Depression and Nonacademic Self-Perceptions in Children with and without Learning Disabilities

Hammill Institute on Disabilities

Depression and Nonacademic Self-Perceptions in Children with and without LearningDisabilitiesAuthor(s): Nancy Lee Heath and Judith WienerSource: Learning Disability Quarterly, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Winter, 1996), pp. 34-44Published by: Sage Publications, Inc.Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1511051 .

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DEPRESSION AND NONACADEMIC SELF-PERCEPTIONS IN CHILDREN WITH AND WITHOUT LEARNING DISABILITIES

Nancy Lee Heath and Judith Wiener

Abstract. Nonacademic self-perceptions (social acceptance, athletic ability, physical appearance and behavioral conduct) of depressed and nondepressed children with and without learning disabilities were compared. The nonacademic subscales of the Self-Perception Profile for Learning Disabled Students, a domain-specific self-perception measure, and the Children's Depression Inventory, a self-report inventory of depressive symptomatology, were administered to students in grade 5 (n=83) and grade 8 (n=88). Results indicated that self-perceived social acceptance demonstrated a significant relationship with depression only for students with learning disabilities. Furthermore, lower self-perception of physical appearance was related to depression for females but not males. Depressed subjects, regardless of gender, reported lower self-perceptions of behavioral conduct and athletic ability. Consistent with previous findings regarding stereotypical self-perceptions, males reported better self-perceptions of athletic ability than females but lower self-perceptions of behavioral conduct. Clinical and theoretical implications are discussed.

Although the importance of one's self-perception, or evaluations of self, has been acknowl- edged as being central to depression (e.g., Beck, 1976; Seligman & Peterson, 1986), the study of domain-specific self-perceptions and depression is limited (e.g., Asarnow, 1988; Asarnow & Bates, 1988; Cole, 1990, 1991). Particularly within the field of learning disabilities (LD), the study of depression has been of recent origin (e.g., Goldstein, Paul, & Salfilippo-Cohn, 1985; Hall & Haws, 1989; Stevenson & Romney, 1984; Wright-Strawderman & Watson, 1992) and has tended to focus on whether children with LD report more depressive symptoms than their NLD peers (see Heath, 1992a, 1993, for reviews). Furthermore, studies examining domain-specific self-perceptions and affective variables (e.g., self-esteem measures) have relied al- most exclusively on self-perceptions of academic competence (e.g., Grolnick & Ryan, 1990; Kist- ner, Haskett, White, & Robbins, 1987).

Thus, despite evidence in the general population relating nonacademic areas of competence,

such as social acceptability and behavioral conduct, to depression (e.g., Strauss, Forehand, Frame, & Smith, 1984), the study of nonacademic self-perceptions and depression in children with LD has been largely ignored. The purpose of the present study was to clarify the complex relationship between nonacademic self- perceptions and depression in children with learning disabilities.

In examining multidimensional self-perception, factorial analyses have demonstrated a two-factor structure of academic and nonacademic self- perceptions (Heath, 1992b). Using a common domain-specific self-perception measure (Renick & Harter, 1988), Heath found that the academic

NANCY LEE HEATH, Ph.D., is Assistant Pro- fessor, Department of Educational and Coun- selling Psychology, McGill University. JUDITH WIENER, Ph.D., is Associate Professor, Department of Applied Developmental Psychol- ogy, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.

34 Learning Disability Quarterly



factor consisted of self-perceptions of competence in math, reading, writing, spelling, and general intelligence, while the nonacademic factor was comprised of self-perceptions of competence in social, behavioral, athletic and physical attractiveness domains.

Recently, Cole (1990) examined the relationship between academic competence ratings, social acceptance ratings, and depression in children. Children who had low competence ratings (self and/or other) in both the academic and the social domains were at greater risk for depression than children with poor competence in only one of these domains.

The social functioning of children with LD has been a major area of investigation since Bryan's (1974) seminal study. Studies have shown that children with learning disabilities are more likely to be rejected and neglected by nondisabled peers and have more social problems than normally achieving children (LaGreca & Stone, 1990; Swanson & Malone, 1992; Wiener, 1987; Wiener, Harris, & Shirer, 1990). Further- more, peer rejection in children with LD has been found to be related to social skill deficits such as inadequate social perception (e.g., Bruck & Hebert, 1982; Stiliadis & Wiener, 1989); poorly developed conversational skills (Wiener & Harris, 1993); attention deficits and hyperactivity (Flicek, 1992; Wiener & Harris, in press); and in- ternalizing and externalizing behavior problems (Kistner & Gatlin, 1989).

Thus, while there is evidence that children with LD overall are more likely to have poor social competence, their self-perception of competence in social and other nonacademic domains has been less clear. Studies of students with learning disabilities using multidimensional self- perception measures have increased substantially in the last decade (e.g., Cielesz, 1983; Hildreth, 1987; LaGreca & Stone, 1990; Pickar & Tori, 1986). Although many studies have found that students with LD report significantly lower self- perceptions of academic competence than their NLD counterparts (e.g., Cooley & Ayres, 1988; Hiebert, Wong, & Hunter, 1982; Kane, 1979; Kifer, 1975; Kistner et al., 1987; Pickar & Tori, 1986; Winne, Woodlands, & Wong, 1982), findings related to the nonacademic domains of self-perception in students with LD and in NLD students have been contradictory. In the social domain, some researchers have found no differences

between students with LD and NLD students in terms of self-perception of social acceptance (e.g., Andrews, Mulcahy, & Darko-Yeboah, 1990; Colangelo, Kelley, & Schrepfer, 1987; Kistner et al., 1987), while others have reported lower self- perception of social acceptance in the LD group (e.g., Cielesz, 1983; Hildreth, 1987; Renick & Harter, 1988; Rosenberg & Gaier, 1977; LaGreca & Stone, 1990). Some authors have even found students with LD reporting higher self-perception of social acceptance than their NLD peers (Winne et al., 1982). Thus, it is difficult to draw firm con- clusions regarding self-perception of social acceptance in students with LD.

Other nonacademic self-perceptions, such as self-perception of athletic ability, physical appearance and behavioral conduct in children with LD and NLD children, have only rarely been examined.

Kistner and colleagues (1987) found that students with LD reported a significantly lower self- perception of athletic ability than the NLD comparison group, whereas Winne et al. (1982) noted that students with LD had better self-perceptions of athletic ability than their NLD peers. Renick and Harter (1988), on the other hand, found no difference between LD and NLD groups on self-perception of athletic ability. Studies examining the self-perception of physical appearance report no difference between LD and NLD groups (Hildreth, 1987; Renick & Harter, 1988). Finally, Renick and Harter's (1988) initial report of LD and NLD group results on the Self-Perception Profile for LD Stu- dents found that students with LD reported significantly lower self-perceptions of behavioral conduct than their normally achieving peers. In summary, the study of LD and NLD subjects' nonacademic self-perceptions has been limited and findings generally are contradictory.

Although children with learning disabilities are known to be at-risk for depressive symptomatology (Heath, 1992a, 1993), some of these high-risk children have succeeded in avoiding depression and appear to be reporting self-perceptions in the academic domains that are not related to actual performance (Heath, 1995). Information is required concerning the nonacademic self-perceptions of these nondepressed children with LD.

The present study addresses a gap in previous research by studying the self-perceptions of social

Volume 19, Winter 1996 35



acceptance, physical appearance, behavior conduct, and athletic ability in depressed and nondepressed students with LD. The study was guided by two research questions: First, the need to es- tablish whether our sample of children with LD and their NLD peers, depressed and nondepressed, differ in nonacademic self-perceptions. Second, we examined whether the relationship between depression and nonacademic self-perceptions is different for children with, and those without, LD. Although a number of nonacademic self-perceptions are compared, the self-perception of social acceptance is seen as particularly important because of the relationship between social acceptance and psychological adjustment.

METHOD Subjects

A total of 178 children participated from three kindergarten-to-grade-8 (K-8) schools lo- cated in a suburban area near metropolitan Toronto. Of these students, 66 (35 males, 31 females) were children identified as having a LD, and 69 (33 males, 36 females) were identified as NLD by the researcher. Although the authors recognize the importance of providing information concerning school identification as well as psychometric identification, in the present study school identification is not informa- tive because the participating schools strongly discouraged "labeling" and consequently provided withdrawal resource and consultation as needed. Therefore, very few children were formally identified. Furthermore, this "special" treatment was accorded only for the time period needed by the student and, thus, was extremely flexible. The children were all integrated into grade 5 and 8 classrooms. All subjects spoke English in the home, and 94.2% were Cau- casian. None of the subjects were identified as having a behavior disorder or being emotionally disturbed or as having any exceptionality desig- nation other than LD. Measures

The following tests were used to identify and describe the LD and NLD samples. A short form of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-R) consisting of the Block Design and Vo- cabulary subtests was used to obtain an esti- mated IQ score. This IQ estimate has been found to correlate .90 with full-scale IQ (Sattler, 1988). The following instruments were adminis-

tered to asses academic achievement: the com- plete Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised (WRAT-R; Jastak & Wilkinson, 1984) levels I and II; the Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test -

Reading Comprehension subtest; and the Kauf- man Test of Educational Achievement (K-TEA, Kaufman & Kaufman, 1985) - Arithmetic Com- putation subtest.

Further, the Self-Perception Profile for Learn- ing Disabled Students (SPPLD; Renick & Harter, 1988) was used to assess self-perception of social acceptance, physical appearance, behavioral conduct and athletic ability. The SPPLD is a self- report measure for assessing both children with LD and normally achieving children in terms of their domain-specific judgments of their competence and their perceived worth or esteem as a person. The SPPLD assesses nine domains of self-perception: general intellectual ability, reading competence, spelling competence, writing competence, math competence, social acceptance, athletic competence, physical appearance, and behavioral conduct. A global self-worth score is also obtained. For the purposes of the present study only the nonacademic self-perceptions subscales were analyzed: self-perception of social acceptance, athletic competence, physical appearance and behavioral conduct

The nine scales are distinct from each other, with limited to moderate intercorrelations. Inter- nal consistency reliabilities, based on Cronbach's alpha, for each of the 10 subscales range from .79 to .89. The SPPLD is a close adaptation of the Self-Perception Profile for Children (SPPC; Harter, 1982). Although no extensive studies have been conducted on the psychometric properties of the SPPLD, in studies of the reliability and validity of the SPPC, researchers have concluded that it demonstrates extremely good psychometric properties (Byrne & Schneider, 1988; Marsh & Gouvernet, 1989).

The Children's Depression Inventory (CDI; Ko- vacs, 1983) was used to obtain a measure of self-reported depressive symptomatology. The CDI is a 27-item self-rated, symptom-oriented scale designed to assess depressed affect in children and adolescents ages 8 to 17 years. The inventory assesses commonly accepted symptoms of depression such as disturbance in mood, veg- etative functions, self-evaluation and interper- sonal behaviors (DSM-III-R; American Psychi- atric Association, 1987).




In the present study, a combination of ethical considerations led to the exclusion of the suicide item on the CDI. First, the importance of confi- dentiality was believed to be paramount to ensure honest reporting of both mood and self-perceptions by subjects; therefore, it was decided to omit the suicide item on the CDI, since in the case where a child indicated suicidal intention, the researcher would be ethically obliged to report this event. Second, additional ethical con- cerns arose regarding who would be informed in this scenario (e.g., school/family/agencies). These ethical considerations in the study of childhood depression, although frequently discussed amongst concerned researchers, are rarely di- rectly addressed in the relevant literature.

A number of authors have concluded that the CDI is the optimal self-report measure of depression for children, with good reliability and validity (e.g., Cytryn, McKnew, & Bunney, 1980; Kazdin, 1990; Saylor, Finch, Spirito, & Bennett, 1984). In their overview of assessment measures in the field of childhood depression, Vella, Heath, and Miezitis (1992) concluded that the CDI is a strong assessment tool, particularly for research purposes. Procedure

Although classes were not formally streamed into low-, average-, and high-achieving groups, the experienced teachers (in a district with many

Table 1 Standard Scores

new teachers) were assigned classes with a high proportion of students who were average- or low-achieving. This effectively resulted in classes that were grouped by achievement level.

All average- and low-achieving grade 5 and 8 classes were approached. Parental consent forms were sent to all students in these classes and 78% consent was obtained. Following the receipt of parental consent forms, subjects were seen for four sessions, one individual and three group sessions, usually spread over a period of four weeks.

In sessions 1, 2, and 4, the achievement measures were administered in groups, or individu- ally, as required. In session 3, groups of 10-15 subjects completed the self-perception (SPPLD) and the depression (CDI) measures in that order. Both questionnaires were read aloud by the first author or an assistant, with the students following on their questionnaires. At all times, at least one person circulated to check that all partici- pants understood instructions and were able to follow along.

RESULTS Average age in the grade 5 group was 128.58

months (SD=4.41) and in the grade 8 group, 165.27 months (SD=5.55). There was no difference in the average age of the LD and NLD groups. Since no significant age differences were

Measure n IQ* KTEA-A** WRAT-A** WRAT-S**

66 98.23 10.80

87.23 10.46

104.41 101.44 10.25 11.32

83.76 10.86

80.36 12.31

98.09 100.30 11.10 11.51

*p<0.01. **p<0.001.

Note. IQ: WISC-R estimate. KTEA-A: Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, subtest arithmetic computation. WRAT-A: Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised, subtest arithmetic. WRAT-S: Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised, subtest spelling. WRAT-R: Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised, subtest reading. RC: Gates-MacGinitie, subtest reading comprehension.


for Achievement Measures for LD and NLD Groups

Group LD M SD NLD M SD

69

WRAT-R**

83.76 13.70

104.29 12.33

RC**

40.74 6.23

50.25 7.42



found on any measure, subsequent analyses did not test for age effects. This decision is further supported by previous findings of no age differences for this age range (e.g., Byrne & Schnei- der, 1988).

Subjects were identified as having a learning disability if they had normal-range or above intelligence, defined as an IQ estimate of 85 or greater, in conjunction with measured achievement below the 8th percentile (i.e., 1.5 standard deviations or more below the mean) on one or more of the measures of achievement in reading, arithmetic, and/or spelling. Subjects with all achievement test scores within one and a half standard deviations of the mean were categorized as nonlearning disabled. (Means and standard deviations of IQ and achievement scores of the LD and NLD groups are shown in Table 1.)

The differences between the groups on each measure were tested using t-tests. As expected, the LD group obtained significantly lower scores than the NLD group on all achievement tests. In addition, the IQ estimates for the LD and NLD groups were significantly different (t(133)=-3.41, p<.01). Although the students with LD had a significantly lower IQ estimate than the NLD group, their mean IQ was in the normal range.

In accordance with previous research, depressed students were identified on the basis of a score of 12 or more on the Children's Depres- sion Inventory (Kazdin, 1990; Kovacs, 1983). Subjects with scores equal to or less than 6 were identified as nondepressed (Kovacs, 1983). Fifty- six children (27 males, 29 females) met the crite- ria for depression whereas 51 (24 males, 27 females) were categorized as nondepressed.

In combination with the LD categorization, this resulted in four groups: LD depressed (LD- DEP n=28), LD nondepressed (LDNDEP n=25), NLD depressed (NLDDEP n=22) and NLD nondepressed (NLDNDEP n=30). Descriptive statistics for the depression inventory (CDI) and nonacademic self-perceptions for these four groups are provided in Table 2.

Examination of the self-perception subscale distributions indicated negatively skewed distributions on the subscales, similar to the reports by Renick and Harter (1988). Therefore, all analyses used standardized z-scores for all self-perception subscale scores (Stevens, 1986). LD depressed and nondepressed as well as NLD depressed and nondepressed subjects' self-perceptions of competence in the nonacademic domains were explored using multivariate analysis.


Table 2 Mean Depression and Nonacademic Self-Perception Scores

Variable

Group n DEP SPATH SPBEH SPPHY SPSOC

NLDNDEP 30 M 3.6 3.1 3.4 2.9 3.1 SD 1.9 0.8 0.5 0.7 0.6 LDNDEP 25 M 3.1 3.2 3.4 3.1 3.4 SD 2.1 0.7 0.6 0.8 0.6 NLDDEP 22 M 15.6 2.7 2.5 2.3 2.9 SD 4.0 0.8 0.7 1.1 0.7 LDDEP 28 M 21.3 2.8 2.6 2.1 2.3 SD 7.8 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.7

Note. On the depression measure (DEP), the higher the score, the more depressive the symptoms. The higher the score on the self- perception variables (SPATH, SPBEH, SPPHY, SPSOC), the more positive the self-perception (lowest 1-4 highest).



The MANOVA was used because of the correla- tions among the self-perceptions and to control for Type I error. A 3-way MANOVA was run with LD/NLD groups (2), Dep/Ndep depression (2), and gender (2) as independent variables. Nonacademic self-perceptions in the domains of social acceptance, athletic ability, physical appearance, and behavioral conduct (SPSOC, SPATH, SPPHY, SPBEH) were the dependent variables. The possibility of a mitigating gender effect led to the inclusion of gender as a third factor (e.g., Berndt & Miller, 1990; Byrne & Shavelson, 1987; Cole, 1991; Marsh, 1989; Skaalvik, 1990; Skaalvik & Rankin, 1990; Tanaka & Westerman, 1988).

No significant multivariate LD/NLD group effect (Pillai trace=.037, F(494) =.894, n.s.) was observed on the nonacademic self-perceptions, but a depression effect (Pillai trace=.483, F=(494) =21.972, p<.05) and a gender effect (Pillai trace = .366, F(494) =13.545, p<.05) were found. In addition, however, a LD/NLD Group-by-Depres- sion interaction effect (Pillai trace = .131, F(4,94) = 3.545, p<.05) and a Depression-Group-by- Gender interaction effect (Pillai trace=.136, F(494) =3.713, p<.05) were found. No other significant interactions appeared.

To clarify the interaction effects, a post-hoc procedure examining the univariate F-tests was conducted using an alpha with Bonferonni cor- rection (alpha/# of dependent variables; alpha=.05/4=.01) to control for Type I error (Stevens, 1986). The LD/NLD Group by De- pression interaction effect for nonacademic self- perceptions at the univariate level was found to be significant only for the self-perception of social acceptance (F(1,97) =10.78, p<.01). Figure 1 illustrates the nature of this disordinal interaction. The presence of the depression was not associated with a significantly different self-perception of social acceptance for the NLD group (t=1.56, n.s.). However, in stark contrast, self- perception of social acceptance in the LD group was strongly related to the presence of self-reported depression. Depressed students with LD perceived themselves as significantly (t=6.44, p<.01) lower in social acceptance than their nondepressed peers with LD.

The Depression-Group-by-Gender multivariate interaction effect at the univariate level was significant only for the self-perception of physical appearance (F(1 97)=10.725, p<.01). For males and

females, depression was related to self-perception of physical appearance significantly differ- ently. Whereas there was no difference between depressed and nondepressed males on self-perception of physical appearance (t=1.21, n.s.), the difference between depressed and nondepressed females' perception of their physical appearance was significant (t=6.00, p<.01). Depression was related to lower self-perception of physical appearance in females, but not in males.

Univariate F-tests exploring the multivariate depression effect revealed that there was a depression effect for all nonacademic self-perception domains (see Table 3). Relative to nondepressed subjects, depressed subjects reported lower self- perceptions of their athletic ability and behavioral conduct. The depression effect on social and physical appearance self-perceptions, however, can only be interpreted with reference to the interaction effects discussed earlier.

When examined at the univariate level, the


\ 0 n \ N O

) \ o\ 0\

-0.5 ------------------------------ ------ ---- -- ----

-1 NDEP DEP

--- LD,n=53 ----- NLD,n=52

Figure 1. LD/NLD group-by-depression interaction effect for self-perception of social competence.



multivariate gender effect for nonacademic self- perceptions indicated significant gender effects for self-perception of athletic ability and behavioral conduct. Females had higher self-perception of their behavioral conduct (F(1,97)=11.492, p<.01) than males, but lower self-perceptions of their athletic ability (F(1,97)=30.184, p<.01). The gender effect for physical appearance cannot be interpreted independent of the Depression-by- Gender interaction effect noted above. No gender effect was observed for social acceptance.

DISCUSSION The comparison of the effects of depression on

nonacademic self-perceptions for subjects with LD and NLD subjects revealed some interesting interactions. The Learning-Disability-by- Depression interaction effect for self-perception of social acceptance suggests that depression is less related to social acceptance deficits in NLD students than in students with LD. Nondepressed students with a learning disability rated themselves as more socially competent than did the NLD nondepressed students. The depressed subjects with LD, on the other hand, rated themselves very negatively on social acceptance. These results raise the question of whether social acceptance by peers pro- tects children with LD from depression. Although

the results of the present study demonstrate that self-perception of social acceptance varies between depressed and nondepressed children with learning disabilities, it is impossible to conclude that depressed children with LD are less socially accepted than their nondepressed LD counterparts on the basis of the present study.

Cole's (1990, 1991) competency-based (CB) model supports the interpretation that the LD depressed group in the present study were suf- fering from the combined effects of poor competence in both academic and social domains. According to this model, the LD nondepressed group were able to maintain healthy affect because they had poor competence only in the academic domains. However, Heath's (1995) finding that LD nondepressed subjects' self-perception of academic competence was inaccu- rately inflated makes the CB model explanation of the present results less persuasive.

The premise of the CB model is that a subject's self-perception of competence reflects the reality of the negative or positive feedback re- ceived from peers or teachers. In contrast, a resilience model of childhood depression would suggest that self-perception may be relatively independent of reality, but will be intricately tied to the individual's affective state.


Table 3 Univariate F-Tests for Depression Effect on Nonacademic Self-Perception

Variable SS DF MS F p SPBEH 36.29 1 36.26 52.63 0.000 ERROR 66.82 97 0.69

SPSOC* 25.31 1 25.31 33.51 0.000 ERROR 73.27 97 0.76

SPATH 9.75 1 9.75 14.27 0.000 ERROR 66.28 97 0.68

SPPHY** 19.29 1 19.29 23.78 0.000 ERROR 78.69 97 0.81

Note. Significant "p" indicated in bold print (p<0.01). * Due to the LD/NLD-by-Depression interaction for SPSOC, this main effect must be interpreted with caution. ** Due to the Sex-by-Depression interacton effect for SPPHY, this main effect must be interpreted with caution. All self-perception subscales from the Self-Perception Profile for Learning Disabled Students. SPBEH: Self-perception of behavior. SPSOC: Self-perception of social competence. SPATH: Self-perception of athletic ability. SPPHY: Self-perception of physical attractiveness.



Heath's (1995) work on self-perception of academic achievement with depressed and nondepressed children with and without learning disabilities supports a resilience model of childhood depression. The resilience model explanation of the present results suggests that the nondepressed children with LD reporting average social acceptance may be engaging in denial, which aids them in maintaining their nondepressed state. Further investigation is required to clarify the accuracy of depressed and nondepressed LD children's self-perception of social acceptance. Nevertheless, regardless of accuracy, the finding that self-perception of social acceptance is significantly related to depression for students with LD highlights the importance of probing the child's self-perception of social acceptance in determining risk for depression.

Depression was also differentially related to physical appearance for males and females. Specifically, depression was tied to significantly lower self-perceptions of physical appearance for girls, but had no relation to boys' self-perception of physical appearance. This may reflect a stereotypical effect of cognitive distortion in depression.

There has been some theoretical discussion of how negative cognitive distortion may selectively affect those domains deemed most important by the individual (e.g., Beck, 1976; Seligman & Pe- terson, 1986). Although some recent research has suggested that positive body image is a negative correlate of depression in high school and college students (Cash, Winstead, & Janda, 1986; Noles, Cash, & Winstead, 1985; Teri, 1982), only one other study has reported a differential effect of body image on depression for males and females. In a study of students in grades 9-12, Allgood-Merten, Lewinsohn, and Hops (1990) found a gender difference in the relationship between body image and depression. While girls' perception of body image was strongly associated with depression, perception of body image was not related to depression in boys. However, these authors stress the need for replication of their findings.

Stereotypical biases were evident across self- perceptions of behavior and athletic ability. Compared to girls, boys had higher self-perceptions of athletic competence, while girls reported better self-perceptions of their behavioral conduct than boys. These findings are consistent with previous research in self-perception demonstrating

stereotypical male/female differences in self-perception (e.g., Berndt & Miller, 1990; Byrne & Shavelson, 1987; Cole, 1991; Marsh, 1989; Skaalvik, 1990; Skaalvik & Rankin, 1990; Tanaka & Westerman, 1988).

The depression effect for athletic ability and behavioral conduct indicating that depressed subjects, regardless of gender, report lower self- perceptions of athletic ability and behavioral conduct must be interpreted with caution. With- out an objective measure of the subjects' performance in these domains it is impossible to know if these negative perceptions are a result of cognitive distortion or if they reflect a negative reality. Previous research has demonstrated that behavioral problems are associated with depression (e.g., Faust, Baum, & Forehand, 1985; Strauss, et al., 1984). Perhaps the physical symptoms associated with depression (e.g., fatigue, psy- chomotor retardation or agitation) would inter- fere with athletic accomplishment. In summary, without independent measures, interpretation of these findings remains tentative. Limitations and Implications

A limitation of the present study is the predomi- nantly white, middle-class, suburban sample, which limits the generalizability of the findings. Arguably, a second limitation is the representa- tiveness of the comparison NLD groups. When compared to Reynolds' (1986) 14% depression in normal child samples, the 32% depression of our NLD group seems inflated, even in comparison to the 42% incidence in the LD group. However, unlike other "normal" samples, this group has been placed in average- or low-average functioning classes, yet is testing at an average or above achievement level. Thus, while in some respects they constitute an excellent comparison group for students with LD, being in the same classroom and provided with similar resources, they may not be the same as "normal" samples in other studies.

The differential relationship between depression and self-perception of social acceptance for subjects with LD and NLD subjects supports the importance of studying both the self-perceived and the actual social acceptance of students with LD. The question remains whether the relationship between depression and self-perception of social acceptance reflects a genuine social deficit in the depressed children with LD relative to the nondepressed children with LD, or a difference in self-perception. Clarification of this issue




would have implications for development of the-

ory of childhood depression and social skills in- terventions with this population.

Further research in this area will provide support for either the competency-based model of childhood depression or the resilience theory of childhood depression. Specifically, if the present result of a difference between the self-perception of social acceptance for depressed and nondepressed children with LD is found to be a reflec- tion of a genuine deficit on the part of the depressed children with LD, it would lend significant support to Cole's (1991) competency- based model of depression. Alternatively, a replication in the social domain of Heath's (1995) academic finding of accurate self-evaluations by the depressed subjects with LD, and inflated self- perceptions of competence on the part of the nondepressed subjects with LD, would lend cre- dence to the invulnerability notion suggested by the resilience theory of childhood depression.

Furthermore, clarification of the accuracy of self-perceptions of social competence by depressed and nondepressed children with LD would have significant implications for social skills instruction for these children. Substantial support for social skills instruction is provided if social competence is found to be a protective factor against depression in children with LD. However, if the es- sential difference between the depressed and nondepressed children with LD is not actual competence, but self-perception of competence, social skills intervention may not be as strongly indicated.

In conclusion, the present study has demonstrated that while self-perceptions of nonacademic competence differ between children with LD and NLD children, further important self-perception differences are revealed when the affect of the children is considered. Simple comparisons of children with LD and NLD children's nonacademic self-perceptions fail to account for these complex interactions between depression and achievement, and should be interpreted with caution.

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NOTES This study was supported by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.

Requests for reprints should be addressed to: Nancy L. Heath, Department of Educational and Counselling Psychology, Faculty of Education, McGill University, 3700 McTavish Street, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 1Y2, Canada.


CLD JOINS COORDINATED NATIONAL CAMPAIGN FOR LEARNING DISABILITIES

The Council for Learning Disabilities has joined forces with other national learning disabilities organizations in the development of a national campaign to increase awareness of learning disabilities (LD). The Campaign will bring together the experience and outreach of national LD organizations with the expertise of communications and media professionals to develop and implement a cohesive public awareness strategy.

Findings from a recent national opinion poll and focus groups supported by the Emily Hall Tremaine Foundation confirmed that, despite the fact that learning disabilities affect approxi- mately 15% of the population, the general public and many education professionals are con- fused and often misinformed about LD. "Learning disabilities present challenges across the lifespan," states Brian Bryant, President of the Council for Learning Disabilities. "New ad- vances in technology, when coupled with research-based educational approaches, provide increased access opportunities for individuals with learning disabilities in early childhood, the school years, and in adulthood."

The organizations involved in the Campaign are the Learning Disabilities Association of America, the National Center for Learning Disabilities, the Orton Dyslexia Society, the Divi- sion for Learning Disabilities of the Council for Exceptional Children, the Council for Learn- ing Disabilities and the Charles and Helen Schwab Foundation.

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Documents

Depression and Nonacademic Self-Perceptions in Children with and without Learning Disabilities