DESERTIFICATION The case of Western Zambia

The Desertification advent Billy C Sichone

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The

Billy C Sichone

Foreword by Paul M Simfukwe, MSc

2nd Edition 2005


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Credits Pickering K Owen. An Introduction to global Environmental issues.

Storrs A. E. G. "Know your trees- some common trees found in Zambia

Lindahl K. Conservation for survival. 1972 Victor Collancz Ltd London.

IUCN/WWF/UNEP 1991: Caring for the Earth, a summary. Copy right © 2000 Billy C Sichone All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, digital, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission of the copyright owner. Exceptions apply for brief academic reviews and quotations purposes


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Contents

1. Acknowledgements 2. Acronyms/abbreviations 3. Dedication 4. Preface 5. Introduction 6. Context and over view 7. Justification of study 8. Definitions 9. The root causes of desertification 10. The effects of desertification 11. Proposed strategies to avoid and minimise desertification 12. The way forward-2002 and beyond 13. Recommendations 14. Conclusion 15. Appendices 16. Bibliography and references 17. Index 18. About the Author


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A. Chusa at the resettlement B. The impact of Urbanisation on deforestation. C. Oh Mother Earth!


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\ Billy is an interesting fellow with wide interests, many times surprising people with his rare writing skills on various issues. People of his calibre are few and far between. In this write up, Billy once again rises to the occasion, effectively and competently handles a pertinent issue of the times-desertification. As he rightly points out, climate change and environmental degradation are intimately connected and cannot be divorced. One precedes the other. Big global in scope and effect, the world needs to desperately rise to the challenge of sustainable development and yet at the same time preserving the Earth for posterity. Much passion is needed to effectively turn the tables, as it were. As a scientist, I take great delight in offering a word in season to support this most important work. Lets us learn from the works of this man, it could save the world! Paul M Simfukwe, Msc, PhD student University of Wales, Bangor, UK 2008


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Much has been said and resolved concerning the various environmental issues in the last decade or so. Many conferences focusing on the state of the space ship Earth have met in different localities of the world but non-more spectacular than the Rio de Jenairo Earth summit of June 1992. Many nations came together, acknowledged the universal problem and resolved to put their hands to the environmental crusade heifer. It is ten years later but no tangible effect is seen of that momentous meeting. Perhaps we are yet to see what lies in store. This paper was written in response to one of the vices threatening human kind’s comfortable stay on this terrestrial ball. Desertification has been encroaching on all sides and greatly ravages the once productive land to a complete waste place. In coming up with this document, I consulted a number of books as well as visited some places to verify my assertions, as my bibliography will attest to. It is hoped that this work will be a clarion call to the world to awake, having snored in the light!


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This work is dedicated to my ever supportive wife and daughter.


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My studies have really taken me places & opened up my mind greatly. As a result they have caused me to meet countless numbers of people. As such, I would like to offer thanks to them for all the help rendered as I pursued my goal in environmental management. These thanks are not exhaustive but thanks and acknowledgements go to all those that gave of their time to answer my questions, the books on the subject, as well as the team at Barch Computers that toiled away happily to ensure this work came out in this form. I would be unjust not to mention my wife Jane and daughter Zevyanji who have continuously supported me in the “short time” I have known her. Hats off also go to Mr & Mrs C Phiri as well as Mr & Mrs Simfukwe. Thank you all!


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The study of Environmental Management has suddenly taken the centre stage in World affairs, including the Political Scenario! Unlike in the past when Politicians would either ignore environmental issues or pay lip service to it, we have arrived at a stage when no one can ignore the said issues and get away with it. For example, the businessperson as well cannot ignore the environment because all the transactions done on paper have a bearing on state of the environment. Thus, this paper seeks to highlight one aspect of the multiple problems confronting the World – desertification. The paper now in your hands upon which your eyes now look largely gives a general over view. It deliberately refers to the Western Province of Zambia where the desert conditions from the Kalahari are slowly but certainly creeping into Zambia and in the not too distant future, the Zambian Map will probably be updated to include a new feature – the desert! As such, this paper is a general report on the conditions prevailing in different parts of the World especially in the Western Province of Zambia where one cannot fail to notice the large stretches of bare land intermittent with bushes. Otherwise, the vast areas have sand where one needs a four-wheel drive vehicle to operate efficiently.. Relief organisations such as the World Vision International are forced to purchase high performance 4x4 Vehicles that will blast through the deep sand. Year after year, the sand volume cover increases while the vegetation decreases. Another aspect noticed is the erratic rainfall as well as the propensity of the area to extreme weather conditions. Let us brace our selves as we delve into this study that highlights the imminent incipient danger that confronts us. Be that as it may, enjoy your trip through this study! Meet me at the end of the book!


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Zambia lies in the sub equatorial region of Southern Africa and is largely covered by Savannah type of vegetation though occasionally dotted with forests, either indigenous or exotic. The vast area of the land progressively becomes grassy and less “wooded” as we travel to the south of the Country. The vegetation of Zambia can be safely divided into three categories as follows: Firstly, we have the forest areas found largely in the north-western parts of the country where most of the rain falls. Here, we find a high concentration of forests that are almost evergreen although the truly evergreen trees are largely found in the equatorial rain forests. The second is the Savannah woodland that is found in a good part of the northern and central part of the country. This consists of trees intermingled with grassland. This kind of landscape is very familiar to many a Zambian. The last category is the Savannah grassland that is found in the southern and western parts of Zambia. This type of vegetation includes plains and Dambos too. We have pockets of this kind of feature in the Barotse plains where one hardly finds a tree for long stretches of land. However, it is worth noting that the Western part of Zambia is a uniquely endowed with a mixture of the various vegetation features. The area is very sandy and yet has a fair amount of vegetation. Ironically, most of the country’s high class Mukwa1 timber comes from this Province. This sandy terrain is an indicator of desert conditions though intermingled and criss-crossed by many fresh water bodies such as the mighty Zambezi River that slows down as it reaches the great Barotse plains. The said plain boasts of its capacity to flood, breed fish, provide pasture and a potential to produce cereals such as rice, able to feed the whole nation. But is this area likely to continue in this state? Various studies have been undertaken to study and confirm the unique Western Province weather. Those that have lived there will attest to its uniqueness & propensity to have extreme weather conditions over a very short period of time. As such, this study largely refers to the said Province, backed by some papers on an over view of the impact of urbanisation on deforestation. This work is dealt with in a number of sections, all answering different questions. The paper closes with a conclusion fitting the subject. Let us hoist us our observatory telescope so that we can peer into the distant future in relation to what we see now.

1 Check Page 179/80 of the book “Know your trees” A, E, G. Storrs (1995)


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! ! ! !

There is no better question than to ask why we should bother ourselves. Why spend so much time, paper and ink to investigate and pour out our knowledge? The reason is soon given. It is because of the nature and lack of knowledge about the subject in our days. The time has come when we cannot afford to stifle our consciences and sit on the pending holocaust that threatens the World. As I scan through literature and interview people, the vast majority of them either do not bother themselves or just simply do not think the subject merits a study. From the time I set foot on Western Province soils four years ago and ever since, I have been strangely aware that I was somewhat in a "desert condition" area. I wondered why this was so until I discovered that actually, the Kalahari Desert was just next-door! This was a hair-raising discovery because this signalled to me that the desert was either likely to spread to Zambia or was already here! The advance and expansion of the desert is no light matter because it threatens the future usefulness of any land stretch. Thus the following reasons summarise the burden I have:

1. The subject is rarely talked about in our circles. 2. Whether we want, know or not, the Desert is coming

our way. 3. It is only prudent to see danger form afar and avoid it or

at least be proactive and thus minimise the impact. 4. There is only one Earth and Zambia and should we spoil

this chance of preserving it, we are done! 5. Posterity deserves a better lot as well. Already, human

kind has caused the extinction of some rare species of flora and fauna. Let us not cause more problems lest our children curse us many years hence.

6. That is the only way to plane the use and management of land.

7. The World is asleep in the light and needs to be awakened to reality lest it wakes up to a rude shock when decadence will have reached its fullest degree.

These are some of the burning issues that drive me to consider this subject. Let us give this issue the attention it deserves.


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But before we proceed, we need to define terms so that we have the same terms of reference. What is a desert? How does it begin and advance? Can it be stopped or defeated in its advance? What are the common root causes? What is the way forward regarding desertification? These are some of the questions that this paper attempts to answer but we must first set the ground rules. In beginning to define terms, it is very difficult to come up with one comprehensive definition of a desert. But a simple definition would be “a desert is a place where little or no rain falls or where the conditions are extreme inhabiting supporting life forms”Β. In this definition, it can be seen that a desert can either be hot or cold depending on its locality. Usually, when one thinks of a desert, they think of the hot deserts where there are large stretches of sand and where little or no rain falls for prolonged periods of time. But it needs to be pointed out that the cold deserts also exist such as the North and South Poles where the weather conditions are extremely colder side practically inhibiting any forms life to exist except for those that have adapted. For our purposes in this paper, we shall centre our thoughts on the hot deserts. But from whence do desert hail? We attempt to answer this question in the ensuing section.

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a. What really causes desertification? The exact cause is not really known but some theories have been advanced. We shall not attempt to open up all of them but seek to scratch some of the prominent ones. One school of thought postulates that it the said deserts were once thriving vegetated areas but as the climate began to change, the plants died and were buried. Where these forests once stood now lies the deserts of today. The proponents of this thought also claim that this "fact” accounts for the presence of petroleum in the desert because the organic matter has decayed and turned into oil. The other school of thought claims that the deserts came about because of human activity. They claim that as the World Population begun to expand they indiscriminately cut down trees to get fuel as well as build shelter. Initially, nomadic practices left large stretches of land vulnerable to the various adverse environmental factors and as such, with time the soil became exposed resulting in soil erosion and a loosened soil structure. Before the vegetation regenerated, more settlers came and cleared the land to the extent that vegetation stopped appearing. In addition to the indiscriminate felling of trees, excessive grazing by animals aggravated the situation.. Further more, with the advent of the population explosion, farming practices and technology, this led to more pressure on the land> Unfortunately, most the practices were unsustainable. However, some people have rejected the theory because they hold the opinion that people of the past intuitively knew how to live in harmony with nature in a sustainable way. There could be other schools of thought but suffice it to say that the changes in climate, farming practices as well as the changes in fuel/power sources have a powerful effect on the development of deserts. b. " ' " ' " ' " ' As a hot desert develops, certain things take place as follows:

Β Definition supplied by Author


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Firstly, there will be either indiscriminate cutting or destruction of vegetation either by human or natural agency. The usual human activities are related to development (as shown earlier on) the need for power or simply the exploitation of woodΣ. Other related human factors are the pollution by way of air, water or dust pollution that ultimately finds its way into the water table or simply poisons the plantsγ. The natural factors are issues such as earthquakes, flooding or excessive and prolonged drought for a number of years. Secondly, after the vegetative cover has been destroyed, there is little or no moisture to ascend to the sky to form rain. This leads to shortages of rainfall and subsequently, droughts. The weather pattern becomes erratic and later because extremely hot during the day while remaining extremely cold in the night. Suddenly, there is an avalanche of “heat waves” that come and ravage the area frequently. Thus, vegetation slowly dies leaving no roots to hold the soil together, the absence of which Plants) leads to flooding. The floods come about, as earlier intimated, due to sudden heavy rainfall and runoff with no plants to absorb the water or slow down the water pace. An off shoot connected to run off is the denudation, erosion and washing away of soil nutrients leading to infertile soil. This infertility renders the soil incapable of supporting plants. The effect is that the land becomes extremely dusty on account of the loose soil leading to dust storms and blizzards (in cold deserts). Closely connected to the aforementioned, there is rapid soil erosion that disfigures the terrain. The land becomes denuded or with deep gullies where nothing grows. Lastly, the dismembered soil structure will have no capacity to hold water thereby not able to support the underground ecosystem. Desert soil is extremely fragmented, brittle, and too hard to support any plant life, unless of course they have deep roots. With the passage of time, in the fourth place, vegetation begins to shrivel, wither and dieγ and meanwhile people & animals continue to exploit the little vegetation that remains. As such, the vegetation is slowly wiped out. Fifthly, the soil looses its texture, rich composition and becomes loose, as the plants that hold the soil together are absent. In the fullness of time, flesh floods come and periodically sweep the soil away unhindered to deposit the same at another place. Another agent of erosion is the human and animal activities and movements that destroy the soil structure. Furthermore, the winds blow tonnes of soil to other localities. Sixthly, having had prolonged drought, severe hunger no vegetation and extreme weather conditions, people and animals largely retreat and leave the degenerated ecosystem in the given area. Overtime, the once stable climates turns to the ever-changing weather patterns becoming a permanent feature. Thus the desert conditions and era will have arrived, firmly entrenched by the day. It must be noted that all these changes, to the human eye are nigh invisible as they take many years to notice. It must be remembered that the climate of a place has an effect on the local prevailing weather conditions. It used to be generally held that it takes a minimum of 35 years to determine the climate of a place though today, due to

Σ Read my paper in the appendix on the impact of urbanisation on deforestation. γ Refer to the book An introduction to global environmental issues pp 120 γ Refer to the book An introduction to global environmental issues pp 120


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all the rapid unsustainable egocentric practices of manΜ, the weather is extremely erratic and changes almost over night. Some scientists claim that the tempering with the Ozone (O3) layer through emissions of chlorides into the atmosphere has led to some instability in the upper atmosphere, in some cases causing what are known as Ozone holes. Ozone holes have been discovered at the South Pole and over Australia. Now, Ozone is very critical for our survival because it not only shields people from the lethal infrared /gamma radiation but it also plays a part in the rain cycle. As such, the composition of gases and temperatures affect the hydrological cycle. To wrap up this section, we can safely assert that the potential causes of Desertification are:

1. Poor land Management practices 2. Ownership and tenure of land 3. The advent of development as

infrastructure leading to concrete jungles.

4. Indiscriminate felling of large stretches of land to make ornaments as well as furniture.

5. Soil and air pollution. 6. Charcoal burning for fuel. 7. Bad agricultural practices. 8. Over grazing on same areas for

too long-as a result of having too many animals.

9. Natural disasters such as earth quakes, floods, droughts and other related acts of God.

But why do people, whilst knowing that their activities are harmful to the environment continue to practice bad things? A straight answer is elusive but suffice it to say that in a place like Western Province, people are consigned to perpetual poverty thus far and cannot help but turn to what is freely available so as to survive. In other words, the socio-economic pressures dictate. Thus, the only way they can abandon this reckless practice is to empower them not only with knowledge but with the tools to generate income from other viable ventures. The "tools" could be in terms of capital or in kind. Remember that vegetation is beneficial for economic development and all life forms are maintained by the presence of the same℘. Having poured out our souls trying to unveil the root causes of desertification, it is now fitting for us to pass on the baton to the section that highlights the real effects of desertification. I feel this will be show the necessity of our immediate intervention, keep your belts fastened. $ " ' $ " ' $ " ' $ " '

Μ "Man" is used in a generic sense. For the assertion on man's activities affecting climate, check pp19 of the book An introduction to global environ mental issues. ℘ Check the UNEP and the RIO De Jenairo statements of 1992.


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Thus, we have seen the stage by stage progression of desertification, but what are the effects of this selfsame development? Many answers clamour for attention in my mind but a few merit our attention as follows: The first effect is that there will be a lower crop yield in each successive year leading to abject poverty, drought and hunger. Furthermore, there is simply no vegetation to beautify the terrain. Secondly, there will be a proliferation of diseases such as dust pneumonia and other related illnesses. As a result of the loose soil, dust pollution will reign supreme and will carry dirty particles as well as some microbes harmful to life. In some cases, the plants will be covered with dust so that the y cannot carry out photosynthesis or transpiration. Thirdly, the area will be susceptible to flooding, as there will be no vegetation to stop the water flowing down stream. The plants have a way of stopping fast running water and absorb most of the moisture through the roots. There could be other effects but I would like to say the following, at the risk of sound repetitive that the reduction of the amount of moisture emitted to the air through transpiration, the natural vegetation below begins to wither and die away leading to desertification in the long run. For a long time now, people have ignored the encroachment of desertification as a result of human induced weather pattern changes. Perhaps the reason for this slothfulness has been the lack of publicity or slow but certain advance of the desert. Looking at the Sahel∈∈∈∈ region at the peripherals of the Sahara desert in north Africa one can not fail to notice that places that were once fertile and well watered areas are fast turning into ovens with little or no rainfall for long stretches of land. The Western Province, as earlier intimated is a classic example of an area being invaded by a desert, the Kalahari Desert as it makes its slow but unstoppable expansion into the surrounding areas. In a nutshell, the grave effects of desertification can be summed up as follows:

10. Soils erosion 11. Flooding 12. Erratic rainfall and a distortion of

the weather pattern. 13. Drying up of sub terrain rivers

and streams 14. Lower crop yields and therefore

weakened food security. 15. Siltation leading to the death of

rivers as a result of the rising river beds e.g. at the Kafue River banks in some places.

16. Eco system disturbed 17. Landscape ravaged, denuded and

disfigured.

∈ This Region is found on the peripherals of the Sahara Desert and has been a prime example of a fast decertifying place.


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18. Loss of valuable soil nutrients and organisms due to flooding, erosion etc.

19. Reduction of species diversity. 20. Land slides 21. Few Medicine sources from

which to tap potential cure for terminal diseases such as Cancer or AIDS.

Thus, I hope by now that we see the grave problem confronting us. I wonder, is there any hope of respite? Can any thing be done to avert the imminent danger? The next section ably deals with that self-same question by offering some tangible solutions. Come with us as we search for answers… ( ) ) " ' ) ' * " # # ( ) ) " ' ) ' * " # # ( ) ) " ' ) ' * " # # ( ) ) " ' ) ' * " # #

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Now that we have surveyed the effects, the question that now begs answering is “Is it possible to avoid desertification, or indeed reduce it? Alternatively, we could further ask whether it is possible to recover desertified land back to a useful landscape. The answers to these questions are either “yes” or “No" depending on what is asked. With regard to avoiding desertification, I think it is possible to minimize not completely avoid it as long as anthropogenic activities & natural disasters continue to linger on this terrestrial ball. There are however a number of pragmatic ways to minimize onslaught of desertification. The first and foremost way is to work within the frame work of nature and not bad to degradation. Degradation occurs when certain parameters in the ecosystem are over stretched by beyond their limits leading to a situation where things fall out of proportion and ratio. This disturbance has been very evident and pronounced in the last 250 years or so after the Industrial Revolutions of the 17 & 18 hundreds. At this rate, unless curbed, mankind is heading towards destroying the World by the effluents and waste poorly disposed off. As though that were not bad enough, man has gone further to middle with other dangerous power using water means When there is an accident, such as the one that occurred in 1996 at Chernobyl, thousands of tonnes of lethal substances are ejected into the atmosphere after most of these have very long half lives making that for many years hence, certain areas are declared unsafe. More than that, humans, animals & plants are affected and develop tumours leading to cancers as well as harbour deadly in their systems. As a result, the fumes, as well as effluents either go into the atmosphere or other water bodies leading ultimately to the formation of acid rain. The self-same acid rain falls and eats away plants thus contributing to degradation. As to how this can be stopped, I suggest that sustainable ways should be developed such as minimizing the use of organic fuels, nuclear fuel or ecosystem. This entails limiting exploitation of resources and keeping within the critical limits of each ecosystem. An sustainable practices have led to the wiping away of entire valuable landscapes such as the Kankoyo area in Mufulira. In this area (Kankoyo), no plant survives due to the acidic fumes poured out of the Mufulira Mines. In the Western Province, where a lot of timber is grown & felled at Mulobezi, the indiscriminate cutting practices are slowly leading to a bare landscape susceptible


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to all adverse atmospheric factors. If licensing and control were introduced, this would curb and control the scandalous tree felling habits. Yet another way to reduce the desertification process is to introduce revegetation exercises so often. This entails careful planning of how to put back plants in areas previously wooded but disturbed by other factors. Reforestation and afforestation will work excellently in these areas though the introduction of new plant species must be carefully handled lest a dangerously stubborn and destructive plant be introduced. In as much as we applaud the tree planting exercise, it is critical to ensure that the right plants are courted lest they begin to change the soil structure or poison the water table was the case in the UKΦ. Pines were introduced but by and by they begun to acidify the water bodies near by. Another way to reduce desertification is to simply adopt various sectors of the desert, set up camp and begin to plant orchards, all forms of vegetation and then irrigate them. This has been done in some parts of the World such as the USA where vast stretches of land are made fertile again and plants grow. This is a good practice but extremely expensive whose sustainability is doubted. For instance, if the irrigation efforts were stopped, would plants continue to survive. If this were sustainably possible, then large tracts of land can be redeemed and used for useful activities. I often wonder what sustains an Oasis, isn’t it possible to set up one area on an Oasis principle? By simple definition, an Oasis is a place in the hot desert where water is found. As earlier intimated, other potentially workable solutions exist but for now, methinks these will suffice for our purposes. With respect to the advancement of the Kalahari desert into Zambia, I would suggest the above solutions, though a poor nation like Zambia would find it extremely trying to sustain large scale irrigation enterprises all in the quest to halt the advance of desertification. Methinks the cost is far higher once the land is lost at the grisly hands of desertification. At Mulobezi for example, licences should be introduced and the quota system implemented or else, the thoughtless felling of trees for selfish again will continue. It is rumoured that truckloads of timber leave Zambia (Mulobezi) for South Africa and come back to Zambia except this time as finished products that grace our homes. Many of us infact proudly buy from "furniture from abroad"! As to whether desertification can be reversed is still under much controversy and I dare not assert my firm opinion but all I can say is that I privately suspect that desertification can be reversed to a certain extent as long as the necessary cash resources are available sustainably. In summary, the safety gadgets that we can employ to reduce the fast advance of the desert is to do the following: 1. Reforestation campaigns and implementation must be stepped up. Encourage

people to allow the natural growth of vegetation to take root once again. 2. Afforestation Campaigns must equally be stepped up and promoted. 3. Strengthen the law and penalties for offenders regarding the stipulated statutes.

Many go Scot free especially in Zambia. 4. Increase the funding to the relevant arm of the Government that looks into the

protection and promotion of forests. Hitherto, funding has been very minimal, yea, even reduced!

5. Encourage more NGOs to be equally interested in this area by giving them incentives and challenges.

Φ Check the Book An introduction to global environmental issues pp 118


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6. Declare more and more land as gazetted forest reserves. The trend now is to degazette to meet the demand at the expense of future prosperity of the said land.

7. Minimize political interference especially where people want to redeem every vote. In such times, ethics are thrown out of the window basically to gratify selfish ends. For example, an area of 1, 967 hectors have been invaded by squatters along the banks of the Kafue riverΚ and no mere mortal dares move them because some political hand fears losing votes. So the best that the forest pundits can do is to bark and theorise. We must now fly to another part of the academic galaxy and seek to peer into the future. What exactly is in store for posterity at this rate? The next section seeks to of load my thoughts on this issue.

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We have thus far surveyed the subject of desertification with respect to its Genesis, exodus and Revelation or zenith as well as the possible mitigational intervention available, we now come to consider the way forward. What do we expect in the future and how is this to be handled? Among the many things I expect is that desertification will continue to encroach yea, even faster in this modern industrial world. Unless the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, Sulphur dioxide (SO2) and other pollutants are curbed and watched, our lot lies in peculiarly dangerous times. I see an increase in anthropogenic activities that will be difficult to control or reverse, for the exponential population explosion exerts a high pressure on the extant resources so much that it is impossible to back off now. The demand for new things is increasing world over while the resources remain static. By October 6th 1999 the World population scaled the 6 billionth mark yet without any collaborating increase in facilities. Thus, we shall see more trees destroyed, degradation scaled up as well as more indiscriminate ways of doing things. Desertification is here to stay! Though there has been much talk on the need to revert to sustainable practices, I fear not much sensitisation has been done nor is there willingness to support the radical necessary changes. For example, the USA, though well known for championing the Environmental Management crusade, is likely to be last to append its signature for any radical changes that threaten its industries. What should be done to halt desertification? The answer ties on our laps. Let me hurtle along to give my recommendations at this juncture.

# # ' # # ' # # ' # # ' We are now approaching the anticlimax of our trip to the top of the mountain. As we descend, I would like to recommend the following for Western Province.

(i) There must be strict and proper licensing administered either by the royal establishment or the central Government. The Royal establishment is preferred because it is actually on the ground.

(ii) Introduce a bill in Parliament that each landowner must plant at least two to three trees on their plot

(iii) Awareness days must be intensified in the area, including the people who live in the forests as well.

(iv) Discourage the uprooting of plants especially in catchments areas. I notice that in places like Sefula Musindi and the Kambule stream sources are

Κ Check the Sunday Times of Zambia of 25th July 1999-"Kafue Forest reserves fall to squatters"


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being disturbed by anthropogenic activities. The streams that were once perennial are now seasonal and the vegetation surrounding is dying.

(v) On a national level, there must be a declaration of war against desertification, especially in Western Province.

(vi) Pasture and the clearing of land for farming purposes must be done in harmony with the ecosystem hence encouraging sustainability in all areas of human endeavour, as Dr KaundaΩ used to say.

(vii) Attract more projects such as the one once run by IUCN but this time directed at forestation. This should be community based and done in collaboration with the natives.

(viii) Increase the irrigation projects that will water large stretches of land. Incidentally, Western Province is endowed with many water resources that can be utilized profitably to raise more forests.

(ix) There must be a deliberate effort to discourage charcoal burning and all related practices that lead to deforestation.

(x) The critical loads of each area must be established and documented, reviewed periodically to check for any changes.

It seems we have traversed the entire topography of desertification, what doth hinder us from concluding? Let us mend or pace as we approach the finishing line!

Conclusion In conclusion, what shall I say, having surveyed the landscape? We have learnt many things. It now remains for me to say that desertification is a serious problem that ought not to be taken lightly lest we perish or leave a time bomb for posterity. From my perspective, our pace of response is extremely slow and alarming relative to the rapid changes occurring around us. That not with standing, the battle can still be won, If only we wake up soon!

Ω Zambia's First Republican President-A very principled and disciplined man


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& ' " , & ' " , & ' " , & ' " ,

0. Afforestation- Deliberate replanting of trees whether exotic or not 1. Anthropogenic- Human activity 2. Desert – A place (hot or cold) that experiences extreme weather conditions

and does not support normal life. 3. Desertification – Spread of desert like conditions in cold or semi – cold lands,

as a result of climatic change or human influence 4. Deforestation – Conversion of forestland to other uses, for example, pasture,

cropland. 5. Reforestation – Allowing natural vegetation to regenerate freely and cover

the landscape once again. 6. Perennial – Flowing through out the year e.g. a river 7. Pollution – The process of introducing foreign substances or parameters into

an ecosystem leading to degradation. 8. Radioactivity – Process of emitting sub atomic particles and energy. 9. Radiation – Transmission of electromagnet energy from a body to its

surroundings. 10. Ecosystem – A community with interacting organisms of different species,

and other related species and their relationship s with the associated chemical & physical systems.

11. Transpiration – The loss of water vapour from the cells of plants 12. Photosynthesis – The biological process in which plants convert Co2 & H2O

to carbohydrates & release O2

The Desertification advent Billy C Sichone 21

(These appendices contain papers written by Billy Sichone privately)

A. The impact of urbanisation on deforestation B. Chusa at the Resettlement

C. Oh mother Earth!


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The impact of urbanisation on Deforestation


Urbanisation has always had a very big though unnoticed impact on deforestation in many and varied ways. Urbanisation, which consists of people living in communities or towns that have permanent structures, own electricity and water supplies, has been a way of living that has just been adopted by many sectors of mankind. This mode of living being attractive and comfortable has caused people from rural areas to migrate to these towns or urban centres hoping to have better standards of living. Initially, these urban areas begin as small settlements with only small populations that can be supported sustain ably and efficiently by the few local resources. These settlements are planned and built on places specially selected. Forests naturally occupy the selected areas but in the effort to locate space for the construction of houses, these forests are cleared. The initial small populations grow as time passes because the families grow larger while, more settlers come too. Hence, more power and fuel resources are needed. The trees and forests surrounding these towns are cut down quickly so that the demand for fuel is met. Gradually, tarred roads are built, concrete platforms and many more factories are built. As more of these are made, this means more forests are destroyed and at the same time the cleared forests cannot grow again because of these permanent structures covering the land. Only few scattered trees are seen in their towns this being especially evident in fairly well developed towns like Lusaka. Once these towns grow large, the social needs are greater too. These large towns all depend on the limited power resources which are from the few hydroelectric stations, petroleum and coal. These means of power are not sufficient to meet the enormous demand and therefore necessitating other means of power to be sought. In our society however, most of the fuel is got from charcoal. The populations especially in areas where electricity has not been installed depend on this fuel for cooking, warming and lighting the homes. Since the demand for order to meet the demand charcoal is high, the charcoal burners are forced to cut down more trees of the forests in order to meet the demand. This indiscriminate cutting down of trees leads to deforestation. Since most of these charcoal burners are ignorant of the devastating effects there of, they care little and only look forward to get money so as to survive. Unlike the Chitemene system, which allows for the cut down trees to be burnt on the same area and the ashes spread over the cleared land, this indiscriminate cutting down of trees for charcoal does not allow. Hence the land loses the nutrients that are not replaced. The other way in which these large urban populations affect deforestation is the way the towns are planned. You find that these areas do not allow for many trees to grow in one place because the land is occupied by the people who settle there, build houses and factories. With the coming of the Western civilization to Zambia, every good home deserves to have good furniture. Tables, chairs, dressing tables are necessities in many homes. Along considering that every one has to have at lest some furniture in their homes means more timber trees cut down for the furniture industry in order to supply all these goods. There are other uses of wood such as in the building of houses. Urbanisation may cause vegetation to come to a halt. As more forests are cleared for town space, factories are built to support the local needs of the town. Ninety percent of the chances, these factories emit dangerous gases or poisonous waste materials which pollute the atmosphere and the forests, thus forests are healthy. As forests die out, no water vapour from the leaves of the plants in the process known as transpiration takes place. The end result is that no moisture is available to form clouds so that rain can fall. The few trees in urban areas shed their leaves but unfortunately, these leaves are not allowed to rot. They are cleared off by the local councils and thrown elsewhere. Similarly, concrete jungles in town where most of the land is either covered by concrete or tar the leaves may rot, but cannot get to the soil. In both these cases, the soil is not enriched in any way.


Unless more hydroelectric power is developed or other power sources, the forests around the town will continue to be destroyed by the random tree cutting charcoal burners whose only livelihood lies in selling of charcoal. Most of these people are neither knowledgeable of the devastating effects nor would they be willing to change if only told. They must be convinced of the damage so that constructive changes can take place. Major changes can be done by the Government through building more power resources in the future. Then the impact of urbanisation on deforestation will be less destructive.


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Chusa at the Resettlement


CHUSA AT THE RESETTLEMENT Free at last!

Chapter one

The day which Chusa had been waiting for finally arrived. Chusa was a young boy aged sixteen. He left school in grade eight because he hated school. His parents and brothers bothered him because he was loafing at home. The family lived in Kinshasa, the capital city of Congo. Congo is in equatorial Africa, north of Zambia. Chusa was very excited about this day. He was going to leave home and live alone at last! No one was going to bully him anymore. This thought pleased him very much. The Government had announced that farming land was to be given to all the unemployed and volunteering youths to settle in one of the forests. The forest was located about a hundred kilometres east of Kinshasa. Chusa had registered his name. Many youths had registered too. Most of these youths came from shanty compounds near Kinshasa. A few of the youths appeared younger than himself. The rest were older and probably married. Chusa was nervous because he did not know anymore among all these people. He felt lonely. This meant that he was going to have to make new friends. As Chusa waited patiently for the buses to transport them to forest, he kept wondering what type of training they were to undergo. The training was to be done before they would actually begin farming. As he was deep in thought, the whole crowd of youths suddenly rose up. They rushed to the main gate of the civic centre. Many whistled excitedly and ran while carrying their heavy luggage. “Yagwa ma basi” meaning “the buses have come”, many of them shouted as they sprinted. The big green buses had arrived! Chusa quickly grabbed his bag and ran too. He wanted to be nearer to the door when the first bus arrived, but many older boys were there before him. There was confusion and noise. Everyone was trying to be the first to get into the buses. An army officer ordered them to them to form queues as he shouted “Follow up – Follow!” He whipped anyone who did not obey. Chusa was nearly whipped but he quickly squeezed himself in between two boys. He got in the queue and sighed, “Phew! That was close. Napusuka Mwee!” Then he thanked the two men who had helped him. They stood on the queue for a long time before they got into the buses. Over five thousand young people had volunteered to resettle. Everyone was eager to get on the first trip. Chusa got a seat near a window, he sat next to the two men who had helped him. Everybody was talking excitedly. But Chusa was quiet because he did not know anyone. Instead, he daydreamed about his new life that lay ahead. Away from those troublesome parents, brothers and sisters, Ah! Chusa felt good & liberated as he thought. At about fifteen hours, the buses began to move. The young people whistled loudly, shouted and waved at their relatives and friends. “Tagwamo!” – “we are gone!” they all shouted. In each bus, a song was jubilantly sung. As the convoy of buses drove past the important points in town, the pedestrians’ attention was drawn to the buses. They wondered at the happy youths. Chusa was disturbed from his Day – Dreaming when the gentleman next to him asked: "Boyi, What’s ya’ name?” “My name is Chusa Chilongo”, answered Chusa nervously. “My name is Kazumba Kango, and I perch in Chawama Compound”. The man answered when asked. The other man’s name was Nzobolo Kakwe. He lived in Chawama too. By that time, the excitement in the bus had quite died down. Many people Day-Dreamed about the new life ahead. Chusa and his new friends soon begun talking about what awaited them they wondered how long they would train, Were they going to find their houses already built? These were some of the questions they tried to Discuss. They were all young and ambitious. They felt like brave men on an adventure to an unknown land. Since no one had been to the forest, they felt like heroes. When the convoy reached Kazumira, it turned left into the forest! They had driven for forty minutes along the Great East road. Chusa was now wide awake. He begun to imagine those T.V shows about the jungle. He had watched ‘Tarzan’ on T.V and wished he could meet him here. The forest had tall


trees exactly like those Chusa saw on T.V. The bus convoy moved on for another thirty minutes deep into the bush. As they travelled, they saw more trees and less grass. The vegetation was fresh and green. It rained daily in the forests. “There is an Impala!” exclaimed some body within the bus. Every eye turned to the right and had a glimpse of the beautiful brown animal. As it ran away from the noisy bus. The convoy finally stopped. At first, nobody attempted to get off the buses. Everyone thought they had not yet arrived. “We 'ave arrive’! Tafika!.. get off now!!” announced a serious looking army officer. Chusa and his friends looked at each other and grinned puzzledly. They got off the bus hesitantly. After everyone had got off the buses, they assembled and sat on the grass. The natural grass was disturbed for the first time. The forest was totally strange and quiet. Only birds’ songs and wild animal sounds were heard. By that time, the sun was setting in the west. Its rays were obstructed by the tall trees. “This is where we begin! To night we ‘re gonna sleep here! All the men must collect “nkuni” for the camp fire Ta’ scare off the will beasts, ok?” “Yes Sir!” the men replied. The first night was chilly and uncomfortable. No one slept well. Some people wished they had not volunteered to resettle at all. Others were still determined to settle. Chusa missed the comforts of home. He tried to catch some sleep but mosquitoes and other wild insects kept disturbed him. They buzzed around his ears. Some of them stung him… How uncomfortable he felt!


CHUSA AT THE RESETTLEMENT GET UP!

CHAPTER TWO A whistle blew at dawn the next morning. It was still dark but all the settlers had to get up immediately. It was time for the morning Jog. Chusa felt as though he had just closed his eyes when the whistle blazed through his eardrums. He threw off his blankets put on his shorts & off he went. A number of lazy men and women remained in their beds. They were whipped and kicked out of their beds. Kazumba had already woken up when the whistle blew. He was already on the jogging group. After nearly all the settlers had joined the group, they set off. They were led by a tough looking sports instructor. He was an army officer. No one was allowed to stop or rest. Though many grew tired, they had to continue running or risked getting lost. Some jogged at a snail’s pace. Chusa had been a good athlete whilst at school. But this was his first time to jog such a long distance after a number of years. They passed through thickets, thorns, buses, rough rugged terrain and tall grass. They did not stop until everyone was exhausted. Only then did they jog back to the campsite. On arrival back, the register was called. Those who arrived late were mistreated by the rough sports masters. Chusa had barely made it. He was so exhausted that he was almost walking when he arrived! Breakfast was next. The food they ate did not please Chusa. It was “ YUK!” or disgusting to him. It appeared as though it had been prepared many days before. It was like “ Chimbala” – over-stayed food. Since there wasn’t any other food, ha had to eat. How he longed for home! Breakfast time was only twenty-five minutes long each day. After that, they were instructed to start cutting trees, clearing the campsite area. They were going to start building their own huts. All this was totally new to Chusa. “ let’s cut this tree Chusa”, said Chusa’s friend. Nzobolo was tall and well built. He could easily do most of the work. “I’ll chop first”, he offered, “ while you watch”. He begun chopping the tree trunk. Nzobolo exerted all his energy. Chusa sat at some distance and watched patiently. While Nzobolo was busy working, Chusa suddenly noticed something black slidding slowly down one of the branches. The black object was directly above nzobolo’s head. It was a snake! And it was about to strike him! Chusa tried to quickly think of how to rescue Nzobolo. If he screamed Nzobolo would panic and be bitten. But before Chusa could do anything, the viper attached Nzobolo. He fell to the ground and lay still…the snake slithered away quickly into the tall gracss. “ njoka! Njoka!, help! Help! Screamed Chusa as he ran towards his friend. Nzobolo lay still where Chusa quickly bent over and turned his motionless friend. Just then nzobolo openend his eyes. By that time, all the settlers working nearby had crowded around. “Wha’ happened,?” asked the young man as he sat up he appeared like one who had been disturbed from sleep “ are you hurt?” asked Chusa anxiously. “Don’t be funny man, why did ya’ hit me with that thing?” Chusa explained what had happened. They quickly examined him but to their surprise, they found no snakebite. But from were did the trail of blood originate? It led in the direction the snake had gone. Chusa was certain that his friend had been bitten. The onlookers soon returned to their work one by one. Two or three men followed the blood trail carefully. It was discovered later that the snake had struck into the axe head when Nzobolo had lifted it. The serpent had misjudged and injured itself. It later died because of the injury. The boys were ordered to continue working. If they did not complete building their huts, they would sleep in the open. By night fall that day, most of the huts had been erected. However, Chusa’s hut was not complete too. The settlers had their supper and sat around the huge campfire. They sung songs triumphantly until late in the night. Only then they allowed to go to bed. Oh! How exhausted the campers felt!


PONGO PONGO RIVER CHAPTER THREE

At dawn the next morning, the whistle blew as usual, every settler rose up and attended the morning jog. The routine continued in the same way until all the huts in the camp were built. The following week, the camp commander took them around the forest area around the camp. They were shown the small stream that flowed from north to south. They named it Pongo Pongo River. They also saw a lot of strange animals, insects and birds. The settlers had never seen most of those animals before. No people seemed to have been living in that part of the forest. The settlers had expected to meet the pygmies. The pygmies are short, dark people who live in the rain forests of Zaire. They are hunters who use primitive weapons. These pygmies do not farm because the forests are hot, wet and humid. Many green plants grow there. Instead, they collect wild fruit and hunt. They returned to the camp where there were many duties to be attended to. During the five months’ military training, the settlers were taught how to use guns, trap animals and to burn charcoal for fuel. Neither Chusa nor his friends ever left the camp to go to Kinshasa because they were forbidden. Some of their friends had tried to sneak out but they were discovered and disciplined. The settlers swam and washed their clothes in the stream, they collected wild fruit too. By the end of the five months, all the settlers were darker in complexion.


CHUSA AT THE RESETTLEMENT

LOST IN THE FOREST!

CHAPTER FOUR One morning when the training was over, Chusa and Kazumba went picking and collecting wild fruit. After collecting enough, they went to relax at the stream. They left their fruit near the trees while they fished. They only caught two small fish that they cooked. Now, when they turned to collect the fruit, they spotted a group of monkeys suddenly swing away. The monkeys stole all the fruit. Since the boys were late and hungry, they decided to use an unfamiliar path in order to arrive in time for supper. After walking for along time, they realised that they had lost their way and they had no idea where they were! It was dangerous to walk back to the stream because dangerous carnivorous wild animals were likely to be there. They set up a fire and tried to warm themselves. Some time later in the night, Chusa was gathering some firewood nearby. In the darkness, among the thickets, he noticed a pair of sparkling eyes, then he saw a dark outline figure in the darkness. It was an animal that had crept near them. He recognised it as a lion or a tiger! He ran to the fire place with the firewood. Kazumba too a large fire brand and threw it at the animal. He shouted loudly until the beast scampered off. The firebrand fell on dry grass in no time, a fire broke out which burnt many trees and grass. Some animals were killed too. The boys watched helplessly while /the blaze destroyed all these things. The fire finally died down at Dawn. When they traced their way back to the camp that morning, they found some bulldozers had been brought in camp. The campers were frenzied with joy about something. “What’s up?” Chusa enquired curiously. They were told that farming was to begin the following day. “Mailo ti joba Mani” – tomorrow we will start working many reported excitedly to Kazumba and Chusa. The days that followed were full of activity. Land was divided into plots and then some farms were half cleared of their trees. The farms of the three friends were all cleared half way. The settlers were given six hectors each but only three were cleared freely for them. They were supplied with free farming tools, fertilizers and seeds. In those days, the rains were not yet heavy but only light daily showers. This made the work of the bull dozer difficult because the ground was soft and wet. Many animals were disturbed, poisonous snakes were killed, and a lot of trees were cut down. The portions where this mass clearing was done, were more open to the sunlight and the wind. The heavy rainy season was soon to begin. In the Congo, the rain falls through out the year but at certain period of the year, the intensity of the rains is higher. Chusa and his friends were taught that rice was the best crop to grow in the climate. They planted rice and a bit of Maize. For the first few years, the harvests were good. But each successive year, the harvests dwindled. The rice could not grow well because the rainfall reduced every season. The government stopped supplying free food to the settlers and as a result, the three young men started cutting down trees on their farms, so as to raise money for survival. They wanted to fertilize their plots by burning trees. They had learnt about Chitemene system. Chitemene system is based on the ‘slash and burn’ principle practiced by many practiced by many primitive Africans. When this failed three years later, Chusa and friends resorted to indiscriminate cutting down off more trees. They began making charcoal. Charcoal is a fuel made out of firewood. Every week, they used to carry a bag to Kazumira for sale. After selling, they bought all the essentials and necessities.


At first, they cut down all the trees on Kazumba’s farm. Then they moved to Chusa’s Plot. Lastly, they finished all the trees on Nzobolo’s farm. By then, the people from Kazumira were coming with their trucks to the camp to order charcoal. The settlers sold a lot of charcoal and earned a lot of cash too. In a short time, All the trees surrounding the settlement were completely cut down.


CHUSA AT THE RESETTLEMENT CHAINDA FOREST RESERVE

CHAPTER FIVE

One day, the three young men were so broke that they decided to cut trees in a forest reserve. “Mwana, Bati we’are broke mwee!, let’s go to Chainda tonight”, suggested Chusa that day. “What for,? Ta’ Do what”? Asked Kazumba. “Ta’ get nkuni!.. “Oh! That’s a forbidden area man!.. “Oh yeah! I ‘ll go there alone if you won’t come”. Answered Chusa rudely. “Ok, Ok, man you win.” That night, the three men set off at dusk carrying two axes, a torch and a rope. Chusa bravely led the way. It was a clear evening sky with the stars glittering brightly. After working for two hours, the men stopped somewhere in the middle of the forest. “Nzobolo check if anyone’s spyin’ on us” whispered Chusa. The forest was guarded against any charcoal burners. Since no one was watching, they set up a fire and got busy. They worked quietly and quickly because they had to finish the work before dawn.


DISCOVERED!.. TROUBLE IN THE FOREST.

CHAPTER SIX Shortly after midnight, they piled up the logs and begun covering them with mud. When they had covered almost half way, they heard some noises nearby. They quickly took cover in the thickets and remained hidden for some twenty minutes. Kazumba was the first to venture out and was about to continue working when he heard somebody yell, “stop where you are!!”. It was the forest rangers! They had been discovered! Kazumba attempted to escape but he was shot in the right leg. He crashed to the ground in great pain. Chusa and Nzobolo ran in opposite directions. Chusa switched off the torch and ran as fast as his feet could carry him. The Rangers pursued him until he lost them as he hid in a thicket the guards zoomed past him. After hiding for sometime, he was sure they had gone. It was still dark and dangerous but he had to move on or else he would be arrested during daylight. He switched the torch on and move on carefully thought the thickets. Before he climbed over the fence of the forest edge, he stood and observed that no one was near. He jumped over and ran across the deforestated areas. Having escaped, he dared not return to the camp. At dawn he arrived at Kazumira where he got on the first bus to Kinshasa. Everyone in the streets of Kinshasa wondered why he was shabbily dressed. This was the first time he returned home to his parents. Chusa never went back to the camp. Instead, he begun working as a house servant in the city. Nzobolo had managed to escape too. He went to live in a different compound called Matero. He found a job as a labourer for the city council. But Kazumba was arrested and jailed for three years. He was charged with destroying trees illegally.


CONCLUSION Trees are important to stop soil erosion and for rainfall. If more trees are cut down, There will be fewer trees to use the carbon dioxide (CO2) for photosynthesis. This will mean that there will be less oxygen (O2) in the air, less transpiration and the earth will become unhealthy for life. Many trees are and continue to be cut down each day. This rapid destruction of trees explains why we have soil erosion, less rain and why the weather is changing fast. Therefore, the forests must be protected. Make sure that you plant two trees for every one that you cut. Will you destroy trees like those three friends? The end.


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Oh Mother Earth!



1. “Once there was a valley of fertile land. There was grass for the animals and air was clean. But sometime later man wanted wood, he thoughtlessly cut down all the trees and because of this no people could live, the climate also changed. This was the second reason men could not live. They became poor. So this beautiful valley became a deserted place.”

- USAMA AZHAR, PAKISTAN.( 10 YEAR OLD ) 2. “Man has lost his ability to foresee and to forestall. He will end by destroying the earth” =ALBERT SCHWEITZER (MISSIONARY AND PHILOSOPHER) 3. “Twenty percent of the earth is very cold, Twenty percent is mountainous. Of the remaining forty percent, about two percent has very little soil and rainfall. And man kind is busy destroying the rest.” - DONALD PHIRI (ZAMBIAN SCHOOL BOY) 4. “In those days, the annual supply of rainfall was not lost, as it is now, though being allowed to flow over treeless and denuded surface to the sea.” - PLATO, 347 BC (GREEK PHILOSOPHER) 5. “In the distant past, forest and nature surrounded (besieged) man but today the opposite is true, man is covered by a concrete jungle.” - BILLY SICHONE, 1993 (ZAMBIAN STUDENT) 6. “In ages past, man was struggling to cut and get out of the forest. But now he is busy planting and getting back into the forest.” - BILLY SICHONE, 1993 (ZAMBIAN STUDENT) 7. “It is an open secret that today, there is heavy pollution which if unregulated will lead to total destruction of this planet which man has sought to develop. The posterity deserves and has as much right to a glimpse at the live, free range natural animals and not merely fossilized photos.” -BILLY SICHONE, 1993 (ZAMBIAN STUDENT)


his is a humble effort to try and help spread the awareness of the indiscriminate and extravagant consumption of natural resources. This ignorant is especially true in developing countries, which are busy trying to develop. The developed world on the other hand, is facing serious environmental problems having realized that the natural resources are not inexhaustible and that the planet itself is at the verge of being totally vanquished and may not be habitable in the near future. The battle zone therefore is not limited to the developed world. It is a fight that must be fought jointly from all angles of the globe. Though over 60% of the pollution is from the developed world, this fight affects all without exception. It is never to be forgotten that ozone layer knows no political boundaries. The scope of this book is scanty, covering the whole problem of pollution and the ozone layer depletion. It is aimed at the reader who casts a casual thought about the environmental problems confronting us today. It is hoped that some reader will be spurred on to champion the cause of environmental protection. We long for the time like that in king Solomon’s when they could import and export animals and timber without restrictions (1 kings 10:22-Bible). The reason is probably that everything was in abundance and the demand was low. The ecosystem was probably in equilibrium then than now. Let us battle for a regeneration of such a time. It can be achieved, though remote to the human eye now! BILLY C SICHONE 17/08/93 LUSAKA

From the Rio Earth summit comments, 1992


little over five hundred years ago, the world was generally silent and activity was centred only in the scattered isolated settlements on the surface of the giant spaceship- EARTH. As the planet soared majestically through the solar system, organic activity continued normally and unabated. Christopher Columbus or Vasco Da Gama had not set out on their adventurous voyages. Marco-polo had not yet hit the road on foot to the east. One fourth of the earth then lay like a huge forest, and nobody knew that it was zooming on in its never ending race round the sun. Then a time was when the great adventures begun. After sometime, “dark continent” was discovered. The forests on this continent were almost bordering the edges or shores of the sea. That Dark Continent was undoubtedly VIRGIN AFRICA. The natural vegetational status of this continent was undisturbed in any way. As this was the case, all kinds of wild animals peacefully roamed about safely. The sound of the gun was neither known nor heard of. The diverse species of animals were either carnivorous or herbivorous. How lovely the world must have been! With its bio-diverse structure un tempered with, the primitive uncivilized people were insignificantly few and their consumption rate of resources unnoticed. It was insignificant as scratching one’s name on the pyramids of Egypt. Oh! How refreshing the morning and the evening air must have been! Birds chirped sweetly and melodiously, further, fresh water continuously plunged over cliffs and flowed naturally. No artificial barriers, like dams, to destabilize the local ecosystem! But then, as pollution begun to swell, larger stretches of forests were felled for fuel and more game was hunted for meat. As people begun to settle in lager communities, they cleared off trees so as to facilitate space for building villages and settlements. Naturally, hunting expeditions were appointed to kill game so as to feed the booming populations. Meanwhile, the explorers were making headway into the heart of Africa. When contact and communication was established, they influenced the natives to adopt there relatively well refined living standards. In no time, more land was cleared to make way for roads and the planned railway line from “Cape to Cairo “ a dream that never was, were underway. Untold amount of diverse flora and fauna was lost forever in process. We shall never be able to estimate exactly how much. Improved farming methods were inculcated into the locals and in the end, they were irresistibly converted because of the bumper harvests they reaped. Never did the question arise as to the damage, which was being done to the pilot less space craft… Over the years, industrialization has spread its tentacles to all corners of the globe and the benefits are unquestionably great. But is it all “a bed of roses” with industrialization? I assert with an emphatic “no” why? Well, the cosmic voyager us now in grave danger of pressing a SELF- DESTRUCTION BUTTON. There are higher levels of toxic gases and alarming temperature raises within the craft. Where is the problem? Who is causing this? The answer is simple. It is the chief architect him self- MAN! , the obvious culprit! The engineers of the space ship Earth reliably inform us that the vessel walls are extensively damaged and have some holes at some points∪. This is serious! It ought to cause any one board to sweat and tremble with fear because of the consequences and implications. What is the actual problem? Can anything be done?

“Man” used in a generic sense to mean both male and female human species. ∪ The Awake magazine of 1996 reports that the huge ozone holes are more frequent over the south and North poles. The continent worst affected is Australia.


The Ozone Layer, has been severely damaged in certain areas. It is reported that the same is becoming thinner everyday and infact LARGE HOLES in the layer have been spotted at some points! “So what? Why bother?” I hear some of you say. Well, this means that we are not shielded from the fatal and dangerous gamma rays which cause terminal diseases such as skin cancer. In short, we are exposed! The reported incidences of skin cancer have risen sharply especially in the heavily industrialized nations. The ozone layer functions as a SIFT to stop or minimize GAMMA RAYS from entering the atmosphere. But alas! These deadly rays now have free course in the absence of the ozone layer. All organisms are equally vulnerably exposed to these hazardous rays. The LIGHT SKINNED people are most at risk because they have little MELANIN in the skins for protection. For another thing, the “GREEN HOUSE EFFECT” of temperature rise is taking place each moment as deposits of CARBON DIOXIDE accumulate in the atmosphere. This threatens to upset the air GAS RATIO EQUILIBRUM in the atmosphere and the danger of the POLAR CAPS MELTING IS IMMINENT. Should this happen, the entire earth surface would be submerged or flooded like in biblical times (Genesis 6) – what horrifying prospects confront us! We do not have enough time or space to talk about the toxic fumes emitted by the industries, vehicles, and smokers. These emit dangerous gases such as Sulphur dioxide which react with the ozone (03) in the presence of light to break down the layer. (Vehicles emit lead into the atmosphere which is equally hazardous to humans) at the present rate, by the year “2030, the earth’s temperature will have risen by between 1.5 and 4.5 degrees Celsius.”∇ I trust we have seen our dire straits by now. Time is fast ebbing away! Even the time you have spent reading this information, the temperature of the atmosphere may have risen by a millionth or thousandth of a Celsius degree! Awake! Awake! And do something! No doubt, if the great ancient explorers and scientists of yesterday were to arise from their graves, they could collapse back into their caskets because they would be too grief stricken at the egocentric poor stewardship of the earth man has thus far exhibited! What careless and destructive patrons we have been!! The destruction already done is undoubtedly great. But the important thing is that we know the root cause and some possible solutions. Were we ignorant until now, the damage could probably have been irreparably great but thank God that it is not too late yet! --as long as we act now and promptly so. Therefore, quit your armchair criticism and act now!! It is high time to awake for THE TIME IS SHORT!

Recent indications are that this is already taking place hence contributing to the rising ocean tides ∇ A number of quotes in this write up are from the WWF reports booklet # 6, May 1991 issue from pages 15, 19, 21, and 23. Other quotes are from a book called “Tropical Forests” by Jacqueline Sawyer on page 28. Global warming will probably affect weather patterns enormously”-Sawyer. Note that ozone layer forms when NITROGEN OXIDES IN PRESENCE OF SUN LIGHT, combines with HYDROCARBONS(emitted mostly by Motor vehicles and oil refineries) NO+HC= = = >03+HN


1. WWF reports No 6, MAY 1991 ISSUE from pages 15, 19, 21 and 23 2. Sawyer Jacqueline, “TROPICAL FORESTS” pp 28.

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“NIMBY!”-“ Not in my back yard!” is now a common word to express just the degree of averseness people have towards all forms of pollution, especially that which poses a severe health hazard. People no longer want to live ,work or visit a place near to a dumping site, Nuclear power plant or any toxic waste emitting industry. This aversion has been on the increase from the middle of last century… but why the sudden “noise”? Why are people bothered by pollution? Is it harmful? If so, what are some of the effects and remedies of pollution? These are some of the questions & answers the article “Hazardous waste” from the March 1985 issue of the National Geographic addresses. As one turn to the article, a person clad in protective clothing while holding forth thick sticky oily stuff on a pole is seen. The picture is so graphic that one needs not read the story. The picture tells it all. Pollution has been a thorny issue for some time now. Being mindful that the word “Pollution” is a general term and there are various types such as Air, Water, soil, dust and noise pollution. We seek to define it as such and then draw our boundaries. Pollution basically is the introduction of certain parameters into the environment which cause an imbalance in the ecosystem, as a result of dumping waste in certain localities which situation leads to an environment being hostile to various eco-players such as humans, animals and vegetation. For our purposes, we confine our selves to water pollution. In talking about water pollution, we must go further to state that we are dealing with fresh ground water . As earlier intimated, the article takes 34 pages to cover this pollution as found in the Michigan State-USA. In the said State, like any other, pollution has reached cripplingly dangerous levels. Reading the article, one cannot help agreeing with people who yell “NIMBY!” because of the devastating effects of environmental degradation. It is clear that this problem is a global one but is more serious in some places than others. The long industrialised countries like the USA are worst hit. On the one hand, the industrial machinery is churning out an unprecedented high quality and quantities of products, while on the other, the by-products cannot be easily disposed off! Slowly, the world has been storing up trouble, which is returning to haunt the human neighbourhood. It seems the old graves are opening up and hazardous solid waste ghosts are resurrecting from their graves and coming for us, this time with venomous lethal potency. But what exactly causes this pollution? What are the sources of these hazardous waste products? For generations, as new technological feats have been surmounted, the world population has been growing exponentially. As at 6th October, 1999, the World Population was estimated at six billion!ΡΡΡΡ By all standards, this is a big number of people, looking at the present earth carrying capacity. Some how, Ρ Source-UNEP,1999.


all these people must have good clothing, enough food, good shelter and access to clean drinking water. The tragedy is that the fresh water bodies are becoming dangerously polluted by the day. There is an immense pressure exerted on the environment as the by products are disposed off. The disposal methods are varied , depending on the expense attached to the disposal mode. Some throw their rubbish into surface water bodies while others simply bury the stuff. With time, however, this has proved a bad way to deal with effluents because human kind is being harmed, as these toxic wastes begin to seep into the water tables from different points…and livings things ultimately use this same water. The harm mostly comes through the food chain, although it may take years to accumulate and cause serious fatal health problems later. But what are the major sources of these toxic substances? According to the article, the following are the major sources: 1. The Industries- As these churn out top quality goods, the industries have had a problem to dispose

off the by products. Industries such as fertiliser, paint, vanish and detergent paste factories produce effluents which are disposed off into streams, rivers or simply drained into pits. These selfsame have hitherto not had impermeable walls, thus letting the chemicals to seep into the ground en route to the water table. Further more, as the toxic fumes and gases are emitted into the atmosphere, they dissolve into rain water and fall to the ground in the form of acid rain. These in turn sink and ultimately find themselves into the ground water. This contaminates the ground water terribly.

2. The second source of ground water pollution is the agriculture activity. As more and more farmers use chemicals, the said chemicals leech and go into the ground water. Chemicals such as DDT which were widely used years ago have wormed themselves back into the food chain causing untold amount of biological damage. It is interesting to note that the unused DDT portions extant at the time of banning in the USA, are now a health hazard as the drums in which they have been stored, locked away in some underground pits, are leaking and thus trickling into the ground water! Σ

3. The third source is simply the dumping of waste-especially from the City. Michigan alone has over 59 toxic dump sites and most are probably not safe. In all probability, the sites begun simply as “safe” but as time progressed, more garbage piled up. Having weak and permeable bases, and under extreme pressure, the garbage begun to sink. With the advent of rain water, the toxic chemicals soaked in and trickled to the water table. As earlier intimated in No. 2 above, the DDT drums corroded and as a result, the deadly chemical have leaked into the ground water.

4. Another source is the land fills which are dug up by human kind. These are areas where the land is dug up specifically for disposing off waste material instead of dumping the toxic stuff directly into some water bodies. The Mining industries for example, have lagoons in which the contaminated stuff is kept either permanently or temporarily. In these circumstances, the are usually placed away from civilisation and the area sealed off. Unfortunately, until recently, these land fills were not watched carefully to see the impact on ground water. The article in question shows in graphical form just how that these toxic substances again percolate into the ground from whence humans draw water for domestic use. A case which happened in Japan in the 1950s has been sited. It points to the fact that careless disposal of toxic waste ultimately will get back to us. In the said case, thousands were afflicted by the mercury which ravaged their nervous systems. Others had their bones weakened by chronic disease called “Itai-itai” as a result of dumping waste.

5. Non renewable resources using energy power plants are another source of concern because they give off a lot of waste which is dumped in heaps. These by products are a time bomb as they not only create pressure on the environment by changing its topography, but the wastes remain toxic for many years yea, thousands of years! This is true in the case of the Nuclear and coal power plants. Talking about the Nuclear power stations, the Chernobyl disaster of April 26th ,1986 comes to mind. This disaster has left an indelible mark upon the sands of time as a monument of the imminent disaster mankind is courting. Among the many disastrous consequences is the fact that the Sarcophagus will remain a danger point to contaminate ground water. The said reactor No.4 which was entombed, is reported to be breaking apart. The melt down point is proving to be more difficult to maintain than earlier thought. Similar accidents have been recorded in the USA, though on a smaller scale.

Σ National Geographic, March 1985 issue pp 337


Having laboured to establish the sources of this ground water pollution, we now proceed to find what the major types of toxic substances which are prevalent in the ground water and what the effects of ground water pollution are. The article mentions the following chemicals 1.Mercury 2.Nitrogen 3.Polychlorinated biphenyls-PCBs These are but some of the toxic chemicals which are difficult to deal with as they result from necessary human activities. For example, some of the mercury may come from watches which people throw away! Further more, some of these are by products from manufacturing detergents and carpet cleaning chemicals. What exactly are the effects of ingesting these substances? The effects are many but the our findings from the article reveal the following: a. These contaminants cause cancers in humans as well as in other animals. Some fish have been found

with tumours.? b. There are reported birth defects in humans. The offspring are found to have disfigured bodies or

may have brain damage. Usually, these children will be mentally retarded. c. Miscarriages are another result. These chemicals induce spontaneous abortions which leave terrible

scars on the victims. d. Blood diseases are also common. The blood is badly contaminated an as such, the body does not

function well causing body weakness and a slow death. e. Some organs are not spared as they cannot metabolise these chemicals and heavy metals. Damages

occur to the Liver, Kidney and the genes(mutation). This leads to serious fatal conditions. f. Nervous disorders will be witnessed as well. The chemicals will wind their way into the nerve

centres of the body and cause them to malfunction. Nerves, as sensitive as they are, will be permanently damaged-Mind you, most of these are in remote parts of the body, are too numerous, minute and nigh impossible to replace.

g. The bones are destroyed. In the case of the Itai-itai disease, there is excruciating pain felt by the victim. The bones become so weak that a mere sneeze will cause a bone to crack! Numerous bone dislocations are experienced as well. This has crippled many a soul in Japan.

h. The water is rendered unfit for human consumption. It is said that there is probably more Fresh ground water than fresh surface water combined. Now if we are to destroy this precious resource, like we have done with surface water, where are we going to get the other water, seeing that the fresh water sources are dwindling rapidly?

i. As the fresh ground water resources retreat, there is a danger that the contaminated salty sea & ocean water will move in to fill the hollow spaces. These are horrifying prospects indeed!

The gloomy picture painted above largely affects humans. Other animals and plants are affected differently. For example, some fish can carry toxic substances such as DDT in their body tissues and remain in good health until, by a shortage of food, they begin to utilise the stored up fat. The same fat poisons the fish with lethal effect♥. What are the antidotes and the remedies to the problem? What can be done to avoid the above situation spreading further? A few solutions are offered: 1.Treat the solid waste before dumping or burying. The truth is that it is easier and cheaper to dispose off untreated waste. As such, companies, whose main interest is profit, will look for any loop hole to avoid incurring more expenses on things like incineration. If all polluters would spend more on treating waste, this would significantly reduce the ground water pollution. 2. Dispose solid waste materials far from the water table, away from humans and animals which need fresh clean water supplies. This is but another time bomb because man will have recourse to this same water in future, especially in the light of the dwindling supplies and the world exponential population growth. 3. Use Raw materials which will give off harmless disposable by products. This is a hard alternative but it is viable once found. Most of the Pollution emanates from the toxic by products. Further more, the

? National Geographic, July 1987 issue, page 27 by Cobbs, Jr Charles E ♥ Conservation for survival, page 69.Lindahl Kai


said wastes are usually hard to get rid of as they very long half lives. Others will virtually take thousands of years to decompose and lose their toxic potency. 4.Bury all waste in Impermeable dump sites and pits. Ensure that the garbage is located in an area where the rock structure that is impermeable, as is the case in West Germany, where the solid waste is stored in drums 2,300 feet below ground in former salt mine tunnels. These tunnels are deep, dry and geologically stable . This is thought to be the safest facility in the world. Alternatively, the waste could be dumped in other artificially made concrete sites. This is very costly to construct but Pollution is more costly in the long run! Generations ahead will curse us if we do not do something now! 5.Promote the use of natural fertilisers where possible. This keeps within the ecosystem equilibrium. More ways must be devised that will ensure maximum use of decomposition and animal waste. This is extremely difficult to achieve given the population today which demands food on a commercial level. Subsistence ways are far outstripped by food demand and somewhat obsolete for our times. The environmental problems hem in on us from every side but as the author of the article ably quotes someone at the end of his report, we affirm that “We would like to live long enough to see an end to problems with hazardous waste”, to this we aspire! Bibliography 1. Boraiko.A, (March, 1985,pp318-351) Hazardous Waste. Washington D.C: National Geographic Society. 2. Lindahl.K,(1972) Conservation for survival. London. Victor Collancz Ltd 3. GIS World, Battista .C, March 1994 issue “Chernobyl: Model Aids Nuclear Disaster relief” pp32-35. 4. Readers’ Digest,Pekkanen. J, May 1991 issue,Volume138 “Chernobyl: The man who flew into hell” pp 147-176. 5. Pickering.C.K., Owen. L.A(1995) An introduction to global environmental issues. London & New York: Routledge 6. Cobbs Jr. C,(July,1987,pp 2-31) The Great lakes’ troubled waters. Washington D.C: National Geographic society 7. Lee.D.B (July,1992,pp2-37)Americas’ third coast. Washington D.C: National Geographic Society 8. Caring for the Earth-Summary. IUCN/UNEP/WWF(1991) pp 16 9. Environmental Management hand book-Preston University/CACC

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n December 1952, over 4,000 people perished at the grisly hands of toxic smog which settled over London for four days. More recently, in 1991, Athens was engulfed in a cloud of smoke, which landed many in hospital. These and many like incidents have been recorded more frequently all over the world, especially in major cities where there is heavy traffic. But what has caused these occurrences? What exactly is the root cause and what can be done to correct this situation? Many have undertaken to highlight these problems and one of these is an article “Environmental Polluters to face criminal


charges” which appeared in the Zambia Daily mail issue of 4th August 1999. We shall attempt to define what this kind of pollution is and then seek to show its effects as well as the possible remedies. What exactly is pollution? Pollution is generally defined as “The introduction of certain parameters into the environmentΓ, which cannot be engrafted properly into the ecosystem due to their nature or volume and thus lead to deleterious consequences as a result of an eco-inequilibrium.” Clearly, we note that this state of affairs is very hostile to vegetation, animals and human kind. The parameters here spoken of are of varied types depending on the type of pollution at hand. For our purposes we confine our selves to air pollution. This is one of the most common forms of pollution because we meet it at every turn. But what are the major sources of pollution in the world today? A number are identified below: 1.The Coal Power generating plants. These are spread all over the world and in some cases, their concentration is so high like in the coal power plants of the UK. These use coal that burns and gives off thick dark fumes. These fumes billow into the air and are transported many kilometres away from the polluting point. 2.Volcanic eruptions The Volcanic eruptions have been known to be the largest natural polluters, even outweighing present anthropogenic emissions. It is estimated that some eruptions release as much as 15 – 30 million tonnes of sulphur dioxide into the air!∏ 3. Toxic Fumes from Cars. Cars give out Carbon Monoxide and Lead. Carbon monoxide, an odourless, colourless gas, is formed when the following reaction occurs:

2C(s) + O2 2CO(g) Lead is a deadly pollutant and once it enters the human body system, even in minute quantities will cause mental disorders on the victim, especially children. 4.Domestic burning. This is by far the most common type of pollution source. People burn things and natural gas in homes, especially in the cooler countries where gas is used for cooking and warming. An example of a polluting reaction is the burning of methane in the following reaction:

CH4 + 3O2 CO2 + 2H2O This reaction causes more carbon dioxide to be released to the atmosphere thereby contributing to global warming. 5.Industries- Industries are a major source of pollution as their by-products are usually dirty and toxic. The Oil refineries and other chemical factories have continued pouring dense poisonous fumes into the air. These must be watched very carefully. 6.Mining activities- Anthropogenic activities such as mining are as old as the world probably. Today, how ever, this activity ranks among the highest polluters in the world. Smoke and dust come from the mineral processing activities especially from the metal smelters. It is no wonder that the surrounding areas of the mines do not have vegetation and acid rain is a common feature in near by localities. 7.Firewood burning- As the need for power rises, so also the demand for firewood. This means that more trees are felled to produce the wood charcoal. The ramifications are that there will be fewer trees to carry out photosynthesis, which converts carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to give oxygen. The mere processing of wood to charcoal makes smoke to be produced. This practice is more pronounced in developing countries. 8.Air plane and Rocket fumes. Not much has been written about the effect of planes on the environment. One author once asserted that the pollution produced by the take off of one Boeing 707 is equivalent to 6,850 accelerating Volkswagens. In Munich for example, an area of 20 hectares near the airport has suffered severe pollution where the pine trees are dying-all due to the air plane exhausts.∂ Want of space forbids us to talk about the noise and air pollution generated by the many rockets launched into space. 9. Exponential Population growth. The rapid increase of the worlds’ population has far outstripped the earth’s carrying capacity. There is unbearable strain on the worlds’ resources as the global population hurtles towards the seven billion mark. Not only is there stress on the resources, but also the amount of Carbon dioxide emissions have increased proportionally. While the human population is on the Γ The environment is the world in which we live. It is the source of our food, water and the air we breathe ∏ Source: Introduction to global environmental issues, Pickering.C. Owen L p 116. ∂ Source: Conservation for survival ,Lindahl K., 1972, Page 14


exponential increase, that of plants is on the decline, meaning less oxygen machines available (i.e. the plants) . Having identified the major air polluting sources, we proceed to enquire as to the types of pollutants and the effects of this type of pollution. The question to hand is “What are some of the toxic air pollutants and what are the effects on man and the environment?” The major air pollutants are given below: 1.Carbon monoxide. This is a colourless and odourless gas formed when incomplete combustion takes place. This gas is produced in car engine combustion as well as when hydrocarbons are burnt where insufficient oxygen is present. 2.Sulphur dioxide. This gas is mainly emitted from the Mines, which pour out untold amounts of this gaseous substance into the air. This gas rises into the atmosphere and settles in the air. Some of it is dissolved into the rainwater to form other chemicals that fall to the ground. 3.Hydro carbons and organic acids- The hydrocarbons fuels and the CFCs are used in aerosols as propellants. They are preferred because they are chemically very inert and thus do not react with other materials in the container. However, in the upper atmosphere, UV light splits the CFC!!!! to give Chlorine. This chlorine then reacts with ozone to produce oxygen. 4.Lead- Is a naturally occurring element and it is added to petrol in cars to improve the engine efficiency. The air concentration of the Lead is relative from place to place but is highest where traffic congestion is upper most-the cities. 5.Nitrogen Oxides-These are oxides that come from sources such as the burning of organic substances, or reactions in the air with certain gases such as Carbon Monoxide or Sulphur oxides. 6.Nuclear waste and fall out. This topic has been a source of much controversy in the recent past due to the nature of the materials at hand. While nuclear use and knowledge has increased over time, the age-old question that still begs answering is, “How are we to safely dispose off hazardous nuclear waste permanently after use?” No real solution has been found. The problem is that nuclear materials are lethal and invisible to the human eye. In addition, they usually have long half-lives and can exist in that lethal state for many years. Where these have accidentally been exposed to the free atmosphere, untold amount of damage has been recorded, as was the case with the April 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster in the former USSR. To this day, large stretches of land and air remain deadly to traverse. This nuclear waste and fallout threatens both the wild life and the environmental health of a certain locality. Even more hair raising is the fact that the contaminated air moves from place to place and thus transports the radiation particles to distant places. It has been reported for example, that animals grazing in Scandinavian countries were condemned and the milk not fit for human consumption. Once exposed, the human body cells rapidly disintegrate, mutations occur and cancer like Leukemia develops. From the above scenario, it is clear that nuclear technology, whilst plausibly cheaper and more efficient, is a long-term hazardous pollutant of the atmosphere. What are some of the effects of air pollution? Looking at the magnitude of the terrible effects≤, it is difficult to point out exhaustively the extent of this scourge but a few suggested answers will suffice for our purposes. The following effects immediately come to the fore: 1. Discomfort, health problems and death. It is now a documented fact that air pollution is a silent,

slow but certain killer. As intimated at the beginning of this paper, the noxious gases have and continue to do great harm. In humans, respiratory ailments like Bronchitis and Empysema worsen. Air pollution is also linked to Lung cancer, being more prevalent in industrial countries rather than in agrarian ones. Carbon monoxide, one of the poisonous gases once inhaled displaces the Oxygen in the blood and reduces the amount carried to the body tissues, thus the brain gets starved of oxygen and the victim dies. Further more, CO slows down the body reactions even in the healthiest persons and contributes significantly to the risks of accidents.

! “The total chlorine loading of the atmosphere has continued to rise… Governments should replace CFCs and other Ozone depleting substances, consistent with the Montreal Protocol…” Agenda 21-1992 Rio earth summit. ≤ The 1992 Rio earth summit highlighted the following… “Air pollution damages lungs, corrodes buildings, poisons soils and crops, kills forests and makes lakes unfit for aquatic life…"


2. Acid rain formsΩ. It is true that acid rain emanates directly from air pollution. What happens is that as the Nitrogen oxides and the Sulphur oxides dissolve into rain water, they change the pH level of the water so much that by the time the rain falls to the ground, the pH of the water will be around 4. Some excess gases are not absorbed as the atmosphere only cleans a percentage. This falls later as rain and will most likely fall in a totally different locality where it causes other problems such as acidifying lakes and soils. Acid rain also destroys vegetation in the following two ways by firstly, destroying stomata and secondly, by simply poisoning the soil so that certain plants will not grow. The following are the suggested reactions that take place in the atmosphere to form acid rain:

(i) SO2(g) + H2O(l)H2SO3 (Sulphurous acid) or (ii) SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4 (Sulphuric acid)

This is how acid rain is formed as the gases react with rainwater

3. Large stretches of vegetation are destroyed- Closely akin to the aforementioned point, large stretches of vegetation are destroyed. It has been speculated by some scientists that if not carefully managed, air pollution has the potential to cause entire forests to vanish. This is because the plant leaves are destroyed by either dry or wet deposition of pollutants on the leaf surfaces. As the pollutants settle on the surface, they not only destroy the stomata but allow toxic gases like Ozone to enter into the plantΩ too. Further more, in places near industrial areas, mines and airports, the vegetation is either absent or experiences stunted growth. In those areas no plant survives once planted. The explanation is simply that the Sulphur dioxide scorches, chokes and kills the plants. In cities, mass Lichen deaths are the first signs of pollution as they are extremely sensitive to smoke.

4. Air concentration balances altered. Though no documented evidence was found, I seriously think that a chance exists that the traditional concentration ratio of gases in normal clean air (i.e. Nitrogen, 78%, oxygen 21% and 1% other trace elements) is now being altered due to the anthropogenic actions as more gases are pumped into the atmosphere. This postulation, if correct, will mean that the air becomes more toxic and unhealthy for organisms. The will lead to diversity reduction in species and diseases increase such as lung cancer as asserted in No. 1 above.

5. Weather and climate changes-The far-reaching consequence of pollution is that the weather, world-over is changing rapidly and unpredictably. Hither to, it took no less than 30 years to predict the climatic conditions of an area but today this data is obsolete. The advent of the computer and Satellite technology aids us to figure out what is going on at a given moment but cannot tell us precisely what will happen 10 years hence. All these sudden weather changes are attributed to atmospheric pollution.

6. Death of marine life due to temperature changes. Due to the weather instability and the atmospheric changes, marine life will die. The water temperature changes will lead to extensive deaths of organisms sensitive to temperature variations. The Bio diversity is at risk as well.

7. Destruction of buildings Acid rain destroys the curving on some ancient limestone buildings. The acid reacts with the calcium carbonate and destroys the structures slowly. Other uncalculated costs such as the dirt/soot on building walls, the corroded metal bridges whose repairs and cleaning are very expensive. Dust pollution is also a menace in many places.

8. Deserts expand and get hotter There is an expected significant advance of the hot deserts as more vegetation dies off. The Kalahari and the Sahara deserts have been expanding further out at a phenomenal rate in recent years.

9. Changes in the circulation of the ocean currents. The advent of the indiscriminate air pollution by human activity has led to the erratic weather patterns in the atmosphere. Among the anticipated changes is the route of the ocean currents. Traditional patterns are being violated by the unstable conditions in the upper atmosphere. If this happens, there will be different distributions of species, different impacts on the continents and the reduced bio diversity.

Ω Vegetation is affected by the following pollutants: Gases kill the cells, acid rain damages plants as well as lowers the soil pH & mobilises toxic metals, air borne particles settle on the plants to reduce solar radiation received hindering photosynthesis, dust particles block stomatal pores and inhibit gas exchange as well as photosynthesis Ω See footnote with same symbol on previous page


10. Ozone layer depletion. Since the British scientists discovered the Ozone holesβ, there has been a lot of debate. The fact that the Ozone layer, found between 15-45 kilometres above the earth, has developed holes due to human activity spells doom for man. This layer is the worlds’ shield against the lethal solar radiation that comes to the earth from the sun. When the said radiation reaches the earth, the Ozone layer filters out the harmful Ultra Violet (UV) radiation from the rays allowing only safe doses to reach the earth. In the absence of this selfsame layer, the entire load reaches the earth causing invisible but catastrophic harm to organisms. In humans, especially among the white skinned people who have little melanin in their skins, cancers are prevalent. Cataracts have also been associated with the Ozone depletion phenomenon. Further more, increased UV bir radiation will affect sensitive marine, crops, and terrestrial ecosystems. But what exactly is Ozone? What happens to it and why? Where is it found? Ozone is a form of oxygen except that each Ozone molecule is made up of three oxygen atoms. It is a light blue toxic gas with a pungent smell. Ozone is formed by the reaction of ordinary Oxygen gas (O2) molecule with atomic oxygen (O) from Nitrogen dioxide in the air in the presence of Ultra Violet radiation. The reaction goes as follows:

O2(g) + O(g) O3 This reaction takes place on a large scale and so forms an effective barrier to solar radiation. Unfortunately, this selfsame gas is easily destroyed by certain elements in the atmosphere that leads to the situation we sited-the Ozone hole. The major cause of the rapid break down of the layer is attributed to the use of aerosols. These aerosols contain inert propellant gases such as Chlorofloro Carbons or CFC∇s. After being released from spraying cans and fridges, these ascend to the higher orbs where, in the presence of UV light they split to give free Chlorine radicals.These free chlorine radicals then go and “attack” the Ozone in a spontaneous continuous manner. In this way, the destruction rate of Ozone is far higher than the formation, thus leading to the Ozone holes. The following is the reaction that probably takes place when the Ozone is broken:

Cl + O3 ClO + O2 Unless drastic measures are put in place, we will continue to witness more and bigger Ozone holes, as the present ones are widening by the day. Also the skin cancer cases will continue to rise especially among the white skinned people in places like Australia∆ where the ozone protection has fallen sharplyΛ. It is good that modern fringes and aerosol cans have been branded “Ozone friendly”. Repair of the badly damaged Ozone layer will take many decades. 11. Frequent Famines and floods. Air pollution will cause more frequent natural disasters. There is so

much evidence from all parts of the world. Further, what is the explanation of the droughts, famines and crop failures worldwide? Isn’t it because of mans’ continued violation of the natural balance in the ecosystem? We strongly suspect pollution.

12. Heat waves. Hither to, heat waves were a rare phenomenon but the recent years have witnessed a higher frequency of these. The local press is replete with many incidences depicting sudden heat outbursts in different parts of the world. High temperature rises cause mass deaths. Plants are scorched too as excessive heat causes serious dehydration.

13. Polar cap melting. The coming months and years, will witness unprecedented global temperature rises that will cause the ice caps at the two poles of the earth to melt. Presently, the cold deserts hold much water in frozen state and thus reduce the amount of free flowing water in the oceans. Imagine a release of this trapped water. 14. Global warming. Global warming is pivotal to the many changes that are taking place in the world today. There is a general increase in the world temperatures due to the presence of more free Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is a green house gas and so heats up the earth as it traps the β Quoted from the Awake! Magazine, December 22, 1994 issue page 6 “When our atmosphere is damaged” ∇ An estimated 20 million tons of CFC have been already been released into the atmosphere…reports the 1994 magazine Popular Science. ∆ The following except is from The New scientist: “…there were unusually low values of Ozone concentrations in 1992 between latitudes 50*N & 60*N, covering northern Europe, Russia and Canada. The Ozone level was 12% below normal, lower than at anytime in 35 years of continuous observations…” Λ Depletion is most rapid in extremely cold & still conditions like Antarctica where over 60% or more Ozone has bee destroyed.


Infra red radiation keeping the heat in the lower atmosphere causing an inequilibrium in the ecosystem. The ramifications are the observed weather and climatic changes. It is postulated that going by the present trends, the temperatures worldwide might rise by an estimated 1.5-4.5*C, depending partly on the response of the natural CO2 reservoirs such as forests and oceans. It is estimated that some 300,000 times more carbon dioxide is trapped in the ocean floors as fossils and rocks. There fears that as more global warming occurs, the trapped deposits will be released into the atmosphere, causing even more havoc. Reversing the global warming trend will be hard since CO2 remains in the atmosphere for many decades. The 1992 Rio de Jenairo earth summitε called for countries to stabilise the CO2 emissions at 1990 levels by the year 2000. 15. Tide rise. It is postulated by some scientists that there has been and will be more tidal rise in the ocean and sea water levels. As pointed out in 14 above, the melting of the polar caps means more water unlocked into the oceans. This, among many things threatens to flood lowlands such as the pacific islands and Bangladesh. Also, the atolls, Coral reefs and other bodies where organisms thrive will be submerged and reduce the biodiversity further. This will also mean that the hurricanes on coastlines will be even more difficult to quell. 16. Reduced light intensity It has been noticed that the light intensity in heavily polluted areas has been reduced significantly due to the dark fumes that hover over the polluted areas. As one approaches an industrial town, one can clearly see a dark smoke hallow enveloping the city, but upon entering the city, the cloud is virtually invisible to the human eye. Every hour, people are breathing smoke into their body systems unawares. In some extreme cases, visibility is impaired due to the dense fumes, reducing sight to less than 10 metres! This condition is a sure recipe for disaster and has a two fold negative effect: 1. The process of photosynthesis is hindered in plants and thus leads to stunted plant growth and death. 2. The dark clouds have contributed to many accidents due to the poor visibility. 17. Noise pollution. Noise has come with mechanisation. Although the definition of “Noise” is relative, any unwanted sound can be classified as noise. The Factories, cars, aeroplanes and even our own domestic gadgets give off noise. Those who work among machines for long hours on end are most at risk of suffering the ill effects of continuous noise pollution. 18. Toxication of lakes & soil. Acid rain pollutes the water bodies making them inhabitable to aquatic life. This has occurred in Scandinavia. Also, the selfsame acid rain changes the soil pH poisoning plants. This has a bearing on the type of Flora and Fauna extant in a given locality. Both these negative effects lead to a reduced bio diversity. The above effects speak for themselves. What ought to be done? The article to hand suggests that the law be invoked. But what practical tangible steps can we take to help tame the pollution tide? A few pragmatic steps are suggested: 1. Strengthen the existing laws against Polluters.- The relevant appointed environmental protection institutions must be strengthened. In turn, this will empower them to prosecute polluters with minimal external interference. In many countries, the same ecological protection bodies are there only to report pollution occurrences but have no power to bring to book all the offenders. To effectively enforce these laws, there is need for institutional capacity upgrade for relevant bodies and individuals. 2. Minimise the polluting levels of the atmosphere.Θ Presently, the emissions into the atmosphere are so high.. The ideal situation is to simply shut down the pollution sources! Pragmatic measures must be put in place that will enable the existing polluters to carefully watch their waste emissions. Further more, cleaner and more efficient ways must be developed which reduce the degree of air contamination. 3. Develop healthier, cleaner and efficient power sources. More money must be spent on research into newer cleaner power sources. The hydrocarbon fuels, which are used extensively, are not renewable and therefore wasting assets. Secondly, they emit a lot of fumes when burning. In an ideal situation, nuclear

Source: Worlds in the sky, Sheenan.W., 1992, p 75 ε Maurice Strong, the earth summit Secretary General stated: “ Stabilising the gaseous composition of the atmosphere is clearly the most urgent problem we face in the 1990s… Carbon emissions must be cut atleast by 60% just to put the global warming trend on hold…” Θ It is important to note the following as stated by UNEP in 1992 “ Exposure to air pollution is now an inescapable part of urban life through out the world…”


power is potentially a good power source as is the hydro one but these systems must be perfected and made more efficient before they can be effectively used widely across the world. 4. Regulate the emission to the 1990 levels. Among the many proposals that were suggested at the 1992 Rio earth summitε was the desire to regulate emission to the 1990 levels. This means that nations must strive to either reduce or maintain the 1990 levels while alternative solutions were being sought. 5. Intensify global awareness campaigns. Ironically the greater part of the world remains asleep in the light. They see the danger but many remain indifferent or continue in their old indiscriminately destructive habits. More aggressive campaigns are urgently needed. 6. Encourage the use of public transport- This proposal is a plausible one but it largely depends on the degree of sympathy people have towards environmental issues. Voluntary use of public transport rather than private vehicles must be encouraged. Unfortunately, not all people appreciate the problem at hand. One way to encourage people is to offer some incentive for voluntary use of public transport. 7. Declare “car free”days - This proposal is closely connected to the one above except that in this

instance, people have no choice but to obey. The issue at hand is a moral one that affects every one. Certain roads must be closed on chosen days. We are fast approaching a time when private traffic restrictions will be a necessity. We need to act promptly or be forced into an austere position.

8. Introduce toxins neutralising elements during mass production processes. This means that certain substances have to be introduced either into the air or be added to by-products so that when they react with atmospheric pollutants, bringing about neutralisation. The substances will be filter out most of the toxic chemicals. The only hurdle is that this is an expensive undertaking and also poses other detrimental environmental problems like where these waste materials will be dumped with minimal inconvinience.

9. “Nip” potential pollution sources in the “bud.” This is simply the idea that any up coming pollution source must be watched strictly even before one puff of smoke is released to the atmosphere. Realistic guidelines must be put in place to guarantee continuous monitoring.

10. Be meticulous what industries registered, especially in the poorer developing countries! Although most of the atmospheric pollution presently occurs in the highly Industrialised countries, this scourge is fast shifting to the less developed nations.

11 Establish the critical loads of every environment. This is very crucial if sustainable development is to be a reality in the world today. Deliberate policy must be in place to determine the critical loads of the environment. Since Pollution cannot be entirely eradicatedχ, degradation can, this calls for careful observation and research to determine the maximum levels beyond which degradation begins. In the case of water bodies for example, this means that the acid neutralising capacity (ANC) must be known.

12 Curb noise pollution: Though noise pollution is here to stay, silencers must be utilised or the noise pollution sources relocated to alternate places far from society. This will minimise the inconvenience suffered by myriads.

As the new millennium unfolds, we, like the article author ably concludes, hope that the laws enacted will have the potency to restore sanity in human kinds’ mad quest to exploit nature without paying back dividends. Let us join hands with the environmental crusaders on the throes of earth restoration! 1 % & ) " ' $ ,1 % & ) " ' $ ,1 % & ) " ' $ ,1 % & ) " ' $ ,

1. Zambia Daily mail, 4th August 1999 issue by Kasuba Mulenga, “Environmental polluters to face

criminal charges” 2. Reader’s Digest, May 1991 issue, Pekkanen “The man who flew into hell” Pages 147-176 3. Introduction to global environmental issues.1995 Pickering C. Owen. L. London & New York.

Routledge 4. Enviro line, April 1996 issue Vol 1 No. 1 Environmental council of Zambia ε See foot note under global warming on p7 by Maurice strong. χ “Exposure to air pollution is now almost an inescapable part of the urban part of life through out the world”- UNEP, 1992


5. Conservation for survival: an ecological strategy.1972. Lindahl K. London. Victor Collancz ltd 6. Worlds in the sky.1992. Sheenan. W 7. GIS WORLD , March 1994 issue,Vol 7 No. 3. Page 32. Chernobyl: GIS aids model nuclear disaster

relief. GIS WORLD Inc, Washington. 8. National Geographic, May 1987 issue. Mike Edwards, “Chernobyl-One year after” pages 632-

653,624-625 9. Caring for the earth- a strategy for sustainable development (Summary). IUCN/WWF/UNEP 1991 10. A bomb Radiation effects Digest. Harwood academic publishers, 1993. 11. National Geographic, July 1987 issue. Cobb.C. jr. The Great Lakes’ troubled waters. Pages 2-31 12. National Geographic, July 1992 issue. Lee D. America’s third coast 13. Message, May/June 1990 page 18,19, WM.B Eerdmans publishing Co., 1985 14. National Geographic, March 1985 issue, Allen A. Boraiko. Hazardous waste. Pages 318-351,364-

383 15. Awake! Magazine, December 22, 1994 issue. Watch tower publications 16. Quotations from the Rio de Jenairo summit

' " 5 ' " 5 ' " 5 ' " 5

There has been much talk about the threat to exterminate forests lately. The local and international press including books are replete with the debates on the forests. The crusade for the forest conservationΤ is on the increase each day. But why is there such an outcry? After all, what is the necessity of keeping many needless trees around us? Are we backtracking on the dreams of our forefathers who wanted a clearer planet? Among the many people who have ventured to address this issue is Bwalya Nondo whose article entitled “Kafue Forest reserves fall to squatters” is a classic one. Perhaps the question that still begs answering is “What is the importance of forest?” In answering that question, we will do well to state that in this assignment, we deal with the topic of Deforestation, in general and its effects. What then is deforestation? Some one has simply defined it as “The conversion of forest land to other uses, such as pasture and cropland”& This simple definition means that large stretches of prior forested land are cleared due to anthropogenic actions, in the quest to develop. A few years ago, trees occupied more land than people did but now, the opposite is true. In Zambia, where atleast three major categories of vegetation exist i.e. the closed forests, the open forests, and the grassland, including wetlands & Dambos, none have escaped unscathed by the wave of forest degradation wave that has hit world.ϒ The question still lingers, what is the importance of forests? A number of answers come to the fore: 1. Forests are the Natural oxygen machines through the process of photosynthesis. 2. Forests help to hold the soil together. The soil structure is refined as well as held together. 3. Forests are windbreakers. Many a whirlwind is stopped by the tree barrier. Dust pollution is also

minimised. 4. Forests help regulate the hydrological cycle. Through transpiration, much water is transmitted to the

atmosphere. Also, The trees keep water from being lost rapidly. 5. Forests are of economic value-Forests provide the much needed wood for construction and other

uses such as paper and rubber making. The trees also enrich the soil with nutrients. 6. Forests are the natural habitats of many organisms. Myriads of organisms perch and flourish in the

trees. Untold bio diversity is found in the forest, adding to the beauty of the natural world.

Τ Conservation is the management of human use of the Biosphere so that it may yield the greatest sustainable benefit to present generations while maintaining its potential to meet the needs & aspirations of future generations-Kawanga & Hanyona & Introduction to global environmental issue, Pickering K & Owen L. P366 ϒ It is estimated that between 200,000 to 300,000 hectares of forests are indiscriminately destroyed annually- January 28th 1999 Daily mail & August 4th 1999 Daily Mail.


7. Forests help prevent floods. There have been postulations that the frequent flooding in area like Bangladesh has been due to deforestation. Trees reduce the run off rate and also retain most of the water from the uplands.

8. Forests provide Fuel and charcoal.-This goes without saying, fuel and energy are derived from trees for domestic use.

9. Forests protect the water catchment areas. Where trees have been felled around the catchment area, streams have dried shortly afterwards. This is because trees retain water and also keep the water table near the surface. When they are cleared, all the water is lost rapidly.

10. Forests are a source of medicines. The cure of Aids and Cancer are concealed some where in those forests. Medicines all have their root to forests.

11. Forests ensure that subterranean water bodies are perennial. Akin to No.9 above, the underground streams and rivers run dry shortly or reduced to seasonal ones.

12. Forests are a barrier to soil erosion-akin to No.2 above, the absence of trees will leave the area vulnerable to rapid erosion where gullies will dominate. The soil subsequently becomes loose and loses fertility. Erosion disfigures the landscape too.

13. Forests are the hub a great bio diversity of plants and animals. Akin to No. 6 above, not only is it a habitant for organisms, but it must be emphasised that a Bio diverse

crop of organisms is kept safe in the forests leading to a balanced eco-system. 14. Forests provide shade and comfort. Although this might seem a minor point, trees give shade and

comfort to animals and humans as well. It is difficult to compute this in monetary terms but it surely has value.

15. Landslides prevented. On sloppy topography, trees hold the soil together and in times of heavy run off, the trees reduce the possibility of landslides.

The points above show the importance of trees if man is to survive in ages to come. Our introduction declared that forests were being indiscriminately cleared, what exactly are the major contributors of this scourge? The underlying answer is that human activity is at the centre of it all. Some major causes are highlighted below: 1. Charcoal burning. The demand for charcoal has increased as the global population has. The article

highlights the activity as one that takes place every day in the forest reserve. Although charcoal burning is labour intensive, economic necessity overrides inconvenience.

2. Demand increase. The exponential world population growth means the demand has increased by the same token. There fore, more trees are felled to satisfy the ready market.

3. Development. Large stretches of land are cleared annually pave way for development. New towns, roads and structures are constructed without taking an environmental impact assessment. The profit motive rather than the sustainable development is the human goal.

4. Atmospheric pollution -There has been an increase in the incidence of acid rain as a result of atmospheric pollution. When the acid rain falls on the vegetation, it has destroyed many of them.

5. Agriculture- As man has moved to commercial farming, large areas have been cleared for monoculture thus not only destroying forests but the biodiversity as well. The article highlights how the Kafue east topography has been ravaged.

6. Spraying-In the quest to kill pests, many forests and plants have been poisoned and killed. When DDT was widely used, it actually went up the food chain to poison man as well.

7. Pasture- With the advent of commercial farming, animals are kept in one area where they live and feed. Their confinement causes pressure on the land as the hoofs destroy the land and all the available vegetation is either trampled on or eaten.

8. Fires. Natural fires are caused by lightening but others are lit by humans, in conformity with the age old traditional practices. This is prevalent in the flood plains of the Western Province of Zambia. This kills plants and organisms.

Having noted the sources of deforestation, we now proceed to look at the effects of this act of deforestation. The perceived adverse effects are: 1. Soil erosion. There being no trees to hold the soil together, the land quickly becomes denuded and

useless.


2. Siltation. Closely akin to the above, in areas where rivers flow, the eroded soil goes into the river and causes siltation. This raises the river bed there by blocking the river, and sometimes, deposition islands develop.

3. Droughts. As there are no trees to facilitate transpiration, land becomes dry and so no water transmitted to the upper atmosphere. Droughts result.

4. Desertification encroaches. The deserts expand having been given a foothold to claim more land. Once deforested, the land is vulnerable to barrenness that leads to desertification.

5. Drying up of Perennial rivers and streams. The absence of rivers in catchment areas means no water to guarantee the continued flow of the river.

6. Drying up of subterranean streams. The absence of trees not only lowers the water table, it also leads to underground streams to dry up.

7. Lowering of food security. Although remote, the indiscriminate cutting down of trees ultimately leads to lower crop yields as the soil will be less fertile and thus lead to economic collapse.

8. Flooding. Deforestation has been linked to flooding in Bangladesh. The Himalayan region has undergone acute deforestation and some Environmentalists strongly believe that deforestation is to blame.∆

9. Fewer medicine sources. The cure for cancer is believed to lie somewhere in the forests, but if these are cleared, it spells doom for humankind. Medicines like quinine were discovered in the forests!

10. Landslides. These are more frequent in denuded and deforested areas because vthe soil is lose. 11. Land invasion by new growth. The deforested land is taken over by secondary forests or the exotic

species invade the land, changing the landscape forever. 12. Reduced bio diversity. Monoculture has led to a reduced species of plants that interplay so

wonderfully to add beauty and balance to the ecosystem. When these are cleared, the land becomes vulnerable.

We have looked at the causes and effects of deforestation, it is now fitting to offer some possible remedies to this pending catastrophe. These are: 1. Strengthen the law on forestry. As the article suggests, the greatest need is to enact laws that will

empower forest pundits to deal with offenders. As is the case in the Kafue forest reserve, the pundits are the law-abiding citizens and not the forest destroyers! The Ministry has no teeth.

2. Carry out an environmental assessment impact before any major under taking such as the building of towns or roads.

3. Afforestation. There has been a growing call for more trees to be planted, whether exotic or not. Whilst very plausible, this must be done very carefully or else the exotic plants can invade and overtake the indigenous species. Also, some plants like the pines in England have been linked to the acidification of water bodies.κ Care must be taken by all concerned to ensure that no adverse impact results from an apparently worthy cause.

4. Reforestation-This will mean allowing the natural vegetation to regeneration freely having been depleted due to human activity. This is the best and ideal practice but regeneration takes many decades and centuries to recover the former glory. The rate of re growth in some exotic species is quicker and thus preferred.

5. Awareness campaigns. Incidentally, those who practice destructive habits know the consequences though not fully. There should be a deliberate effort to educate the masses through different fora and media. Myriads careless whether the tree in their back yard is there or not.

6. Offer alternative land to squatters- Apart from cautioning the people, the culprits must be offered other land designated for farming etc. The problem that confronts some people is that they have no alternative means of lively hood. If you deny them the trees, they will perish with hunger!

7. Work within the extant framework. This means that no one is victimised but that the authorities work hand in hand with the forest users to ensure that only enough is felled to allow the forests

∆ Introduction to global environmental issues Pickering & Owen. p 263,264 κ Introduction to global environmental issues p 118,119


recover. This is the goal of sustainable development. People must develop, but not at the expense of the natural surroundings.

8. Increase funding and research. This sector has been marginalised in many a country because it has been perceived as a “non-crucial” area, this is a mistake! In poor countries, the above suggestions cannot take place unless a deliberate policy is put in place to ensure that the suggestions are implemented and monitored. For example, only $ 500 million∝ has been spent on this in Zambia. This is by far inadequate.

9. Minimise Political interference-Half the time, Politicians do not have the long-term dangers at hand. They only think of the vote. As a result, certain foolish things are condoned. My view is that if there is to be any interference, it should be for the cause of forest preservation and not for egocentric purposes. Selfish politicking has been the major cause of the impunity displayed by the Kafue forest invaders.

The problem at hand is indeed a very grave one and can only be solved by humankind. Quick action must be taken or else all that remains will also be extinct. We fear that what has happened at the Kafue Forest reserve will spread like bush fire. It is so heart rending to watch helplessly as Gods’ creation is ripped asunder. Let marshal all our resources to save what remains! 1 % & ) " ' $ ,1 % & ) " ' $ ,1 % & ) " ' $ ,1 % & ) " ' $ ,

1. Sunday Times of Zambia, July 25th 1999 issue. Bwalya Nondo, “Kafue forest reserves fall to

squatters”. 2. Times of Zambia, July 5th & 19th 1999 issues. Kawanga V& Hanyona S, “Forest and habitat

development paralysed” 3. Zambia Daily Mail, 28th January 1999 issue. Mulasikwanda L. “Human activity eroding biological

diversity” 4. Zambia Daily Mail, July 5th 1999 issue. Nachalwe C. “Poor funding blamed for deforestation” 5. Zambia Daily Mail, March 3rd 1999 issue. Chanda A. “Charcoal burners: Not all are environmental

polluters” 6. The Post, December 4th 1998 issue. “Nyerere campaigns for afforestation” 7. The Post, February 8th 1999 issue. Kayumba L. “UNZA launches tree planting project” 8. An introduction to global environmental issues 1995. Pickering K. Owen L. London and New York.

Routledge 9. Know your trees-some common trees found in Zambia 1995. Storrs A.E.G. Regional Soil

conservation Unit. 10. Conservation for survival 1972. Lindahl K. London. Victor Collancz ltd. 11. Environmental management hand book-Preston Univ/Azaliah 12. Caring for the Earth: a summary. IUCN/WWF/UNEP 1991 13. Forestry for sustainable rural development 1998. New York. Ford foundation. 14. Charcoal industry workshop May 10-14, 1993 Siavonga, Zambia. Serenje W . Chidumayo E.

Chipuwa J. Ellegard A & Egneus H 15. Zambia Daily Mail, August 4th 1999 issue. Mulenga K. “Environmental polluters to face criminal

charges” ' " 6

“Pollution” is a pregnant term and has been defined variously. My own simple definition of pollution is “The introduction of certain parameters into the environment which cannot be co-opted into the ecosystem and thus cause an eco-inequilibrium leading to environmental degradation”. This situation renders the environment to be harmful and unpleasant to humans, animals and plants. As can be seen,

∝ Zambia Daily mail, July 5th 1999, “Poor funding blamed on deforestation”, Chiwanza Nachalwe


this definition of pollution is general. Since there are different types of pollution, it is fitting for us to be clear in our minds from the outset, what type of pollution we are talking about exactly. For our purposes, we confine our selves to fresh surface water pollution. “ Human kind has been polluting water since the early days of civilisation.”λ In those earlier days when the World population was small, the fresh water bodies seemed far from being significantly contaminated. But alas, with the advent of the industrial revolution, there has been an “explosion” of goods produced. “Mass production” has been the call. With the advent of modern technology, higher living standards, longer life expectancies and population booms have been experienced. Naturally, these have their own impact on the environment. As such, since the 1950s, we begun to hear outcries from different pockets on this terrestrial ball. The present six billion (As at October 6th 1999-UNEP estimations)people on the earth today, have surely led to great strains on the earth’s carrying capacity to meet all the needs. The exponential population boom is having its toll today. As such, one does not need to go far to discover how and why the issue of fresh water scarcity is being highlighted today. There is a critical shortage of clean fresh water generally on the earth . On the one hand, the industrialised countries maximise on the use of the fresh water resources, while on the other, the less development countries like Zambia only use 3% letting the other 97% to flow wastefully to the ocean! The industrialised countries like the USA, Norway and Sweden have some of the worst polluted fresh water bodies where, in some cases, the entire aquatic and biological life is almost dead! The Great lakes in the USA, for example, are so polluted such that it is hazardous to drink the water directly from them! In the quest to industrialise, the developing countries have also started polluting their fresh water sources as well. Their industrial waste is dumped into the rivers and lakes whose pollution levels in most cases far exceed the maximum accepted pollution levels. Most of the industrial and human effluents are not treated, as this option is cheaper. As one of the ramifications of pollution, the articles “Kafue weed becoming national crisis”, and “Kariba weed under control” show clearly that a catastrophe is looming in Zambia as well. The problem illustrated is but a tip in the ice berg of the grave environmental decay that confronts the world today. The Kafue and Kariba weeds are two different water hyacinths, which have plagued rivers and lakes in Zambia. The said articles bring out very revealing facts about the effects of pollution. For example, the Kafue weed (also known as the Water Malignant hyacinth) has in some places covered the entire river! There is a thick blanket of vegetation across the river such that the river cannot be seen or flow properly! But what has caused this situation? For one thing, it is not known how this Kafue weed got into the river, because it is natively found in South America. How this weed landed on the Kafue is yet to be discovered. One thing for sure is that it is there and flourishing! According to the Kafue weed article, the said pester was first spotted in the early nineteen seventies though in very insignificant traces but overtime, this selfsame weed has spread widely ending up as a menace. It has proliferated to almost uncontrollable levels. In attempting to answer the question as to the causes of this pending holocaust, the article points to the issue of pollution. The hyacinth thrives in an atmosphere where there is a lot of water, sunshine, Nitrogen and Phosphorus nutrients. All these elements are present on the river. The following are the sources of some of these elements. 1. The industries – The Nitrogen Chemicals, Kafue textiles, Indeni oils & the Tannery, to name but a

few, pollute the river. 2. The Mines – the mines dump some of their waste such as the slug into the river. These contain some

nutrients. In some cases, the mines dump the waste in lagoons which lead to other pollution problems such as the pollution of ground water.

λ An introduction to Global Environmental issues, Pickering C & Owen L (1995) page 135.


3. The Agricultural Activities – The Nakambala Sugar Estate and the other farmers release a lot of chemical effluents into the river. These chemicals are a good ground for the hyacinth thriving- leading to eutrophicationφφφφ in the river.

4. The sewerage – Which is dumped into the river from the cities such as Lusaka, Kafue and Mazabuka. In some cases these human waste is not treated thereby causing a lot of problems later on down stream.

The above have continued to dump more and more waste into the river to the extent that the Kafue river has turned out to be probably the most severely polluted river in Zambia. This river, with all its impurities flows into the Zambezi River, which river, we have reason, is itself polluted because of the presence of a similar weed at the Lake Kariba. But what are the effects of this water pollution? Does it affect anything or any one at all? The answer to this is an affirmative yes! The presence of heavy water pollution leads to the following. 1. The water becomes unfit for human consumption. As we all know, “Water is life”, a familiar adage

says. It will mean people cannot have access to clean and safe water. If they drink the water, their health is at risk. Actually, in some countries people are warned sternly against drinking water from the tap or else get ill, develop terminal diseases such as cancer and die!

2. The water once polluted will cause the hyacinth to flourish thereby making the river not navigable.

In some cases, the river dies!-In extreme situations, the river simply dries up and is buried! 3. The presence of pollution leads to the aquatic and biological life to die. In the case of the Kafue

River, the hyacinth depletes the oxygen concentrations to levels such that fish die! Further, the “thick vegetation blankets” not allow light to penetrate to the aquatic life beneath.

4. The hyacinth, in the case of the Kafue, Kafubu and Lake Kariba sucks in enormous amount of

water, which is lost rapidly through evaporation. The Kafue weed article stated that these plants are composed of 95% water, which water is lost and replaced very frequently. This means that the rivers or lakes lose the much needed water for the hydroelectric power generation. This has serious adverse economic impact – Also, the concentration of the effluents increases, since the water is less.

5. The water bodies cannot be used for other economic activities such as fishing, boating or swimming.

Imagine diving into an acid swimming pool! But this can happen to the massive water bodies too! 6. Breeding ground for mosquitoes. These Water hyacinth are a perfect hub for mosquito breeding,

having significantly reduced the water speed. The environment created is like a stagnant pool of water.

7. Closely connected to No.6 above, the reduced water speed due to the presence of the weed will lead

to siltation at the Dam wall bases of the man-made lakes. This siltation is undesirable because it will ultimately lead to the interruption of hydro power generation and also create more pressure on the Dam wall.

Having looked at the effects of fresh water pollution, the article goes on to attempt to offer some

solutions. The following are suggested:

φ Eutrophication -Addition of nutrients to water bodies which increase their productivity


1. Using biological methods – This is breeding the Weevils, which feed on the hyacinth. These weevils are propagated and then introduced into the water bodies. Ideally, if there were a large enough population, they could clear the hyacinth. Questions have been asked such as “After the hyacinth are wiped out, what plants will the weevils ravage next?” Others have raised the point that the populations of these self-same weevils are too small while the imminent danger is great, needing immediate action.

2. The second suggestion is the use chemicals to clear the weed. This was used at the lake Kariba

(August 1998)with a measure of successΨ. The question that begs answering is “Won’t those chemicals eventually get into the food chain and cause problems later?” This method is quite effective but poses a danger on the aquatic life in that water body. Infact, this chemical method is in itself another source of pollution!!

3. The third remedy is the mechanical. This method suggests that direct physical intervention be

implemented. The Government will have to hire certain organisations will use machines and physically “fish” out the weed from the water bodies. It is practised in East Africa, where soldiers do it (The lake Victoria has not been spared in this scourge either!). This is an excellent idea but extremely costly too, looking at the extent of the hyacinth problem. This method has been tried on the Kafubu river before, (This tributary of the Kafue river is extremely clogged by the weed. It is on the Copperbelt of Zambia) but no sooner had the weeds been removed than they reappeared , with even more vigour! Sustainable ways are needed to combat this foe.

4. The last suggested remedy is to simply turn off the supply of those nutrients! This will mean that all

the polluting sources must have alternative places to dump their effluents. For example, the Nakambala Sugar Estate will have either to strictly treat its waste or find an alternative dumping site.

The above suggested ways are not exhaustive, other possible solutions exist as well. It is a fitting conclusion drawn by the Kafue weed article that this scourge ought to be fought with as much vigour as we spend on fighting the HIV and AIDS pandemic. We must marshal all our resources to fight the Hyacinth to the very bitter end! So, we can see that surface water pollution is on the increase World wide and must be meticulously watched. In Zambia, the Environmental Council has been empowered through the Environmental protection and pollution control act (EPPC) cap 204 of 1991, to monitor and prosecute polluters. We feel more power is needed if this careless pollution tide is to be tamed. Remember, water is life! 1 1 !1 1 !1 1 !1 1 !

1. Zambia Daily Mail, Singy Hanyona, January 25th 1999 “Kafue weed becoming national crisis” 2. Time of Zambia, Emelda Shonga,16th July, 1999 “ Kariba weed Crisis” under control says ZRA 3. “The Chronicle” February 12th, 2000 “River Polluted”< This is a Zimbabwean National daily. 4. Zambia Daily Mail ,Mulenga Kasuba, August 4th, 1999 “Environment polluters to face criminal

charges” 5. Environment line, ECZ April 1996 volume 1 number 1 “Environmental Pollution in Zambia: What

is it like?” 6. Pickering. C.K., Owen. L.A(1995) An introduction to Global Environmental issues. London & New

York: Routledge 7. Cobb Jr. C,(July, 1987, pp 2-31) The Great Lakes’ troubled waters. Washington D.C: National

Geographic society

Ψ “Kariba weed under control…”, Emelda Shonga, Times of Zambia 16th July, 1999.


8. Lindahl.K(1972) Conservation for Survival. London. Victor Collancz ltd Extra note: • A hard copy will come through the regular mail box with the attached copies of article. I will also

include photos of the said plagued rivers to add colour to the work. I have visited the following Water bodies and physically seen the weed:

1. The Kafue River, at the road bridge, where the river is probably worst clogged by the weed. 2. The Kafubu river-This river is completely covered at the places I chose, I found two major sources

of pollution:i. There is a sewer system which is none functional but simply pours untreated human waste into the river!

ii. There are industries which pour their waste into the river. Ndola is the “Industrial Capital”. Much of the effluents are not checked either. The irony of it all is that the Major part of Ndola gets its domestic water supplies from this selfsame river!.. and no one raises a finger in protest!! A few have though with little success. The Lake Kariba & Dam- The Dam wall was not too badly clogged but the weed could be seen floating on the lake in large “Batches” of healthy green vegetable

' " 7

The Body shop International This has been a dynamic shop network that has been lobbying various social crusades especially those on the Environment. If one only heard about its activist works, one would never imagine that the same entity could possibly produce excellent products, whereas if one only knew about the excellent products, one could not have imagined that this was the same unorthodox, blunt, rough and riotous shop! Yet both these attributes mystically unite in this selfsame organisation! For the body shop, it has meant changing all the time depending on the social needs that confronted it. It has been built around the robust principles of Anita Roddick, whose ways have been dubbed eccentric but highly relevant and profitable. Anita has had a passion for social change and has successfully left her mark on the company work culture. The Body shop has been an exciting and thrilling place to work at because of the constant new challenges. But who is Anita and from whence does she hail? What has she done and where is she heading to next? What prospects lie ahead of the body Shop in ensuing years? Anita Roddick begun the shops in 1976 and developed them. She, with the help of her husband worked together and moulded the shop as they saw fit. Having owned a hotel previously, they sold it to pursue other life long desires before Anita begun doing a business based on natural herbs. The herbs business mainly focused on skin care, and thus attracted women. With time, people developed confidence in the products and thus, the shop picked up. It is now close to twenty years since the first shop was opened and today, the shops are dotted internationally on the globe. Its presence is mainly in the UK but plans are under way to conquer more and new frontiers. Although the body shop does not market its products, quality does it for the shops. But who is Anita exactly? Anita descends from Italian-immigrant parents and has some hind exposure to business although she never had any formal business training. She got married to Gordon and turned their house into a hotel. As earlier intimated, they sold it to pursue other things. It was whilst in that state that Anita begun a small shop dealing with skin care, using natural ingredients. From one shop, the business blossomed into a chain of shops that are a force to reckon with. Founded on Anita’s strong principles of social good and environmental protection, the Body shop has been so successful capturing international attention.


But what has made the Body Shop tick? What has been the secret behind the phenomenal growth despite unorthodox business practices? For one thing, the body shops have been a hive of activity, constantly changing with the times. A lot of innovation takes place, is customer taste sensitive, strongly social and environmentally conscious, possessing appealing, natural and personal attention to the customer, responsive to the current needs and strategic in approach. In addition, the goods are of high quality, the leader is daringly radical, possesses a good franchising net work with a unique anti animal testing stance. All these attributes have blended so well together so as to boost the company success while defying proven industry norms. Further, we assert that the most important sources of this success have been many. The first source has been the environmental protection stand. Today, with the frequent talk on the uncontrolled planet degradation, anyone raising a finger against this scourge will receive a hearing. As such, the environmental crusade has highlighted the body shop on the international scenario. For another thing, the unique and strong community contribution thrust is an asset. The company believes that the company has a moral duty to pay back, in some way, what is got from the community. This stance alone is a powerful competitive advantage tool. Still further, the head of this organisation, Anita Roddick, is a robust, diligent and candidly outspoken leader who can not be easily ignored. When she yells from her tunnel, the world halts to hear her. In addition, the ingredients used in the products are natural and do not allow testing on animals. The use of the environmentally sensitive methods receives a lot of applaud from all corners of the world, thus the global acclaim given to the body shops. It is a curious fact that the shops do not advertise, but the ingredients utilised do the marketing. Anita has been the single most powerful force in the company. Her management philosophies are excellent though they are centred around her and are quite imposing. If any will not toll the same line with Anita, they are surely on the warpath with the iron lady. That not withstanding, she is an asset to the company in that she has led the company to a strategic position, etching out a unique niche. Although there is a lot more competition today, the shops continue to tower above rivals because Anita has wielded certain potent attributes onto the company culture. For example, the company is very sensitive to environmental and customer taste change, vibrant, agile, and responsive maintaining high quality products. Further more, there is a lot of innovation and ideas constantly flowing from Anita’s fertile mind. She has brought about product changes, initiated projects, research and collaborated with powerful NGOs to get mammoth tasks and changes done. Single handedly, she has resiliently and valiantly stood against the world even in the face of major opposition from her own employees. For Anita, dead orthodoxy is not relished but hounded out through the window. Once she sees something and approves it, she will unflinchingly charge like the Bull towards the goal, of course minding that the business continues to run successfully. Obviously, there are many lessons we can learn form such a dynamic company and individual. Firstly we learn that if a company is to be successful in today’s hostile business environment, it must be constantly alert and adjust with the times. This means continuous improvement of products, be constantly learning, be more sensitive to customers, maintain a “small company” atmosphere in the company, be agile, contribute to the community, and add a “human face” to the company. Secondly, we learn that a company must hire “Known quantities” as much as possible for these will attract attention to the company. Not only should these be known people, but also they must be creative, robust, resilient and diligent risk takers who will not mellow at puny attacks. Anita is the very epitome of constancy. Thirdly, we must ensure that though star players are preferred, the must not be allowed to paralyse others. This is evident at the Body shop where Anita is almost everything and no one dares cross her path. This means that when she fizzles out from the business horizon, the company sinks with her. An ideal situation is to have a “pool” from which to tap leaders. Anitas’ eccentric maneuvers are uniquely good but their sustainability is questionable. Fourthly, let it be noted that the company must be agile, fluid, unbureaucratic, flexible, customer sensitive and must provide that ‘personal touch’ to their business. Customers must feel individually appreciated and noticed. Myriad companies have staggered to the company graveyard because of the loss of that personal and good quality speedy service to customers. Fifthly, the company must maintain a clear strategic mission that should, like the star that guided the wise men, lead the company to its destiny without much ado. Sixthly, the unique and unprecedented product niche must be guarded jealously. Not only must this be improved and expanded, but also the products themselves must be improved continuously. The body shop is unique in its social


goals as well as in its use of natural ingredients. Others are copying this uniqueness today but they cannot attain unto its unique prowess. From the afore mentioned lessons, we can clearly see that the Body shop deviates widely from the normal business trends. Although one’s hair stands on end when thinking about this entity, yet a company can survive outside the norm, as long as it reads the times well and acts at the right time. Timing and the right moves are what count. Having asserted thus, let us be quick to say that it is safer to use the long tested and tried ways, though with a strategic eye. Looking at the way that the company has developed and evolved over the years, especially in the UK, we have reason to believe that the body shop has a bright future though this will be hard won. The business world is replete with companies that are moving towards the use of the same natural ingredients that have hitherto made the company have a strong uniqueness. The niche has scarcely been neither challenged nor eroded. In the light of the emerging threats, it is imperative that the company relocates to a more sustainable position that will strengthen the uniqueness. Among the many things it will have to do it its quest to evolve into a better company is to maintain and enhance its “personal attention” to clients, its sensitivity and responsiveness to the changing demands and tastes of customers out there. Above all, the company must continuously be innovative, train human resource to take over from Anita, and not lose focus on its community contribution ethic. Now that the body shop is confronted with the titanic task of penetrating the American market, it must adjust its gears very well because the issues it will face are fundamentally different from the usual. For example, the American consumer tastes will differ. Further more, the big social concerns such as the environmental crusades are not as hot issues in the States compared to Europe. Added to the list of potential hurdles is the legal environment, trade restrictions, approval criteria of products by the American authorities, the difficulty to recruit people with a like passion as those else where in the body shop network and the threat from more apt “copy cats”. One other concern is the age-old stance of not advertising. On the American market, if a company will not advertise, it will not be noticed and book a place among the company graves. These and many strategies that have eked triumphs in Europe may not carry the day in the States. That notwith standing, the Potential market is there as long as the following are observed; Firstly, the company should strategise, by initially carrying out a market research and then looking for the best way to enter the market. One way could be to produce some exceptionally high quality products that can be given free to some key clients for a start. Powerful policies and structures that will ensure sustainability over time must further support this strategy. I suggest that initially, only one outlet initially be open and then spread wings depending on the performance of the same. As such, there must be an allowance for a pay back period of say two years. This may mean running at a loss for a while before breaking even. It would be wises that the shop hires “known quantities” that wholeheartedly imbibe the Body shop ethics and who will fearlessly champion the entity causes. Alternatively, the shop could identify the “Big” social issues on American soils, adopt them and champion the same. Furthermore, The community contribution must be elected carefully so that it is relevant. Natives could be trained who will easily accomplish all these. In addition, I feel that the Anita grip over the company must be modified to allow more liberty for the shop mangers. Apart from franchising, the company must now reconsider its stance on marketing. In the UK, absence of direct marketing may work, but the American situation is different, therefore, due care must be given. It is true that what has made the shops thrive all a long has been the risky ventures and unorthodox methods, but this new prospect calls for walking circumspectly lest failure dents the company image. The legal environment as well ought to be watched carefully and if possible, the best lawyers and partnership/collaborations are sought. If an American partner can be found, a partnership knot could be tied. Lastly, the company must strengthen its niche by adopting new strategies that will highlight the uniqueness of the products. Topping those qualities should be the high standards and usefulness of the products. The community contribution must come in by and by though must be highlighted in the mission statement too. As Anita and colleagues peer into the future, I would encourage them to launch full throttle onto th

1 % & 1 % & 1 % & 1 % & ) " ' $ ,) " ' $ ,) " ' $ ,) " ' $ ,

Bower et al, Business Policy, McGraw Hill


General Bibliography

1. Bwalya Nondo Sunday Times of Zambia, July 25th 1999 issue. " Kafue Forest reserves fall to squatters."

2. Kawanga V & Hanyona S, Times of Zambia, July 5th & 19th, 1999 issues. " Forest and habitat development paralysed".

3. Mulasikwanda L Zambia Daily Mail, 28th January, 1999 issue. "Human activity eroding biological diversity"

4. Nachalwe C Zambia Daily Mail 5th July, 1999 issues "Poor funding blamed for deforestation" 5. Chanda A Zambia Daily Mail, March 3rd 1999 issue. "Charcoal burners: Not all are

environmental polluters" 6. The Post, December 4th, 1998 issue. "Nyerere campaigns for afforestation" 7. Kayamba L. The Post, 8th February 1999 issue. "Unza launches tree planting project" 8. Pickering K Owen. An Introduction to global Environmental issues. 1995. Routledge. London &

New York. 9. Storrs A. E. G. "Know your trees- some common trees found in Zambia 1995. Regional soil

conservation unit. 10. Lindahl K. Conservation for survival. 1972 Victor Collancz Ltd London. 11. IUCN/WWF/UNEP 1991: Caring for the Earth, a summary. 12. Environmental Management hand book-Preston University/ Azaliah College. 13. Forestry for sustainable rural development 1998. Ford Foundation. New York. 14. Serenje W. Chidumayo E. Chipuwa, J. E Hegard A & Egneus H, " Charcoal industry workshop,

May 10-14, 1993, Siavonga, Zambia. 15. Mulenga K Zambia Daily Mail, 4th August, 1999 issue. "Environmental polluters to face

criminal charges" 16. Enviro Line. Environmental Council of Zambia, 1995/96 issues.


A

Acid rain ....................................................................47, 49 afforestation .......................................................17, 54, 61 air pollution .....................................................................45 Anita Roddick............................................................58, 59 anthropogenic ................................. 16, 18, 19, 45, 47, 51

B

Barotse plains ..................................................................10 Bible ................................................................................38 bibliography....................................................................... 6 blizzards..........................................................................13

C

Chernobyl ................................................16, 42, 44, 46, 51 Chitemene system......................................................23, 30 Christopher Columbus.....................................................39 climate........................................... 5, 12, 13, 14, 30, 37, 47 CO2 ...............................................................18, 34, 45, 49 cold deserts .........................................................12, 13, 48 Council ......................................................................57, 61

D

Dark Continent ................................................................39 deforestation ...4, 10, 13, 19, 21, 23, 24, 51, 52, 53, 54, 61 Degradation .....................................................................16 desert ...................................... 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 17, 20 Desertification ..........................................6, 14, 18, 20, 53 Development..............................................................52, 64 disorders.....................................................................43, 45 dust pneumonia..............................................................15 dust storms .....................................................................13

E

ecosystem13, 16, 19, 20, 38, 39, 41, 44, 45, 48, 49, 53, 54 Environmental .............. 2, 9, 18, 44, 50, 54, 55, 57, 61, 64 environmental management. ............................................. 8 equatorial ...................................................................10, 26 eutrophication ................................................................56 exterminate ......................................................................51

F

fauna ..........................................................................11, 39 flooding ...................................................13, 15, 16, 52, 53 flora............................................................................11, 39 forests.....10, 12, 17, 18, 19, 23, 24, 26, 27, 29, 34, 39, 46,

47, 49, 51, 52, 53

G

GAMMA RAYS..............................................................40

H

Hazardous waste........................................................41, 51 Heat waves.......................................................................48 hot deserts.................................................................12, 47

I

impact .......4, 10, 11, 13, 21, 22, 23, 24, 42, 52, 53, 55, 56

industrial revolution ..................................................... 55 inequilibrium....................................................... 45, 49, 54 inexhaustible ................................................................... 38

K

Kafue weed......................................................... 55, 56, 57 Kalahari .....................................................9, 11, 15, 17, 47 Kambule stream ............................................................ 18

L

landscape ...........................................10, 16, 19, 20, 52, 53

M

Mass production ............................................................ 55 MELANIN ...................................................................... 40 Mulobezi ................................................................... 16, 17

N

nomadic ........................................................................... 12

O

Oasis ................................................................................ 17 Ozone ......................................................14, 40, 46, 47, 48

P

Political........................................................................ 9, 54 pollution 13, 14, 15, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48,

49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58 posterity ........................................................... 5, 18, 19, 37 Program ........................................................................... 64

R

Reforestation...................................................... 17, 20, 53 Rio de Jenairo Earth summit......................................... 6

S

Sahel................................................................................ 15 Sarcophagus .................................................................... 42 Savannah grassland ...................................................... 10 Savannah woodland ...................................................... 10 scientist........................................................................ 5, 48 Siltation ..................................................................... 15, 53 SO2............................................................................ 18, 47 socio-economic pressures ............................................. 14 susceptible ................................................................ 15, 16

U

urbanisation .............................................10, 13, 21, 22, 24

V

Vasco Da Gama............................................................... 39

W

weather ....................... 9, 10, 12, 13, 15, 20, 34, 40, 47, 49

Z

Zambezi River ......................................................... 10, 56


Billy Sichone trained as an Accountant and worked as a Program Accountant at one of World Vision International-Zambia’s large scale Area Development Programs (ADP) for seven years. He has held other portfolios but is presently a Program Manager. He studied the Zambia Diploma in Accountancy, is a Fellow of the Institute of Financial Accountants (IFA, UK) a licentiate member of the Zambia Institute of Certified Accountants (ZICA) and holds an MBA. He is married to Jane and they have a daughter together. Among his interests are studying, reading, studying, photography, research, writing, poultry, art, meeting people, astronomy, cycling, Environmental issues, and adventure. In keeping with his interests, he has produced several DVDs, books and is a public speaker Visit his u tube site on: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n2vu-QE0Oj4

Documents

DESERTIFICATION The case of Western Zambia