders:the limits of a finished design, a design that does notallow physical nor structural modifications.Jauss12, in an attempt to analyze the horizon as an

interpretation hermeneutic resource, sends interpret-ers to the semiotic dimension, encoded in the object,and to the receptor dimension, linked to praxis. Thisway, within the frame of the reception theory, infiniteinterpretations are not possible, because the horizonforms part of the object. Jauss coincides with Ga-damer in the synchronic and diachronic forms offusion of horizons, whose experience is reflected inthe communicative behaviour expressed in specificcontexts. From this perspective, the structure of thecomprehension of the creation in graphic design isnot assimilated as a mere projection of contemporan-eity, but is manifested in the fusion of horizons wherethe external issuer, the designer, the internal issuerand the design, subjects and objects of comprehen-sion, co-belong to one another.The plotting of memory is what joins and links

the threads of previous experiences with what isperceived, and semantic universality – understoodas the capacity to transmit knowledge regardingcharacteristics, properties, places or events, present,past or future – is only possible when displacement

10 Jürgen Habermas.Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action. Ediciones Península, Barcelona, 1996, pg. 40–4211 V. Muñiz R. Op cit, pg. 7212 Wenceslao Castañares. From Interpretation to Reading. Iberoediciones, Madrid, 1994. (Col. Parteluz), pg. 73–80

3LUZ DEL CARMEN VILCHIS ESQUIVEL

is surpassed, “a message is displaced when there isno direct or immediate contact with the conditionsor events that are being referred to”13. The relation-ship between intention, representation, and the con-ditions of the actions is a part of this hermeneuticpath, and in it, intention must be self-referential, thatis, intention is not enough, it must represent thecontent, “the self-referentiality of every intention…is that which is formed in the definition of the inten-tion”14.The social and intentional character of the design

is revealed through the composition of codes of thevisual language, materialized in a complex that mustsignify something to the personwho sees it, perceivesit, and receives it. Intentionality is thus projected inthe graphic designed object, which integrates thedesigner’s previous experience, a logical and meth-odical organization of thought as well as visual pro-positions that are articulated among each other.The act of designing is the surpassing of the creat-

ive praxis because it does not look for a mere differ-ent perception of a designed object, it is a way ofrepresenting criticism and projectivity, based on theexpressive resources of visual language, whose es-sence is bound to specific dialogue moments thatsearch for the foundation of a non-arbitrary process.The process of design is, therefore, an occurrence

sustained by knowledge perspectives intentionallyand discursively integrated, directed toward specificstates of conduct in individuals. The designed objectsare visual experiences that include complete propos-itions and indicate paradigms for the thought andknowledge of the world; they implicate knowledgeand appreciation of objects, people, facts, and con-texts from specific nuclei of sense.The graphic design complies with communication

conditions because it expresses a message intention,it establishes throughmediations of the formed imageintersubjective relationships in which senders andreceivers participate. These moments can be con-sidered as spheres of signification that are flowingin a spiral and interacting in human dimensions, someof them physical and others strictly ontological, andso the interdisciplinary relationship with philosophyis essential “for pointing at the confusing heterogen-eous and desperate origin of ideas and works thatare nor attributed to the mere application of normsnor to the technical repetition of familiar models ofsearching and finding.”15

Visual language finds in hermeneutics philosoph-ical foundations that make possible the comprehen-sion of its links, it begins with a grammar that exhib-

its syntagmatic and paradigmatic conditions withwhich I refer to its margins of univocity and equivoc-ality and to the possibilities of analogical interpreta-tion. Likewise, its media diversity propitiates hori-zons that delimitate its communicative conditionsexpressed in specific contexts.More than three decades ago, Christian Metz16

referred to the iconicity of the image as its analogicalstatus, indicating its perceptual similarities with therepresented objects, understanding that the imagenever constituted an autonomous and self-referringambit, with no communicationwith the environment.Studying design in those times meant establishingthe system concepts of the image, unique and total,which constituted an inventory based on logicalformalizations, which is impossible because visualanalogy cannot be based on logical iconography, norcan its variables be quantitative, on the contrary, itaccepts qualitative variants such as the chromaticschemes of iconicity that depend on cultural aspectsand on the fixation of memories respectively, andmost importantly, it is not possible to speak generic-ally of visual images, because different materializa-tions can be distinguished that suppose mixed texts:photography, film or design, among others.In the same way, there are images that have their

own codes and others that refer to compositionsconditioned by an explicit manifestation and whichposses codes that specify and explain them. Thus, atsome point, the courses of image comprehension di-versified: those that alluded to the iconography issue(Panofsky), those that presented superimposed codesin a single image (Eco) and those that could be clas-sified according to socio-cultural stratifications(Francastel, Roland Barthes, Pierre Bourdieu, etc).These have been the conceptual determinants to

approach image, and surely, in some cases, thesedeterminants have been correct in regards to theirassessment of it. However, nowadays, graphic designhas been established as a field of knowledge depend-ant on the concepts of visual communication, fromwhich one can argue the intertextual nature of thedesign and its definition as a visual text, a complexof signs whose sense depends on their interpretationcontext.The design is studied, in the form of visual text,

in terms of the network of signification to which itbelongs, mediated by conditions and moments ofinterpretation, that is,moments of defined dialogues:first by the expression of the message and the dia-logue that the designer establishes from his own ex-perience, individual expectations and personal visual

13 Francisco Conesa and Jaime Nubiola. The Philosophy of Language. Ed. Herder, Barcelona, 1999. (Col. Filosofía del lenguaje), pg. 2314 Marcelo Dascal (ed.). The Philosophy of Language II. Pragmática. Ed. Trotta, Madrid, 1999. (Col. EIAF, 18), pg. 4115 Peter Sloterdijk. Spheres I. Bubbles. Microesferología. 2ª ed. Siruela, Madrid, 2003. (Biblioteca de Ensayo, 24), pg. 3716 Christian Metz, « Au-delá de l´analogie, l´image » en Communications. École de Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales. París, 1970. (Col.SEUIL, 15), pg. 1-10


memory, in which hierarchy is given to the natureof the main text and its subtexts, this way initiatingthe message semiotization; second, by the genericdeterminants, where the designer once again fuseshis own horizons with the horizon of media determ-inants that condition the syntactic relations and theirpossible rhetoric dimensions in the materializationof the design; last, the effects that the structure ofthe visual text, through the internal issuer of thecommunication, produces on the preceptor, wherecontextual elements such as external and symbolicanchorages or the cultural memory of individuals,open interpretation parameters.Each of these moments is dialogic because, in

addition to involving the subject, the subject conductsa reflection about the object; in this hermeneuticcontext, the analogical character of the dialogue isexpressed in the visual rhetoric which, in its qualityof analogical argumentation, shapes the sense of thediscourse and maintains the dialogicity, withoutforgetting that every dialogue involves psychologicaland ethical assumptions, to avoid sophism. This isthe challenge of the future horizon of design and anobject of studies to come.Graphic design in Mexico is considered in many

corners of Europe and the United States as a fragmentto which its own current cultural identity, other thanthat of pre-Columbian civilization, which is extinctor turned into intellectual or commercial folklore, isdenied.Suffice it to say that Mexican design has not been

an object of researchers’ attention, because there iscertainly a Mexican design quite distinguishablefrom the North American or European, if that meanssomething.In our country, except for the author’s design,

which is reduced to a minimal horizon, and somemonographic researches in the late 20th century,Mexican design has remained ignored, except forpublished studies in which it is not clear whether thedesign is Mexican, or European or North Americanmade by Mexicans, because the work of someMex-ican designers is always under suspicion of beingnothing but a reproduction, diffusion or vulgarizationof the dominant trends in other geographic spaces.If, as some philosophers affirm, only cultures that

are myth-rich generate their own forms of visual

thought, then in the destruction of myths in whichour world-view as consequence of the conquest ismanifested, lies the first explanation of the inexist-ence of a Mexican design. Our public and privatespheres are imposed and alien, adapted to a worldthat we do not know, and which prevents us fromvisualizing ourselves in a world, condemned to sur-viving in the silence of resistance. The new mythsare from spheres that are foreign, transplanted, un-linked to our own roots, which prevent a nationalimagery from flourishing.Only an observing eye, with universal design cri-

teria, like Ikko Tanaka’s, was able to comprehendand explain interpreting elements of Mexicangraphic design: first, the colour, distinguishing red,green and orange, followed by the syncretic and ec-lectic form, whose syntax leads to a carefree andjoyful communication that does not loose its humanwarmth. Tanaka, conceding space to hermeneutics,recommended that the new generations not cease tointerpret their own culture in a world that tends tobeing more and more the same, “without a personalculture, -affirms the designer – there is no personalidentity”.Interpretation must help the graphic designer to

see himself immersed in globalization from its con-text, and conceive the design, promoting an approachto analogical hermeneutic proposals whose concep-tion of man understands that there is something uni-versal, common and general in him which he shareswith the rest of the men and the rest of the cultures,in permanent dynamic with what is differential, thatwhich every culture and every individual has as hisown, because “among the effects of globalizations,the fact that stands out is that globalization hasraised to new norm what is anthropologically mostimprobable: the unceasing counting on those whoare far, those who are strangers to one’s recept-acle.”17 This way, it is possible to express a specificlanguage that would emerge by itself from the deepdialogue with the origins, history, and complexitiesof one’s geographic sphere, with the mediation ofthe material, technical and technological sphere, andthe expressive sphere of the internal issuer of thedesign.

About the AuthorPhD. Luz del Carmen Vilchis EsquivelProfessor in Posgraduate Program of National School of Visual Arts in National Autonomous University ofMexico. Pioneer in Mexico using digital resources in arts and design. First woman director of National Schoolof Visual Arts at UNAM (2002-2006), has published four books about Graphic Design Theory, Graphic DesignMetodology, Non-linear languages semiotics and Graphic Design Hermeneutics, 32 research papers and 18 di-

17 Peter Sloterdijk. Spheres II. Globes. Macroesferología. Siruela, Madrid, 2004. (Biblioteca de ensayo, 34), pg 854

5LUZ DEL CARMEN VILCHIS ESQUIVEL

dactic manuals. Manager from two diferent firms: a technologic center and a graphic design place. Teacherduring 30 years, is oficial tutor from postgraduate program in the lines of researching projects, semiotic andhermeneutic studies; participating in academic events in Mexico, Dominicana Republic, USA, Canada, Greece,Spain, Cuba, Peru, Holland, Uruguay, Argentina, Germany and Prtugal and presentating conferences inMexico,Panama, Cuba, Spain, USA, Lisbon and other countries; also, being advisor thesis frommore than 120 researchingstudent thesis works in different universities. Professional graphic designer, working in Mexico, USA andCanada in firms like BMG Entertainment, Environmental Law Institute or UNESCO in traditional and digitalway. Visual artist, has exposed digital art, collage and visual poetry in more than 30 exhibitions in Mexico,Panama, USA, Rusia, Spain, France, Greece, Palestine and Frankfurt.


Interdisciplinary and Participatory Design in the Context of HealthySchools: Interdisciplinary working in participation: a case studyWendy Mayfield, Leeds Metropolitan University, West Yorkshire, UKKatie Hill, Leeds Metropolitan University, West Yorkshire, UK

Abstract: One of the overarching conclusions of the DH/DfES Food in Schools program was the need for a ‘whole school’approach (www.foodinschools.org) in order to facilitate healthy eating choices in UK school dining facilities. This is furtherreinforced by the participation theory literature and by examples in the media of recent pupil resistance to imposed change.For such an approach to be successful participation and interdisciplinary working is key. From our own involvement in theFood in Schools’ regional Dining Room Environment pilot project, we identified the potential for fruitful cross disciplinaryworking involving Health Promotion and Design experts and encountered some interesting issues that are raised by inter-disciplinary working. This paper reflects on the necessity for interdisciplinary working in the context of a holistic approachto participatory design processes, and the issues that this raises in an academic context. It raises the questions of how thismight model interdisciplinary and participatory relationships in practice and questions issues of longevity and transferab-ility of the benefits seen in participatory design projects.

Keywords: Participatory design, Interdisciplinary collaboration, Health promotion and Design, Healthy Schools, Diningroom environments

Interdisciplinaryworking in participation:a case study

THE INCREASING INTEREST in the UKfor activities which include such things asgrass roots initiatives, citizenship, partner-ships and community participation cheerfully

begins to blur the traditional boundaries between thedisciplines, professionals and non professionals, andthe roles involved.This paper has provided an opportunity for the

authors to reflect on their own position and to ques-tion the power relationships between stakeholdersinvolved in participatory design activities. In partic-ular, we are curious as to how power is negotiatedbetween those players identified as having a profes-sional input and the non professional players andalso between professionals who represent differentdisciplines. In Arnstien’s terms(1969), how canpower be negotiated such that all participants can beengaged wearing their respective hats firmly on theirheads? Furthermore, how does the locus of poweraffect the success of the outcomes and the longevityof those outcomes?The regional DH/ DfES Dining Room Environ-

ment project, which provides the back ground forthese reflections, is of interest for the processes ofparticipation as much as for the outcomes of theprojects. In brief, 10 schools (five primary, 5 second-ary) were supported in creating school committees,typically consisting of a lead teacher, students,

teachers, catering staff, catering management, localbusiness, Healthy schools coordinators and 5 A Dayworkers. These committees were charged withidentifying the particular circumstances of eachschool’s dining room, the developments requiredandwith overseeing the implementation of refurbish-ments.The regional project was managed by North

Yorkshire Business and Education Partnership(NYBEP) who advised and guided the school com-mittees, distributed project funding and carried outthe evaluations.Due to limited funding and physical constraints,

the refurbishments carried out were, on the whole,relatively modest in design terms, costing just over£17,000 on average and typically consisting of suchthings as: decoration, repair and maintenance; cash-less payment systems; replacement of furniture,crockery and utensils; information and signage; glareand temperature control; music systems; noiseabatement, healthy choice vending machines andimprovements to clear away systems and servingareas.Despite the relatively modest interventions,

NYBEP’s evaluation deemed the refurbishments tohave resulted in significant benefits including im-proved queuing and through flow; increased uptakeof school meals & healthy options; improvedawareness & knowledge of healthy eating; improvedbehaviour; increased numbers of staff using dining


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environment and improved levels of satisfactionwiththe environment.In addition to evaluating the environmental and

behavioural changes, NYBEP’s summary report(2004) contains a number of references to the import-ance of the processes followed, in particular collab-oration, collective planning and the embedding ofpolicies and approaches across the school:

“the improvements had come about as much asa result of the energy and shared enthusiasmgenerated by the planning/ design process asby the physical changes themselves”the project had “become a learning project inits own right” and had acted as a catalyst forthe beginning of a “change in culture”

This recognition of a whole school approach is fur-ther echoed in national guidelines (www.foodinscho ols.org, www.bsf-culture. c o.uk) drawing on thisand other projects.It makes sense that any initiative, if embedded in

an organization’s mainstream functions and activit-ies, has a greater chance of being sustained beyondthe original project and is less vulnerable to change,particularly of personnel, over time. In the case ofthe Food in Schools Dining Room programme, partof this embedding came from the involvement of awide range of participants and the collaborative workdone by the school committees. By creating a culturewhereby the input of all stakeholders, notably thatof the pupils, was valued equally there was a sharedsense of ownership which was then embeddedwithinthe stakeholders’ respective remits.If, as NYBEP claims in its report, the schools’

involvement in the DH/ DfES project has led tofundamental cultural changes and ownership of thehealthy food policies by a range of stakeholders, itis anticipated that the benefits identified in the eval-uation should have longevity. Now that the diningroommakeovers have been in place for just over one

full academic year, DesignLeeds is seeking fundingand the opportunity to test this theory, post occu-pancy, in a selection of the school dining rooms.However, this line of thinking also suggests that

the benefits of the physical refurbishments are notin themselves directly transferable to other school’senvironments or cultures since they are dependanton local circumstances and the local processes ofcollaboration, participation and shared ownership.Inevitably, this further leads us to question the relev-ance and value of best practice approaches, especiallyif used in isolation and within a prescriptive frame-work.It is the nature of these collaborations and the dy-

namics of participation that leads us to question thepower relations (real and perceived) between parti-cipants – notably those between professionals andnon professionals, and those between professionalsfrom different disciplines.Collaboration on the School Dining Room project

highlighted a number of areas of similarity betweenHealth Promotion and Design practices, both discip-lines being represented on the regional steeringgroup, along side others.Both the Health Promotion and Design disciplines

consider the characteristics and needs of diversepopulations and individuals within those populations.In the case of the Dining Room project considerationwas made of differing user groups (such as pupils,teaching and support staff, caterers and suppliers),who are within themselves diverse, differing schoollocations (geographical and social) and differingphysical and organisational characteristics.Both disciplines recognise the impact of the physicaland social environment on people’s behaviour andhealth choices, therefore the need to understand and,where necessary, to modify the external forces.Health promotion can identify the behavioural impactof poor environments and the need for change, whiledesign can provide the creative solutions for bringingabout the desired physical changes:


Model of Synergy between Health Promotion and Design

Shared Aim tofacilitate posit-ive change in

Addresses all aspects of clients lives as factorsaffecting health

Health Pro-motion

Holistic

Recognises the impact of individual & context asaffecting interactions with artefacts

Designbehavior & ex-

perienceWorks in collaboration with & knowledge fromrelated disciplines & delivery mechanisms

Health Pro-motion

Inter-disciplinarity

Works in collaboration with & knowledge fromall disciplines relevant to the project & its delivery

Design

Focus on health of targeted group rather thanagents of delivery/management

Health Pro-motion

Client/User centred

Design specifically for the needs of the end user,not necessarily intermediaries

Design

Consideration of needs of clients from all back-grounds and social situations

Health Pro-motion

Inclusive

Design for access and usability by all potentialusers

Design

Works to enable rather than problematising theindividual

Health Pro-motion

Social models

Works to alter the environment rather than theindividual

Design

Coordinates provision from key stakeholdersaround clients’ needs

Health Pro-motion

Broker/Facilitator role

Collates & addresses needs of key stakeholdersthrough design outcome

Design

In the professional environment both designers andhealth promoters work in multidisciplinary environ-ments: health promoters work with other healthpractitioners, nurses and doctors, educators, policymakers; designers work with engineers, manufactur-ers, marketers. As professionals both are open tocross disciplinary working, although as with all pro-fessional situations, limited time and funding maybe a barrier to collaboration.Such similarities in both philosophy and practice

led us to believe that interdisciplinary working withdesign and health promotion would be easy. Follow-ing the shared experience of the Dining RoomEnvir-onment project, we collaboratively reflected on thesynergies in the expectation that the knowledge andapproaches of the two disciplines would neatlydovetail and create a strong approach to problemssuch as healthy eating in schools. However we reallystruggled to find a common language.Both health promotion and design, as with all

disciplines, have their own traditions and ‘unwrittenrules’ when it comes to communication andwe foundit difficult to produce something that would be ac-cessible and acceptable in both professional areas.One simple example came about from comparingthe publication guidelines for Health Promotion andDesign journals. The latter frequently accept, if not

encourage, the use of images and diagrams to supporttext whereas the Health Promotion publicationguidelines tend to eschew them.We have become interested in what this means

for communication between disciplines in general,as good communication is vital for good interdiscip-linary and participatory relationships.By communication, we do not mean purely written

and spoken language, but also visual communication,genre, modes of communication, settings for commu-nication.The whole school, or holistic, approach to change

which is necessarily interdisciplinary involves a webof relationships between different stake holders.Through our work with health promotion we havebecome focused on the relationships between profes-sionals from different disciplines, and we would alsolike to consider this in relation to the relationshipsbetween professional participants and non-profession-al participants (could also be referred to as users).The understanding that we have developed is this.All relationships in a participatory web of relation-

ships involve compromise. In relationships betweendifferent professionals there is no natural hierarchy,both parties in the relationship have accepted equallevels of expertise, and the compromise must come

9WENDY MAYFIELD, KATIE HILL

from both sides, or neither (and the relationship stopsworking).In relationships between professionals and non-

professional participants there is an existing hier-archy that favours the professional as an expert, andthe non-professional as in-expert. What we see hap-pening here is the problematising of the non-profes-sional, that the compromise mainly falls on them asthey are in the less powerful position. Collaborationsof this naturemight commonly feature the profession-al participants educating, persuading and advisingthe non professionals and, in terms of Arnstein’smodel of participation (fig 3), creates an illusionaryform of participation: “Their real objective is not toenable people to participate in planning or conductingprograms, but to enable powerholders to "educate"or "cure" the participants (Arnstein, 1969).This combination of hierarchy, compromise and

the resulting tension dictates the position of theserelationships on the lower, non participatory rungsof the ladder of participation and is self limiting.This is not to deny the benefits of some forms of

knowledge, and indeed skill, transfer – rather toquestion who decides what and how much is trans-ferred and in which direction(s). There is, perhaps,a continuum from at one extreme the presentationof simplified factual information without the oppor-tunity to challenge or discuss that information (as inthe case of nutritional information, below), throughcase study or best practice approaches, guidelinesand recommendations of varying detail to processeswhere non professional participants are not so muchtaught information as learn new tools through whichthey can themselves explore issues and potentialoutcomes within their own specific contexts.It is suggested that the more limited and uni-direc-

tional the transfer of knowledge and skills is, the lesslikely the outcomes are to be innovative or even ap-propriate to local circumstances. Best practice ap-proaches can be extremely useful as catalysts andguidelines but only if the circumstances are suffi-ciently similar. Where there is significant difference,best practice models are of limited use without anappreciation of why they work and without the toolsto modify the model appropriately.At the more prescriptive end of this continuum

the locus of power is largely retained by the profes-sional since it is they who decides the context, aimsand scope of any activity, transferring to the nonprofessional only that information necessary for thereto be a shared vocabulary and where any debate iscontained within a predetermined context.An inspiring example involving young people at

themore democratic end of this suggested continuumis that presented by the work of Kellett (2004), ClarkandMoss (2001) whereby even very young childrendevelop the knowledge and skills necessary to carry

out independent research. Kellett argues that thework of the child researcher adds to the body ofknowledge about children and childhood from agenuine child perspective:

“Undoubtedly many adults have greater know-ledge than many children in many areas of lifebut with regard to childhood itself – in the senseof what it is like to be a child – it is childrenwho have expert knowledge, even if their voiceshave been ‘muted’ …” (Kellett, 2004)

Kellett further proposes extending this recognitionof the child expert beyond the collection and analysisof data (toward an adult constructed tenet) to theinitiation of the research question(s), since it is theywho know the issues of relevance and importanceand should therefore be empowered by setting theagenda in the first place.Transfer of knowledge and skills therefore needs

to be a two way process. Ultimately, it is the nonprofessional end user who is ‘expert’, albeit often asa result of tacit knowledge, having detailed under-standing of user needs, preferences, behaviour andwho has the better insight as to the acceptability andlikely success of any proposals for change. In thecase of the School Dining Room project it was thepupils’ tacit knowledge, based on first hand experi-ence of using the environments, which identifiedmany of the problems with queuing and the time re-quired as being behind many students’ dissatisfac-tion, to the point of not using the school dining roomsin many cases. It was they who understood and couldcommunicate the relationships between differentyear groups, the physical and organisational factorsthat enabled bullying to occur and they who couldpropose solutions.Recent media coverage of the introduction of

healthy menus in schools acts as an illustration of aless than participatory approach, and the possibleconsequences. In the so called Battle of Rawmarsh,the Guardian quotes school head, John Lambert, assaying that “… our policy is to explain & persuade”and one of the petition organisers challenging thechanges as saying that “the school didn’t have thedecency to ask either parents or pupils what wethought about the idea … we would have liked avote” and that “this isn’t about us against healthyeating … its about how people change the rules”(Wainwight, 2006).A similar scenario - in that it involves food and

power tensions between children and authority fig-ures – is played out in Allison James’ Confections,Concoctions & Conceptions (1979). In her paperJames explains the significance of kets (child orient-ated, pocket money sweets) as an alternative systemof meaning to the world of ‘real’ food and throughwhich children establish their own integrity & define


the self … what adults despise, children invest withprestige. Children have a vested interest in assertingtheir own identity and, with limited powers at theirdisposal, use kets to invert and contradict the accep-ted adult order.The lesson here, perhaps, is that unnecessary re-

tention of power in participatory processes may notonly lead to limited successes, but to outright obstruc-tion or subversion of the process.In conclusion, it is our belief that truly participat-

ory processes require the overt recognition of allparticipants contributing their particular expertise –be they professionals of whatever discipline orcommunity participants - and that corollaries for thisrecognition concern use of language, mode and set-ting for communications. Failure to do so not onlyrisks omission of important knowledge, tacit or oth-erwise, but also limits the willingness and ability ofstakeholders to participate fully, the degree to whichchange is embedded in the culture and consequentlythe success of both process and outcome.

Professionals need to reconsider the dynamics ofpower in participatory processes such that all stake-holders arrive “… with hat on head instead of inhand." (Arnstein, 1969).TheDesignLeeds research team at LeedsMet have

long been involved in social design and are nowmoreexplicitly addressing the concept of participation inthe design process. As part of this the group recog-nises the need to understand the implications for thechanging role of designers and to better understandthe processes of participation, including the brokeringof power relations and the effects these have onoutcomes.In relation to the dining environment, we are

hoping to be able revisit the schools involved in thisproject to re evaluate the environments now thatthey’ve been installed for at least a year, to considerthe longevity of the benefits identified in the finalreport and the transferability of those benefits to‘new’ users not involved in the original project.

ReferencesArnstein, S. R. A (1969) Ladder of Citizen Participation Journal of the American planning Association, Vol. 35, No. 4, July

1969, pp. 216-224.Bsf – culture bsf culture imagine what we can do together [internet], Leeds, Yorkshire Culture. Available from: <www.bsf-

cultu r e.co.uk> Accessed [26 January 2007]Clark A., Moss P. (2001) Listening to young children: the mosaic approach National Children’s Bureau: LondonDfES/ DH (2005) Food in Schools [internet], London, DfES/ DH. Available from: < www.foodinschools.org > Accessed

[26 January 2007]James, A 1979) Confections, Concoctions and Conceptions, Journal of the Anthropological Society of Oxford, Vol.X, 2:83-

95Kellett M., Forrest R., Dent N., Ward, S. (2004) Just teach us the skills please, we’ll do the rest: empowering ten year olds

as active researchers Children & Society, Vol. 18 pp329 – 343NYBEP (2004) Food in Schools – The Dining Room Environment Project unpublished report to Department of Health,

LeedsWainwright, M. (2006) The Battle of Rawmarsh. The Guardian, 20 September 2006

About the AuthorsWendy MayfieldLeeds Metropolitan University, UK

Katie HillLeeds Metropolitan University, UK

11WENDY MAYFIELD, KATIE HILL

http://www.foodinschools.org/

Designing for Privacy Compliance and Performance Managementin Health CareLiam Peyton, University of Ottawa, Ontario, CanadaSepideh Ghanavati, University of Ottawa, Ontario, CanadaDaniel Amyot, University of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

Abstract: Hospitals aim to improve quality of care and ensure cost effectiveness in the health care services they provide.To achieve these goals, hospitals are increasingly building data warehouses where they collect data related to their businessprocesses in order to monitor and analyze their processes for providing health care. However, such data often includes in-formation of a sensitive nature which means that the design of access mechanisms and interfaces must comply with ethicalguidelines and privacy legislation. Indeed, to protect privacy and confidentiality, various legislations and laws have beenestablished which hospitals have to comply with. This paper describes a case study at a large teaching hospital in which asystematic approach to designing on-line access to data warehouses has been investigated and prototyped that addressesthe issues of both privacy compliance and effective performance management. The design approach leverages explicitlymodeled links to legal documentation, business processes, and dimensionally modeled data marts from within a frameworkof requirements models built using User Requirements Notation (URN). Preliminary results from the case study indicatethat the approach shows promise for integrating privacy compliance and performance management into the design of healthcare systems.

Keywords: Health Care, Privacy Compliance, Performance Management, Requirements Engineering, Business Process,PHIPA, URN, GRL, UCM

Introduction

HOSPITALS AIM TO improve quality ofcare and ensure cost effectiveness in thehealth care services they provide. Toachieve these goals, hospitals are increas-

ingly building data warehouses where they collectdata related to their business processes in order tomonitor and analyze their processes for providinghealth care. The design of a data warehouse is non-trivial. The design of the access mechanisms andinterfaces for end users is often especially problem-atic but is critical to enable effective performancemanagement of hospital processes. In addition, thedata in such data warehouses includes informationof a sensitive nature which means that the design ofaccess mechanisms and interfaces must comply withethical guidelines and privacy legislation.This paper describes a case study at a large teach-

ing hospital in which a systematic approach todesigning on-line access to data warehouses has beeninvestigated and prototyped that addresses the issuesof both privacy compliance and effective perform-ance management. The essential elements of thedesign approach are:

• Requirements models, using the User Require-ments Notation (URN), that define businessprocesses, tasks, actors and goals.

• Explicit links from requirements models to doc-umentation of hospital policy, ethical guidelinesand privacy legislation to track compliance.

• Dimensionally modeled data marts that create aview and collection of reports linked to specificsets of business processes, tasks, actors and goalsin a requirements model.

Preliminary results from the case study indicatethat the approach shows promise to be effective indesigning access mechanisms and interfaces to thedata warehouse that are both more effective in sup-porting performance management in the hospital,and more efficient in ensuring that access to thewarehouse is compliant with ethical guidelines andprivacy legislation.

Background

Personal Health Information Privacy Act(PHIPA)The case study was done at a major teaching hospitalin Ontario, Canada, where the applicable privacy le-gislation is the Personal Health Information PrivacyAct (PHIPA) [16]. PHIPA specifies the legal respons-ibilities of Health Information Custodians (HIC) interms of how they are to handle personal health in-formation (PHI). This act was passed by the Province


http://www.Design-Journal.com, ISSN 1833-1874© Common Ground, Liam Peyton, Sepideh Ghanavati, Daniel Amyot, All Rights Reserved, Permissions: [email protected]

of Ontario in 2004. PHIPA aims to protect privacyand confidentiality of personal health informationwhile establishing a set of rules for the collection,use and disclosure of that information. PHIPA is le-gislation specific to healthcare in Ontario, but it ex-ists within the framework of the federal PersonalInformation Protection and Electronic Documents(PIPEDA) act [17]. PIPEDA has been recognizedby the European Commission as being compliantwith the European Union’s Prime Directive on Pri-vacy and Electronic Communication [6]. In theUnited States, there is similar legislation for health-care in the form of the Health Insurance Portabilityand Accountability Act (HIPAA) [9].

User Requirements Notation (URN)The User Requirements Notation is a draft ITU-Tstandard that combines goals and scenarios in order

to help capture, model and analyze user requirementsin the early stages of design [10]. It can be appliedto describe most kinds of reactive and distributedsystems as well as business processes. URN is com-posed of two complementary notations: Goal-ori-ented Requirement Language (GRL) and Use CaseMaps (UCM). These notations together connect goalsand business processes.GRL is composed of concepts such as goals, soft-

goals (which can never be fully satisfied), and tasks(solutions) which collectively are called intentionalelements. Such elements can contribute positivelyor negatively to each other in an AND/OR graph. Inaddition, they can be associated to actors, who mayhave conflicting concerns. See Figure 1 for an over-view of the notation.

Figure 1: Subset of GRL Notation

UCM is used tomodel business processes and systembehavior in terms of related scenarios and use cases.As illustrated in Figure 2, scenario paths connectstart points (preconditions and triggering events),end points (post-conditions and resulting events),and responsibilities. Responsibilities indicate where

actions, transformations, or processing is required.They can be performed in sequence, concurrently(using AND-forks and AND-joins) or as alternatives(with guarded OR-fork and OR-join).

Figure 2 : Subset of UCM Notation

Complex scenario maps can be decomposed usingpath elements called stubs. Sub-maps in stubs arecalled plug-in maps. Stubs have identified input andoutput segments that can be connected to the startpoints and end points in the plug-in, hence ensuringscenario continuity across various levels of details.Stubs can be defined as static or dynamic. Dynamicstubs are used to specify alternative maps in onelocation. The path elements (and especially respons-

ibilities) can be allocated to components, which canrepresent actors, roles, software modules, sub-sys-tems, etc. Components can also be decomposed re-cursively with sub-components. More details onURN (GRL and UCM) are provided in [1].


Performance ManagementBusiness performance management (BPM) enablesan organization to understand the status of businessprocesses across the business and its informationtechnology, in context against goals and trends inorder to improve business operations [11]. BPM isoften used to enable specific management initiatives[21] like balanced scorecard, Total QualityManage-ment, Six Sigma, and Sarbanes-Oxley. Enterpriseperformancemanagement systems that support BPMprovide services to track, manage and report on datacollected from across the organization’s businessoperations into enterprise-wide data warehouses anddata marts.A data warehouse is a subject-oriented, integrated,

time-variant, non-volatile collection of informationthat is optimized for monitoring and analysis insupport of management’s decision-making processes[13]. Hospitals have been slower to adopt suchtechnology than private enterprise, but it is now anactive focus area [4]. Typically, the user interfacefor accessing the reporting, monitoring, and analysisfunctionality of the performancemanagement systemis a browser-based “portal”. This portal view can becustomized for each user to define their particularbusiness view of enterprise data and highlight theindividual reports and analyses that are most relevantto them.

Tool SupportURN models are built using the Eclipse-basedjUCMNav tool [18]. jUCMNav also supports theexport of URN models [12] to Telelogic DOORS[20], a requirements management system, which isused to link the diagrams to other documents andrequirements (e.g., privacy legislation and hospitalpolicies) . In our approach, we will use DOORS totrack compliance between models of the hospitalbusiness processes andmodels of the legislation. Thedimensionally modeled data marts and performancemanagement portal and reports were built using theCognos 8 Business Intelligence suite of products [5].

Related WorkAn approach to analyzing business processes andlinking them to performance management reportingrelated to quality of care metrics is presented in [19].Our work takes this further, leveraging the URNstandard and incorporating explicit links to compli-ance documents and data mart models. A full treat-ment of how to leverage URN for business processmonitoring is given in [15]. Work has also been donein [8] to investigate how performance managementreports can be linked to improvements in health carebusiness processes.

In [22], the authors use URN to model supplychain management and illustrate how URN can beeffective in modeling business processes and goalswhile still permitting stakeholders to participate inthe modeling process. URN has been specificallyapplied to requirements engineering for health inform-ation systems in [14]. Modeling legislation is not anew problem and there has been work to automatic-ally extract requirements models from text. For in-stance, Breaux et al. describe how to apply semanticparameterization to HIPAA Privacy Rules to extractrights and obligations from HIPAA text [3]. Genericgoal and scenario models for privacy laws that couldbe used as patterns to kick start this process in mul-tiple environments (PHIPA, HIPPA, PIPEDA, U.S.Sarbanes-Oxley Act, etc.), would also be useful aswas done for the software architecture domain [2].

Case StudyIn this paper, we focus on a major teaching hospitalin Ontario as a case study. This hospital is interestedin improving the effectiveness and the efficiency ofits health care and its support of health services re-search. Its plan for achieving these goals is to makeits data more readily accessible to its stakeholders,including doctors, researchers, other hospitals, andpatients, through the creation of a large data ware-house containing millions of data records. However,due to the existence of ethical guidelines and legisla-tion protecting the use of health information, thehospital has established policies and paper-basedprocedures to grant access to its data warehouse.We will first explain in general terms the design

approach and methodology that was taken in ap-proaching the case study at this hospital. Then, wewill illustrate the results of our investigation withsome example prototypes that have been built andreviewedwith a steering committee of key stakehold-ers. These consist of a re-factored on-line approvalprocess for gaining access to the data warehouse, aswell as a series of performance management portalsand dashboards that were built.

Design Approach and MethodologyThe key components of our design approach arediagrammed in Figure 3. The design methodologyis model-driven, but focuses on driving design witha comprehensive set of requirements models thatcapture at a very high level the goals, tasks, and act-ors at the hospital in providing health care as wellas linking or more precisely aligning that high levelview with detailed business processes that are inten-ded to achieve the goals of the organization. The re-quirements models are central, and are linked to:

15LIAM PEYTON, SEPIDEH GHANAVATI, DANIEL AMYOT

• the implemented business processes of the hos-pital;

• the source legislation and policy documents usedto manage privacy compliance;

• the dimensional data mart models of the data andmetrics used for performancemanagement report-ing;

Figure 3 : Leveraging Models in Designing for Compliance and Performance Management

End users in the hospital are direct participants inhospital business processes, and interact with systemsthat support them including systems that provideperformance management reporting. This is suppor-ted by a data warehouse infrastructure that collectsfrom many different operational data sources anddepartments in the hospital to create a comprehensiveintegrated data view of the results achieved acrossthe hospital as a whole. By using models to integrateand link business processes to reporting, legislationand policy documents, it should be possible to designbusiness processes and systems that better supportcompliance tracking and performance managementalignment.

Tracking Privacy ComplianceA high-level overview of our model-based approachto privacy compliance is given in Figure 4. TwoURN models are created. One captures the essenceof the privacy legislation with a goal model. Thismodel is independent of the organizations that desire

to comply with it and, given the scarcity of operation-al details in such legislation, it does not prescribe abusiness process. The other URN model includes aGRL view capturing the goals of the Health Inform-ation Custodian’s policies and procedures, and aUCM view describing the associated business pro-cess in place. Health Information Custodian (HIC)is the term used in the PHIPA privacy legislationwhich would refer to hospital in our case study.On the left side of Figure 4, there are the require-

ments of the HIC described in terms of "source" linksfrom policies and procedure documents to GRL ele-ments (Goals, Tasks, and Actors) and UCM elements(Business Processes). In addition, "responsibility"links exist between the GRL andUCMelements. Onthe right hand side, there are the requirements ofprivacy legislation in terms of "source" links fromthe law and related legislative documents to the cor-responding GRL elements. More details on howpolicies, procedures and laws are encoded as goalsand scenarios can be found in [3,7].


Figure 4: Compliance Framework

To establish and track compliance of the HIC withprivacy legislation, three link sets have been identi-fied:

1. Traceability Links are links between GRL ele-ments that model the health information custodi-an and GRL elements that model privacy legis-lation documents. These links have to be createdmanually. However establishing these links isusually not difficult since the two models areexpressed at similar levels of abstraction anduse similar concepts.

2. Compliance Links are links between GRL ele-ments of the health information custodian andthe actual text of the law and legislative docu-ments. Some of these links can be createdmanually while others can be inferred automat-ically from previously created links, by transit-ivity.

3. Responsibility Links are links between UCMelements of the health information custodianand GRL elements of the model privacy legisla-tion. Again, some of the links are manualwhereas others are automatic.

Performance Management AlignmentThe requirements models use GRL and UCM ele-ments to link the goals of the organization to businessprocesses that attempt to realize them. To achievefull alignment between implemented processes andgoals, however, we also need to capture how thosebusiness processes will be measured in order toquantify the level of success that has been achievedtowards goals. In Figure 5, we show the linkage ofgoals to the dimensional data model that is definedin creating a data mart to support performance man-agement reporting. In a dimensional data model, thedimensions within a hospital along which perform-ance will be measured are identified.The time dimension enables performance to be

tracked over time and is typically broken down intoa hierarchy of days, months, quarters, years. In somecases, it may be required to also specify hours oreven minutes in the time dimension. At the hospital,one usually also measures performance along thedimensions of location (beds, units, and hospitalcampus), organization (physician, department, divi-sion) and patient. Other dimensions are also possible.The patient dimension requires special treatment andmay sometimes need to be omitted since it containsattributes that if returned may compromise privacy.


Figure 5 : Mapping Requirements to Dimensional Data Marts

The fact table is central to the dimensional model.This type of model is often referred to as a starschema with a central table of facts linked to tablescorresponding to the dimensions. In the fact table,there is a row at the lowest level of granularity foreach event in a business process. The columns ofattributes of the fact table define the measures orvalues that are collected to quantify or measure theevent. They could be measuring everything from thecost associated with the event, to the amount of timetaken, to an indicator of the success of the event oreven a subjective measure like the relative happinessof the patient or physician with the outcome.The links from the requirements model to the di-

mensional data mart allow the designer of businessprocesses and supporting systems to identify whichdata marts and what types of facts and attributes willbe used to quantify event-based results for perform-ance management purposes.

Re-factoring the Design of the ApprovalProcessOne of the first investigations done in our case studywas to see if the existing paper-basedmanual approv-

al process for obtaining access to the data in the datawarehouse could be improved. It was generallyviewed as a very slow and arduous process that waslimiting use of the data warehouse. In some in-stances, it could take weeks with several iterationsof the process before access to the requested data inthe data warehouse could be obtained. We startedby building a requirements model of the existingprocess and tracking its compliance with PHIPA.Then, we designed an on-line approval process andcollaboration interface in order to streamline and fa-cilitate the approval process, while still ensuringcompliance with PHIPA

Modeling the Re-factored ApprovalProcessThe GRL diagram in Figure 6 sets the context forthe re-factoring of the approval process. The keygoal that is tied to the approval process is to “PreventUnauthorized Use and Disclosure”. This contributespositively to the overall soft-goal of “Protect Pri-vacy, Confidentiality and Security of Data” whichin turn contributes to “Ensure Compliance with Lawsand Legislations”.

Figure 6 : Model of Goals

The goal “Prevent Unauthorized Use and Disclos-ure” is linked to a business process for approvingrequests for access to the data warehouse. This pro-cess is modeled in UCM. The top-level UCM dia-gram for the process is shown in Figure 7. As canbe seen in the diagram, the process is to submit a

request to the hospital which would go through areview request. The UCM model for the “ReviewRequest” sub-map is depicted in Figure 8. There arethree separate reviews involved, each of which isdefined in amore detailed sub-map (indicated by thediamond shaped icon). The first review, labeled


“CPO Review”, was done by a privacy office toevaluate any privacy issues associated with the re-quest for data. The second review, labeled “REBAp-proval”, was done by a research ethics board toevaluate the intended usage of the data. The final

review, labeled “technicalReview”, was a technicalreview done by the data warehouse administratorwhowould determine how the data could be obtainedfrom the warehouse.

Figure 7: Root map of the approval process

At any point in reviewing the request, if there was aproblem with the request, the entire request wouldbe rejected and the researcher would receive a writtenpaper response explaining the reasons for rejection.Then, the researcher would have to amend theirwritten paper request and resubmit it. A large partof the delays experienced in the approval process

were because many requests went through severaliterations of rejection and amendment. As well, apaper document had to be physically moved fromindividual to individual through each step of theprocess, and be rewritten every time the request wasamended.

Figure 8: Review Request Map

By designing an on-line approval process centeredaround a collaboration interface, we hoped to pre-empt the delays associated with rejection and resub-mission. The collaboration interface (shown in Figure9) would allow the researcher and the reviewer toflexibly submit comments that could be viewed byeach other either asynchronously or in real time.Together, they could edit and review the applicationon-line until it was approved. The approval by boththe researcher and the reviewer would be formallyrecorded and signed electronically.A screen shot of the collaboration user interface

that was built is shown in Figure 9. The interfaceconsists of the following panels:Chat Message Panel: The researcher and policy

officer can communicate via text message exchange.

SharedWeb Browser Panel: The researcher andthe policy officer can simultaneously view sharedinformation and flexibly pass control from one tothe other of what is being shown.Edit Form panel: The researcher and policy of-

ficer can create andmodify the request form togetherin a structured manner. The policy officer maintainscontrol over the actions performed during collabora-tion, but can pass control over to the researcher. Atthe end of a successful session, both parties sign thefinal version of the form in a two step process. In thefirst step, the researcher and officer sign the form (inthis order). In the second step, the form is submittedby the officerRequest List: For the researcher this shows the

researcher the list of requests that they have made.


They can select one to work on. For the reviewer(policy officer) this shows the list of requests theyhave to process. They can select one to work on.Policy Result Panel: The researcher and policy

officer can check and verify the data access policy

at any time during the collaboration. If such a requestis made, the policy is displayed in this panel. Theform can then be adjusted according to the policy.

Figure 9: Collaboration Interface

The detailed sub-map for the new “CPOReview”process based on the on-line collaboration tool isshown in Figure 10. Because the review process takesplace on line, a complete history of all changes andcomments can be maintained. As well, it is easier to

track the progress and efficiency with which requestsare being handled, since there is an electronic recordof when collaboration reviews started and howmuchactivity has been taking place.

Figure 10 : Collaborative Review Process

Tracking ComplianceIt is important to bear in mind, however, that the in-troduction of the collaboration service tool into theapproval process could impact compliance with pri-vacy legislation (PHIPA) and the policies and the

guidelines of the hospital itself. The requirementsmodel of the approval process built for the hospitalcontains explicit links to the requirements model ofthe relevant legislation PHIPA and to both the actuallegal documents for PHIPA as well as the relevantpolicy documents of the hospital. As the Use CaseMap model is updated and modified during the re-


factoring process, the potential impact on compliancecan be tracked and flagged using the links that havebeen defined.The different types of links in this compliance

framework were outlined in Figure 4. Here are someexamples of the particular links relevant to the ap-proval process:

• Traceability Links – links from the key actors(privacy officer, researcher) in the approval pro-cess to the corresponding actors identified in thePHIPA legislation, as well as their tasks. Achange in a Use Case Map may expose somechanges in its related GRL model. The impactof this change will be traced through this type oflinks to ensure the remaining compliance withPHIPA.

• Responsibility links – direct links from the UCMsto the relevant goals, actors, and tasks in thePHIPA legislation. These document what partsof the legislation is being addressed by the ap-proval process, and must be checked to ensure

that all elements covered by the old approvalprocess are still covered in the new process. Aschanges in the UCM model are made, these areimportant to flag in order to ensure that if thereis any change on who does what tasks in the newprocess it still conforms to the legislation.

• Compliance Links – direct links from the goals,actors and tasks associated with the approvalprocess to source documentation, in order tohighlight key details not expressed in the require-ments model. For example, a link from the task“Sign Approval” would ideally be linked to therelevant documentation on electronic signatureboth for PHIPA and hospital policy on electronicsignatures.

The DOORS requirement management tool wasused to track andmonitor links between requirementsmodels and to the source documentation. An exampleof how changes are flagged in DOORS is providedin Figure 11.

Figure 11: Flagging Changes in DOORS

As indicated by the arrows, one of the tasks for theprivacy officer is to “Check for Adequate Safe-guards.” This task links to the HIC and privacy legis-lation GRL intentional elements. Therefore, the re-lated legislation GRL intentional elements will beflagged as suspect links (indicated by the “? ” symbolpointed to by the big bold arrow in Figure 11). Asuspect link flag indicates that attention must be paidto the corresponding element and that it must be re-assessed for compliance.

Performance Management AlignmentAnother issue with the existing approval process wasthat the request form required applicants to have de-tailed knowledge of the data warehouse schema andmake requests for specific attributes and extracts ofdata. If the user is sufficiently knowledgeable, theymight be able to provide an SQL query to specifythe data they desire. If they are not, a member of IT

would need to review the request and formulate theSQL query for them. This translates into a situationwhere each request is custom-made, and requests aredifficult to link to the overall performance manage-ment strategy of the hospital. The next part of ourcase study investigated the possibility of identifyingkey areas of performance management strategy andbuilding pre-defined data marts explicitly tailored tospecific groups of users.

Dimensionally Modeled Data Marts forBusiness Process MonitoringIn order to create pre-defined data marts, one needsto be able to identify or categorize specific areas ofinterest in the data warehouse and associated groupsof users. The primary focus of the data warehouseis to collect data from operational systems across thehospital so that users can investigate and analyze theoperations of the hospital. Therefore our approach


was oriented towards identifying key business pro-cesses, and the users who wanted to analyze ormanage them.Through a series of interactions with different

groups of key stakeholders we predefined three dif-ferent data marts for three different target groups:

• A prescription tracking data mart for trackingantibiotic prescriptions in order to control thespread of “super bugs” which are antibiotic res-istant.

• A discharge process monitoring data mart fortracking delays in processing patients transferredto long term care facilities and monitoring ad-verse effects and the occurrence of unplannedreturn visits to the hospital.

• A quality assurance portal for administrators totrack the scalability and response time of theportal as well as keep an audit trail of who wasrunning what reports when for privacy compli-ance purpose.

In each case, the approach was to create a require-ments model of the relevant business processes, in-cluding a representation of the key performance in-dicators [15] that would be used to measure, monitor,and manage the processes. Based on those models,a data analysis of the data warehouse could be done

to construct a dimensional model of the data relevantto the business process, and specify an event-basedfact table in which to capture a record of all relevantevents in the business process. The linkage betweenthe URN requirements model and the dimensionaldata mart was based on linking the “measure” attrib-utes of the fact table in the dimensional model to thekey performance indicators identified in the require-ments model that were associated with goals, tasks,and actors. The dimensional model that was createdfor the prescription tracking data mart is shown inFigure 12.In this data mart, the “measures” in the fact table

were duration of prescription (measured in hours),total amount of prescription (measured in milligramsfor the entire length of the prescription), and fre-quency (measured in hours between doses). Thesecould be linked in the requirements model the goalof reducing super bug infections, and to associatedactors like physicians and epidemiology analysts.The requirements model could be further linked todocuments which contained hospital guidelines onthe appropriate use of antibiotics.The dimensional model for the data mart allowed

prescription usage to be broken down by time (hour,day, month, year), drug (drug category, drug type,drug brand), location (bed, nursing unit, campus)and by organization (physician, service, department).

Figure 12: Prescription Tracking Data Mart

The patient dimension was included in the data martto allow cross-referencing and follow-up with indi-vidual patients. However, one could flexibly buildtwo data marts against the same data warehouse andhave a second data mart which did not include thepatient dimension in order to avoid privacy concernsand make it available to a broader audience of users.General analysis and monitoring could be done

against the second more broadly available data martthat did not include the patient dimension. If anypotential issues were identified, the affected physi-cians could be contacted to follow up and assess theirindividual patients using the first data mart whichdid include the patient dimension. This gives an in-

dication of how our design approach can help addressboth privacy compliance and performance manage-ment.

Customized Performance ManagementPortalsWe also investigated packaging a customized per-formance management portal along with the dimen-sional data mart. A data mart defines a complete,coherent and sophisticated extract of data uponwhichan entire collection of pre-defined reports, views anddrill-through links can be defined. These can becollected, organized and presented in a web-based


user interface. Most tools for performance manage-ment reporting support the building of such perform-ance management portals. For each of the three datamarts we built, we defined a configurable web-basedperformancemanagement portal that displayed a fullrange of available reports using Cognos 8 [5]. Thedischarge process monitoring portal is shown inFigure 13.The portal provides a customized view of all in-

formation related to monitoring "super bug" infec-tions. In the top right, there is an RSS news feed re-lated to infection control, and below it there are linksto relevant web sites. The top left corner shows keymetrics with their target values and actual values thatare tracked with red, yellow, or green indicators toshow the status of the current value of the metric andthe trend for that metric (is it getting better or worse).Keymeasures to track are the number and amount

of antibiotics prescribed. The pie charts on the bot-tom left show the number of prescriptions and totalamount of antibiotic prescribed broken along theorganization dimension of departments and doctors

(e.g. how much is prescribed by cancer specialistsversus cardiology specialists) and the chart to theright breaks those totals down by drug and by time.The chart on the right shows the totals by location(there are two campus locations for the hospital).The charts are “interactive” and allow the end userto drill up or down into different levels of detail. So,for example, on the left one could drill down to seethe detail for a particular physician, whereas on theright one could drill down to see the detail for aparticular bed at a location.One advantage of bundling a portal with the dimen-

sional data mart is that it creates a consistent unifiedview of the performance management data that canbe shared across all users. This facilitates communic-ation around the business processes that are beingmanaged. At the same time, the portals are configur-able and can show the data at different levels of detailalong different dimensions so that each individualuser can have a view of the data optimize for theirpurposes.

Figure 13: Prescription Tracking (Infection Control) Portal

Another advantage of pre-defined data marts andperformancemanagement portals is that they reducethe number of requests for access to the data ware-house that have to be processed and reviewed. Thereis a single review process to grant access for the userto the data mart and associated portal that gives ac-cess to the user to an integrated collection of dataand reports that is refreshed with the latest data onan ongoing basis. In the old process, users wouldgenerate a new request every time theywanted accessto a single report. Often they would realize the needfor other reports only after their request was grantedand they could view the data, and they would usually

only get a single extract of data. New requests wouldhave to be filed to get up to date data.A final advantage of the performancemanagement

portal is that it centralizes access and use of the dataso that there can be ongoing monitoring and audittrails of who is accessing what reports and what datawhen. This is important for ongoing managementand oversight of privacy compliance.

ConclusionThe preliminary results of our case study indicatethat requirementmodels built using theUser Require-ments Notation (URN) can be effective when


designing the privacy compliance framework andperformance management alignment. The require-ments models can be used to link the key elementsof business processes, policies, legislation, and per-formancemanagement. As business processes changeor evolve, the links to policies and legislation can betracked in a requirements management system suchas Telelogic DOORS to ensure continued compliancein the design of processes and systems. Performancemanagement alignment can be built into the designand implementation of business processes by linkingbusiness processes to the goals they are intended toachieve and by linking those goals to key perform-ance indicators that can be tracked in dimensionaldata marts defined against a data warehouse. A per-formancemanagement portal can be built using toolslike Cognos 8, which provides an integrated viewfor performance management linked with require-ments models of the business process.At the moment, though, the effort to create these

models and more specifically the links to sourcedocuments, business processes and dimensional datamarts can be fairly labour intensive. Tool support aswell as integration between tools for requirementsmodeling, requirementsmanagement, and dimension-al data modeling is critical. Tool support for generat-ing on-line business process definitions and forgenerating dimensional data models from require-ments models of those processes would be usefuland is an area for future work. The feasibility of

achieving this should improve as more and morebusiness processes are supported on-line. More re-search is needed and more comprehensive trials.Dimensional data models are a well proven tech-

nology for supporting performance management re-porting, but they are very intensive to build. To doso requires trained business analysts. It also requiresupper management support since the process crossesover functional areas. To some extent the same canbe said for requirements modeling. Further work isneeded to demonstrate the benefits that can beachieved with this design approach in order todemonstrate the value that can be achieved in returnfor the investment in appropriate tools, infrastructure,and training.

AcknowledgmentThis work was supported by the Ontario ResearchNetwork for Electronic Commerce. In addition, Dr.Alan Forster, Ali Pourshahid, Pengfei Chen, BoZhan, Pierre Seguin, and Jacques Sincennes all con-tributed to the implementation of the data marts andportals that are referred to in this paper. We aregrateful to Jason Kealey, Gunter Mussbacher andJean-François Roy for their help with jUCMNav andthe DOORS export. We also thank Telelogic forproviding us with the latest release of DOORS, andCognos for providing us with Cognos 8.

References1. Amyot, D.: Introduction to the User Requirements Notation: Learning by Example.Computer Networks, 42(3), 285–301,

21 June 20032. Amyot, D., Mussbacher, G. and Weiss, M.: Formalizing Patterns with the User Requirements Notation. In T. Taibi (Ed.),

Design Pattern Formalization Techniques, IGI Global, March 2007, 304–325.3. Breaux, T., D., Vail, M., V., and Antón, A., I.: Towards Regulatory Compliance: Extracting Rights and Obligations to

Align Requirements with Regulations. 14th IEEE Requirements Engineering Conference, Minneapolis, USA,2006. 46–55.

4. Chountas, P., and Kodogiannis, V.: Development of a Clinical Data Warehouse.Medical Information Systems: The Di-gital Hospital (IDEAS-DH'04), Volume 00. September 2004. 8–14.

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http://register.consilium.eu.int/pdf/en/02/st03/03636en2.pdf, accessed February 2007.7. Ghanavati, S., Amyot, D., and Peyton, L.: Towards a Framework for Tracking Legal Compliance in Health Care. 19th

Int. Conference on Advanced Information Systems Engineering (CAiSE'07), LNCS 4495, Springer, 2007, 218-232.

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13. Kimball, R. and Ross, M.: The DataWarehouse Toolkit: The Complete Guide to Dimensional Modeling, Second Edition,Wiley, 2002.


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14. Ölvingson, C. et al.: Requirements engineering for inter-organizational health information systems with functions forspatial analyses: Modeling a WHO Safe Community Applying Use Case Maps.Methods of Information inMedicine, 41 (4): 299–304, 2002

15. Pourshahid, A. et al.: Business Process Monitoring and Alignment: An Approach Based on the User RequirementsNotation and Business Intelligence Tools. 10 th Workshop on Requirements Engineering (WER’07), Toronto,Canada, May 2007, 80–91.

16. PHIPA, Personal Health Information Protection Act, Government of Ontario, Canada, 2004. http://www.e-laws.gov.on.ca/DBLaws/Statutes/English/04p03_e.htm, accessed February 2007

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18. Roy, J.-F., Kealey, J., and Amyot, D.: Towards Integrated Tool Support for the User Requirements Notation. SAM 2006:Fifth Workshop on System Analysis and Modeling, Germany, May 2006. LNCS 4320, 198-215, Springer. ht-tp://jucmnav.softwareengineering.ca/, accessed February 2007.

19. Staccini, P., Joubert, M., Quaranta, J.F., Fieschi, D., and Fieschi, M.: Modelling healthcare processes for eliciting userrequirements: a way to link a quality paradigm and clinical information system design. International Journal ofMedical Informatics, 64:2-3, 129–142, Elsevier, 2001.

20. Telelogic AB, DOORS/ERS, http://www.telelogic.com/ products/doorsers/. Accessed August 200621. Vonderheide-Liem, D.N., and Pate, B.: Applying Quality Methodologies to Improve Healthcare: Six Sigma, Lean

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About the AuthorsDr. Liam PeytonLiam Peyton, PhD, P.Eng., is the principal investigator for the Intelligent Data Warehouse laboratory at theUniversity of Ottawa. He is an active researcher in business process modeling, performancemanagement, privacyand distributed data mining especially as applied to health care. His current focus is the securing, monitoringand enabling of data sharing within business to business networks based on model-driven, service oriented ar-chitecture in compliance with government regulations. He is a member of: Liberty Alliance Project, OntarioResearch Network for Electronic Commerce, Healthcare Data Warehousing Association, Text Analysis andMachine Learning Group, and Communications Software Engineering Research Group. He has 10 years exper-ience as an industry consultant before joining the faculty at the University of Ottawa. He has degrees fromAalborg Universitet (Ph.D. 1996), Stanford University (M.Sc. 1989), and McGill Unviersity (B.Sc. 1984).

Sepideh GhanavatiSepideh Ghanavati is a research assistant at the University of Ottawa. Her research interests are in requirementsengineering, business process modelling, and privacy. She has an M.Sc. in System Science from the Universityof Ottawa (2007) and a B.Sc. in Industrial Engineering from Amirkabir University of Technology (2003).

Dr. Daniel AmyotDaniel Amyot is Associate Professor at the University of Ottawa, which he joined in 2002 after working forMitel Networks as a senior researcher in software engineering. His research interests include scenario-basedsoftware engineering, requirements engineering, business process modelling, aspect-oriented modeling, andfeature interactions in emerging applications. Daniel is Rapporteur for requirements languages at the Interna-tional Telecommunication Union, where he leads the development of the User Requirements Notation. He hasa Ph.D. and a M.Sc. from the University of Ottawa (2001 and 1994), as well as a B.Sc. from Laval University(1992). He is also the father of three energetic children.


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The Position of Concept in Landscape Design ProcessMohsen Faizi, Iran University of Science and Technology, Iran (Islamic Republic of)Mehdi Khakzand, Iran University of Science and Technology, Iran (Islamic Republicof)

Abstract: In the process of landscape design, there are always ideas and designs in the mind that directly or indirectly in-fluence the designer. It goes without saying that not all of these are suitable for all the spaces to be designed and the designeris supposed to define these ideas and intelligently apply them to the right places. These basic designs may have been originatedfrom the sight of a beautiful garden, a painting, a piece of music heard or even a dream one has had. The ideas and designsof landscape design are to be obtained from information extracted from the local geographic, agricultural, topographic,environmental and anthropological studies in relation to the designer’s mental and philosophical approach toward nature,landscape, aesthetics and composition together with the hidden feeling in the potential responses. The thoughts should berealized; i.e. change from theory to practice and this is the stage at which some designers even think of giving up because,sometimes, this transformation is not easily possible to the expected extent or needs unsparable time to take place. However,what is quite clearly dealt with in this article is the position of idealization toward reaching a suitable landscape design; asort of idealization that can not only facilitate reaching the ideal design, but can also shoten the time needed for the process.

Keywords: Landscape Architecture, Idealization, Environmental Symbols, Concepts of Landscape

Introduction: Crises in the Area ofLandscape Architecture

THE HISTORICAL FUNCTION of archi-tecture and landscape has undergone a greattransformation with the appearance of mod-ern architecture. In fact, the application of

natural landscape has little by little faded away afterthe birth of industry-oriented ideas and some formal-ist extremists. In their point of view, natural land-scape was totally rejected and they, in fact, hadchanged it into artificial or better-said man-madelandscape. In some of the important works of thattime, because of the great impact of environment onarchitecture, natural landscape was inevitably at-tached to the architectural details as an appendix.The extension of the elements of architecture intonatural landscapes in the works of Frank LloydWright, Alvar Alto and Carlo Scarpa, and the freepenetration of space layers in the forms made of thecomposition of full and empty shapes and the enrich-ment of architecture by natural landscape and site,were all caused by the appearance of a new form ofthe presence of nature and even the use of naturalconstructionmaterial in architecture (Keeney, 2002).Most semantic aspects and ideas made by the en-

vironment (such as lights and shades) were often theresult of pure nature and unconscious coincidencequite accidentally created. Ando and Holl were theexperts in this poetic thought.Regardless of the accidental and non-sequential

presence of the site in the architectural aspects, it is

the subjectivism and briefing the relationshipbetween idea & form that mostly bonds what wasconstructed with its concept. Concerning landscapearchitecture and the independence of ideas in it, itcan be said that the works of Noguchi, Smithson andthe great number of landscape architecture designs(after 1960) explain the reasons for people's intensionto change the modernist extremists' approach towardnature. Since very long ago, nature has been the mainsource of human inspirations and imagination thesigns of which existed even before man reached self-realization (before the appearance of Egoism).This,even has priority over the spread of culture, languageand thought in that, there exist signs and specioussymbols. Since the appearance of extrememodernism(and international style) in 1930, nature landscapehas been defeated by the harsh attacks of gigantictechnical structures profitable for economy, politics,etc. At that time, landscape architects were moreconcerned about technological development andgaining skills in the registration of the geographicaland geometric identity of a place.In the mid-20th century, we even witness the

abundance of parks with the international style. Somelandscape architects of this period are Kiley, Sasaki,Tunnard, Eckbo, Schwartz and Walker_ the minim-alists who believed in the composition of architectureand natural landscape in a subjective, fixed and arti-ficial space.According to some schools of architecture in the

modernist era, the creation of a specific space was


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dictated and the followers aimed at the restorationof geometric designs; however, there was neitherprecise measurement nor any mandatory and basicrules to be obeyed. This phenomenon appeared whenpost-modernists stood against minimalists and thosewho proposed monotonous plans. From anther pointof view, landscape architects are now just to changeugly and useless constructions (which can be easilyseen in modernized cities) into pleasant ones.In the present era, followers of historical schools

and movements have totally given up to landscapearchitecture which is quite hidden among currentmovements (Keeney, 2002). This can be consideredthe revenge taken by concept-oriented artists ruthlessformalists such as Le Corbusier.

Methodology of LandscapeArchitecture:“Get Ideas from the Genius of theSpace”The traditional method of landscape architectureusually starts by research which defines and clarifiesthe aims of the client, criteria of the site and theneeds of the users. The documentation of this stepis done through a written plan, contents of the siteand site analysis. The next step in the design processis the internalization of the concept of landscapewhich includes a combination of theories about howto correct (or revitalize) a site in point. These hypo-theses are often the logical results of the researchconducted; however, they are sometimes formed (inthe mind) before any research is done, which are ofcourse modified or moderated after the research iscompleted (Reid, 1995).ForWright, buildings were the main tools to unify

the various elements of landscape in a single compos-ition. We cannot consider him as the designer of aplace like Stourhead in which the real incident, i.e.the park in the valley, was designed quite separatelyfrom the house. His landscapes cannot be imaginedwithout the organizing structures. Terraces andTaliesin gardens protrude from residential units. Theopposite is also true. Landscape defines the shape ofbuildings and the size and place of windows. It isoften impossible to decide where the building endsand (where) landscape starts. His work is part of agreater tradition of architecture which indicates thatthe building and landscape are the continuous se-quence of phenomenon, in a way that the inside ofbuildings resembles the outside landscape. Compos-ition landscape architecture is originated from theexperience of the landscape maker. Landscape ismade up of the elements of landscape. As NorthropFerry and T. S. Eliot said, "Poetry is made of poetryand not of words." The Laurence Halprin Fountainin Portland was inspired by the earthquake and stone-covered streams in Nevada. Meerkat Buildings inBarcelona's Pavilion and Farensworth's House built

by Mies Van der Rohe were also inspired by thewind, water, trees and sunlight of Sidney (Spirn,1998). An artist can always start a painting with acanvas and a writer with a sheet of paper; whereas,the job of a landscape architect is somewhat different.The designer, inevitably, starts his/her work with anarea of land with unique properties of its own. Thisland was used before and will also be used in thefuture again. Landscape architecture, in the designstages, is just a small step toward the sequence ofchanges in an unlimited period of time (Reid, 1993).A landscape architect, therefore, is to study the

site, collect the necessary data from the right sources,consider the needs of the users and the client, formhis/her rough ideas into a design concept, produce adesign and finally work the implementation of thedesign out. For organizing the mind, a landscape ar-chitect understands the sense of space and naturalconsiderations. The language of landcape is thenexpressed with graphics or any related vocabularyneeded. If the language is not suitably used, there isa danger that the design concept is not well-commu-nicated.

Impacts on the Process of LandscapeArchitectureThe aim of design in landscape architecture is defin-ing the positive and negative points of the site, called"a recognition design" by Alexander (1975). Insteadof speaking personally (by saying "I'd like to…"),Alexander believes that assessment should be basedon specific patterns (Alexander, 1975). Landscapearchitects often use a SWOT analysis (i.e. the analys-is of strengths,weaknesses, opportunities and threatsconcerning the site). There exists a sense of mortalityin this analysis which is the basic criteria of humanthought. It is also mentioned that the strengths andweaknesses are quite relative. For example, a lot ofstones in a site mean a strength to a civil engineerbut a weakness to a farmer.Form in landscape also means the ultimate and

visual expression of numerous forces affecting theoutside spaces. The site itself expresses opportunitiesand limitations. The owner and landscape architect,too, consider their own specific needs and limitations.In addition, the users also potentially require conveni-ence and beauty. Landscape architecture is the skill-ful composition of these forces; therefore, for thecreation of changes on the basis of human needs onland, environment conditions are still of importance(Reid, 1993).


Concepts in LandscapeArchitecture andReaching the Sense of SpaceFrom another point of view, the concepts of land-scape (Spirn, 1998) contain meanings. A river re-flects some concepts and clouds indicate somethingphilosophy for the recognition of the fundamentalidentity of the project, both concepts of which are tobe combined. At this stage of processing the concept,the meaning of place in the site appears; i.e. accept-ing the fact that apart from the function and beauty,the site owns a specific importance and meaning.Now, the designer should ask himself'/herself, "Howis this place really supposed to be?" Designs with

strong philosophical bases will have strong self-identity. An individual observing such space knowshe/she is in a special place. Most of the landscapeshaving been professionally designed lack what theancient Greek called "Genius Loci" or the sense ofspace. This spirit-like sense is only specific to thatsite. The designer should discover this sense anddefine it so that he/she can find out what the site issupposed to change into. He/she should then be verysensitive to analyze the sense according to suggestedfunctions and design forms so that the “spirit” canbe freed and this concept can be expanded (Reid,1993)

Halprin Water feature in the Embarcadero Shopping Center in San Francisco, California

This work includes groups of forms which are bentor broken and have right angles. This fountain is thesymbol of bewilderment of urban buildings brokenby a heavy earthquake. These forms remind us thatthe city is build over where two landplates slide.Some of the western landscape design projects

lack philosophical depth and are trapped in symbol-ism. If designers look for the sense of space and goafter meaning, they will face a lot of situations.Specific functional concepts will solve specificproblems which can be known as conceptual aims.Examples are projects to decrease corrosion, excludeweak irrigations, control damages caused by animals,avoid vandalism or cut on maintenance costs.

Symbols of Environment and LandscapeSymbolification is the science of language and logics.Symbols tend to create words to be used for commu-nication. Each of these is a window to the universewhich influences our use of design and the interpret-ations of meaning as well as reaching a better ideain the environment and landscape. Two fundamentalsurveys concerning environmental and landscapesymbols are two books by Christopher Alexanderentitled of Timeless way of Building in 1979 and ThePattern Language in 1977. The former discussesthe concept of human expression and language. It

shows us how to know symbols and how to encodeand decode meanings. The latter is a glossary ofsome symbols of this language. Although these twobooks are not the first ones on the subject or they arenot even among the recent ones, they are two of thebest because they are not dealing with the languageof buildings or site development but they study thelanguage of patterns and various places happened inthe course of history in different cultures. This lan-guage does not impose anything but just describesand is flexible. Alexander talks of a background inwhich one element such as a gazebo exists. He addsthat actually the background describes the elementin a way that it owns certain spatial properties.Whenwe learn this language, we can achieve better ideasof the site we want to design.However, one main question that remains un-

answered is the wide range of the meanings of envir-onment and landscape and how the complexity ofmeaning is put forth in design. The answer is an ec-lectic language. This method is clearly shown byChristopher Alexander and Robert Venturi in thebook “Learning from Las Vegas" (1972) in whichthe conventionalmeanings of symbols comprehendedby the majority of people are emphasized.A search for a design language, meanings of

design, symbols, language structure and the typologythat makes forms, is very valuable for the landscape

29MOHSEN FAIZI, MEHDI KHAKZAND

architect. When we consider these issues and lookat the elements that are to be designed, we can createvery creative ideas. Thinking suitably about environ-ment and landscape ideas, together with educationfor the purpose of correct design and discovery ofpure ideas, are always accompanied by a search forthe concepts and language of design (Motloch, 1991).

Subjectivity and InnovationFrank Lloyd Wright copied the specifications oflandscape and respected nature subjectively. Ex-amples of his mentalism are the completely roundhill-like forms and rocky coastal stairs which looklike a layered stone context, and have a bit roundercorners compared with the ones existing in naturallandscapes. He intended to reveal internal nature andperfection rather than copying their outer appearanceand he called this process, civilization through whicha true artist influences natural forms. Moreover,Wright thought of subjectivity as the developinggeometric making of natural forms because he con-sidered original geometry as the base for the nature’sproperties. In 1937, he says that subjectivity is purefor, in subjectivity, the structure that is realized canbe the pattern of the object while it lacks all realisticeffects or reality. The design of the Hill-Garden andthe Peru Garden in Taliesin North and Taliesin Westare subjectivities that present their original land-scapes (Spirn, 1998).

The Study of Research-based Models inLandscape DesignThe relationship between research and design is putforth widely in the approach of many architect re-searchers (Zube 1980, Lawson 1980, Salmon 1998,Armstrong 1999, Bovernick 1999, Lagro 1999).Some researchers suggest that the sources of researchfirst be collected and then analyzed and after produ-cing the idea, be included in the process of design.Regarding this belief, some sources are as follows:

• Criteria against the experiments and changesimplemented on design ideas such as the ideaexperimental model ( Zube 1980, Akin 1981,Oxman 1986, Doten 1987, Gelerenter 1988,Schon 1988, Lyle 1999)

• Experiences and information that help themakingof general rules. These general rules are used forthe assessment of specific design situations andstudying suggestions ( the experimental method)(Akin 1981)

• Amental framework assessed by behavior studycriteria ( Lawson 1980, Ledewitz 1985)

• The internalization of unconscious issues (Theassociationmethod) (Schon 1963, Lawson 1980,Ledewitz 1985)

The variety of methods can be a reflection of pat-tern changes in the profession of landscape architec-ture. McHarg (1977) proposed a different opinionafter World War І which resulted in two dominantpatterns "conservation/planning" and "aesthetics."Planning is a stage in which an area is recognized as“a social and environmental process" followed bydesign. He talks of shape and form (McHarg, 1997)The stages of design have been defined in many

ways which are perhaps the reflection of personalviewpoints based on different levels of experienceand personality of the researcher. Donald Schon haswidely researched the formation and function ofdesign idea. He believes that the creation of newconcept designs include reconsidering old ideas asnew problems which can be followed by the evalu-ation and change of ideas resulting in the formationof different designs (Schon, 1963).A mental storage of situations, patterns, symbols,

images, draft designs, records, articles and typologiescan be used to define a concept, evaluate its propor-tions, experiment its function and redefine an idea (Lawson 1980, Lynch and Hack 1984, Schon 1984,Ledewitz 1985).Lyle introduces the cycle of idea generation, ex-

perimentation, review and corrections as "a designsuggestion" (Lyle 1999).As is shown in the figure below, the idea experi-

mentation model can be idealized as a generation ofideas from personal collections, images and designssolutions. In this respect, one or more ideas in thedesign process are defined. The idea is assessed onthe basis of known criteria which clarify its suitabil-ity and use (or function). The advantages of solutionare considered and the best one is recognized andsuggested (Milburn & Brown, 2003)


As it is graphically shown above, a group of ideasinfluence the issue of design among which the best

one is chosen. (Milburn & Brown, 2003)

This way, the designer develops a personal collectionthrough presenting them for other designs and ideas.When there is access to this collection, it is person-ally assessed on the basis of the criteria concerningthe very collection. Design is (completely) based onpatterns which reveal personal feelings. The patternspresent the basic concepts of the design, and thedesign, too, causes some new changes in the patterns.The trial model of idea uses witnessed and cognitive

sources for idea generation and uses a holistic ap-proach toward design (Milburn & Brown, 2003).

Idealization in the Process of LandscapeDesignDefining the problem and finding a solution are, tosome extent, logical, wise, implied and practical. Butidealization is witnessed and includes vaguethoughts.


The potential of dreaming is like a hidden spark ofcreativity. Although idealization happens at onemoment or sometimes sequentially, usually a longtime is needed for understanding the case and placingit in the unconscious self. Idealization does not hap-pen in a hurry because the dream needs to be de-veloped in the course of time. In a creative mind,usually a variety of dreams are formed but the mindneeds time to decide which one is the best. An ama-teur designer makes a quick judgment and usuallygets carried away by the first solution that occurs tohim/her. He/she then starts creating a basic sort ofdesign which lacks creativity (Motloch, 1991).Rich idealization cannot be taught but it normally

exists in all of us. However, in most cases, there aresome mental barriers in the way of thought. In thebookConceptual Blockbusting by James Adams, thewriter refers to some techniques to remove thesebarriers or blocks. One of the main duties of theeducator and students of landscape design is to re-move conceptual barriers. These duties include thecreation of mental atmosphere to support creativeidealization.In order to be more creative and be able to better

concentrate, a landscape architecture should know

about different thought, barriers of fluency andflexibility of thoughts and effective techniques sothat he/she can remove them. These cases were re-ferred to by James Adams in the book ConceptualBlockbusting (1979). The writer discovers that somesituations are much more easily understood throughvisual thought for idealization to take place; whereas,for other situations, oral and computing thoughtseems more suitable, which also require differentideas. For example, designing andmaking the earth’sform is problematic for landscape architects.As mentioned above, idea creation is an experi-

mental process which needs insight. Therefore, inaddition to acting according to the plan and analysisof the site, the designer had better postpone wiseanalysis and deal with the experimental aspect offluent and flexible thought. Some ideas are to bequickly generated. These ideas should completelydiffer from each other. After idea generation, thefirst step to evaluate the ideas is to analyze theirscope. If the writer has not yet reached several con-ceptual approaches of different insights, idea gener-ation should take a wider scope. Generally, thereshould at least be three distinct and interesting ideas.


The creation of each idea includes three activities:linking the plan with site analysis, creation of “a su-preme idea”, and the organization of the elements ofthe plan and design sources in the site project or thedesign idea. After several ideas are produced, eachof them can be evaluated, compared and categorized.Finally, the one idea which can be followed bysymbolic designs should be chosen & followed(Motloch, 1991).

In planning, the composed chart of function, thewhole map briefly expresses human needs throughsuitable behavior environments, the relationship theyhave with each other and the resources that shouldbe specified to them. Site analysis, distinguishesbetween site limitations and potentials. In the end,the design of the idea is put forth with the simplestcomposition for the two patterns in a way that theyreveal the direction and form of the design (Motloch,1991).

Generally, the ideas of landscape design concern therelationship between the present place and the de-signed one; therefore, defined and assessed. As

mentioned above, idea can be of natural factors, useof land, spatial ideas, construction material.The plan presenting the idea can be of great im-

portance & efficiency in the process of landscape


architecture. The Oxford Dictionary presents thefollowing definition:

“Something that shows a general thought; cre-ating a conceptual drawing of what is under-stood in a geometric framework or a simpleexample of the general idea placed in thedesign”

There are different kinds of conceptual drawing andit seems better to prepare small scale geometricdrawing for them instead of one large and generaldrawing for all of them. Some of these concepts in-clude circulation, spatial concept, sequence, designconcept, material, etc (lawson 1980, Schon 1984,Ledewitz 1985).

Recognition and Designation of Ideas inLandscape DesignThe step aims at idea production and pattern desig-nation for designing which are inspired by studyingthe current conditions. The aims and real future ofthe project are recognized to be able to suggestsolutions for fulfilling the goals and solving the dis-covered problems. At this stage some principles areto be considered:

Principle 1The scale and presupposition may change at the ideageneration stage. Idea generation results in designingin different scale at the same time. Therefore, emphas-izing a specific scale and idea, right from the begin-ning of the work, is not acceptable. For example,when designing a local park, maybe at first the spatialorganization of the park elements (playground, toi-lets, parking,...) and their relationship with eachother, the surrounding environment and with theneighborhoods are of importance. But, in the end,for the implementation of the project to take place,it is needed to deal with detailed scales and prepara-tion of executive maps for each part; i.e. the parking,playground, etc (Dines & Brown, 2001)

Principle 2The more we reach detailed scales an implementa-tion, the more flexible the suggested solutions be-come. Idealization and their implementation rules indetailed scale, for example in preparing implement-ation maps one needs a lot of care and precision.Thesemaps are themost flexible from the viewpointof material and construction methods in order to bein maximum harmony with the reality and topo-graphy of the land. In contract, one feels freer inidealization when scales are chosen larger, whereproject guidelines, which can result in finding several

solutions and ultimately reaching the true goal whenthe scales are chosen smaller (Dines&Brown, 2001).

Assessment of Ideas and SuggestedSolutionsAt this stage, different impacts of the suggestedsolutions after idealization has taken place are studiedin order to choose the best one among them. This iswhen all positive and negative impacts of suchsolutions, specially the cultural, economic and ecolo-gical ones, should be tested and retested. There arealso principles to be considered at this stage:

Principle 1The questions concerning the assessment of positiveand negative impacts of the suggested solutions varyfrom scale to scale, as the questions themselves alsovary with scale. In a certain scale, too, the questionschange in the design process. These questions aredevised to test the potentials of impacts in reachingthe ultimate goals of the project and even the unpre-dictable, ecological, cultural and economic impactsafter the project is implemented. For instance, itshould be studied whether the project will or will notbe against the welfare and peace of the residents, oreven if there will be a change in the users when dif-ferent solutions are considered.

Principle 2Impact assessment methods also vary according toscale and the nature of impacts. For instance, forstudying biodiversity at the local scale, direct fieldstudy and nose-counting of species is necessary butat a regional stage, statistical information concerningthe fauna and flora is gathered through the interpret-ation of aerial pictures taken (Dines &Brown, 2001).

Supreme IdeaSupreme idea is the wise one constituting the baseof the design idea. It is the creative flesh and bloodof the design that finds great solutions to the prob-lem. It is often the combination of idea, symbol andthe sense of space which can be verbalized in one ortwo words; e.g. Italian Hill-city, Ancient village, anopen-space room.The supreme idea summarizes graphics into a few

meaningful words that through association conveyand emphasize extreme meanings. These extrememeanings, in turn, express the suitable atmosphereand theme of the project. But, it goes without sayingthat the supreme idea combines with the graphicsand organization of the elements of the project.Sometimes this process starts with words like “exact-ing” “exotic” “interesting” “secretive” “apparent”,


etc. Other times the organization of the site definedthe site graphics which, in turn, implies the supremeidea itself. Anyway, supreme idea is a unique thoughtrevealing a unifying turning point. Such an ideastrengthens the design and considered the one turningpoint of its kind (Motloch, 1991).Supreme ideas are often formed in one session

through brain storming, for example, and extracting

virgin ideas. At this stage, ideas are created andjudgments/decisions are postponed. After this stageis completed, we should get to study and test ideasthrough the organization of the project and drawinggraphical drafts designs. Often, three or better ideasare preserved to be studied further or presented tothe client.

In brief, the design idea is made up of all projectelements, and the resources that best answer theneeds of man and the site. It also includes the recog-nition of the general idea and graphics of the project.The resources of design such as buffers, access tosunlight, ventilation, view, etc are organized accord-ing to the needs of the plan (Motloch, 1991).

Criterias to Organize LandscapeArchitects’ ThoughtsOrganizing mental ideas into practical frameworksand designs is among the most important duties ofa landscape architect. These ideas should vary fromthe designer dreams and mental pictures. Designideas are generated and developed according to theproperties of the location, plans, soluble problems,and designer’s mental and philosophical approaches.These ideas, then, change into practical and physicalthrough principles and criteria such as axis, move-ment, geometric forms, sequence, structural elements,public and private spaces, guest view, etc. in accord-ance with these criteria the ideas of the designer areorganized into different frameworks for form andsense of place to be created and analyzed. The aimis not to limit the thoughts and ideas of the designerbut to use these criteria as catalisysts to embody

his/her thoughts (Matloobi, 2003). Some of the cri-teria are as follows:1) AxisAxis is actually an imaginary line around which

forms and sheets are organized. An axis can imposeorder onto the design and connect two points throughorganizing and emphasizing structures.2) MovementAn object exists both in time and place, which

means that we cannot completely comprehend anobject at a given moment and from a single angle.Therefore, we can perfectly know it when there existsa stream of time and place information. Movementin space gives us the chance to get to know and feelan object at different times and from different angles.Consequently, movement, speed, direction, routeand means are all important in comprehending andimplying the sense of place as well as in creatingforms and certain responses in people (Matloobi,2003).3) Geometric FormsSince the beginning of architecture, geometry has

always been used as an important tool of designing.It is because the simple geometric shapes are easilyunderstood. In fact, geometry is the only importantelement of the organization of green spaces. Geo-


metry makes the landscape architect capable of ideageneration, scale, location, form and proportion.4) SequenceIn landscape architecture, sequence refers to a

series of physical form organized according to differ-ent spaces and certain properties. Sequence is ex-pressed according to the importance and value ofspaces and their relationship with each other. Itcauses an organizing element to enter the designwhich in fact distinguishes between conditions andenvironments and separates more important environ-ment from less important ones.5) Structural ElementsBy adding physical forms such as walls, elements,

etc, other elements are also added to the design thatby using correct compositions, can also distinguishand define spaces. Structural elements divide spacesinto smaller units and imply movements or steps.Some of these elements such as water feature, foun-tains, pergola, gazebo, arches, etc are architecturalstructures of design presented quickly and domin-antly in landscape. Trees and shrubs of differentforms such as hedge, mass and individual plantingplay an important role in this respect (Matloobi,2003).6) Public and Private SpacesInviting sights are, in fact far-fetched and outside

landscapes that somehow play a role in the designadding to its importance and beauty. Thus, in designprocess, we try to respectively cover unpleasantviews and exaggerate the pleasant ones inviting themto the site.

SummaryFrom long ago, nature has been the main source ofhuman imagination and inspiration. We have signsat hand from the time man had not known himselfwell. On the one hand, reaching an idea in landscapearchitecture is not much different from reaching onein architecture; however, one can look for differentideas in landscape architecture because the needs aredifferent. Presenting an idea at the beginning of anydesign is one of the necessities of landscape architec-ture as much as it is of architecture. The importantcase in point is the skill of the architect in designingand organizing the space because his/her skill canalso result in idea generation and, as a whole or inparticular, include environmental and climatic condi-

tions. Enough insight into the fact changes the archi-tect’s view of a building as a mass of constructionmaterial into the one that considers the building asa living thing. Therefore, landscape architecture asa living body which is in accordance with humannature can impose changes into architectural con-cepts. This is because nature is a very suitable patternin this respect. From this point of view, consideringthe elements existent in nature and local architectureof each area can usefully inspire designers. Neverthe-less, nature is a new trend in the world so, comparat-ively, there are not many samples available. As aresult, architecture has a long way to go to reach itstrue form and possess more definite principles.Moreover, nature as the main inspiring pattern oflandscape architecture has a very wide range of as-pects to be considered for man with limited know-ledge. In this respect, each and every discovery canact as the appearance of a new thought and idea insustainable architecture, organic architecture, greenarchitecture, the architecture in harmony with envir-onment and climate and so on.It can generally be stated that among the most

important crises in landscape architecture is ignoringnature and its use in idea generation. This inabilityto search for ideas that are not physically present innature, forces us to observe ideas in landscape archi-tecture itself; whereas, the most important factor toreach the sense of place is to access information andconcepts hidden in the site. To reach these concepts,one should learn the language of landscape to be ableto decode symbols and concepts existing in the site.Only when this happens, canwe innovate new shapesand patterns in the site as well as using the presentones. Toward this goal, it is always useful to considercriteria that organize the mind of the landscape archi-tecture. For organizing the mind, a landscape archi-tect understands the sense of space and natural con-siderations. The language of landcape is then ex-pressed with graphics or any related vocabularyneeded. If the language is not suitably used, there isa danger that the design concept is not well-commu-nicated.

AcknowledgementsThe authors would like to express their gratitude toMrs. JasmineMaleki Milani for her great suggestionand technical support.

References

1. Matloobi, Mansour. Landscape Architecture Ideas: From Thought to Reality. Sabzineh Magazine, volume3, winter 1382.

2. Saabernejad, Jaleh. Idea and Climate: Two Contrasting or Harmonious Criteria in Design. ResidentialHouses. Architecture and Culture, volume 23, autumn.

3. Nicolas, Dines& Kyle, Brown. Landscape Architects portable handbook. McGraw-Hill, 2001.4. Keeney, Gavin. The fusion thing: Landscape + Architecture. (June, 2005)


5. Milburn, Anne & Brown, R., The relationship between research and design in landscape architecture.Landscape and urban planning. No. 64., 2003.

6. Motloch, J. L., Introduction to Landscape Design. Nostrand Reinhold (Van), New York. 1991.7. Existing site & concept drawing, landscape architecture Guide / (September 2006)8. Spirn, Anne. The language of landscape. Yale university press, 1998.9. Reid, Grant. From Concept to Form in Landscape Architecture, John Wily & sons, 1993.10. Akin, O., Teaching architecture. In: Comerio, M.C., Chusid, J.M. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 69th Annual

Meeting of the Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture on Teaching Architecture. Associationof Collegiate Schools of Architecture, Washington, DC, 1981.

11. Lawson, B., How Designers Think. The Architectural Press Limited, London, 1980.12. Ledewitz, S., Models of design in studio teaching, J. Architectural Education, No: 32, 1985.13. Lyle, J. T., Design for Human Ecosystems. Island Press, Washington DC, 1999.14. McHarg, I. L., Design With Nature, Doubleday/Natural History Press, , 1969.15. Schön, D.A., Toward a marriage of artistry and applied science in the architectural design studio, J. Archi-

tectural Education, 1988.16. Zube, E. H., The evolution of a profession. Landscape Urban Planning, No: 42, 1998.17. , , , : Press, 1979.

About the AuthorsDr Mohsen FaiziDrMohsen Faizi is assistant professor at the school of Architecture and Urban studies, Iran University of Scienceand Technology (IUST), Tehran, Iran. He received his PhD in landscape architecture from the University ofSheffield, England and has been involved in wide variety of projects and research. Mohsen is an individualmember of International Federation of Landscape Architects (IFLA).

Mehdi KhakzandMehdi Khakzand is a Ph.D. candidate at the school of Architecture and Urban studies, Iran University of Scienceand Technology (IUST), Tehran, Iran. His research is focused in area of Landscape Architecture and Design.


Addressing Cultural, Social, Environmental Sustainability inArchitecture: The Approach of Five Contemporary AustralianArchitectsAdriano Paolella, Università degli Studi Mediterranea di Reggio Calabria, ItalyGiamila Quattrone, Università degli Studi Mediterranea di Reggio Calabria, Italy

Abstract: Regionalist architecture offers a promising and conscientious response to the present scenario of growing trendtoward cultural, social and technical globalization. It has a great potential to preserve local cultural identities, despite thespread of global culture, to define possible relationships between construction and natural, cultural, political, economicand social factors, to combine traditional approaches and technical skills creatively and to suggest a new role for designers,as active subjects in dialogue with the manufacturing sector. An exemplary regionalist approach to contemporary architectureis given by a niche of Australian architects sensitive to the relation between communities and technical skills, dwellingpatterns and building techniques, who tend to reduce the environmental load of construction through the use of local resources,who adopt community design processes and combine tradition with creative innovation. GlennMurcutt, Richard Leplastrier,Peter Stutchbury, Gregory Burgess and Troppo Architects, who, learning from Aboriginal people’s sacred respect for theland, balance the tension between global needs and local expressions, by listening to people and place, preserving traditionallifestyle preferences and combining new technologies with historic building types.

Keywords: Regionalist Architecture, Sustainable Architecture, Creative Innovation, Tradition, Social Behaviours

Introduction

CURRENT HOMOGENIZATION OFcultural identities, generated by the world-wide production and distribution of goods,has repercussions on people’s well-being

and on the environment integrity. This situation hasled to ecological alteration as well as the loss of re-gional identities.1

Within the built environment, traditional construc-tion techniques are undermined by the introductionof new industrial materials and systems, which res-ults in the loss of local building skills. Importedtechnological solutions do not always fit local condi-tions, community needs and individual customs.Their use produces economic and social dependencebecause communities have to rely on external sourceswhich are concernedwithmaterial and labour supply.Technological systems are ready-made and just as-sembled on-site that binds people to depend on ex-ternal suppliers for maintenance and repair opera-tions. Their distribution is promoted by industrialmanufacturers interested in widening their market,by big construction firms aiming to reduce costs, byspecialised press operations that are often directlyconnected with industry marketing efforts.Such widespread phenomena, deeply modifying

a sector that is fundamental for people’s economy

and survival, should be more critically dealt with.Many designers are enthusiastic about solutionsproposed by the global market and are not very inter-ested in developing a critical role within the societyand to acknowledge the social, economic, culturalpeculiarities of place in their work.On the contrary, they are greatly interested in their

own creativity, in architectural morphology, in thecorrespondence between the project and global con-struction and communication models. This resultsin works that are lightweight, transparent, shiny,made up of industrial techniques/materials/compon-ents, hypercreative, evocative, socially disengagedand uncritical. Only a few designers practise theconservation of traditional building techniques and,because this is a difficult task in an era of standard-ised lifestyles, a critical action aiming at maintainingthe building sector independent on models harmfulto the environment and society, is necessary.The critical regionalist approach of five Australian

architects - GlennMurcutt, Richard Leplastrier, PeterStutchbury, Gregory Burgess and Troppo Architects- shows that it is possible to design with specificlanguages relating to local conditions, communitiesand places, without renouncing one’s creativenessor being addicted to the cultural processes supportinggoods production.

1 The introduction is by Adriano Paolella.


http://www.Design-Journal.com, ISSN 1833-1874© Common Ground, Adriano Paolella, Giamila Quattrone, All Rights Reserved, Permissions: [email protected]

Built Environment-Community Culture:a Relationship in CrisisOriginally, man lived according to natural, technicaland cultural factors (Postiglione G., 1999, p.15).2

Natural factors such as climate and topographyare independent on time and affect the built environ-ment’s morphology. Technical factors vary depend-ing on time and are represented by materials avail-able, economic resources, technical skills. Culturalfactors vary as well depending on time, and areconstituted by socio-cultural behaviours that affectdwelling patterns. Man has developed over the mil-lennia with a remarkable ability to modify the envir-onmental macro-system, adapting it to his living,social and material needs. His approach to naturehas changed from a direct exploitation of natural re-sources to a technically conscious modification ofthe environment, in order to build his living spaces.Traditional architecture, often called “vernacular”

or “regional” architecture, and characterized bymodest economic resources and simple buildingtechnologies, had a soft impact on its environment,grew from necessity, and consciously employedreadily available physical resources (Postiglione,1999, p.11). It expressed the result of a delicate bal-ance between needs and shelter. Traditional architec-ture was a truly sustainable architecture, in the sensethat it optimised the few resources available, avoidedwaste, and adopted the common techniques of askilled social group. On the contrary, contemporaryarchitecture appears increasingly less related to spe-cific places, communities and cultures, more oftenlinked to generic technological progress. This prac-tice is deeply affecting the delicate man-nature rela-tionship, exploiting natural resources and leading tothe loss of traditional local cultures and communities’technical skills (Pallasmaa, 1996, p.133). In thepresent scenario of ecological crisis as well as lossof cultural and social identities, an architecture aim-ing at rediscovering values and meanings of the dif-ferent regional construction and dwelling traditionsis the only credible alternative to the brand of banaland ubiquitous development that mindlessly repeatsforms, materials and technological solutions all overthe world, regardless of location.

Five Australian Regionalist ArchitectsRespect for the landscape, respect for the land: thereare five Australian contemporary architects who aregenuinely interested in environmental sustainabilitythey have learnt from Aboriginal culture and try to

implement this lesson into their works, in pursuit ofcultural and social appropriateness inmaking sustain-able architecture.Aboriginal people look at the land as cradle and

grave for all living beings, they consider it as amother that sustains the life of humans, animals andplants, on which their hunter/gather-based existencedepends (Rapoport, 1975, p.44). As a consequence,they have established an exemplarily sustainable re-lationship with the land based not on ownership, buton dependence on it for survival.The sustainability of their attitude to the land is

particularly manifest in the way, as a nomadicpeople, they treat the land, considered not as placefor permanent buildings, but for temporary light-weight shelters built out of locally sourced naturalmaterials that decompose and return to nature. Theirtraditional saying “touch this earth lightly” wellsynthesizes an ideal of environmentally aware con-struction that aims to minimise land disruption(Drew, 1985, p.54).A similar environmental concern about land integ-

rity preservation along with the goal of establishinga strong cultural and ecological relationship betweenarchitecture and place is at the heart of these five ar-chitects’ work. They re-interpret traditional Australi-an building types, construction techniques and life-styles, they are inspired by Aboriginal people’s usageof lifting their shelters above the ground in order topreserve the land from permanent damages, adopteither craft or industrial building processes and uselocal and eco-friendly materials, natural ventilationand lighting to guarantee the building energy andenvironmental efficiency.This approach results in a sensitive way of inter-

preting the architecture-landscape relation, in workswhich are culturally and environmentally appropriateto the site: a new regionalism, able to combine pastand present without generating contrasts, and toovercome the tradition-modernity dichotomy througha constant critical interpretation of the past.Different approaches to architecture, uses of ma-

terials and building techniques, ways of feeling thelandscape characterize the work of the mentionedarchitects, each of them having a peculiar way ofaddressing regional identities in architecture, depend-ing on the cultural, climatic and environmental fea-tures of the context.

2 This paper is the result of Giamila Quattrone’s ongoing PhD research Housing Patterns and Technology for Local Contemporary Archi-tecture. For a Contextual Innovation in Building Environmental Design: Innovation and Tradition in Australian Design Culture, supervisorsProf. Adriano Paolella and Prof. Consuelo Nava. This is presently being carried out at the School of Architecture and Built Environmentof the University of Newcastle (Australia) under Prof. Michael J. Ostwald, with the sponsorship of the 2006 Endeavour Europe Awards -Australian Government - DEST Department of Education Science and Training.


Glenn Murcutt - Pioneer of anArchitecture of PlaceReading of place, ecological responsiveness, culturalsensitivity to the wisdom of a 50,000 years-old Ab-original culture and an “aesthetic of necessity”(Postiglione, 1999, p.18) expressed through techno-logical detailing and execution are responsible forGlenn Murcutt’s fame as the first architect to startan approach of Critical Regionalism towards contem-porary Australian architecture. During the 1980s,while he was exploring the possibility to adapt theModernist universal lesson of functional and rationalarchitecture to the Australian climate and landscape,Kenneth Framptonwas definingCritical Regionalismas a strategy <<to mediate the impact of universalcivilization with elements derived indirectly fromthe peculiarities of a particular place>> (Frampton,1983, p.21). The critical nature of such an approachdepended, in Frampton’s theory, on understandingand re-interpreting the specifics of place, from lightintensity and quality to geomorphology to wind, sunand rain patterns.Murcutt’s regionalism is based on the following:

typological: he re-interprets and combineswithout nostalgic citations typological featuresfrom different sources. In particular, he drawson the verandah space of early colonial houses,which beautifully acts as a transition zonebetween the outside and inside realms, and theMiesian linear plan that allows functional organ-isation of space;cultural: he is inspired by the Aboriginal ideaof construction temporariness which he ex-

presses through an architecture that wants to“touch the earth lightly,” so that his buildingsare often raised off on stilts in order to minimisetheir impact on the ground, and which is alsoconceived to emphasize “prospect,” “refuge”and “aspect” (Murcutt, 1992, p.48);environmental: he draws on the traditionalwoolshed, which he consideres a remarkableexample of environmental efficiency (Murcutt,1992, p.47) and bases his design approach onthe analysis of the site’s climate, topography,hydrography, geology, sun, wind, tide patterns,fire, flora, and fauna. He also adopts a series ofstrategies to mitigate the environmental damagecaused by construction, such as combination ofcraft and industrial techniques, use of eco-friendly and recycled materials, natural ventila-tion, correct orientation for light penetrationand sun control, and use of thermal mass andinsulation.

The reference to traditional Australian rural buildingsis clear: rectilinear, long and narrow plans, timberwalls making the building able to respond to thechangeable external conditions; lattice screenedgables letting the air in; corrugated iron ventilatedroofs consisting of two overlapped layers so that aircan flow through; floors raised on posts to let aircirculate and to insulate from damp; box gutters andround tanks for rainwater collection. All these ele-ments reveal Murcutt’s appreciation for a functionaland environmentally sensitive building typology(fig.1).

Fig.1: Traditional Australian Woolshed

Inspired by Aboriginal journeys through the landfrom sacred spot to sacred spot (Rapoport, 1975,p.45), he conceives architecture as a path of discov-ery, an endless travel through the landscape which

acts as a source of knowledge of place (fig.2); as alight sheltered resting place, a platform with a roof(fig.3) because humanity needs to be protected fromthe weather and to be in contact with nature.

Fig.2: Glenn Murcutt, Bowali Visitors Centre, Kakadu National Park, NT, 1994

41ADRIANO PAOLELLA, GIAMILA QUATTRONE

Fig.3: Glenn Murcutt,Marika-Alderton House, Eastern Arnhem Land, NT, 1994

The result of this quest for architecture’s culturalroots is openness to the landscape. This is achievedby using glass walls that allow contact betweennature and man, by organizing the space in order toguarantee visual in-out continuity through the wholebuilding, by conceiving the verandah as a wall-lessroom, that breathes, lets the winter sun in and leaves

the summer sun out, pushes man into the landscapewhile providing security and protection from theweather (fig.4) and physical lightness, which is notonly use of lightweight materials, but also technolo-gical and structural clarity, rigour in technical detail-ing and volume composition.

Fig.4: Glenn Murcutt, Ball-Eastway House, Glenorie, NSW, 1983

However, Murcutt’s regionalism also resides in hisidea of architecture as a means to reduce the gapbetween man and his environment, to make him un-derstand the landscape, to recreate the harmonicman-nature relationship.His buildings, in fact, are sensitively located in

order not to alter places’ delicate balance and appearperfectly integrated in them through an indispensableform, responding to the context’s environmentalfeatures. In this respect an exemplary work is theBowali Visitors Centre located in the KakaduNation-al Park (Northern Territory, Australia) and completedin 1994, which responds to the tropical climate ofthe region through a floor raised on stilts that pre-vents floods and allows ventilation underneath, andthrough steep overhanging roof planes, which drainrainwater, let the sun in during winter and excludesit in summer.From the choice of site according to the analysis

of parameters such as geology, hydrography, climate,wind and sun patterns to the design of the building,Murcutt’s main interlocutor is the place that hisworks aim at supporting and discovering.The final architectural morphology never derives

from a conceited creation act - since Murcutt thinksarchitecture is not about creation, but discovery

(Murcutt, 2003, p.17) - but from a constant investig-ation of place, resulting in roof slopes and overhangs,glass walls size and sunscreens type, downpipesdiameter and tanks capacity, in the choice of thermalmass rather than lightweight materials and in thelocation of the verandah space. His environmentallysensitive approach involves also a careful selectionof materials and technical solutions suitable for aparticular place and a specific brief: he usually optsfor materials which tend tomitigate the environment-al damage, have well-known physical/mechanicalproperties, derive from sustainable manufacturingor even recycling processes, are locally available andeasily maintainable.Finally, nature is also a model to him, a source of

inspiration, an entity to support and imitate. Hisworks’ horizontal extension is a way of followingthe landscape’s contours and not competing withtrees’ verticality, in a nature-artefact relation fromwhich they are both accentuated. In raising off theground they resemble some rock ledges floating inthe landscape, their tree-like struts lighten and ramifywith eight (fig.5), just like nature, which gets fineras it gets further towards the extremities (Beck,Cooper, 2003, p.70).


Fig.5 - Glenn Murcutt, Simpson-Lee House, Mount Wilson, NSW, 1994

Richard Leplastrier - Craftsman ofBoat-like HousesThe uniqueness and extreme delicacy of the Australi-an natural environment and the indigenous culture'swisdom in the management of the land are majorsources of inspiration in the work of Richard Le-plastrier.Relating, on the one hand, to the Aboriginal’s way

of looking at the landscape and, on the other, tolandscape itself, with an attitude of understanding,respecting and preserving, is a primary concern inhis approach to design. It results in architecturalminimalism materialized in simplified spaces thatgive room for things to happen and for nature toenter, that do not impose themselves, but leave roomto personal interpretation, instilling continuity, peace,transparency, completeness, serenity and respect(Adlercreutz, 2004, p.9).It also results in ecological responsiveness mater-

ialized in a series of design and construction

strategies aiming at softening the impact of buildingson a local as well as global scale. He uses rammedearth walls to store heat; lightweight and small sizebuilding elements to allow easy transport to remotesites, even by means of boats; recycled hardwood tobuild post-and-beam structures; dry assembly to al-low for a complete dismantling of the componentsor even of the entire building for future reuse; rain-water tanks and waste disposal systems as practicalmeasures to reduce the building’s impact on nature;parasol roofs to screen north elevations from theharsh summer sun.His buildings open up to the landscape challenging

conventional interpretation of comfort and reconnect-ing man with the natural world by exposing him toits weather, sounds and smells. The buildings alsoallow a view out towards the surroundings througha small hole in an opaque wall as well as throughtimber walls that can be top-hung fixed to the roofrafters, which literally turn the house into a bigcovered platform (fig.6, 7).

Fig.6, 7: Richard Leplastrier, Lovett Bay House, Lovett Bay, NSW, 1994

He applies his expertise as a sailor and designer oflightweight wooden boats to building design toachieve elegant and finely crafted construction aswell as appropriate response to climate. His nauticalskills enable him to design unconventional technolo-gical systems, which allow cross-ventilation and

open up the building to the sky: a chord system tooperatemovable fabric clerestory screens, a hydraulicram to lift a kite roof, and rolling back canvas screensin order to reveal the carcass-like framework of thebuilding and the natural surroundings (fig.8, 9, 10).


Fig.8: Richard Leplastrier, House and Studio, Leura, NSW, 2000

Fig.9: Richard Leplastrier, Watsons Bay House, Sydney, NSW, 1998

Fig.10: Richard Leplastrier, Palm Garden House, Bilgola, NSW, 1976

His houses explore the concept of adjustable struc-tures that can be attuned to climatic circumstances -like a yacht adjusting to the changes in the wind - inthis requiring the users to learn how to “sail” themmost effectively in order to achieve comfort (Spence,1980, p.80); they exemplify the idea of “vessel” fortheir inhabitants, something that must be operatedby them in order to work properly and give comfort.His approach to architecture, based on an aware-

ness of how structures and materials work in natureas well as in construction, and conceived as a groundfor experimenting possible combinations of tradition-al materials and techniques with new functions, re-veals his cultural and environmental regionalism.The cultural dimension lies in the exploration of

Australian outwards-oriented lifestyle through housesconceived of as extensions of camp-sites and spacesreduced to the essential. The cultural sensitivenessand appropriateness of his work goes further: Le-plastrier’s houses instil the hospitality and lifestyletypical of indigenous people, the “essential” of livingof early human settlements (Spence, 1997, p.64),while their often being symmetrical around one axissuggests the idea of community gathering around ahearth to celebrate a social ritual. What strengthenshis cultural and environmental awareness and makesit even more credible than his buildings do is his ownway of living, genuinely based on that model of re-

spect to the land. In a small one-room house,provided with a large working verandah and a bath-room pod, he and his family set a living example ofsimple hospitality and a lifestyle akin to that of indi-genous people. The house, in fact, recalls the ideaof Aboriginal living on a platform under a roof. It isessentially a deck built around an existing hearth -used by the family to cook food and heat water - anda plywood shell that can completely open up to thenatural surroundings by folding away its shutteredopenings (fig.7).Leplastrier architecture and lifestyle speak of

dwelling, place, community with the same powerful-ness and are exemplarily appropriate to the Australi-an landscape, climate, customs and history.

Peter Stutchbury - Interpreter of Livingbetween the Bush and the OceanDeeply influenced by his childhood spent on thefamily farm in outback Cobar, New South Wales, intouch with harsh climate and robust industrial-agri-cultural structures, Peter Stutchbury follows histeacher Leplastrier’s way in founding his architectur-al work on the recognition of the uniqueness of theAustralian land and appreciation of its landscape,which bring him to sensitively place shelters withinit.


Traditional architecture represents a model forcontemporary architecture: he constantly returns tothe rural shed - an important 19th century buildingtype, which was spectacular in scale, inventive inthe use of materials available on site, structurallysimple, functionally essential and lacking in decora-tion - and assumes it as a model for its frank formallogic, its direct adjustment to sun, wind, shade andventilation.Stutchbury assumes the honesty and directness of

the rural shed as a measure of structural and formalpurity, resulting in structurally explicit architectural

forms, as well as extremely detailed and exquisitelycrafted technological solutions (Goad, 2000, p.16).His work celebrates and reveals the assembly ofmaterials, components and techniques, revealing thedirect relation between problems and solutions,lending an air of inevitability. The rural shed’s adapt-ability to a variety of environmental conditions sug-gests a model for how technological systems canaddress problems such as natural ventilation, watercollection, land integrity preservation, and exposureto sun and wind (fig.11).

Fig.11: Peter Stutchbury, Bay House, Sydney, NSW, 2002

This approach leads Stutchbury, on the one hand, toconceive and shape his works so that they appearunique, the only ones fitting the place, tailoring themto their respective landscapes and microclimates,and, on the other hand, to pursue maximum environ-mental performance at low cost, low maintenanceand low energy requirements. This results in a set ofenvironmentally friendly strategies: adoption of the“tree house” typology (Drew, 2000, p.35), consistingin interconnected pavilions located on steep sites andfixed to the ground bymeans of poles, as low-impact

alternative to the stepped type (fig.12), use of passivesystems for cross ventilation and sun control, likethe parasol roof or roof overhangs as systems ableto shade or admit light, correct orientation meaningliving areas on the north side and services on thesouth side, heat storage from solar radiation throughnorth-facing windows and walls, use of recycledcomponents such as posts and beams, dry assemblyusing fixings to allow both structure and infill ele-ments to be easily disassembled in order to be reusedor replaced.

Fig.12: Peter Stutchbury, West Head House, Clareville Beach, NSW, 1991

Like his two great mentors Leplastrier and Murcutt,Stutchbury acknowledges the importance of indigen-ous culture as a powerful base for his architecture(Drew, 2000, p.26). His buildings embody a numberof features attuned to the Aboriginal dwelling style:direct access to the outside allowing greater use ofopen air space through large veranda spaces, con-ceived as natural extension of living/dining areas tocapture the surroundings; accommodation as accept-ance, mutuality and extended family that involvesthe design of large, open plan living areas in orderto accommodate mattresses for visitors; location oftoilet facilities outside in separate semi-enclosed

sections; free spatial arrangement consisting in thecomposition of separate pavilions with differentfunctions, which reflect social groupings and interac-tion patterns (Rapoport, 1994, p.279).His are personal, individual and informal houses

that people can experience in intimate ways, rootedin place and influenced by the way users choose tolive.His whole residential production accomplishes

the key features mentioned. Through two mainbuilding typologies the architect explores the “bushhouse,” designed to preserve instead of destroyingthe land, its flora and fauna (fig.13), and the “bay


house,” which overlooks bays and harbours of theEast Coast of Australia. Other major feautures of hiswork are open plans, free volumes articulation andconnection, functional separation of servant from

served spaces, minimal and informal furniture,bathrooms where one can experience a shower orsleeping alcoves where one can have a rest lookingthrough the leaves to the ocean (fig.14).

Fig.13: Peter Stutchbury, Israel House, Paradise Beach, NSW, 1992

Fig.14: Peter Stutchbury, Springwater House, Seaforth, New South Wales, 2003

Gregory Burgess - Promoter of anEcology of CultureFounded on philosophical reflections on man, com-munity, and nature Burgess’ architectural productionexplores the designer’s social role, considered crucialin recovering the damaged relationship among thoseelements (Burgess, 2004, p.4).Architecture is viewed by the architect as a pro-

cess, not just a product, which is rather the visibleresult of a complex process among different subjects.<<The process is a dance of constant negotiations.At the end of the process, the trace of the dance isseen in the building. In this process the architectleads a complex collaboration, that folds culture,place and people, into a new relationship with eachother, effecting transformation>> (Burgess, 2005,p.47).Architecture is, therefore, a unique and powerful

medium to go back through the cultural layers of acommunity and recover its shared values that canhelp recreate meaningful spaces and relationships,able to delight, calm and move the soul.Burgess poses the question of the viability of an

architecture expressing cultural memory, connected-ness and sociability, claiming that <<cultural sustain-

ability is what must exist prior to and concurrentlywith the sustainability of energy resources and anecological sustainability>> (Burgess, 2005, p.47).He borrows the metaphor of the beehive from the

German social artist Joseph Beuys (Burgess, 2005,p.47) who used honey in his sculptures as the signi-fier for the feeling life of ensouled community - tometaphorically describe the city. Like a beehive, thecity is full of communal life and connectedness andit spiritually nurtures an entire community. Thebuilding is compared to a cell of the beehive, thecommunity to a cluster of interrelated cells. Thisapproach underlies a deep and holistic understandingof people and community - that resides in his authen-tic cultural regionalism - and an idea of buildingsseen not as static objects, but organic beings infusedwith life, which have an edge conceived of as a “ra-diance” connecting the building to its surroundingsand to people, as place of spiritual symbiosis betweenarchitecture and nature.This is explicit in buildings, mainly visitors

centres, designed for Aboriginal communities fromthe desert areas of central Australia, in which theidea of architecture as guardian of the sacred Landand its Dreams is exemplarily expressed by organicand dynamic volumes, inspired by natural forms orindigenous ancestors images such as snakes (fig.15).


Fig.15: Gregory Burgess, Uluru-Kata Tjuta Cultural Centre, Uluru, NT, 1997

All his architectural production explores centripetaland centrifugal forces, dynamism, symmetry, asym-metry, the organic and the crystalline. Architectureis conceived of as becoming, representing the emer-gence and growth of an idea or belief, and as move-ment, being both an ordering and an unfolding ofnarrative (fig.16). It is also dance, through and

within divergent spaces and changing materials,textures and colours, which reconciles spirit and soulin acknowledging opposites and dualities, and re-sponsiveness to the urban environment, to communityinterests and needs, to practical and economic de-mands (fig.17) (Burgess, 2004, p.2-18).

Fig.16: Gregory Burgess, Thomas Carr Centre, Melbourne, VIC, 1999

Fig.17: Gregory Burgess, Eltham Library, Eltham, VIC, 1994

Burgess adopts organic geometries and patterns thatmaterialize in gently curved spaces expanding andspreading onto the site, with which they establish arelationship of continuous and mutual exchange,while meshes of forms constitute a matrix to order,arrange or give the space proportion of harmonic andsymbolic resonance, such as the vesica pisces or “fish

bladder” (Hamann, 2004, p.94). This is a semi-ellipt-ical pattern, formed when two identical circles areplaced within a larger circle and internally overlap,which is often used by Burgess in plan and sectionto arrange space or applied to single architecturalelements, such as a lantern, to filter light and give itan almost metaphysical quality (fig.18).

Fig.18: Vesica Pisces Motif Applied to a Timber Lantern in the Thomas Carr Centre, Melbourne, VIC, 1999

His work’s cultural and ecological sensitivity incor-porates: the combination in construction of craft with

industrial components; the adoption of participatorydesign processes as an action of concrete social sus-


tainability; the use of timber pole frames producedand assembled by local workers as a cost-effectiveconstruction technique allowing for future dismant-ling and reuse; the use of natural and ecological ma-terials such as rammed earth, terracotta bricks, natur-al paints; the return to radial trunk cutting in orderto minimise waste and use as many pieces as possibleto obtain all the structural elements required; the useof wide roof overhangs to protect walls from sun andrain and the adoption of the open plan to maximisenatural ventilation of indoor spaces (Burgess, 1997,p.103-111).

Troppo Architects - Theorists ofClimatic-specific Design in TropicalAustraliaInheriting and accurately re-interpreting Beni Bur-nett’s early 20th century tropical houses, AdrianWelke and Phil Harris, founders of TroppoArchitectsDarwin, have developed a regionally specific archi-tecture for the Top End of Australia. A detailed sur-vey carried out on the Top End’s domestic architec-ture revealed the functionality and climatic appropri-ateness of the louvred and slatted houses of the re-gion, provided with folding shutters, louvres, roofoverhangs and awnings shading as tree canopies(Welke, Harris et al., 1978). Welke and Harris haveassumed this building typology with its adjustableskin as a model for a design approach sound to the

tropical climate and a design philosophy revolvingaround the key concepts of cultural appropriateness,environmental responsiveness, and social behaviours.Far from being a designmanifesto, that survey pointsout a set of guidelines and principles for a good ar-chitecture in the Top End of Australia.Troppo’s architecture originates from the certainty

that man in this particular region can not avoidlandscape and climate, but has to withstand it bykeeping out rain and sun, reducing heat, accommod-ating humidity, keeping away insects and reptiles.That is why their buildings are never designed asfortresses, barriers to the natural forces, but as filtersand shelters to live under (Goad, 2005, p.103-104).There is no point in escaping the Wet and Dry sea-sons, so their buildings acknowledge these naturalphenomena without thwarting them. The house is,therefore, interpreted as an organism that must beprotected from the heat through the building envel-ope, which is conceived of as an adjustable skin, atissue infinitively receptive of external changes andable to adjust, as the human skin does. That is whythe broad use of operable building elements, such asfolding shutters and battens, louvres (fig.19), insectmeshes replacing common walls (fig.20), roll-downblinds, shade cloths or wide roof eaves casting deepshade. Furthermore, to provide natural ventilation,they often employ pitched and pyramid roofs withridge vents to extract hot air.

Fig.19: Louvres and Folding Doors in the Pee Wee’s Restaurant, Darwin, 1998

Fig.20: Insect Meshes in Place of Conventional Walls in the Rozak House, Lake Bennett, NT, 2001

The whole house must be, in their philosophy, infin-itely adjustable and extendible, potentially unen-closed, through the use of an open frame which al-lows to overcome the traditional split between insideand outside (Goad, 2005, pp.103-104). The in-outfusion is further accentuated by the battened ver-

andah, which is brought inside the perimeter wall toprovide a ventilated floor and by the “Bali bathroom”(fig.21). This is designed as an open pavilion or semi-enclosed space so that air can freely flow in and outto prevent condensation and mould, and people canexperience nature from close in celebrating the act


of bathing. Troppo’s environmental consciousnessresponds to the local shortage of natural buildingmaterials trough the idea of the building as a kit ofparts (Goad, 2005, pp.103-104) - transported mater-ials assembled on-site and allowing recycling, suchas corrugated iron sheets, steel profiles, plywood

panels, fibre cement panels, glass louvres - and tolocal technical skills and economic resources throughthe use of welding joints, which represent the mostextensively adopted joining system and, as a matterof course, the cheapest.

Fig.21: Troppo Architects, Thiel House, Darwin, NT, 1998

Troppo’s houses are designed as organisms that cangrow as time goes by, with supplementary units -guest pavilions, bathrooms, kitchen decks - that canbe further added, transforming it in a sort of com-munity of rooms, with different degrees of privacyand openness, according to their users’ change ofneeds. Spaces between these units become outdoorrooms, while the house itself becomes a sort of smallvillage. Besides, their works suggest the image ofthe primeval shelter, a stilted platform protected by

a roof on which one can live, the image of the tentprovided by lightweight sleeping boxes with a steelframe andmetal cladding, elevated above the ground,roofed by stretchedwhite canvas paraboloids, toppedby spherical ventilators (fig.22). Lightweight struc-tures employ low-maintainance materials, such assteel frames and cladding that are easy to transportand replace, while fragile materials, such as glass,are avoided for reasons of safety and durability.

Fig.22: Troppo Architects, Kakadu Housing, Kakadu, NT, 2001

ConclusionsThe insight into this niche of contemporary Australi-an architects, who are sensitive to climate, place andpeople and address issues of environmental and cul-tural appropriateness in approaching design, featuresan alternative to the ongoing global and self-referen-tial architecture.Drawing on tradition, culture, history - whether it

means adapting an old building typology to present-day needs or recovering traditional construction

techniques or learning from indigenous people tolook at the landscape and minimise its disruption -can be a viable way of resisting the commodificationof architecture that a mindless use of technology isproducing worldwide. Away from the Australiancontext, its spectacular natural environment and thewisdom of its Aboriginal peoples, the same strategiesmight not work because of the differences in climate,environment, culture, but the principles that underliethose strategies will definitely be appropriate to anycontext in the world.


These are: look back to the past in order to deeplyunderstand the historic layers to which a good archi-tectural work must add value; draw on the environ-mental and social appropriateness of traditional andvernacular architecture to create spaces and formsthat are energy-efficient, functional, open-ended,responding to their users’ lifestyle and needs; com-bine natural with industrial materials and componentsand integrate craft with manufacture; give room to

creativity and imagination not just in form-making,but also in tailoring solutions for specific problems;actively involve the clients along the whole processto better understand their wishes and be able todesign buildings that will address their requirements.These tenets might serve as design guidelines and

as such must be adapted to the specifics of contextto generate an architecture of place.

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Adelaide, 1978.BibliographyBeck, Haig, Cooper, Jackie. Glenn Murcutt. A singular architectural practice. Mulgrave: The Images Publishing Group,

2002.Bridgman, David. “Shadows and space: the domestic architecture of Beni Burnett” In Imaginary Australia 52/53 (1995/96).Dovey, Kim, McDonald, Denis. “Architecture about Aborigines” In Architecture Australia 4 (July/August 1996): vol. 85.Drew, Philip. Leaves of iron: Glenn Murcutt, pioneer of an Australian architectural form.North Ryde: Angus & Robertson,

1985.Drew, Philip. Peter Stutchbury. Of people and places: between the bush and the beach. Sydney: Pesaro Publishing, 2000.——— Touch this earth lightly. Glenn Murcutt in his own words. Sydney: Duffy and Snellgrove, 2001.Flora, Nicola, Giardiello, Paolo, Postiglione, Gennaro.Glenn Murcutt. Disegni per otto case, Napoli: Clean Edizioni, 1999.Frampton, Kenneth. “The architecture of Glenn Marcus Murcutt.” In The Pritzker Architecture Prize. 2002 Glenn Murcutt

. Los Angeles: Jensen & Walker, 2002.Fromonot, Francoise. Glenn Murcutt. Tutte le opere .Milano: Electa, 2004.Goad, Philip. New directions in Australian architecture. Sydney: Pesaro Publishing, 2001.——— Troppo Architects. Sydney: Pesaro Publishing, 2005.Jackson, Davina. “Tourist checkpoint” In Jackson Davina, Johnson Chris. Australian architecture now. London: Thames

& Hudson, 2000.Johnston, Lindsay. “Murcutt and Company” In Architecture (USA) 4 (April 2003): vol. 92.Neuvonen, Petri, Lehtimäki, Kristiina (eds.). Richard Leplastrier. Spirit of nature wood architecture award 2004. Helsinki:

Rakennustieto, 2004.Spence, Rory. Sources of theory and practice in the work of Richard Leplastrier. Sydney: Master’s Thesis, The University

of New South Wales, 1997.Stutchbury, Peter, Spence, Rory. “Architecture and place” In Architecture Australia 1 (January/February 1999): vol. 88.


All pictures are reproduced from bibliographic sources except fig.14, photograph by author.Fig.1: Glenn Murcutt.Fig.2: Troppo Architects.Fig.3: Reiner Blunck.Fig.4: Anthony Browell.Fig.5: Glenn Murcutt.Fig.6-7: unknown, source Neuvonen, Petri, Lehtimäki, Kristiina (eds.). Richard Leplastrier. Spirit of nature wood architecture

award 2004. Helsinki: Rakennustieto, 2004.Fig.8: Richard Leplastrier.Fig.9: Leigh Woolley.Fig.10: Francoise Fromonot.Fig.11-13: Patrick Bingham-Hall.Fig.15: Craig Lamette.Fig.16: John Gollings.Fig.17: Trevor Mein.Fig.18: John Gollings.Fig.19-22: Patrick Bingham-Hall.

About the AuthorsProf. Adriano PaolellaAssociate Professor of Architectural Technology at the Faculty of Architecture of Reggio Calabria, he teaches“Environmental Design and Renewal Techniques” (3rd year subject) and “Architectural Technology” (5th yearsubject) and is coordinator of the TRESA “Technologies for the Ecological and Social Development of LivingSpaces” Research Unit. He is a permanent member of the PhD Panel in Architectural Technology at the DASTECDepartment and he is often appointed as a committee member to assess doctoral theses in Environmental Design.From 1995 to 2003 he was General Secretary of the IAED - International Association for Environmental Design- of which he has been President since 2004. In the editorial field he founded in 2004 the international journalII Progetto dell'Abitare, of which he has been editor-in-chief since then; from 1976 to 1998 he was editor ofthe cultural journal Dismisura, in 1985 he founded Fines-Rivista di Studi Territoriali e Ambientali, which heran until 1990; from 1995 to 2003 he was editor-in-chief of the journal Attenzione, published by Edicomp andWWF. Since 1995 he has been editor-in-chief of Tevere, the Tevere Basin Authority’s journal.

Giamila QuattronePhDCandidate in Architectural Technology at the Faculty of Architecture of Reggio Calabria (Italy), supervisorsProf. Adriano Paolella, Prof. Consuelo Nava, she is currently Visitor Research Associate at the School of Ar-chitecture and Built Environment of Newcastle (Australia). Here she has been carrying out a research titled"Housing patterns and technology for local contemporary architecture. For a contextual innovation in buildingenvironmental design: innovation and tradition in Australian design culture", with the sponsorship of the 2006Endeavour Europe Awards from the Australian Government and the supervision of Prof. Michael J. Ostwald,June 2006-June 2007. Interested in the relations between dwelling patterns and technology underlying region-alist architecture, she focuses on the environmental, social and cultural appropriateness of Australian contem-porary architecture based on use of local resources, on morphological, material and visual integration of buildingsinto their settings, on context-specific innovation and critical interpretation of regional settlement and dwellingpatterns, lifestyles and material culture. Case studies are Glenn Murcutt, Gregory Burgess, Peter Stutchbury,Richard Leplastrier, Troppo Architects, which she has been investigating since her participation in the 2004Glenn Murcutt Master Class through research papers presented at international conferences and published inthe journal II Progetto dell'Abitare, of which she is one of the managing editors.


An Application of AHP in the Selection of Fashion Trends forSpecific Target GroupsGozde Goncu, Istanbul Technical University, TurkeyNigan Bayazit, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey

Abstract: The objective of this study is to develop a comprehensive list of selection criteria to apply in a decision supportsystem for making better decisions in fashion trends suitable for young target groups of consumers. At present, forecastingtrends and consequently developing new clothing styles are very important. Every season too many trends about styles,fabrics, colors and accessories are formed, but these trends are not accepted equally by different target consumer groups.Therefore, it is important to select trends which will be attractive for the target market in order to determine the manufac-turing amounts of several fabric and product styles. In this study, trends of 2006-2007 Fall-Winter seasons are evaluatedto set the trends, which will be mostly accepted by Turkish youth, aged between 20-30. A survey is carried out to evaluatefabric, color and style trends according to the decision criteria, which are also scored by another survey. The scores of twosurveys are evaluated using Expert Choice software that functions according to analytical hierarchy process (AHP), whichis a mathematical decision-modeling tool for solving multiple criteria decision making problems by decomposition, determ-ination and synthesis. The results of this study indicated that selection criteria structured in a hierarchical framework isimportant for making better decisions among fashion trends suitable for different target consumers.

Keywords: Decision Making, AHP, Fashion Trends

Introduction

THE PHENOMENONOF fashion has beenaffected by the political and economicalconditions, social, cultural and art move-ments of the time remarkably. In addition, it

is always in a change under the influence of severaltrends. Thus, fashion and forecasting the trends havebeen studied by many researchers from differentdisciplines and several theories are developed aboutfashion and fashion adoption process. In general, thestate of fashion theory considers fashion cycles intwo periods, long run secular trends spanning dec-ades and centuries and short run acceptance of sever-al styles for periods of several months to years [1].Today, predicting the trends that will set the fashionof the future is very important for fashion industryas well as other sectors. There are many consultancyagencies, which employ people from different discip-lines such as sociology, design and economy toforecast future trends for several industries fromclothing to packaging and automotive industry. Theseagencies develop forecasting books for color, fabric,texture or styles, and companies use these forecaststo create their new collections or new products.However, the acceptation ratio of these global trendsmay change from culture to culture and differ foreach country. In addition, the profile of the targetmarket of the company or the sector affects accepta-tion ratio of the trends, and therefore it is essentialfor a clothing company to guess which trends will

be mostly accepted by its target market in order todetermine production amounts for the next collection.This study is built on the idea of making a decisionamong trends that will be accepted by a specificconsumer group for clothing industry. Objective isto develop comprehensive list of selection criteriato apply in a decision support system for makingbetter decisions in fashion trends suitable for youngtarget groups of consumers. In this study, trends of2006-2007 Fall-Winter seasons are evaluated to de-termine the trends, which will be mostly acceptedby Turkish youth, aged 20-28. In the study, two dif-ferent surveys are carried out, first to evaluate de-cision criteria and second to evaluate trends for style,fabric and color groups dependent to decision criter-ia. The scores of two surveys are evaluated usingExpert Choice software that functions according toAnalytical Hierarchy Process (AHP), which is amathematical decision-modeling tool for solvingmultiple criteria decision-making problems by de-composition, determination and synthesis.

Literature Review

Definition of Fashion Trend and Theoriesof Fashion ChangeTrend as a fashion term is generally defined astendency of the next fashion. And according toGardner, fashion forecasting has been compared tochasing the future with a butterfly net [2]. Faith


http://www.Design-Journal.com, ISSN 1833-1874© Common Ground, Gozde Goncu, Nigan Bayazit, All Rights Reserved, Permissions: [email protected]

Popcorn, who is a well known forecaster, definesfashion forecasting as brailing the culture, lookingfor the new, the fresh, the innovative and then ana-lyzing what’s behind [3].The direction of fashion change is theorized by

three different approaches; fashion will trickle down,trickle up or trickle across consumer segments [3].In trickle down theory, the fashion movement is ex-plained as “fashion moves downward from the eliteclass to lower classes in stately and slow progres-sion” [3]. This theory relies on Veblen’s descriptionof conspicuous leisure and conspicuous consumption.According to Veblen upper strata of the social systemis leisure class andmembers of this class demonstrateconspicuous consumption by their apparels with ex-pensive modes of production and materials [4].King proposed the trickle across theory which is

also known as mass market and simultaneous adop-tion theory. The theory states that the fashion trendstrickle across within the social strata rather thanvertically [5].Trickle up theory is the third one proposed by Field,which he called status float phenomenon. Accordingto this theory the upper strata of the society imitateslower status and he exemplifies by African fashionof 60’s and youth culture [6].

Tools Used for Forecasting FashionTrendsFashion forecasters carry both qualitative andquantitative researches to understand consumer’spreferences. In qualitative research the researcherlistens to consumer talk or observes consumers innatural settings and reports findings. Qualitative re-search is generally used to understand consumer’srelationship to a style, product, product category ormarketplace [3]. Focus group; an in depth interview-ing method with a small group of consumers, isgenerally used for this kind of research.Asking what and howmany questions to provide thedata about consumer’s view are the main tools forquantitative data collection. Survey researches, panelstudies, in store testing, point of sale data and con-sumer preference testing are the quantitativemethodsused for fashion forecasting. According to Brannon,each has limitations in guiding product developmentdecisions; point of sale data is most often formattedfor sales executives rather than product developersand tells only what has sold at what price, not whyconsumers purchased what they did and consumersatisfactionwith the use of products.While consumertesting via style preference testing and in-store testingof prototype garments all provide useful informationto product developers, many companies fail to sys-tematically integrate consumer testing into the

product development process citing time or costconstraints as reasons [7].In this study analytical hierarchy process which isanother quantitative data processing method, is ap-plied for making a selection among trends to under-stand the consumer preferences. However unliketools explained above, the aim is not forecastingtrends but choosing the trends that will be mostlyaccepted by a specific group of consumer.

An Overview of AHPThe Analytic Hierarchical Process (AHP), createdby Thomas Saaty in the 1970’s, is a tool for makingcomplex decisions in multi-criteria environment,when several alternatives are presented to the user.By Expert Choice, complex decision and evaluationproblems involving multi objective tradeoffs are ar-ranged in a manageable structure of factors calledhierarchy [8]. An Expert Choice Model organizesthe various elements of a problem into a hierarchy.The top level contains an objective while intermedi-ate levels contain the criteria. The bottom level ofthe hierarchy represents the alternatives of the choice.The second step of the AHP is pair wise assessments,which is the process of comparing the relative import-ance or preference of two elements dependent to anelement in the level above [8].The third step called synthesis is the part that showsthe results of the work. After all judgements aboutthe decision problem are entered to the software,Expert Choice generates the global weights of thenodes by combining the local priorities through entiremodel [8].To sum up, the method is comprised of the follow-

ing steps [9]:

1. Structure a problem in the form of a hierarchywith objectives, criteria and alternatives.

2. Ask for judgments regarding a decision-maker’srelative preferences for criteria and alternativesand represent those judgments with numbers.

3. Use the numbers to calculate the priorities ofthe criteria and alternatives in the hierarchy.

4. Complete the synthesis of these results to de-termine the ‘best’ alternative.

Designing the AHP Model for Predictingthe Trends of 2006-2007 Fall-WinterSeasonAfter a description of the AHP method, it’s time tocreate the AHP structures that will translate thescenarios exposed for the 2006-2007 Fall Wintertrends selection. We will derive a model for each ofthe trends using the already exposed theory.The trends are grouped in three categories; style,fabric and color. In addition, these categories contain


different trend alternatives for the next season. Bythe selection among trends from style, fabric andcolor categories, the aim is not only selecting onecolor, style or fabric group that is most preferred,but creating a ranking among different style, fabricand color groups in order to be useful in the decisionprocess of the production amounts of the newmodelsand amount of fabric purchases for a clothing com-pany.

Determination of Trends and DecisionCriteriaTrends of styles and fabrics categories for 2006-2007Fall Winter seasons are selected from the forecast

books Collezioni Trends and View. In styles cat-egory; four different trend alternatives and for fabricscategory; six different trend alternatives are determ-ined. Color trends are gathered fromDorlastan’s webpage, and five groups of color forecasts are determ-ined for evaluation.According to the Collezioni andView forecast books,the style trends determined are called Classic,Artistic, Check and Revolution. And these styles arevisualized as below;

Picture 1: The Visuals for Styles and their Names [10]

The decision criteria of the styles are determined bya discussion among a group of designers who arePhD students in Industrial Design Department ofIstanbul Technical University. As a result, five dif-ferent decision making criteria are set by this group;

• Comfort of the style• The possibility of being combined with other

garments• The fit of the style

• Being fashionable for long term• Reflecting my personality

The fabric forecasts of 2006-2007 Fall Winter sea-sons which are also gathered from Collezioni andView forecast books are named as Denim/Canvas,Plead Woolens, Embroidered Taffeta/Organza,Printed Woolens and Printed Velvet. These fabrictrend groups are visualized as below;

Picture 2: The Visuals for Fabrics [10]

Eight different decision criteria are determined forselection of fabric trends;

• Washing and Cleaning properties• The ease of use• The possibility of being combined with other

garments• Fiber properties

• Strength• Suitability for seasonal weather conditions• Pattern of the fabrics• Reflecting my personality

The color forecasts by Dorlastan are grouped in fourcategories that are named as Frosty, Rural, Humidand Poptimist.

55GOZDE GONCU, NIGAN BAYAZIT

Picture 3: The Visuals of Color Groups and their Names [11]

The criteria for the selection of colors are determinedas below;

• Suitability for daily use• Suitability for body type and skin color• The possibility of being combined with other

garments• Suitability for seasonal weather conditions• Reflecting my personality

Surveys and ParticipantsAfter establishing the trend forecasts for styles, fab-rics, colors and selection criteria for these forecasts,two surveys are formed. In the first survey, the selec-tion criteria are evaluated by the participants in orderto determine the importance ranking among criteria.

By this survey, each criterion for style, fabric andcolor is given different weights. In the second surveystyle, fabric and color trends are graded accordingto each criterion independently.Both of the surveys are carried out among thirtypeople. Since the aim of the study is to make a de-cision among 2006-2007 Fall-Winter trends for wo-men, all the participants of the two surveys are wo-men.The age distribution of the participants varies fromtwenty to twenty-eight as shown in the graph below.Because, nearly%60 of Turkish population is formedby youth and consumption amount of the fashionproducts are high for this group, the participants ofthe surveys are chosen from this age group. Morethan half of the participants are students, rest areworking in different disciplines

Graph 1: The Age Distribution of the Participants

Graph 2: Participants’ Jobs

In the next step, the outcomes of the two surveys arearranged in order to be used in the software, ExpertChoice. The grades given by each participant fordecision criteria and for each style, fabric and colortrend dependent to these criteria are added. By thisway, we end up with one grade for each decisioncriterion; one grade for style, one grade for fabric

and one grade for color trends, which are the totalamount of the grades given by thirty participants.


Implementation of Expert ChoiceBy entering the results of surveys to Expert Choicesoftware, three independent selections are generatedfor styles, fabrics and colors.

Style SelectionThe first selection process is applied to style and eachstyle alternative is evaluated under each selectioncriterion for styles. The hierarchical structure of thedecision tree formed as a result is shown below.

Figure 1: The Decision Tree Formed for Style Selection

As the first step, the results of first survey, whichwas the evaluation of decision criteria, are enteredto the software. And according to the results providedby the software the most important decision criterionfor the selection of a style is its comfort. In othermeans, the decision criterion of comfort got thehighest priority according to the participants.

• The ability of being mixed with other garments,• Fitting of the style,• Being fashionable for long term and• Reflecting my personality are the other criteria

that follow.

Figure 2: The Weights, Each Criterion take for Style Selection

In the second step, the results of the evaluation ofeach style alternative dependent on each criterionare entered to the software. After entering the resultsof second survey, Expert Choice processes the gradesof criteria in relative to the grades of style trend al-

ternatives all together and determines the style trendthat took the highest priority. In this sampling, Checkis the style that has the highest priority. And sincethe results given are numeric data, the inconsistencyof the selection is zero.

Figure 3: The Final Grades of the Style Alternatives


Picture 4: The Style Alternative Check, with the Highest Grade

The software provides several visualizations thatshow the relationship between style alternatives andcriteria. Some such visuals are sampled in the study,

the graphs below show the relationship between theCheck style and other three styles for each criterion.

Figure 4: The Comparison of “Check” and “Revolution” Styles for Each Criterion

Figure 5: The Comparison of “Check” and “Classic” Styles for Each Criterion

Figure 6: The Comparison of “Check” and “Artistic” Styles for Each Criterion


Another graph below shows all the grades of thestyle alternatives for each criterion and the relation-ship between them. According to this graph, the style

Check has the highest priority for all criteria thanthe other alternatives.

Figure 7: The Priorities of all Style Trend Alternatives for Each Criterion and their Relation

Fabric SelectionThe selection of fabric trends is similar to the selec-tion of style trends. The decision tree formed forfabric selection is below;

Figure 8: The Decision Tree Formed for Fabric Selection

As the result of surveys, decision criteria for fabrictrends had the priorities illustrated in the graph be-low. And accordingly, the criterion which has the

highest weight is the pattern of the fabric, and thelowest weight belongs to fiber properties of the fab-ric.

Figure 9: The Ranking of the Weights of Fabric Selection Criteria.

According to the processing of the results of secondsurvey by Expert Choice, Denim/Canvas is the mostpreferred fabric category by the participants.


Picture 5: The Fabric Alternative Named Denim/Canvas which has the Highest Grade

Figure 10: The Final Grades of Fabric Alternatives

Below the visual demonstration of fabric alternativesand their priorities for each criterion is shown. Ac-

cording to this, Denim/Canvas fabric group has thehighest grades for all criteria.

Figure 11: The Priorities of all Fabric Alternatives for Each Criterion and their Relation

Color SelectionThe selection process for the color alternatives issimilar to the previous selections. The hierarchicalstructure of the decision tree is formed as below;

Figure 12: The Decision Tree Formed for Color Selection


The weights of the color selection criteria are shownin the figure below. According to this, the criterion,Reflectingmy Personality has the highest grade. ThePossibility of Being Combinedwith Other Garments,

Suitability for Body Type and Skin Color, Suitabilityfor Daily Use and Suitability for Seasonal WeatherConditions are the criteria that took the followingweights.

Figure 13: The Weights of the Color Selection Criteria

After processing of the criteria by Expert Choice,the results of the evaluation of color alternatives ac-cording to these trends are entered to the software.

By the end of the evaluation made by Expert Choice,the color alternative “Humid” has the highest prior-ity.

Figure 14: Final Grades of Color Alternatives

Picture 6: The Color Alternative Named “Humid” which had the Highest Grade

Expert Choice provides different visualization thatshows the comparison between alternatives relativeto two different criteria. In this sampling, a graph isvisualized which shows the comparison betweencolor alternatives relative to Reflecting My Person-

ality and Suitability for Daily Use criteria. Theleading alternative Humid has the highest prioritiesfor both of the criteria while the color alternativePoptimist has the lowest for these criteria.

Figure 15: The Comparison of Color Alternatives According to Two Criteria


ConclusionIn conclusion, there are strengths of the AHPmethodwhich prompted its selection as the decision makingtool of this project. When the AHP method is usedin implementing the decision making process, it al-lows direct comparison between the alternatives [9].And using Expert Choice makes it possible to lookat the elements of a problem in isolation, this meansone element compared against another with respect

to their parent element. It helps to structure theproblem and synthesis all the judgements into a uni-fied whole in which alternatives are clearly priorit-ized from best to the worst [8].In this study by implementing the AHP, three inde-pendent decision-making processes of style, fabricand color trends of 2006-2007 Fall-Winter seasonsare carried. By this way the alternatives with thehighest priority are determined and the visuals of theselected trends can be seen below all together.

Picture 7: The Style “Check”

Picture 8: The Fabric Group “Denim/Canvas”

Picture 9: The Color Group “Humid”

These selections reflect the preferences of a specifictarget group aged 20-28 and the results of this studycan be useful for companies, which have similartarget consumers in Turkey. According to thejudgements of the participants, the style with thesportive look, called Check is the mostly preferredstyle trend. Because of this selection, we may saythat a clothing company in Turkey with the similartarget group of the study should mostly invest onthis type of look in its collection.The result of the color selection shows that the

color category named as Humid with the blue andgreen color tones has the highest priority among all

the color alternatives. Fabric and accessory colorscan be mostly selected from this color group.As the last selection, Denim/Canvas is the most

preferred fabric category. Especially for tops likejackets and for pants and skirts this type of fabricshould bemostly used while designing the collection.As a result, a company can invest more on the

fabrics that have the most preferred colors and prints,and arrange the amount of the new models in itscollection due to the ranking of the styles. By usingthis type of a decision technique, a company cancreate a collection, which is directly focused to thetarget consumer, and the amount of garments thatare left at stocks by the end of season can be reduced.


References[1] Sproles, G. (1981), Analyzing Fashion Life Cycles: Principles and Perspectives, Journal of Marketing, 45, 4, Page: 116-

125.[2] Gardner, M., Trend-Spotting: Chasing the Future with Butterfly Net, Christian Science Monitor, July 27: 1995, Page:

12.[3] Brannon, E. L. (2005), Fashion Forecasting, Fairchild: NY.[4] Veblen, T. (1899), The Theory of Leisure Class, McMillan: NY.[5] King, C. W. (1963), Fashion Adoption: A Rebuttal to the Trickle Down Theory. In S. A. Greyer (Ed.), Towards Scientific

Marketing, pp: 108-125. Chicago: Marketing Association.[6] Field, G. A. (1970), The Status Float Phenomenon: The Upward Diffusion of Innovation, Business Horizons, 4, Page:

45-52.[7] Brannon, E. L., Ulrich, P.V. (1994), Computer-Integrated Forecasting For Demand Activated Product Development,

Manufacturing, and Merchandising, National Textile Center Annual Report.[8] Expert Choice Pro Version: 9.5 Manuel.[9] Camacho, F., Boas, F., Camara, J. (2005), A Decision Support System for Hotel Selection Using the AHP Method,

University of Porto, Engineering Faculty.[10] Collezioni Trends Magazine.[11] Available from www.dorlastan.com/98/Fall_Winter_2006_2007.htm

About the AuthorsGozde GoncuIstanbul Technical University, Turkey

Dr. Nigan BayazitIstanbul Technical University, Turkey


An Investigation into the Nature of Resonance in VisualCommunication DesignVeronika Kelly, University of South Australia, South Australia, Australia

Abstract: In visual communications, resonance is a term broadly used to describe interactions or artefacts that evoke adeep level of engagement by touching a collective nerve. Resonance in design is subtle and elusive; yet it is embedded inthe process and practice of effective design communication. The question is, what is design resonance and what is requiredto design stimuli in visual communication that resonate? This paper draws upon the early stages of the author’s continuingdoctoral research into the concept of resonance in design, and maps out certain aspects of the theoretical territory that informsthe research. Resonance is expressed as a phenomenon in physics, physiology, linguistics, visuality and acoustics and inits figurative use resonance appears in music, literature, art and design. This paper discusses resonance as a dynamic in-teraction, drawn from different fields that all have a connection to visual communication, and introduces the concept of theconstellation: a non-linear approach used to illuminate design resonance as a phenomenon of interrelating fields of theoryand a mechanism for generating potential design solutions.

Keywords: Design, Resonance, Visual Communications, Constellation

DESIGN IS FUNDAMENTALLY a socialactivity, centring on “human interactionswith artefacts and situations.”1 In a fast-changing, complex world overloaded with

information and stimuli, communication is faster andsender and receiver are closer. Access to technologyenables users to determine their own level of satisfac-tion to design solutions. The challenge for visualcommunication designers in contemporary contextsis to create interactions in design that resonate withaudiences; these are ways of navigating the spaces-in-between artefact and audience that heighten theexperience of human information processing, engage-ment and understanding. Resonance in design issubtle and elusive, yet it is embedded in the processand practice of effective communications. It is a termbroadly used to describe artefacts or interactions thatevoke a deep level of engagement by touching acollective nerve.This paper draws upon the early stages of the au-

thor’s continuing doctoral research into the conceptof resonance in design, and maps out certain aspectsof the theoretical territory that informs the research.The aim of the research is to identify what resonancein design is or could be, how one could approachconstructing a qualitative measure of resonance invisual communications, and why it is important todesign’s capacity to connect people and communities.This paper discusses resonance as a dynamic interac-tion, drawn from different fields that all have a con-nection to visual communication and introduces the

concept of the constellation: a non-linear approachused to illuminate resonance as a phenomenon ofinterrelating fields of theory.As a concept, resonance is expressed in many

different fields of theory and practice; resonance isa phenomenon in physics, physiology, linguistics,visuality, acoustics, and in its figurative use reson-ance appears in music, literature, art and design. Inphysics, Isaac Newton’s third law of motion providesthe succinct definition of resonance as the phenomen-on of interactions; where for every action, there isan equal and opposite reaction. This is exemplifiedin acoustics, where resonance is observed as a soundthat is strengthened or prolonged by reflection, suchas from the walls of a hollow space, or via the syn-chronous vibration of a neighbouring object. A res-onant object or body may have a number of resonantfrequencies that it responds to, selecting these whilstfiltering out all frequencies other than its own reson-ance.

Extra Meaning and Violating the CodeIn visual communications, resonance is a conceptprincipally associated with design artefacts andproducts where qualities of visual form and structurecombine with content to reinforce the intendedmeaning of the design. This may be through an im-plied reference, connotation, or feature reminiscentof another person or thing, or in some way evokinga sympathetic or parallel response with an audience.Resonance in design is elusive, however Philip B.

1 . Cal Swann, “Action Research and the Practice of Design,” Design Issues 18, no. 2 (Winter 2002): 51.


http://www.Design-Journal.com, ISSN 1833-1874© Common Ground, Veronika Kelly, All Rights Reserved, Permissions: [email protected]

Meggs has said, “perhaps the most important thingthat graphic design does is give communicationsresonance.”2He describes it as an echo or reverbera-tion, a term borrowed from music.3 Resonance is a

richness of tone that heightens the expressivepower of the page. It transcends the dry convey-ance of information, intensifies the message,and enriches the audience’s experience. Reson-ance helps the designer realize clear publicgoals: to instruct, to delight, and to motivate.4

In articulating the importance of resonance todesign’s public objectives, Meggs’ examples centreon the relationship between visual form and content.Together form and content strengthen the intendedmessage and add depth to the communication. Forexample where the characteristics of visual form andstructure of a particular typeface appear to evoke themeaning of a word.Typography and images, properties of colour and

design principles such as contrast, scale and structureare all seen to contribute to the resonance of a design.These are well documented as being central to visualcommunication design; as John Bowers has said“design becomes tangible through visual elements,principles of organisation, and methods of creatingand evaluating form.”5 Analogies between visualform and language as the basis of a dialogue, avisual language, have a long history in design as ameans of using and comprehending visual forms, ofcommunication. For example the idea of writing andtypography as concrete and expressive visual formhas appeared since at least c.300 B.C. in the poeticwork of Simias of Rhodes.6 Through variations inscale, spacing, structural relationships and grammat-ical attributes, typographic design has historicallybeen used to visually express both written languageand auditory effects, in print and on screen. This isa process of bringing ideas and content together withvisual form to heighten expression. However, thisaspect of resonance in design focuses principally onthe artefact and the designer. This does not suffi-

ciently explain how resonance helps delight, instructand motivate an audience.Edward F. McQuarrie and David GlenMick posi-

tion resonance as one of a number of literary devicesused in advertising; typified “as a wordplay in thepresence of a relevant pictorial.”7 Their discussioncentres on a semiotic analysis of resonance wherethe juxtaposition of visual and verbal elements (im-ages and words) creates ambiguity and incongruity;“a play or twist within an ad’s structure that servesto produce an echo or multiplication of meaning.”8

In part this is similar to Meggs’ notion of resonancewhere depth of meaning is added by combiningvisual form and content. For resonance to occur, theelements must combine to “create extra meaning,”where “the structure of the advertising text deviatesfrom expectations.”9McQuarrie andMick’s interpret-ations associate resonance with grammatical devicessuch as metaphor and ambiguity as an aestheticconstruct; created through visual signs, statementsand messages that exhibit a preformed pluralism ofmeaning10 to be decoded or reconciled by the viewer.A visual metaphor is a statement created through

the conjunction of concepts, based on substitution(as in Le Corbusier’s statement a house is a machinefor living in). The designer uses visual ambiguity tobring together ideas that express more than onemeaning; it is unclear which is intended and thisurges an interpretive effort on the audience’s part.11

Umberto Eco has said that ambiguous messages op-erate to overlap and link semantic pathways notusually associated, that “semiotically speaking ambi-guity must be defined as a mode of violating the rulesof the code.”12 Saul Bass describes ambiguity indesign as a means of “transforming the ordinary,” away of adding life and visual interest to design arte-facts.13 Following on from Eco’s ideas of the waythat visual ambiguity violates code rules, McQuarrieand Mick discuss the way a departure from the ex-pected in the structure of an advertising text contrib-utes to creating resonance.14 This disruption of theexpected heightens or emphasises the intendedmeaning of the visual communication. For example,

2 . Philip B. Meggs, Introduction to Type & Image: the Language of Graphic Design (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1989).3 . Meggs, Type & Image, 1.4 . Meggs, Type & Image, viii.5 . John Bowers, Introduction to Two-Dimensional Design: Understanding Form and Function (New York: Wiley & Sons, 1999), 3.6 . John Hollander, “The Poem in the Eye,” in Vision and Resonance: Two Senses of Poetic Form (New York: Oxford University Press,1975), 245–87; and Philip B. Meggs and Alston W. Purvis, Meggs’ History of Graphic Design, 4th ed. (Hoboken: J. Wiley & Sons, 2005),253.7 . Edward F. McQuarrie and David Glen Mick, “On Resonance: a Critical Pluralistic Inquiry into Advertising Rhetoric,” 1992. ht-tp://lsb.scu.edu/~emcquarrie/reson55.htm (accessed June 9, 2005).8 . McQuarrie and Mick, “On Resonance.”9 . McQuarrie and Mick, “On Resonance.”10 . McQuarrie and Mick, “On Resonance.”11 . Umberto Eco, A Theory of Semiotics, (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1979) 262-63.12 . Eco, Theory of Semiotics, 263.13 . Saul Bass, “Transforming the Ordinary,” in Essays on Design 1: AGI’s Designers of Influence, ed. R. Marsack (London: Booth-ClibbornEditions, 1997), 5–7.14 . McQuarrie and Mick, “On Resonance.”


designers frequently juxtapose concepts that maynot usually be associated, in an effort to engage anaudience to an interpretive effort so as to enhancethe communication of message or concept.

Design Resonance as DynamicInteractionAnn C. Tyler has argued that an audience’s under-standing of a preformed message relies on accurateinterpretation. While a preformed message beingdecoded may be understood, at worst it can be con-fusing or incomprehensible.15Richard Buchanan hassaid that in this sense the audience are spectators,viewing design products as entities or material textsto be decoded.16Tyler states that when design objectsare “seen as isolated as a formal esthetic expression”the design is separated from the audience and viewersare passive spectators.17 The audience is engaged nofurther than reconciling the transferred message.However, information is shaped not only by its

origins, but also by the way individuals engage withand interpret it to develop understanding and mean-ing. Visual perception and information processingis an active physiological, cognitive, psychologicalprocess; a combination of bottom-up visual inputsor stimuli and top-down calculations and knowledge.Information is communicated inmanyways; througha variety of media, in conversation with others,through observation and participation in the world,and by interpreting our bodies’ sense impressions inresponse to light, temperature, pain and so forth.18

Jerome S. Bruner states that perception is contingentupon two complex sets of requirements, one basedon the stimulus and one on the state of expectationof the observer.19

When design resonance is observed as an interac-tion, of action-reaction, it is a social phenomenonthat is dependent on two complex sets of require-ments; that of the design itself and the audience. Thisshifts the focus from the designed artefact or outcometo be decoded, to what the audience brings to theinteraction. This is where Newton’s third law isuseful because it identifies resonance as a dynamicinteraction, a phenomenon that is synchronous ac-tion-reaction. In this sense the human body can beseen as the resonant body, picking out and respond-

ing to its own resonant frequencies or stimuli todesign that engages on a semantic, emotional, phys-ical and sensorial level. Design resonance moves offthe page or screen and into the space between artefactand audience, emphasising what the audience bringsto the interaction.In his resonance theory of media, based principally

on electronic and acoustic communication, TonySchwartz discusses ways of designing interactionsspecifically to “strike a responsive chord in people,not get a message across.”20 He is concerned withwhat an audience contributes to the interaction andwhat they will experience:

The traditional communication process is thusreversed. A ‘message’ is not the starting pointfor communicating. It is the final product ar-rived at after considering the effect we hope toachieve and the communication environmentwhere people will experience our stimuli.21

In auditory acoustic space, human perceptions of atotal environment or context are affected by auditoryvolume, contrasts between sounds, intervals, se-quences, motion and speed. Changes in interval fromthe familiar create a violation of expectation, bring-ing something new into prominence.22The discoveryand awareness of the change is reliant on lived exper-ience of the sound (tone, interval, duration, juxtapos-ition etc) in the first place. Schwartz maintains that“examining how stored experiences are patterned inour brain, and how previous experiences conditionus to perceive new stimuli,” comes before understand-ing the communication environment and the contentof the “message.”23 This highlights the importanceof the communication as action-reaction, and is im-portant to the idea of resonance as dynamic interac-tion.

Rhetoric in DesignResonance as dynamic interaction (action-reaction)has some parallels with the idea of rhetoric in design.WhereasMcQuarrie andMick identify resonance asa rhetorical figure based on the semantic interpreta-tion of data, Buchanan is more concerned with therhetorical process as the negotiation of beliefs and

15 . Ann C. Tyler, “Shaping Belief: the Role of Audience in Visual Communication,” in The Idea of Design: a Design Issues Reader, ed.Victor Margolin and Richard Buchanan (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1995), 104–12.16 . Richard Buchanan, “Wicked Problems in Design Thinking,” in The Idea of Design: a Design Issues Reader, ed. Victor Margolin andRichard Buchanan (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1995), 9.17 . Tyler, “Shaping Belief,” 104–12.18 . Bowers, Two-Dimensional Design, 24.19 . Jerome S. Bruner, “On the Perception of Incongruity: A Paradigm,” in Beyond the Information Given: Studies in the Psychology ofKnowing, ed. Jeremy M. Anglin (New York: Norton, 1973), 68–70.20 . Tony Schwartz, The Responsive Chord (New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1973), 27.21 . Schwartz, Responsive Chord, 26.22 . Schwartz, Responsive Chord, 32–34.23 . Schwartz, Responsive Chord, 27.

67VERONIKA KELLY

values. He states that design based on accurate inter-pretation of rhetoric typically characterises theaudience as active participants, not passive recipi-ents.24 This is design that confronts the audience’ssocial values, persuading them to question beliefs asthey consider the adoption of a new attitude or courseof action.25 Rhetoric is conscious and deliberate, atool with no subject matter of its own that can beapplied to any topic, defined by Aristotle as the capa-city to observe the probability of persuasion in everygiven situation. In the rhetorical process, persuasion(action) is the trigger for the questioning andsearching of values (reaction), albeit toward a prede-termined objective.It can be argued, of course, that all design is per-

suasion; that, like rhetoric, the act of design is con-scious and deliberate, applicable to any subject mat-ter. Resonance, however, implies more than persuad-ing an audience to adopt a new belief or attitude. Thecharacteristics of design that evoke a deep level ofengagement with an audience, that engages them asactive participants, suggests a process of inquiry,discovery and human insight that extends beyondthe decoding of a message.These are design interactions that have the poten-

tial to affirm one’s sense of human identity andconnection to others. In this sense resonance canprovide transformative experiences leading to humaninsights that speak directly to the self. Insight isclarity of thought that creates a shift in understand-ing. Nathan Shedroff has defined insight as new in-formation that is transformative of thought; the“highest form of understanding that can be directlyshared from one person to another.”26 This createsthe potential for a sense of connection with others,of shared experience and de-alienation.

The Constellation: A Method forInterpreting Design ResonanceThe design process is traditionally illustrated as alinear or cyclic process, based on the notion ofproblem solving in progressive stages evidenced ina design task. This is a view of problem as having asingle solution, a correct outcome. Bass discusses

the way well-resolved design solutions seem inevit-able.27 This helps to perpetuate the idea that everydesign problem has a correct answer. Clive Dilnotargues that design is a form of praxis fundamentallyorientated to possibility, where the term problem indesign is akin to possibility. 28 This reflects the pro-spective nature of design problems. To perceive theproblem in design as possibility opens up the poten-tial for discovery, for new ways of examining andreassembling evidence. Jerome Bruner explains theessence of discovery as

amatter of rearranging or transforming evidencein such a way that one is enabled to go beyondthe evidence so reassembled to additional newinsights. It may well be that an additional factor shred of evidencemakes this larger transform-ation of evidence possible. But it is often noteven dependent on new information.29

Further to this, Walter Benjamin’s concept of theconstellation provides a usefulmethod for understand-ing resonance, as it is a means of gathering and ana-lysing data, rearranging and reassembling evidence.Benjamin’s idea of the constellation is a model forinterpreting history; a system of interrelations, wherefragments highlight each other through discussionand cross-referencing, and is a critique of the ideaof progress as an irresistible, linear course.30 Theconstellation is regarded as providing the maximumpotential for creating meaning when fragments areplaced in relation to the larger whole, an opportunityto “reassemble into a qualitatively new whole – anew constellation to illuminate the future.”31 Thissuggests parallels to Bruner’s definition of discoveryas a reassembling of evidence to arrive at new in-sights.32 In addition this is indicative of the designprocess where the designer explores the factors spe-cific to each context in moving toward the emergingdesign solution; not necessarily linear, or circular,but as a synthesis of interrelations; that may or maynot initially appear to connect.The intervals, edges and boundaries between ideas,

data and actions indicate points of transition: reveal-ing the spaces-in-between or free spaces wheresomething other than what is, can be realised. In the

24 . Buchanan, “Wicked Problems,” 10.25 . Richard Buchanan, “Declaration by Design: Rhetoric, Argument, and Demonstration in Design Practice,” inDesign Discourse: History,Theory, Criticism, ed. Victor Margolin (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), 93.26 . Nathan Shedroff, “Forms of Information Anxiety,” in Information Anxiety 2, by Richard Saul Wurman (Indianapolis: Que, 2001), 16.27 . Bass, “Transforming the Ordinary,” 5–7.28 . Clive Dilnot, “The Science of Uncertainty: the Potential Contribution of Design to Knowledge,” in Doctoral Education in Design:Proceedings of the Ohio Conference October 8–11, 1998 , ed. Richard Buchanan, Dennis Doordan, Lorraine Justice and Victor Margolin,65–97. Ohio: School of Design, Carnegie Mellon University, 1999.29 . Bruner, Beyond the Information Given, 402.30 . Walter Benjamin, “Theses on the Philosophy of History,” in Illuminations, ed. Hannah Arendt, trans. Harry Zohn (London: Fontana,1973).31 31. Christopher Rollason, “The Passageways of Paris: Walter Benjamin’s Arcades Project and Contemporary Cultural Debate in theWest,” 2002. http://www.wbenjamin.org/passageways.html#partV (accessed July 15, 2006).32 . Bruner, Beyond the Information Given, 402.


design process the spaces-in-between provide thepotential for shifts in perception, discovery and newpossibilities.The constellation draws together different bodies

of knowledge from physics, linguistics, visuality,acoustics, physiology and perception as a way ofunderstanding and interpreting resonance. It alsoprovides a means for developing new design solu-tions by using these fields of study as filters throughwhich to illuminate, view and inform potential designsolutions relative to contexts. In this sense the con-stellation has the potential for application as a toolin the creative process. A design problem may beput through the constellation as a map of filtersthrough which to view and inform design solutions,and to spark new ways of examining data and evid-ence in the process.

ConclusionThis paper discusses the concept of resonance as itis understood in different theoretical fields. Reson-ance is associated with visual metaphor and ambigu-ity, where concepts are juxtaposed so as to violatean audience’s expectations and disrupt semantic

coded pathways; creating visual interest and urginginterpretation. Rhetoric in design further engages anaudience by challenging beliefs and values, suggest-ing connections to the idea of design resonance as asocial activity. The notion of striking a responsivechord, where the patterning and assimilation of livedexperience becomes the starting point for resonantcommunications, invites further study intophysiological and cognitive information processing.As action-reaction, design resonance is positioned

as a dynamic interaction, moving beyond a focus onthe designer or the message to the activity itself. Theaudience is an active partner in the design commu-nication andmeaning is contingent upon engagement.Collectively, these theoretical fields identify a

concept of resonance that is non-linear, interrelatedand best understood through the analogy of the con-stellation. The constellation enables resonance to bestudied from a range of different perspectives and itoffers more than understanding; it has the potentialto act as a filter through which new design solutionscan emerge. The next stage of this research will ex-plore the potential of such constellar applications increating design resonance.

ReferencesBass, Saul. “Transforming the Ordinary.” In Essays on Design 1: AGI’s Designers of Influence, edited by R. Marsack, 5–7.

London: Booth-Clibborn Editions, 1997.Benjamin, Walter. Illuminations. Edited by Hannah Arendt. Translated by Harry Zohn. London: Fontana, 1973.Bowers, John. Introduction to Two-Dimensional Design: Understanding Form and Function. New York: Wiley & Sons,

1999.Bruner, Jerome S. Beyond the Information Given: Studies in the Psychology of Knowing. 4th ed., edited by Jeremy M.

Anglin. New York: Norton, 1973.Buchanan, Richard. “Declaration byDesign: Rhetoric, Argument, andDemonstration inDesign Practice.” InDesignDiscourse:

History, Theory, Criticism, edited by Victor Margolin, 91–109. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989.———. “Wicked Problems in Design Thinking.” In The Idea of Design: a Design Issues Reader, edited by Victor Margolin

and Richard Buchanan, 3–20. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1995.Dilnot, Clive. “The Science of Uncertainty: the Potential Contribution of Design to Knowledge.” In Doctoral Education in

Design: Proceedings of the Ohio Conference October 8–11, 1998, edited by Richard Buchanan, Dennis Doordan,Lorraine Justice and Victor Margolin, 65–97. Ohio: School of Design, Carnegie Mellon University, 1999.

Eco, Umberto. A Theory of Semiotics, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1979, c1976.Hollander, John. Vision and Resonance: Two Senses of Poetic Form. New York: Oxford University Press, 1975.McQuarrie, Edward F. and David Glen Mick. “On Resonance: a Critical Pluralistic Inquiry into Advertising Rhetoric,”

1992. http://lsb.scu.edu/~emcquarrie/ reson55.htm. (accessed June 9, 2005).Margolin, Victor and Richard Buchanan, eds. The Idea of Design: a Design Issues Reader. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press,

1995.Meggs, Philip B. and Purvis, Alston W. Meggs’ History of Graphic Design, 4th ed. Hoboken: J. Wiley & Sons, 2005.Meggs, Philip B. Type & Image: the Language of Graphic Design. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1989.Rollason, Christopher. “The Passageways of Paris: Walter Benjamin’s Arcades Project and Contemporary Cultural Debate

in the West,” 2002. http://www.wbenjamin.org/passageways.html#partV. (accessed July 15, 2006).Schwartz, Tony. The Responsive Chord. 1st ed. New York: Anchor Press/ Doubleday, 1973.Shedroff, Nathan. “Forms of Information Anxiety.” In Information Anxiety 2, by Richard SaulWurman, 15–16. Indianapolis:

Que, 2001.Swann, Cal. “Action Research and the Practice of Design.” Design Issues 18, no. 2 (Winter 2002): 49–61.Tyler, Ann C. “Shaping Belief: the Role of Audience in Visual Communication.” In The Idea of Design: a Design Issues

Reader, edited by Victor Margolin and Richard Buchanan, 104–12. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1995.

69VERONIKA KELLY

About the AuthorVeronika KellyVeronika Kelly has a professional background in information and motion graphics for television, digital mediaand print spanning twenty years – as designer with the Australian Broadcasting Corporation and in her ownconsultancy. Veronika is the Program Director of Visual Communication Design at the South Australian Schoolof Art, University of South Australia. Her research interests centre on the social and cultural contexts of visualcommunication and the significance of design as a collaborative process. Veronika is the current educationrepresentative for the AGDA (Australian Graphic Design Association) Council in South Australia and a memberof the Design Research Society.


Form and Function in Web Design: A Humanistic PerspeciveDenise Wood, University of South Australia, South Australia, Australia

Abstract: This paper presents a critical review of the debate over form and function with a particular focus on the impactthat Sullivan’s (1896) dictum “form ever follows function” has had in the area of Web design. It is the thesis of this paperthat such a debate is founded on a misunderstanding of the meaning of the dictum, and that a resolution can be found inadopting the intended meaning that “form and function should be one”. Form is defined in this paper in terms of a Website’s aesthetic properties, such as beauty and style, but further, as a manifestation of the site’s usefulness, usability anddesirability. Such a position acknowledges the importance of function and the role that form plays in enhancing the user’sexperience of the Web. Proceeding from this assumption, several strategies are outlined that suggest ways in which designerscan create Web sites that incorporate elements of form and function to enhance the experience of the user, while also ac-knowledging the ethical responsibilities of the designer.

Keywords: Form, Function, Aesthetic, Usability, Accessibility, Web Design, Humanism

THIS PAPER PRESENTS a critical reviewof the historical debate over form and func-tion with a particular focus on the impact thatSullivan’s (1896) dictum “form ever follows

function” has had in the area of Web design. Theimportance of both form and function is discussedfrom a humanistic perspective and it is argued thata humanistic approach to Web design regards formand function (encompassing usability, accessibilityand technical adequacy) as one. Such a position ac-knowledges the importance of function and the rolethat form plays in enhancing the user’s experiencesof theWeb. Proceeding from this discussion, severalstrategies are proposed that designers can follow indeveloping sites that can enhance the experience ofthe user through effective use of form and function,while also acknowledging their ethical responsibilit-ies as designers.In 1896, Sullivan wrote in an article The Tall Of-

fice Building Artistically Considered that “form everfollows function”. Sullivan’s dictum has been thesubject of considerable debate over the ensuingdecades, finding a new audience amongst Web de-signers when the Internet was transformed by theinvention of the graphical user interface in the 1990s.This paper begins with a historical account of the

form versus function debate. The impact that Sulli-van’s dictum “form ever follows function” has hadin the area of Web design is then discussed. Theemergence of new approaches to Web design andstrategies for designing Web sites that incorporateform and function are proposed. The paper concludeswith a discussion of the importance of a humanisticapproach to Web design and the designer’s respons-ibility to create sites that contribute to and improvethe quality of life for all users.

A Historical Perspective

For Plato, function is subsumed within form,and is a secondary quality; in other words,function follows form. For Aristotle, functionwas preeminent, and the coordinated hierarchyof the living world reflected increasingly com-plex functions. Form should be understood asthat which fulfills a function (Krakauer, 2000).

The debate concerning form and function can betraced to classical antiquity. As Krakauer (2000)explained, Plato regarded every concrete being ashaving form, and therefore held the view that formprecedes function. In contrast, Aristotle regardedform as that which fulfils function; form is said tofollow function.This debate, according to Krakauer (2000), found

new expression in emergent disciplines. The maximthat “form follows function” first introduced intoarchitectural doctrine by Lodoli in 1750, and popular-ised by architect Louis Sullivan in the nineteenthcentury, is often cited as evidence of the continuationof the functionalist philosophy in modernist architec-ture and design. This philosophy was adopted duringthe industrial revolution with the invention of tech-niques for mass production, which as Buchanan(1995) argued, necessitated a separation of designingfrommaking. However, the industrial revolution alsoled to the separation of design from the intellectualand fine arts and apart from some isolated efforts toreunite design with the arts of making, new discip-lines of design thinking combining theoreticalknowledge and practical action for productive pur-poses did not emerge until the early part of thetwentieth century.


http://www.Design-Journal.com, ISSN 1833-1874© Common Ground, Denise Wood, All Rights Reserved, Permissions: [email protected]

The Bauhaus inaugurated by Walter Gropius in1919 represented a new approach to design; onewhich recognised the logical interdependence ofliberal art, technological culture and the commoncitizenship of all forms of creative work. Accordingto Gilbert (2004), the artists of the Bauhaus made aconscious decision to shun purely ornamental ele-ments that detracted from the object’s primary pur-pose, focusing instead on the utility and simplicitythat resulted from form following function and con-cern for users and their context of use. However, asEhn (2002) argued, while the Bauhaus in the 1920s“was a social progressive experiment full of beliefin the future”, it was also a democratic failure whichdiminished to an elitist program.While the Bauhaus of the 1920s lacked the “instru-

mentalities of forethought” required to complete therevolution in attitude and thinking, as Buchanan as-serted, it offered “a way to discover and express hu-man qualities and values, to make them an integralpart of the human-made environment” (Buchanan,1995). The new Bauhaus established by Moholy-Nagy in Chicago during 1937 carried this visionfurther, interpreting Sullivan’s dictum “form followsfunction” from a humanistic perspective. As Findeli(1995) explained, the functionalism Moholy-Nagypromoted went beyond the materialistic model ofthe original Bauhaus, recognizing that “to be a de-signer means not only to sensibly manipulate tech-niques and analyse production processes, but also toaccept the concomitant social obligations” (p. 43).The Moholy-Nagy interpretation of “form followsfunction” therefore more closely reflected the Aris-totelian philosophy in which distinction is madebetween episteme (theory), techne (techniques) andphronesis which can be defined as experience-basedethics oriented towards action (Hansen, 1997).The discourse about form and function in design

continued into the post-modern period as newmediaand digital technology transformed society into onewhich is information rich and “hyper complex”(Thorlacius, 2004). Fajardo and Koontz (1998) de-scribed this changing design culture as one in whichdesign problems are infinitely more complex, audi-ences more fragmented and diverse, and the tools ofproduction are in an ever-changing state of flux.Finck (2001) also acknowledged the demands thatthese cultural shifts placed on designers:

Design is struggling. The balance of form andfunction is more commonly than not shifted toone side or the other, but the web is still young.As with many things in life, we learn from exper-ience. Sometimes we have to fail in order toknow what it takes to succeed (Finck, 2001).

These tensions were evident in the early debatesbetween human computer interaction (HCI) experts

and design professionals regarding the importanceof style and imagery in Web design. As Laviea andTractinsky argued in 2004, HCI researchers andpractitioners traditionally emphasised objective per-formance and tended to overlook the role that aesthet-ics play in determining user satisfaction and pleasure.According to Engholm (2002), the functionalistmainstream originated in the early 1990s when theWeb was primarily used to communicate textual in-formation. This first-generation, functionalist ap-proach to Web design can be considered a continu-ation of the modern design tradition originating fromthe Bauhaus (Laviea and Tractinsky, 2004). By theend of the decade, artists had begun to push the limitsof the medium, resulting in the appearance of thefirst avant-garde sites in which graphics were addedas an extra dimension to the content, at the extreme,drowning out the content and focusing on art for artssake (Engholm, 2002). However, such debatesproved futile and represented a lack of understandingof Sullivan’s dictum “form follows function”. AsFrank Lloyd Wright pointed out “form and functionshould be one” (cited in Dunning, 2002); in otherwords, function and form are intricately intertwinedand inseparable (Finck, 2001).So why was Sullivan’s dictum “form follows

function” so misunderstood in the early days ofWebdevelopment? What are the developments in recentyears that have enabled designers to move beyondsuch polarised positions and instead focus on theways in which aesthetics, functionality and ethicalconsiderations can be harmoniously integrated inWeb design? To answer these questions we mustfirst arrive at an agreed definition of the terms formand function, and acknowledge the importance ofhuman-centred design as an affirmation of humandignity (Buchanan, 2001) in Web design.

Form, Aesthetics and Style

Aesthetics should be inseparable from commu-nication. A great formula to adhere to for theuse of aesthetics is: As long as form equalscontent, then the use of aesthetics is appropriate(Margulis, nd).

One of the contributing factors to the early debatesregarding the balance between form and functionwas the lack of clear definition of the term “form”.Typically the term “form” is used synonymouslywith terms such as aesthetics and style, and the “formfollows function” dictum is taken to mean the debatebetween the functionalists who espoused aminimalistapproach and ornamentalists, who according toHoffman, Roesler and Moon (2004), believed thatdesign relies on ornamentation whose function ispurely aesthetic. Yet as Laviea and Tractinsky (2004)asserted, there are differing interpretations of the


meaning of the term “aesthetic”. For example, theclassical aesthetic dimension of ancient times emphas-ised orderly and clear design; principles closely re-lated to those advocated by usability experts. Duringthe Renaissance, the term aesthetic was taken tomean beauty, with beauty being defined in an object-ive sense; the emphasis being on properties such asorder, proportion and symmetry. The alternative viewdescribed beauty in a more subjective manner, ac-knowledging the connection between beauty andemotion.Research studies that consider the role of aesthet-

ics in human-computer interaction and Web designadd further weight to the argument that aesthetics isan important determinant of user experiences andnot necessarily in conflict with the principles of us-ability. For example, Laviea and Tractinsky (2004)have cited several studies suggesting that the visualattractiveness of a site affects a user’s enjoyment aswell as perceptions of ease of use and usefulness.Similarly, Schenkman and Jonsson (2000) in a studyof the relationship between complexity, legibility,order, beauty, meaningfulness, comprehension andfirst impressions of Web users, found that beautywas an important predictor of overall impression andan important factor determining how a Web pagewill be experienced and judged. Participants in thisstudy grouped overall impression, beauty andmeaningfulness together at the high end of the appealfactor, while order, legibility and complexity weregrouped at the high end of the formal factor. Schen-kman and Jonsson concluded that aesthetic commu-nication not only involves the properties of the ob-ject, but also the decoding and interpretation of theuser. It is evident from these studies then, that visualappeal and aesthetics should be important considera-tions in the design of any interactive system (Lavieaand Tractinsky, 2004) such as the hypertext environ-ment of the Web.Saffer (nd) extended the definition of form beyond

discussion of physical or aesthetic properties of aproduct, explaining that form comprises every aspectof the product’s character, including the values ofthe culture to which it belongs. Taken in this way,form can be regarded as the manifestation of aproduct’s “usefulness, usability and desirability”.This interpretation of the term “form” is consistentwith that of Philip Meggs (cited in Saffer, nd) whoargued that form gives a design its “cohesive com-position that gains order and clarity from the relation-ship between the elements”.The term “form” has also been used to describe

the concept of visual communication (Thorlacius,2004); an interpretation that is consistent with thecommunication model devised by Shannon andWeaver (cited in Saffer, nd). These interpretationsdescribed by Saffer are in keeping with the human-

istic perspective of design; form does not merelyfollow function, it also fulfils “biological,psychosocial, and sociological requirements” andmust therefore be chosen with consideration of itseffect on human beings. Such a humanistic perspect-ive is also to be found in the writings of Zaccai(1995) who argued that the real focus of design isnot the object, but rather, the user of that object, andthe humanistic aesthetic as one “which encompassesthe intellect, the soul and all the senses” (p. 8).

Function and Usability

The functional elements of a site are what ulti-mately bring value to the user experience byhelping to “solve a problem”. A site that lacksfunction will not retain the users that strongform will attract (Meta4Creations, nd).

Michil (1995) proposed two alternative definitionsof the term “function”; the intended functioning andthe actual functioning. Intended functioning refersto the purpose of an artefact, or a Michil argued, tothe designer’s “performance-related intention”, re-gardless of whether that intention is realised. Thealternative interpretation, actual functioning, is moreclosely aligned with the scientific notion of function-ing that exists as a phenomenon regardless ofwhether it is part of the intended function. Michilargued that if we define function as the actual func-tioning of an object, then the form must exist priorto function, since function must always follow theobject’s form. Conversely, if we define function asthat which is the intended purpose of the object, thenfunction must precede form since the intendedfunction implies that the designer has conceived ofthe design prior to the creation of the object. ToMichil (1995) the only logical conclusion from ana-lysis of the meaning of the term “function” was thatthe dictum “form follows function” onlymakes senseif we define function from the perspective of perform-ance-related intention. In other words, function isdefined as the purpose of the object.Discussions focusing on such a view of the utilit-

arianism of the Web are not hard to find. For ex-ample, Barth (2005) argued “The World Wide Webis a medium for directly practical, utilitarian art, forwhich the intended audience will become users ofthe art in a very direct sense” and further “Functioncomes first, form second. This is especially true ofutilitarian art like architecture and web design, whichhave human users”. Barth urged designers to thinkabout function first, suggesting that designers shouldfirst decide what they want the Web site to achieveand then allow the form of the site to proceed fromthere. In Michil’s (1995) view however, such dis-course reinforced the argument that the functionalistnotion of function operates as “carte-blanche”, allow-

73DENISE WOOD

ing designers the freedom to define function in waysthat legitimise their own priorities.In 2004 Hilhorst argued that while experts “preach

the virtues of functional design”, they overlook therole that form plays in influencing function. Hilhorstwent on to argue that “aesthetics directly affectsperceived ease-of-use, usefulness and enjoyment”.Similarly, Gee (2003) acknowledging that “there isnothing wrong, and everything right with conductingsome sort of user testing depending on the site beingbuilt” argued that style, brand, look and feel are allvery important elements of the user experience:

The usability camp cannot fall so in love withnumbers, quantifiable results and tests that theythrow out what we know about consumers andhow people make decisions based on visualcriteria (Gee, 2003).

Many of the debates of the time were coloured bywhat some designers perceived to be the minimalistposition advocated by usability experts (for exampleNielsen, 1994) and the use of visual icons that fa-voured form over function. Yet the argument that“aesthetics should be inseparable from communica-tion” (Margulis, nd) is a view promoted by manyauthors, including Shedroff (1997), Finck (2001),Engholm (2002), Hilhorst (2004) and Thorlacius(2004). In this next section, the relationship betweenform and function as it applies to Web design is ex-amined further.

Form and Function in Web Design

Form follows function — that has been misun-derstood. Form and function should be one,joined in a spiritual union (Frank LloydWrightcited in Gee, 2003).

The preceding discussion offers some insight intothe varying definitions of the terms “form” and“function”. Despite the perpetuation of the debateabout form versus function, it is evident from thisdiscussion and from the writings of authors such asShedroff (1997), that there is nothing inherent in thedefinitions of the terms that suggest form and func-tion cannot co-exist in design. Indeed, it can be ar-gued, that it is the “spiritual union” of form andfunction in Web design that will lead to enhanceduser experience.The view that form and function should be in ac-

cordance in design has been expressed by numerousauthors. For example, Engholm (2002) suggestedthat discussions of design should focus on how tocombine form and function in such a manner thatthe aesthetic aspects are not subordinate to the func-tional aspects or the other way around. Similarly,Finck (2001) argued that the essence of function re-

lies on form and Hilhorst (2004) contended that de-signers should recognise the coalescence and recip-rocal significance of form and function in achievingthe optimal outcome. Thorlacius (2004), like Hil-horst, placed particular importance on the contribu-tion that form makes to the functionality of a site:

It is, in fact, very important that a web site,which has as its primary aim the provision ofinformation, also offers aesthetic experiences.This is first of all because the aesthetics can inmany ways work to support the content and thenavigation, but it is also because the visualrepresentations, when used in the right way,are capable of representing the organisation ina positive way (Thorlacius, 2004).

Shedroff’s (1997) “Recipe for a SuccessfulWebsite”outlines strategies that designers can follow toachieve the balance between form and function inWeb design. According to Shedroff, the six majoringredients for a successful site design include:Content; Organization and Navigation; VisualDesign; Performance; Compatibility and Interaction.Shedroff’sWeb site outlining these principles, whileexemplary in its approach to advocating both formand function, failed to acknowledge the importanceof accessibility in design. This is not surprising, sinceShedroff’s site was designed prior to the introductionof the World Wide Web Consortium’s (W3C) WebContent Accessibility Guidelines (1999). Shedroff(2002) in later writings acknowledged the relation-ship between usability and accessibility, although atthe time of the writing of this paper (June 2007), his“Recipe for a SuccessfulWebsite” remains inaccess-ible to many users; missing alternative text for im-ages, poor colour contrast and the small font size ofnavigation links being just a few of the accessibilityproblems evident with the site.In more recent years there have been notable de-

signers including Zeldman (2003), Shea and Holz-schlag (2005), Meyer (2006) and others who havealso promoted an integration of form and functioninWeb design.What makes the work of these design-ers distinctive is their attention to the World WideWebConsortium’sWeb coding standards and access-ibility guidelines. It is the contention of this author,that a truly humanistic perspective of form andfunction must also address issues of accessibility;ensuring that the widest possible audience have ac-cess to the interactionsmade possible through unifiedWeb design in which form and function are one.

Towards a Humanistic Perspective

It is true that usability plays an important rolein human-centered design, but the principlesthat guide our work are not exhausted when we


have finished our ergonomic, psychological,sociological and anthropological studies ofwhat fits the human body and mind. Human-centered design is fundamentally an affirmationof human dignity (Buchanan, 2001)

It is evident from the preceding discussion that fora Web site to be effective, there needs to a balancebetween form and function. Moreover, new andemerging technologies such asAjax, dynamicHTMLand Web 2.0 challenge the out-dated debates aboutwhether form ought to precede function as the fieldsof design and usability continue to merge (ux 2.0,2006). While user participation has always been afunction of the Web, more recent technologies facil-itate rich user experiences and change the roles ofproviders and users as collaborative networking en-ables the creation, modification and deletion ofWebcontent by participants (Best, 2006). But asMitchampointed out over a decade ago, “the problems withdesign are not just technical or aesthetic, but alsoethical” (1995, p. 187). Just as these technologieshave the capacity to link users isolated by disability,geographical location and social circumstances, thosewho can benefit the most will be further excluded ifdesigners fail to realise their ethical responsibilitiesas designers.While user-centred design considers the usability

of a Web site from the user’s perspective, human-centred design is concerned about the affirmation ofhuman dignity. Web designers are uniquely posi-tioned to promote the dignity of all users by ensuringtheir sites “remain accessible despite any physical,sensory and cognitive disabilities, work constraintsor technological barriers” (Sklar, 2003, p. 55). Forthe purposes of this discussion, the term “accessibil-ity” is defined in its broadest sense:Web accessibilityis about ensuring that anyone, using any browser ordevice is able to access any content on theWeb. Thisdefinition is consistent with Letourneau’s (1998)position that accessibility ought to be concerned withensuring that all users (regardless of ability) shouldbe able to access sites using current and legacybrowsers as well as emerging non-browser technolo-gies, and gain full and complete understanding ofthe content of those sites.The World Wide Web Consortium’s (W3C) Web

Content AccessibilityGuidelines version 1.0 (WCAG1.0) and the draft version 2.0 (WCAG 2.0)guidelines, and the US Section 508 Standards forWeb accessibility provide designers with guidelinesthat can help them to createWebsites that are access-ible to a broad range of users, including those withvisual impairments, hearing impairments, mobilityimpairments and learning disabilities. The W3CWCAG 1.0 (1999) guidelines are described brieflyin the following sections.

The two themes underpinning the current versionof the W3C Web Content Accessibility Guidelines(WCAG 1.0) are: (1) ensuring graceful transforma-tion and (2) making content understandable andnavigable.The techniques for ensuring graceful transforma-

tion include:

• separating content from presentation• providing text equivalents• creating documents that work even if the user

cannot see and/or hear• creating documents that do not rely on a particu-

lar type of hardware

The techniques for making content understandableand navigable include:

• providing navigation tools and orientation inform-ation

• providing methods enabling users to skip overgroups of links and access links with short cutkeys

There are 14 WCAG 1.0 guidelines with associ-ated checkpoints; the theme of graceful transforma-tion is addressed in the first eleven guidelines, whilethe second theme, making content understandableand navigable applies to guidelines 12 to 14:

1. Provide equivalent alternatives to auditory andvisual content

2. Don’t rely on colour alone3. Usemark-up and style sheets and do so properly4. Clarify natural language usage5. Create tables that transform gracefully6. Ensure that pages featuring new technologies

transform gracefully7. Ensure user control of time-sensitive content

changes8. Ensure direct accessibility of embedded user

interfaces9. Design for device-independence10. Use interim solutions11. Use W3C technologies and guidelines12. Provide context and orientation information13. Provide clear navigation mechanisms14. Ensure that documents are clear and simple.

These 14 guidelines are organised into the follow-ing priority levels based on the checkpoint’s impacton accessibility.

Priority 1: A Web content developer must sat-isfy this checkpoint. Otherwise, one or moregroups will find it impossible to access inform-ation in the document. Satisfying this check-point is a basic requirement for some groups tobe able to use Web documents.

75DENISE WOOD

Priority 2: A Web content developer shouldsatisfy this checkpoint. Otherwise, one or moregroups will find it difficult to access informationin the document. Satisfying this checkpoint willremove significant barriers to accessing Webdocuments.Priority 3: A Web content developer may ad-dress this checkpoint. Otherwise, one or moregroups will find it somewhat difficult to accessinformation in the document. Satisfying thischeckpoint will improve access to Web docu-ments.

TheW3CWeb Content Accessibility Guidelines 2.0(WCAG 2.0), which are expected to come into effectin 2007, are designed to have wider applicability tomore advanced Web technologies and to provideguidelines that are more precisely testable thanWCAG 1.0. According to the W3C, Web sites thatconform toWCAG 1.0 should not require significantchanges in order to conform to WCAG 2.0 since thefundamental issues ofWeb accessibility are the same,though there are some differences in the requirementsbetween WCAG 1.0 and WCAG 2.0.Despite the potential for accessible design prac-

tices to “even the playing field” and “build a seriesof bridges across the digital divide”, Dunlap lamen-ted in 2006 that for some developers, Web accessib-ility is considered a “troublesome inconvenience thatassists relatively few and diverts energy and re-sources from Web initiatives and development pro-jects that could aid the masses”. In 2005, the UKDisability Rights Commission expressed concernsabout the state of accessibility of UKWeb sites, cit-ing the findings of their study in 2004 which foundthat 81% of the 1000 UK Web sites tested failed tosatisfy basic accessibility requirements. Similarly, arecent audit of 100 leading Web sites from aroundthe world commissioned by The United NationsDepartment of Social and EconomicAffairs reported:

“Levels of web accessibility across the 20countries were lower than anticipated, giventhe presence of disability legislation in somecountries and the fact that theWCAG have beenin existence for over half a decade. Apart fromthe three sites that achieved Single-A accessib-ility, there is a global failure to provide the mostbasic level of web accessibility for people withdisabilities” (The United Nations Departmentof Social and Economic Affairs, 2006, p. 3).

Similar findings from studies of the accessibility ofGovernment and public Web sties are not hard tofind. For example, a survey of Irish Government andpolitical Web sites undertaken in 2006 by Red Car-dinal found 34% of the 41 sites tested failed WCAG

1.0 Priority 1 guidelines and 90% failed bothWCAG1.0 and CSS/HTML validation tests, and the reportconcluded that “Maintaining WCAG compliance isby far the most difficult area of website accessibility,even more so given the dynamic nature of many ofthe sites tested” (p. 11).The problem is further compounded when consid-

ering the usability of Web sites. Technical accessib-ility is a pre-condition for usability (Leporini andPaternò, 2002), but providing an accessible site doesnot in itself make the site usable (Powlik andKarshmer, 2002). As research undertaken byMa andZaphiris (2003) has shown, the correlation betweenaccessibility and usability is low; a Web site that isusable does not mean it is also accessible and viceversa. Thus, while the W3C WCAG guidelinesprovide the foundations for designing an accessiblesite, a truly humanistic approach toWeb design mustgo much further; designers must also consider theneeds of users and understand how users who relyon adaptive technology work with their tools(Theofanos and Redish, 2003). A humanistic modelthen, is one that considers both aesthetics and func-tionality; acknowledging that functionality encom-passes Web accessibility, usability and technical ad-equacy.

Conclusion

This paper has provided a historical account of theorigins of the debate between usability experts whoadvocated a functionalist approach to Web designand designers who emphasised form over function.More recent innovations in Web design have shownthat form and function are both necessary andachievable components in Web design. Yet despitethe promises afforded by new technologies, researchhas shown that users who stand to benefit the mostfrom the promise of social networking and richmediaexperiences mediated via the Web remain isolatedthrough a lack of attention to fundamental Web ac-cessibility concerns. The strategies outlined in thispaper provide a starting point for designers. How-ever, adherence to W3C Web Content AccessibilityGuidelines will not in itself guarantee that designerswill create sites that provide the appropriate balancebetween form and function. Designers must alsoconsider strategies for incorporating aesthetic ele-ments in ways that enhance the user’s enjoyment andexperience, while at the same time supporting themessage. Designers also need to work with usabilityexperts who engage users in assessing the usabilityof a site from the user’s perspective. Finally, design-ers need to acknowledge their ethical responsibilitiesand aim to design sites that promote and affirm thedignity of all users through accessible designpractices.


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About the AuthorDr. Denise WoodDenise is responsible for the Bachelor of Media Arts program in the School of Communication, University ofSouth Australia and she coordinates and is principal lecturer for several multimedia and Web design coursesoffered within the undergraduate and Honours programs at the University of South Australia. Denise is alsoChair of the School of Communication Teaching and Learning Committee and Co-Chair of the Division's EquityCommittee. Denise has extensive experience in the multimedia industry as both a producer and training providerand she has undertaken several research studies addressing the impact of technology in education. Denise'scurrent research into strategies for embedding usability and accessible design practice within the undergraduatemultimedia design curriculum is of particular relevance to her paper for this conference.


Economic Evaluation of DesignSiva Ram Vemuri, Charles Darwin University, Northern Territory, Australia

Abstract: Decisions concerning design are increasingly being made on economic grounds. This paper explores links betweenEconomics and design. It examines the implications for evaluating design using the micro-macro economics distinction thatexists in economics. The paper suggests the need for adopting different methodological constructs for conducting microand macro economic evaluation of design. Adopting different methodological constructs is proposed based on at least twogrounds. First, the distinction between Micro and Macroeconomics focuses on different aspects of design. Second, the toolsused for the conduct of evaluations are different. Cost flow analytical tools are necessary for conducting microeconomicevaluation of design. Use of impact analysis is needed for macroeconomic evaluation of design. Finally, the paper suggeststhat such differences in methodology have far reaching implications for future designs.

Keywords: Economic Tools, Decision Making

Introduction

THIS PAPER IS about the economic toolsused in decision making as applied to design.For design purists, who are wedded to thenotion that design involves inspiration,

ideation, expression, implementation and evaluation,links between economics and design are either seenas blasphemous or absurd. However, if one were toexamine much more closely the two disciplines –Economics and Design – and what they purport toachieve, there is more commonality than first meetsthe eye.Reality in its entirety is complex – everything de-

pends on everything else. It would indeed be im-possible to fully come to grips with it totally, letalone prescribe comprehensive policies to influenceit. Real world complexity was therefore reduced inits dimensions into manageable parts. This gave riseto the existence of disciplines.Economics as a discipline evolved over time. Like

all evolutionary processes, it did not suddenly emergeas a separate entity.

For most of history, economics did not have aseparate identity apart from social thought ingeneral. Even as late as the eighteenth century,Adam Smith viewed economics as a subset ofjurisprudence. This makes search for firstprinciples of economic reasoning more difficult,not because the intellectual cupboard of an-tiquity was bare, but because the lines of de-marcation among social sciences were blurred.(Robert B. Ekelund, Jr. & Robert F. Herbert,1997, p.11)

In spite of such blurred vision, economics evolvedas a discipline in its own right with its primary focus“on human conduct which are direc ted towards theacquirement of material wealth, and those conditionsof human well being which directly depend on mater-ial wealth...” (Alfred Marshall, 1879, p.5) The re-conceptualization of Economics occurred as concernsshifted from solely satisfying individual utilities toalso addressing society’s welfare. Economics wastransformed once again and became “a study ofmankind in the ordinary business of life; it examinesthat part of the individual and social actions whichis most clearly connec ted with the use of materialrequisites of well-being.” (JohnMulberg, 1995, p.51)The simultaneous focus of concern – on the indi-

vidual, and for society – was made possible by (a)recognizing the “influence of economic forces whichmould the character of humans” (John Mulberg,1995, p.51), through use of money; (b) relying onself-regulating market processes involving manylevels of representation, with a common purpose ofpursuing rational economic behaviour; and (c) pre-scribing policies to ensure markets function effi-ciently. Analysis of these underlying forces becamethe focus of attention, not only to help transmit indi-vidual needs to societal concerns at large, but alsoin creating scientifically rigorous and universallyapplicable mechanisms and processes.Economics as a discipline, in the contemporary

world, provides the necessary analytical tools andvocabulary for communication between technolo-gists, designers and innovators. The world is ruledby little else than economic vocabulary.Design was also considered all pervasive. “All

men are designers. All that we do, almost all thetime, is design, for design is basic to all human


http://www.Design-Journal.com, ISSN 1833-1874© Common Ground, Siva Ram Vemuri, All Rights Reserved, Permissions: [email protected]

activity. The planning and patterning act towards adesired, foreseeable end constitutes the design pro-cess.” (Victor Papnek, 1972, p.17) The commonalitythat exists between design and economics disciplinesis the conscious creation of “meaningful order”(Victor Papnek, 1972, p.17) and making of ‘rational’decisions by exercising choices based market prin-ciples. These disciplines are involved with “humancapacity to shape and make our environment … thatserves our needs and gives meaning to our lives.”(Heskett, 2002, p.7)This paper is concerned with the interconnected-

ness of the two disciplines. In particular, the paperfocuses on how economic tools can be incorporatedinto design.

Two AgendasIn contextualising economic evaluation of designtwo distinct agendas need addressing: (i) the signific-ance of economics as a discipline for evaluatingdesign; and (ii) the necessity to distinguish betweenmicroeconomics and macroeconomics, on the onehand, and stock and flow analysis, on the other – andtheir related implications for conducting designanalysis.

Agenda 1: Significance of Economics asa Discipline for Design EvaluationEconomics is no longer the ‘dismal’ science thatpeople used to think it was. Our understanding ofwhat constitutes the discipline of economics haschanged over the years. A contributing factor tochanging face of economics is that its deliberationsare no longer narrowly restricted to finding ways andmeans for overcoming scarcity.Economics now contributes significantly in all

areas of life by equipping decision makers at alllevels of engagement – from individual to societallevels. Most of these engagements are based on anotion that decisions need to be made only whenthere are prevalent choices and each of the choicesneed to be compared with others on the basis of costsand benefits or utility or effectiveness. Even in situ-ations when there are relatively few choices to bemade, the notion of opportunities lost in making theonly selection possible involves economic analysisof future realizations. Tools of economics are widelyused in every deliberation. There are a plethora ofapplications of economics in all facets of life. Wherethere are choices to be evaluated, there is a need forconducting economic analysis.Economics plays a significant role in design

evaluation. This is because design is a process thatinvolves a number of steps. They are:

The design problemThe design brief

InvestigationDeveloping alternative solutionsChoosing a solutionPreparing models and prototypesTesting and evaluationProduction and manufacturing

As decisions have to be made at every step in thedesign process, rational decision making – andtherefore economics – has a significant bearing ondesign evaluation.The question that now arises relates to conduct of

economic evaluations. Two features of economicsbecome significant in conducting economic evalu-ation of design. They are: differences between stockand flow analysis in economics, and differencesbetweenmicroeconomics andmacroeconomics. Boththese differences have a bearing on how designevaluations are conducted.

Agenda 2: Differences and Implicationsfor Economic EvaluationStock “is a quantity measured at a point in time”and flow “measures a quantity per unit of time”(Michael Parkin, 1990, pp.439-440). An awarenessof such a distinction between stock and flow is fun-damental when conducting economic evaluation ofdesign. In design terms, flow analysis is defined asmeasuring design aspects over time. As analyticalframes of reference need to contend with time, thereis a need to be involvedwith aspects such as discount-ing processes. In the case of stock analysis of design,the analytical framework focuses mainly on cross-sectional rather than time-series analysis. Stock andflow distinction has implications for both macro andmicroeconomics.The Graham Bannock, R.E. Baxter and Evan

DavisDictionary of Economics definemacroeconom-ics as the “study of whole economic systems aggreg-ating over the functioning of individual economicunits. It is primarily concerned with variables thatfollow systematic and predictable paths of behaviourand can be analysed independently of the decisionsof the many agents who determine their level”(Graham Bannock, R.E. Baxter and Evan Davis,2003, p.236). Microeconomics, on the other hand,is defined as the “study of economics at the level ofindividual consumers, groups of consumers or firms”(Graham Bannock, R.E. Baxter and Evan Davis,2003, p.252).The underlying differences between the micro and

themacro economics involve aggregation and repres-entation. The problem of aggregation is that one canneither be absolutely certain that the “sum of theparts will be equal to the total”, nor can one rely onthe notion that one is able to comprehend the work-ings of the total without adequate knowledge of the


components. The challenge in dealing with microand macro economic analysis – and therefore microand macro evaluations – is that the micro elementsare not necessarily consistent with their macrocounterparts, even though they both deal with thesame reality. The nature and extent of disconnectionbetween totality and its manageable parts are furthercomplicated by differences in stocks and flows thatone needs to contendwith while conducting econom-ic evaluations.For economic analysis of design, therefore, the

implications of differences between Micro andMacro, on the one hand, and stock and flow, on theother, are substantial. These will be discussed in de-tail below.

Microeconomic Evaluation of DesignMicroeconomic evaluation of design depends onthree main features: the elements of the design pro-cess; the conduct and performance of the designer;and the user’s value of the design. The tools used inboth design and microeconomics are similar to thosebased on the project life-cycle, and include concep-tion, planning, design, procurement, construction,start-up, operation and maintenance. Therefore, mi-croeconomic evaluation of design predominantlyinvolves similar steps to a project-based evaluation.Ceteris Paribus, namely ‘all other things beingequal’, is an assumption underpinningmicroeconom-ic evaluation of stock of design. Economic analysistherefore focuses on evaluating aspects of the basicdesign elements.

Basic Design Elements for MicroeconomicEvaluationMicroeconomic evaluation involves the first fivebasic elements of design – problem, brief, investiga-tion, comparison of alternative solutions and makinga decision. In conducting a microeconomic evalu-ation of design, these elements of design need to betranslated through use of economic vocabulary. Asthe initial step is identifying the design problem,namely whether it involves inventing a product,changing an existing design, or improving an existingproduct, microeconomic evaluation begins with aclear appreciation of the design problem. The designbrief then needs to be understood by the evaluator.In particular the evaluator needs to specifically de-scribe the problem concisely, clearly and simply asa decision making objective. Design investigationinvolves examining function, appearance, materials,construction and safety issues. Details of each ofthese aspects need to be conveyed and measured.Design alternatives are then considered in two ways– designer’s perspective and adopting the economiccalculus in order to make sound decisions. The final

step is then choosing a solution, for which explicitdecision criteria are required and need to be specifiedbefore conducting microeconomic evaluation.The next step involved in conducting a microeco-

nomic evaluation of design is to assign monetaryvalues to each of the design elements stated above.If there are certain aspects of the design element thatcannot be expressed in money terms, then a shadowvalue may be assigned.Shadow prices are used in valuing any item that

is implicitly rationed or constrained in some way.Shadow prices can be derived using linear program-ming, techniques and can be used in social cost-be-nefit analysis, which attempts to achieve an optimalresource allocation in the absence of an effectiveprice system. (Graham Bannock, R.E. Baxter andEvan Davis, 2003, p.353)Base line cost data is then obtained for the identi-

fied designed elements.

Baseline Cost DataThis is divided into two areas: one-off capital costs;and operation andmaintenance costs over the projectlife cycle.

• Capital costs: In the initial stages, these may in-clude such things as: land acquisition, includingassembly, holding and improvement; planningand feasibility studies; architectural and engineer-ing design. During implementation, capital costsmay include: Construction, including materials,equipment and labour; field supervision of con-struction; insurance and taxes during construc-tion. Other types of capital costs are likely to in-clude: general office overheads; equipment andfurnishings not included in construction; inspec-tion and testing.

• Operation and Maintenance costs over the pro-ject life cycle: These are on-going costs, whichinclude such things as: land rent; operating staff;labour andmaterial for maintenance and repairs;periodic renovations; insurance and taxes; finan-cing costs; utilities; and other expenses.

Economic and financial cash flows also need tobe differentiated as they are quite distinct and areused in different ways in conducting design analysis.

Economic & Financial Cash FlowIn conducting microeconomic evaluation of designthere is a need to distinguish between economic andfinancial flows. Economic cash flow refers to thebenefits and costs associated with both acquisitionand operation aspects of design. This is referred toas ‘economic cash flow’ or ‘operating cash flow’.This is not the same as ‘financial cash flow’, which

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represents incomes and expenditures as a result ofadopting a specific financial plan for funding theproject. Financial cash flow therefore needs to berecognised as being conducted over the planninghorizon.

Conducting Microeconomic Evaluationof DesignMost microeconomic evaluation of design involvesthe use of one or more of the following measures.Each of these measures is used for specific purposes.It is necessary to understand the underlying featuresof these measures as they mostly reflect differentaspects relatedwith discounting. Such an understand-ing is important for conducting a micro evaluationof design so that appropriate measures can be used.

Net Future Value (NFV) / Net Present Value(NPV)The Net Future Value (NFV) is the net return at theend of the planning horizon above what might havebeen gained by investing elsewhere at the ‘minimumattractive rate of return’. The ‘minimum attractiverate of return’ is used for compounding the estimatedcash flows to the end of the planning horizon, or fordiscounting the cash flow to the present. The NetPresent Value (NPV) of the estimated cash flowsover the planning horizon is the discounted value ofNFV to the present.

Equivalent Uniform Annual Net ValueThis is a constant stream of benefits and costs atequally spaced time periods over the intended plan-ning horizon of a project. It is calculated as NPVmultiplied by an appropriate ‘capital recovery factor’and is a measure of the net return of a project on anannualised or amortized basis. The Equivalent Uni-form Annual Cost is calculated by multiplying thePresent Value of costs by an appropriate ‘capital re-covery factor’. The objective is to minimize this costas it is an indicator of the negative attributes of aproject.

Benefit/Cost RatioThe Benefit/Cost Ratio is the ratio of discountedbenefits to discounted costs at the same point in time.If the Benefit/Cost Ratio is greater than one (B/C >1), the project is profitable.

Internal Rate of Revenue (IRR)This is the discount rate which sets out the NPV ofa series of cash flows over the planning horizon equalto zero. It reflects Marginal Efficiency of Cost, or

the rate of return over the cost. This represents thereturn of an investment when the capital is in use, asif the investment consists of a single outlay at thebeginning and generates a stream of net benefits af-terwards. Intermediate points in the planning horizonare not taken into consideration.

Adjusted Internal Rate of RevenueThis is calculated as IRR on the project cash flow,modified so that all costs are discounted to thepresent and all benefits are compounded to the endof the planning process.

Return on InvestmentThis is the ratio of income (Revenue – Depreciation)for each year and the undepreciated asset value (in-vestment) for that same year. It represents the report-ing income in each year of a multi-year project,breaking up the streams of cash flow into annualrates of return.

Pay Back PeriodThis is the length of time within which the benefitsreceived from an investment can repay the costs in-curred and ignores the remaining time periods in theplanning horizon.All of the above measures emphasise different

aspects of the flow. Some compare the flow withreference to the time taken for investing in design topay off, while others indicate the extent of futurebenefits of designing a product or an improvement.The type of measure used will ultimately dependupon the design decision question that one is address-ing.There are many design questions that one can po-

tentially be concerned with. However they all seemto have a common link – the continuum of built andnatural environments – which is a result of much ofthe design that occurs at the micro (individual) andthe macro (interactive) level. The design questionsare no longer neatly compartmentalised into microand macro concepts. The significance of the microfoundations of macro analysis of design is nowreasonably well recognised thorought the professionsof Architects, Planners and Urban designers.There has been a recognition for sometime in the

design profession as evidenced by the outlines indesign courses (for example, Polytechnique ofCentral London, 1985, p.4), that urban designers,are required to deal with three dimensional environ-ments that include – among other aspects – design,management, evaluation techniques, improvementsto parts of buildings and spaces between buildings,and mobility of people.


Many contributors (Paul L. Knox, 1988, Brown,2002) have examined the “place of design” in thepolitical and economic landscape and have exploredthe “changing role of design” in the modern daycontext.Today, as most of our open spaces, wildlife habit-

ats, air, water, soils, and trees show stress and de-cline despite hopes for a better future, the oftencantankerous debate about ecology and its relevancefor landscape architecture must be enlarged. Wemust appreciate landscape and place as ideas, andapply these ideas to design, management and plan-ning of our homes, places of work, communities,cities, and biocultrual regions. (Thompson andSteiner, 1997, p.5)At the root of these new concerns with design and

its interactions are changing economic and politicalparadigms, fuelled by the new economic order,changing global trends, the rise of the informationeconomy, and a clearer appreciation of ecologicalfootprints.Awareness of interactions needs to be followed

through by providing an analytical framework forexamining how the interconnectedness of design canbe evaluated. Macroeconomics provides vocabularyand tools for assessing interconnectedness.

Macroeconomic Evaluation of DesignMacroeconomic evaluation of design emphasizesinterconnectedness. Design, in this context, is con-sidered:

an environmental science. It is also a manage-ment science, because design decision is state-ment of intent, design is also policy science.Because design reshapes environments in whichour health is sustained or eroded, design is anapplied health science. (Brown, 2004, p.3)

BasicDesignElements forMacroeconomicEvaluationThe fundamental basis for understanding designelements for macroeconomic evaluation stems fromacknowledging that everything is related toeverything else. There is interconnectedness, say,between health and design. There is a growingawareness that design “shapes technologies and ac-tions that damage or sustain health” (Brown, 2004,p.18).As the emphasis here is on interconnectedness, it

is essential to recognise how design and its applica-tions -- industrial products, building systems, andcities -- are connected to each other and also to thefundamental process of sustaining life. Therefore,there are calls being made to focus on connectivity.

“Design must reflect the reality of connectivity”(Brown, 2004, p.18.)Macroeconomic evaluation of design begins with

recognition that designers are placemakers who areinvolved with much more than a mere technical taskof designing. Even though designers may producetechnical results they are more than technicians, theyare a part of a team of futurists. “Placemakers is anice term to describe people involved with designingthings for people to inhabit” (Goodey, 1988, p.266).As Economics is about exercising choices, mac-

roeconomic evaluation of design is based on analys-ing the relationship between internationalisation ofconnectedness and internalisation of how responsesare shaped to suit our surroundings.Design as a decision science involves a number

steps. They are:

LearningPerceiving relationshipsFlexibility across space and timeReperceiving depthUse of imaginationBehaviour modification.

An illustration of InterconnectednessDesign is connected to health, which in turn is con-nected to the environment, and therefore, design isconnected both to environment and health. Anawareness of the relationship between health andconditions in designed environments is manifested,for example, in terms of sanitation, congestion; thetypes of emergency services needed, and spurreddevelopment of public health issues. Moreover,design influences on environments are also well un-derstood. Design can disrupt ecological systems viaresource extraction, land modification, and energyconsumption. There is also well documented evid-ence of Environmental effects on health. (McCally,199; World Health Organisation, 1997).The challenge, therefore, is to find methods for

evaluating the complex array of features of intercon-nectedness between design, health and environments.In order to “adequately analyse and synthes-

ize…design scale problems there needs to be a setof tools and techniques available” (Brown, 1988,p.277) that transcend the narrow confines of anysingle discipline. The task is that muchmore challen-ging if a flow analysis were to be adopted as eachdiscipline – design, environment and health, in thepresent context – have evolved dynamically, address-ing contemporary issues of concerns within theconfines of each discipline. As a result, any macroe-conomic evaluation of design will necessarily beginwith creating a transdisciplinary framework. Impactassessment provides an approach for developing sucha framework. Therefore, the first step in conducting

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a macroeconomic evaluation of design is to adoptan Impact Assessment Methodology.‘Impact Assessment’ is an ‘umbrella term’, for a

range of techniques used for assessing human endeav-ours in development pursuits. These include: Envir-onmental Impact assessment (EIA), Cumulative ef-fects assessments, Health Impact Assessments, Riskassessments, Social Impact assessments, Strategicenvironmental assessments, Technological assess-ments.Macroeconomic evaluation of design therefore

involves, from the outset, a clear specification of thecontext in which to conduct such an evaluation. If,for example, themacroeconomic evaluation of designis undertaken to examine health related issues, thenmacroeconomic analysis of design in this contextwill use the Health Impact assessments as theframework for conducting an analysis.Health Impact Assessments are defined succinctly

by the World Health Organisation, as follows:

Combination of procedures, methods and toolsby which a policy, programme or project maybe judged as to its potential effects on the healthof a population and the distribution of thoseeffects on the health of a population and thedistribution of those effects within the popula-tion. (World Health Organisation, 1999, p.4)

Once the framework is established, the technical as-sessments of design can occur.

Technical Assessments – EvaluationStepsThe evaluation steps in conducting amacroeconomicanalysis of design will therefore be based on technic-al assessments. The steps to be followed are:

Assessment of primary, secondary and tertiaryimpacts on pre-specified parametersScreening of impacted parametersAssessment of the magnitude of exposed popu-lation for each groupAssessment of magnitude of risk included ineach group of exposed populationsComputation of impactsDefinition of acceptable significant impactIdentification of efficient mitigation measuresto reduce riskFinal decision – Yes or No to the project.

SummaryThis paper has discussed Economics, in the contextof microeconomics and macroeconomics. The con-texts in which design is considered have also beendifferentiated:Microeconomics of design is differentfrom Macroeconomics of design. Microeconomicevaluation of design emphasises streams of benefitsand costs, whilemacroeconomic evaluation of designinvolves the application of impact assessment meth-odology. How innovation, design and communicationare implemented depends onwhethermacroeconomicor microeconomic issues are being dealt with.Economic evaluation of design really needs to

ensure that designers should, on the one hand, befree to exercise choice for nurturing creativity andfreedom of expression, but, at the same time, befunctionally rooted in the very economic system ofwhich they are a part. This means that by understand-ing micro-macro tools for economic evaluation ofdesign, we are able to nurture the imaginative andcreative but being alert of the pragmatic reality ofthe economic systems in which individuals operate.If this can be achieved successfully, design as a dis-cipline will flourish and not be threatened bytakeovers from market forces.

ReferencesBannock, Graham, R.E. Baxter and Evan Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. London: Penguin Reference, 2003.Brown, Andrew. “Design, Health and Environment”. Paper presented at the 3 rd Global Conference on Ecological Justice

and Global Citizenship. 2004. (Private Correspondence).Brown, Andrew. “Planetary Health.” Interdisciplinary Environmental Review. IV (2). (December 2002):159 -177.Brown, John L. “Computer Modelling for Urban Design”. In The Design Professions and the Built Environment, ed. Paul

L. Knox. Sydney: Croom Helm, 1988: 276 - 288.Ekelund, Robert B.Jr. & Robert F. Herbert. A History of Economic Theory and Method. Singapore: McGraw-Hill Interna-

tional Editions, 1997.Goodey, Brian. “Making places: Urban Design in Britain”. In The Design Professions and the Built Environment, ed. Paul

L. Knox. Sydney: Croom Helm, 1988: 253 – 275.Heskett, John. Toothpicks and Logos: Design in Everyday Life. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.Parkin, Michael. Economics. New York: Addison Wiley, 1990.Polytechnic of Central London.Master of Arts in Urban Design: Proposal by Schools of Architecture and Planning, Faculty

of Environment. London: Polytechnic of Central London. 1985. as quoted in Goodey, Brian. “Making places:Urban Design in Britain”. In The Design Professions and the Built Environment, ed. Paul L. Knox. Sydney: CroomHelm, 1988: 260.

Marshall, Alfred. Principles of Economics. London: McMillan, 1920.


McCally, Michael. "Five years down the road fromRio. (Looking at progress made since the 1992 Earth Summit) (Editorial)".British Medical Journal 314.n7099 (July 5, 1997): 3(2).

Mulberg, Jon. Social Limits to Economic Theory. London: Routledge, 1995.Thompson, George F. and Frederick R. Steiner. “Introduction”. In Ecological Design and Planning, ed. Thompson, George

F. and Frederick R. Steiner. Toronto: John Wiley & sons, Inc. 1997.World Health Organisation.Health and environment in sustainable development. Geneva:World Health Organisation, 1997.

About the AuthorAssoc.Prof. Siva Ram VemuriSiva RamVemuri (Ram) received his Batchelor's degree in Economics from the University ofWestern Australia,a Master of Arts from University of Bombay and his doctorate from University of Birmingham, Engalnd. Since1976, Ram has worked in various academic institutions inclduing University of Birmingham (England), IndianInstitute of Technology (Bombay), Yarmouk Univeristy (Jordan), University of Papua New Guinea (PortMoresby). Currently he is Associate Professor of Economics at Charles Darwin University (Darwin). His researchexpertise is in the area of interdisciplinary environmental management, health care planning, macroeconomicmanagement, Economic impact assessment and sustainable development, role of indigenous knowledge systemsin decision making and Natural resource management including waste management.

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Crowdsourcing Creativity: Participative Design on the InternetAlexandre Joyce, Université de Montréal, Québec, Canada

Abstract: More than ever people want to participate proactively in the design process. In many domains, users have alreadybecome active in modifying or creating solutions for themselves to satisfy their needs and desires. The internet has provento be a fertile ground, enabling large numbers of users to become active in generating content. This study was conductedto better understand the relationship between the simplicity of participation over the internet and the user’s capacity to in-novate. To do so, we evaluated the creativity of user participation while using the internet for crowdsourcing a brainstormingtask. In 2006, the term crowdsourcing was coined to designate a phenomenon where large numbers of people are accom-plishing tasks over the internet. Crowdsourcing a brainstorming is what we’re calling brainsourcing. This study shows thatin the right conditions, participants over the internet can produce a large quantity of original and diverse responses to adesign problem. Moreover, the brainsourcing exercices produced ideas that are comparable to those of a group of designers.In addition, we developed a means for designers to perceive tacit needs by allowing for users to express their ideas. Witha third person point of view on the results of the brainsourcing, the designers can reflect upon the users’ generated contentduring the participatory design process. Ultimately, we propose brainsourcing as a parallel activity to brainstorming. Whilestill involved with defining the problem space, the designer’s perspective on the sum of the participants’ ideas can help himto better understand the bigger picture and the emergent schemes.

Keywords: Crowdsourcing, Design, Process, Creativity, Participation, Collaboration, Democracy

How can the Design Process Supportuser Participation?

PARTICIPATORY IS A term that refers toa large collection of attitudes and techniquespredicated on the concept that the people whoultimately will use a designed artefact are

entitled to have a voice in determining how the arte-fact is designed (Carroll 2006).People want to express themselves and to particip-

ate directly and proactively in the design develop-ment process. The users express their unthought de-sires, unspoken feelings and inexperienced needsunconsciously by submitting ideas (Sanders 2002).So far in participatory design, need intensive tasksinvolved in developing a particular type of productor service are assigned to users, along with the toolsneeded to carry those tasks out. At the same time,solution intensive tasks are assigned to manufactur-ers. (Von Hippel 2005)One avenue for letting users take part in the design

process has been innovation toolkits. In testing thesetoolkits, a successful collaboration was achievedbecause evaluations and feedback from other usershelped the originators to refine their ideas during thecourse of the contest in order to raise the overallquality of the submissions (Pillar & Walcher 2004 )In spite of this, current technical systems for distrib-uted design are still lacking support for many of theactivities that “thinking together apart” involves.Many of the communication tools are taken for

granted when designing in a group. The importanceof non-verbal cues such as facial expression, postureand eye contact are implicit in the social activity thatis design. The success of design teams relies heavilyon the ability of participants to negotiate differentperspectives (Larsson2002).To understand the effects of electronic collabora-

tion on the design process, brainstorming tools havecreated an interactive, physical and digital workspacethat addresses the requirements of interdisciplinaryteams. In testing these brainstorming tools, the resultshave shown that distributed teams generate moreideas and communicate more about the ideas thanthose collocated in the same room (Rosenthal&Fin-ger 2006). These same studies proved that no matterif the teams were distributed or collocated, thebrainstorming sessions gave way to the same typesof ideas (Rosenthal&Finger 2006).In this present study, we looked to evaluate the

creativity of user participation using the internet tosupport the design process. Our efforts were focusedon developing pilot studies for crowdsourcing cre-ativity.

What is Crowdsourcing?Crowdsourcing is a new phenomenon where largeamounts of people are accomplishing tasks over theinternet. The neologism “crowdsourcing”was coinedin the context of businesses outsourcing specializedtasks to amateurs over the web. Now the productivepotential of millions of online amateurs is attracting


http://www.Design-Journal.com, ISSN 1833-1874© Common Ground, Alexandre Joyce, All Rights Reserved, Permissions: [email protected]

the attention of businesses and professionals (Howe2006).By collecting the input of the public online,

crowdsourcing allows for a problem to be handledby virtual crowds, then rewarding those with the bestideas. These problems are divided into tasks that canvary from the more specific like transcribing thespoken words of a podcast, to the more general liketaking a picture of a dog. Some tasks can even bepoetic and abstract like drawing happiness.Crowdsourcing was also inspired by the concept

of the collective wisdom of crowds. According tothis concept, large group of diverse individuals willcome up with better and more robust forecasts andmake more intelligent decisions than even the mostskilled decision maker (Surowiecki 2005). Throughcrowdsourcing, one of the goals of this study is tobegin studying how group wisdom could impact thedesign process.Crowdsourcing is a part of the web 2.0 phenomen-

on that has been giving users the opportunity to par-ticipate and play a role on the web. The web 2.0model is heterogeneous, ad-hoc, evolutionary ratherthan fixed and pre-established. But above all it is

pragmatic and robust, allowing tools and applicationsto evolve naturally alongside each other, shaped bythe communities that they serve (Pillar &Ross 2006).An essential part of web 2.0 is harnessing collectiveintelligence, turning the web into a kind of globalbrain (O’reilly 2005). Blogger, Youtube, Wikipediaand other web 2.0 websites are putting into practicethe idea of user generated content building a central-ized collection of knowledge on the web.To explain the relationships that allow for crowd-

sourcing to take place, we have established thismodel of reference. To begin with, participation overthe internet has been growing thanks to the web 2.0websites. Crowdsourcing takes place when a thirdelement is introduced in that relationship: whenparticipation over the internet is oriented towards aproject. As people participate in projects, the devel-opment process is creating content. On the other sideof the equation, when the internet is used to supportprojects, it serves as an aggregator of knowledge.Therefore, another way to see crowdsourcing is theaggregation of created content during web 2.0activities.

Why are users Participating in theDesign Process?The user participation movement originated fromsoftware designers that were amazed by how theirusers handle real world situations. This was latercalled the initial fascination of user involvement(Bodker&Iverson 2002). In the case of softwaredesign, there is a disconnect between the breathlesspronouncements of cyber gurus and the experienceof ordinary people left perpetually upgrading hard-ware to meet the demands of new software (Gershen-

feld 1999). This idea of gurus imposing their designphilosophy has been part of software design as wellas product design. The practice of user participationis rising in an effort to democratize the design pro-cess.The importance of user generated content can be

felt as far as Time magazine naming the people par-ticipating over the web “the person of the year” for2006. One of the consequences of the user generatedcontent is a change in the nature of the interactionsbetween individuals over the internet. This exempli-fies the shift from the cathedral like practice of oneperson speaking to the masses to the network of in-


dividuals all taking part in a bazaar (Raymond 1998).In other words, the offer and the demand are becom-ing more specialized, allowing for a greater marketin the sum of the niche products. (Anderson 2002)For one thing, customers are now empoweredwith

greater access to information so that many want tohave a greater say about the products they purchase(Pillar & Ogawa 2006). Not surprisingly, then,studies have found that timely and reliable know-ledge about customer preferences and requirementsis the single most important area of information ne-cessary for product development (Pillar & Ogawa2006). Basically, people want to take part in theproduct development and avant-garde companies arefinding ways to let it happen. So far, this hashappened in the types of situations where users findthemselves in small heterogeneous markets andwhere little user experience exists (Von Hippel2006).To this point, we’ve established that the internet

has proven to be a fertile ground for large amountsof users to become active in generating content. Onthe other hand we’ve also seen that this simply ex-tends from users that have already been active increating solutions for themselves to answer theirneeds and desires. Consequently, this study wasconducted to better understand the equation of thesimplicity of participation over the internet with theuser’s capacity to innovate based on personal exper-ience. How can the internet support user participationin the design process?What could these participatingusers propose based on their everyday experienceswith mass market objects?

How did we Study Crowdsourcing?In this study, we created 3 independent tasks focusedon each pole of the presented crowdsourcing model.The first study was oriented towards better under-standing the participants of crowdsourcing and theirmotivations. The second study, on the internet pole,was designed to understand how crowdsourcingcould generate creativity. Finally, the project polewas tested by crowdsourcing a common designactivity: a brainstorming.For these particular studies, we used the mTurk

service on the Amazon website (www.mturk.com).It’s a service that links anyone or any companyneeding a task to be accomplished by potentialworkers. The namemTurk comes from the legendarychess playing mechanical Turk of the 18th century.It turned out that there was a grand chess master in-side working the intricate gears. In this case, themaster inside the service is numerous participants,named Turkers, accomplishing these tasks, live overthe internet. The result is a form of “Artificial, artifi-cial intelligence”.

Usually the tasks require a form of human compu-tation (Von Anh 2002) or human intelligence wherea computer program couldn’t replicate the results.By posting on the website a human intelligent task,also know as a “HIT”, any participant can choose toaccept it, complete it and get the financial compens-ation. In this particular service, the financial compens-ation ranges from 1 penny to a few dollars. In a nut-shell, Mturk is a large bulletin board of various tasksto be accomplished on site.

What were the 3 Pilot Studies?

Online ParticipationIn traditional studies, subjects can be hand pickedfor numerous characteristics like age, gender, occu-pation and nationality. In the case of crowdsourcing,those parameters aren’t controlled. Therefore, theobjective of the first study conducted with the mTurkservice was to get a feel for the particular communityof participants. Because we couldn’t knowwho theywere, we wanted to better understand what theirmotivations for participatingwere. To get this inform-ation, we offered them one single us penny to tell uswhy they were participating in this task.Two days later, we received the 100 responses we

had requested.We learned that the origins of people’smotivation were varied but not often unique. If aperson stated many different reasons, we acceptedall of them. Of the 100 people that answered, half ofthe people stated money as a part of their reason forparticipating. Many of which were participatingsolely for the money. About a third of the respond-ents participate in mTurk hits to occupy themselves,stating that they have time to loose, or they’re boredand they might as well be making money. In the lastreoccurring motivations, 14 people stated that theyparticipated to help the cause, and another 14 peoplefound it to be fun. Thus, proving that there weresome participants involved for more the monetarycompensation. This was the group to be targeted forour following studies on crowdsourcing creativity.In addition, there were some original motivations:

to learn, for the challenge, for conversation, for thegaming aspect of being a high performer, for curios-ity, to feel productive, as a hobby, because of addic-tion, to better understand the mTurk service, and torelax.What did we get from all this information? Be-

cause we were merely offering a penny for their re-sponse, we tried to nullify the financial aspect. Thatdidn’t work. The monetary reward was overwhelm-ingly important. The value of a penny is ever chan-ging.Financial gain aside, we identified two potential

motivators for generating participation with thisservice. Allowing for the participants to have some

89ALEXANDRE JOYCE

fun in accomplishing the task is key in fightingboredom or helping procrastination. The other motiv-ator is allowing for people to make a difference.Responding to a task gives the participant the chanceto feel that they’re helping a cause. One participantsaid: “I'd like to think I'm helping out with somethingbigger than myself... I'm not sure what”With the criteria of fun and helping a cause in

mind, we created the next task to get some feedbackon how creative the crowd could be. This study alsofollows the four important rules need to be observedto better harness the power of the crowd: diversity,independence, decentralization, aggregation(Surowiecki 2005).

Creative CrowdsourcingFor one single us penny’s reward, we created thesecond task called “Saving bananas”. This time, thequestion to be answered was: “if you were to bring

a banana somewhere, how would you protect it so itdoesn't get smashed? What techniques or objectsshould be created to carry a banana?”More precisely the objective of this second study

was to evaluate the creativity of the responses of theparticipants in terms of originality versus repetitive-ness. Over a two weeks period, we received 94 re-sponses. Initially, we were concerned that the crowdof participants would generate a few reoccurringsimilar answers like in the first study. Because themTurk service doesn’t allow for participants to seewhat other participants are proposing, we can meas-ure individual creativity.When looking at the results in the summary in

numbers table, we see that 48 of the 66 differentideas were completely original (73%). We use theterm original in the sense that no one else expressedthat same idea. Inversely, only 18 of the 66 ideaswere repeated (27%). This crowdsourcing exerciseturned out to be more creative than initially expected.

Summary in NumbersIdeas were submitted124Online participants94Ideas were different66Ideas were completely original48Ideas were repeated at least once18Times for the most repeated idea18Times the second most repeated9Hyperlinks to images3Penny for each idea1

A form of this long tail power law can be observedin the originality of ideas. The theory of the long tailrelates to products that are in low demand, yet cancollectively make up a market share that exceeds therelatively few current bestsellers (Anderson 2006).Our results show that putting the banana in a tupper-ware seemed to be a “bestseller” response as 18

people mentioned it, 9 people spoke of a lunchboxand 7 of bubble wrap. In contrast, the long tail con-sists of 48 original ideas that showcase the individu-ality still present within the crowd. For example:freezing the banana, cutting it up before hand orsimply using a tennis ball canister.


Therefore, it is safe to say that when it comes togenerating creativity, a crowd isn’t necessarily polar-ized. This study proves that in the right conditions,participants over the internet can produce a largequantity of original and diverse responses to a designproblem.

Brainstorming vs BrainsourcingIn the third study we wanted to put to the test thisnewly developed method for generating creative in-put. We were eager to evaluate the potential for thistool in a design process, more precisely in thebrainstorming phase.This final study was even more specific. We were

looking to compare the results of a brainstormingheld amongst designers and a brainsourcing of inde-pendent online users.We are defining brainsourcingas an on-line participatory brainstorming. Our goalwas to study the differences in the collaborative andsynchronous condition versus the non-collaborativeasynchronous condition. How could those differentwork conditions affect the overall creativity in thebrainstorming?The choice of brainstorming for toasters was jus-

tified for the following reasons. A toaster is an objectthat can be found in most homes. The users comeinto contact with it almost every day. No specialknowledge is required to understand how it works,nor to use it properly. No specific training or profes-sional experience could radically change the outcomeof the toasting activity. Yet, their remains an import-ant functional and practical component which bothinduce creativity.The following task was proposed to the parti-

cipants :

What creative ideas do you have for breadtoasting?

If you had to design a bread toasting machine,what ideas would you propose?Any creative idea is good, but try to touch thesepoints:Technical : in the way of toasting bread.Aesthetics: in the appearance of the toaster (orin hiding it).Social: in the toasting activity.Environmental: in the impacts of toasting andmaking toasters. Have fun. Be original.

This brainstorming subject was proposed to twodifferent groups. Serving as a reference group, thefirst group was comprised of 8 graduate students ofvarious design fields and one professor of design.All 9 willing to take part in a 30 minute brainstorm-ing session after class. They were given pencils andpaper, and asked to aim for quantity and creativity.The second group was formed with the participantsof the mTurk service, who accepted this task byproposing their ideas for one single US penny.Again, the dependent variable we were measuring

was the number of original ideas generated versusthe repetitiveness of ideas. Except that in this thirdpilot study, we were also equipped to evaluate thesimilarities and differences of these variablesbetween the two study groups.In the case of the designers, their ideas came in

point formwritten on paper. Some quick explanatorysketches were also handed in. To gather the datafrom the internet participants, the ideas expressedwithin their short paragraphs were extracted in pointform. Sometimes, the participants also expresseddesign criteria for the toaster like durability.In this task, only 20 on-line participants responded

with creative ideas. We linked this amount of parti-cipation to the earlier 14% of the crowd that waslooking to have fun and/or help a cause. Moreover,this task required more implication, which made its1 cent reward less proportionate to the creative effort.

91ALEXANDRE JOYCE

Nonetheless, we believe that the higher degree ofcreative difficulty filtered out some repetitiveness.The collective brainstorming session amongst the

9 designers generated 24 ideas, for an average of 2,4ideas per person. In the case of the 20 internet parti-cipants, they generated 34 ideas, for an average of1,7 per person. Even though the “bread toastingbrainstorming” required a higher implication of theinternet participants, the 1,7 average ideas per personwas higher than the 1,3 average idea per participantin the “saving bananas” study.So how do the results of a brainstorming of design-

ers in collaboration versus a brainsourcing of amultitude of users online compare? The bottom lineis that the online participants were able to match 15of the 24 designer ideas (63%). Here are few ex-amples of unexpectedmatches where the same ideaswere articulated by both groups: A voice saying“your toast is ready”, a programmable timer, andeven steamed bread within the coffee maker.Even though the internet participants couldn’t

consult each other, sometimes they proposed thesame ideas differently amounting to “blind collabor-ation”. (Von Ahn 2004) For example, the idea oftoasting patterns onto the bread was expressed byone participant as “interchangeable plates or letters”.This idea seems to be built upon when another parti-cipant proposes to toast character images or evencorporate logos. Another example comes in the formof problem solving. One participant wanted to insurethat the outside of the toaster doesn’t get hot, andanother went one step further by proposing aceramic casing for the toaster. The collaboration ismerely an illusion for it is created or felt when ag-gregating the ideas. In fact, this blind collaborationis but a form of repetition and agreement.This blind collaboration is only due to the way the

mTurk service is set up. The participants don’t seewhat the other participants are responding. Thismethod of participation has been an unexpectedpositive outcome of this brainsourcing session.People having the same idea express it differentlyand to different extents.In a collaborative effort like in the case of a wiki,

people could be discouraged in comparing theirsimilar idea to one that has been already posted. Oneof the principles of brainstorming is to differ judge-ment (Jones 1980). This is easily achievable whenfacing a blank page, because there is nothing tojudge. However, when trying to add and improveonto existing responses, an inherent evaluation ofthe existing is part of the process to better orientone’s input.The essence of true collaboration is that team

members are actually ‘thinking together’ rather thanonly exchanging information and opinions (Larsson2003).Today, collaboration is not truly present in the

current forms of crowdsourcing initiatives. An excep-tion can be made for cases like Wikipedia, wherepeople are adding to the work of others, in a distrib-uted asynchronous form of “thinking together”. Thisis one of the strengths of the wiki. However, if wikisare to gain any more influence they ought to be im-proved by mechanisms like the ones that haveworked tolerably well in the pre-Internet world(Lanier 2006).The example ofWikipedia is contrary to the creat-

ive goal of brainstorming studied here. In the caseof the participative encyclopaedia, collaboration isa constant amelioration of the existing. In 2006, only1% of the time, the participants of Wikipedia arecreating new content on Wikipedia (stats.wikime-dia.org).

SummaryOur studies have taught us three important elementsof creative crowdsourcing:

1. People are willing to participate in the designprocess.

2. When encouraged to be creative, people can bevery original.

3. A brainsourcing online can give comparableresults in quantity and quality to a brainstormingwith people.

What could our Future Work be?Recently, we had created a follow-up task rewarding5 cents (which in terms of mTurk is an interestingamount). We looked to test the crowd’s ability toproduce sketches of toaster ideas. This complement-ary task to the third study completely failed as not asingle response was given. Further studies could re-veal why people didn’t send in sketches (drawingabilities, technical problems like scanning, or timeconsumption).More importantly further studies couldinvestigate solutions which would allow for the usersto communicate ideas withmore thanwords (Sanders2002).We have established three other avenues that could

potentially be explored. The first avenue concernsitself with the quality of the user input in the designprocess. Are users really generating efficient, usefulor pertinent content? The second avenue is aboutscaling this study to include other aspects of thedesign development process by taking a step backfrom brainstorming. How can the users participatein all the different phases of the design process: theresearch, conceptualisation and the technical devel-opment phases. Finally the most probable avenuethat we will undertake is that of better understandingthe type and level of the input that the user can bestoffer. Does the user’s experience better help him


create ideas for innovating in the specific designobject in the holistic service? Can organisationalmodels become the common language to innovatethe services of a company? How could the internetsupport this interaction?

ConclusionThis study contributes in finding ways to harness thecollective wisdom of individuals within a crowd. Todo so, we used a readily available internet servicewhich allowed for crowdsourcing creativity by pro-posing a brainstorming exercise.Crowdsourcing a brainstorming is what we’re de-

fining as brainsourcing. This participatory designactivity collected more than information on howusers have been interacting with products, it alsodefined the characteristics of potential new products.Users have a place to generate ideas and thus helpidentify their future needs and aspirations.This study demonstrates another way for designers

to perceive users’ tacit needs by allowing them toexpress their ideas. As the users create freely andintuitively, expressing their inner latent desires

(Sanders 2002), a third person point of view on theresults of the brainsourcing could become part ofthe participatory design process. While remainingin a form of reflective practice (Schön 1984), design-ers can reflect upon users’ generated content whichis unbiased by design education or culture.Ultimately, we propose brainsourcing as a parallel

activity to brainstorming. While still in the act ofdefining a particular design problem and identifyingpotential solutions, the designer’s perspective on therange of participants’ ideas can help better under-stand the bigger picture, the complex systems oremergent schemes. A question remains however.How can we insure the continuation of this relation-ship between the user and the designer for the re-mainder of the design process?

AcknowledgmentsThis study would not have been possible had it notbeen for the input and knowledge of Professor Phil-ippe Lalande, Jean-François Allie, CarmenCucuzella, Anne-Marie Lesage and Sonia de An-drade.

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93ALEXANDRE JOYCE

http://cscl.ist.psu.edu/public/users/jcarroll/Self/papers/PDandSimon-INSA02.pdf

About the AuthorAlexandre JoyceUniversité de Montréal, Canada


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