Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
i
EFFECT OF EXPOSURE TO FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
ON SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’
ACHIEVEMENT IN ENGLISH READING
COMPREHENSION
BY
OKEKE, NGOZI ESTHER
PG/PhD/02/32920
DEPARTMENT OF ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
OCTOBER, 2013
i
TITLE PAGE
EFFECT OF EXPOSURE TO FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
ON SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’
ACHIEVEMENT IN ENGLISH READING
COMPREHENSION
BY
OKEKE, NGOZI ESTHER
PG/PhD/02/32920
THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ARTS EDUCATION,
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA IN FULFILMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Ph.D) IN LANGUAGE EDUCATION
SUPERVISOR: PROF. (Mrs) G.C. OFFORMA
OCTOBER, 2013
ii
CERTIFICATION
Ngozi Esther Okeke of Arts Education, Faculty of Education, University of Nigeria,
Nsukka, with Registration Number PG/PhD/02/32920, has satisfactorily completed the
requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Language Education.
This thesis is original and has not been submitted in part or full for any other
diploma or degree of this or any other university.
____________________ _____________________
Prof. (Mrs) G.C. Offorma Okeke, Ngozi Esther
Supervisor Student
iii
APPROVAL PAGE
This thesis has been approved for the Department of Arts Education, University of
Nigeria, Nsukka.
By
______________________ ____________________
Prof. (Mrs) G.C. Offorma Internal Examiner
Supervisor
____________________ ___________________
Prof. (Mrs) U.C. Umo External Examiner
Head, Arts Education
______________________
Prof. Ike Ifelunni
Dean, Faculty of Education
iv
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to the Almighty God, my Creator who formed me in His
image; to the Lord Jesus Christ my Saviour, the Author and Perfecter of my life; and the
sweet Holy Spirit, my senior Partner, Teacher, and Counsellor.
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am immensely indebted to my supervisor, Prof. (Mrs) G.C. Offorma for her
supervision and constructive criticisms to see this work through.
I also express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to Prof. P. Nnabude, Dr. E.
Chukwu, Dr. (Mrs) Ebele Anyachebelu of Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka; Prof.
Sam Onuigbo, Prof. (Mrs) U.N.V. Agwagah, Dr U.C. Igbokwe, Dr I.C. Madu of the
University of Nigeria, Nsukka; and Dr. (Mrs) E.N. Anizoba of Paul University, Awka for
their academic advice and moral support to the successful completion of this study.
I appreciate my colleagues and friends who helped in the field work. They
include Mrs Ann Akabogu, Mrs Ebele Ezeilo, Mrs Christy Onuorah, Mrs Joe
Umeokafor, Mrs Augustina Izuchukwu, Mrs Ngozi Nwosu and a host of others too
numerous to mention.
I am also indebted to the following relations who were pleased with my zeal to
further my education: Mrs Uche Aneke, Mrs Chibu Chukwuka, Mr Ikechukwu Maduka
and Mr Osondu Maduka.
My appreciation also goes to my hardworking and efficient computer typist,
Ngozi Oranekwulu who handled this work with affection and dedication.
I acknowledge the pastors of Living Faith Church, Awka, and also, all the
members of Women Intercessors for the Church and Nations, Awka Chapter, for their
spiritual backing during the long period of my study.
Finally, I appreciate my beloved husband, Chinweike, though late now, for his
moral and financial support. To my children, Chioma, Chinweike, Uchenna and Chinelo,
I appreciate your prayers, continual affection and eagerness to see that this study is
completed.
May the good Lord bless you all in Jesus name, Amen.
Okeke, Ngozi Esther
Department of Arts Education
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pages
TITLE PAGE - - - - - - - - - i
CERTIFICATION - - - - - - - - - ii
APPROVAL PAGE - - - - - - - - iii
DEDICATION - - - - - - - - - iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT - - - - - - - - v
TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - - - - - - vi
LIST OF TABLES - - - - - - - - - ix
ABSTRACT - - - - - - - - - - x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
- Background of the Study- - - - - - - 1
- Statement of the Problem - - - - - - - 13
- Purpose of the Study - - - - - - - - 14
- Significance of the Study - - - - - - - 14
- Scope of the Study - - - - - - - - 16
- Research Questions - - - - - - - - 16
- Hypotheses - - - - - - - - - 17
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
- Conceptual Framework - - - - - - - 18
- Definition of Reading - - - - - - - 18
- Reading Comprehension - - - - - - 20
- Reading Comprehension Strategies - - - - - 25
- Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension - - - - - 29
- Figurative Language - - - - - - - - 33
- Problems of Nigerian Learners of English - - - - - 46
- Theoretical Framework - - - - - - - 50
- Learning Theories - - - - - - - - 50
- Behaviourism - - - - - - - - 50
- Cognitive Theory - - - - - - - 51
- Constructivism - - - - - - - 52
- Theory of Motivation - - - - - - - 53
vii
- Comprehension Approaches to Language Teaching - - - 55
- Theories of Reading - - - - - - - - 59
- The Schema Theory - - - - - - - - 60
- The Meta-cognitive Theory - - - - - - - 61
- Empirical Studies - - - - - - - - 62
- Summary of Literature Review - - - - - - 72
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHOD
- Design of the Study - - - - - - - - 75
- Area of the Study - - - - - - - - 76
- Population of the Study - - - - - - - 77
- Sample and Sampling Technique - - - - - - 77
- Instrument for Data Collection - - - - - - 78
- Validation of the Instrument - - - - - - - 79
- Reliability of the Instrument - - - - - - - 80
- Experimental Procedure - - - - - - - 81
- Control of Some Extraneous Variables - - - - - 83
- Method of Data Analysis - - - - - - - 85
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
Research Question One - - - - - - - 86
Hypothesis 1 - - - - - - - - - 87
Research Question Two - - - - - - - 88
Hypothesis 2 - - - - - - - - - 89
Research Question Three - - - - - - - 89
Hypothesis 3 - - - - - - - - - 90
Hypothesis 4 - - - - - - - - - 91
Hypothesis 5 - - - - - - - - - 92
Hypothesis 6 - - - - - - - - - 92
viii
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF RESULTS, CONCLUSION, IMPLICATIONS,
RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUMMARY
Discussion of Major Findings - - - - - - - 94
- Effect of Exposure to Figurative Language on Achievement in English
Reading Comprehension - - - - - - 94
- Influence of Gender on the Students’ Achievement in English Reading
Comprehension - - - - - - - 97
- Influence of Location on the Students’ Achievement in English Reading
Comprehension - - - - - - - 97
- Interaction Effect of Instructional Strategy and Gender on the Students’
Achievement in English Reading Comprehension - - - 98
- Interaction Effect of Instructional Strategy and Location on Students’
Achievement in English Reading Comprehension - - - 99
- Interaction Effect of Instructional Strategy , Gender and Location on
Students’ Achievement in English Reading Comprehension - - 99
- Conclusion - - - - - - - - - 100
- Educational Implications of the Study - - - - - 101
- Recommendations - - - - - - - - 102
- Limitations of the Study - - - - - - - 104
- Suggestions for Further Research - - - - - - 104
- Summary of the Study - - - - - - - 105
REFERENCES- - - - - - - - - 108
APPENDICES
Appendix I: Names and Population of Secondary Schools in
Awka Education Zone of Anambra State - - 116
Appendix II: List of the Secondary Schools in Awka Education
Zone used for the Study - - - - - - 120
Appendix III: Sample Sizes for the Study - - - - - 121
Appendix IV: West African Senior School Certificate Examination
English Language Paper I Detailed Syllabus - - - 122
Appendix V: Reading Passages for Lessons 1,2,3 and 4 - - - - 123
Appendix VI: Pretest Reading Passage and for Lesson 5 - - - - 129
Appendix VII: Model Answers to the Pretest Reading Passage - - - 134
ix
Appendix VIII: Table of Specification for Pretest Reading Passage - - 136
Appendix IX: Posttest Reading Passage - - - - - 137
Appendix X: Model Answers to Posttest Reading Passage - - - 141
Appendix XI: Table of Specification for Posttest Reading Passage - 143
Appendix XII: One-day Training Package for English Language
Teachers in the School used for the Study on
“Effect of Exposure to Figurative Language on
Students’ Achievement in English Reading
Comprehension” - - - - - - 144
Appendix XIII: Five-week Lesson Plan of Activities for the
Experimental Group on the Effect of Exposure to
Figurative Language on Students’ Achievement
in Reading Comprehension - - - - - 151
Appendix XIV: Five-week Lesson Plans on Reading
Comprehension for the Control Group - - - - 166
Appendix XV: Reliability Analysis-Passage 1 for Pretest - - - 176
Appendix XVI: Reliability Analysis-Passage I for Posttest - - 184
Appendix XVII: Inter-rater Reliability Using Kendall’s W Test - - 192
x
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Students’ Pretest/Posttest Mean Achievement and
Standard Derivations in Reading Comprehension through
Exposure to Figurative Language - - - - - - 86
2. Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) of Students’
Achievement in Reading Comprehension through Exposure
to Figurative Language - - - - - - - 87
3. Means Performance of Male and Female Students
Taught English Reading Comprehension Through
Exposure to Figurative Language - - - - - 88
4. Means and Standard Deviations of the Students’
Achievement by Location - - - - - - - 89
5. Performance of Experimental Group in
Urban/Rural Location - - - - - - - 91
xi
ABSTRACT
This study focussed on the Effect of Exposure to Figurative Language on Senior Secondary School Students’ Achievement in English Reading Comprehension in Awka Education Zone of Anambra State. Three research questions and six null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. The study engaged quasi-experimental research design, otherwise known as pretest-posttest non-equivalent control group design involving two intact classes from each of the randomly selected schools. Two hundred and ninety-nine (299) Senior Secondary Class Two Students, comprising males and females exclusively from four schools located in urban and rural areas of the Education Zone served as subjects in the study. The experimental group was made up of one hundred and fifty two (152) students, comprising 43 males and 47 females from urban; 26 males and 36 females from rural schools. In the control group of (147) students, 47 males and 45 females were from urban, and 25 males and 30 females were from rural. Each of the intact classes in each of the schools selected for the study through simple random sampling was also randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. The instrument for data collection was the English Language Reading Comprehension Achievement Test (ERCAT) based on two reading prose passages. Five different lesson plans for the two groups with the same instructional objectives and questions but different teaching strategies were developed. Two reading passages one for pretest and the other for posttest were used for the assessment. An internal consistency reliability estimate of each of the reading passages was calculated using Cronbach Alpha at .84 and .91 for the pretest and posttest respectively. Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance (W)Test was used to determine inter-rater reliability which yielded .51. Data obtained were calculated using mean and standard deviation to answer the research questions while the Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. The results of the study indicated that the strategy of exposure to figurative language significantly enhanced achievement in reading comprehension more than the conventional method. Gender had no significant influence on the students’ achievement while location significantly did. The interaction effect of gender and instructional strategy was not significant but there was significant interaction effect of instructional strategy and location. Again, the interaction effect of gender, location and instructional strategy was not significant. Following discussion on findings, the educational implications of the study were posited and recommendations made. Among others, English Language teachers should adopt the exposure strategy to figurative expressions as added alternative to the conventional method of vocabulary learning in reading comprehension. A stronger reading foundation should be laid right from pre-nursery to junior secondary school during which learners engage in extensive reading for more exposure to figurative expressions embedded in texts. The limitations of the study and suggestions for further research were given.
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
English Language has become an invaluable legacy of the British colonial
masters to Nigeria. The language has provided Nigerians with another means of
expressing their culture. Before the British came into Nigeria, the country already had
its many indigenous languages. One would have expected that with the attainment of
Nigeria independence in 1960, the language referred to as the language of conquest
and oppression would have been abolished (Akindele and Adegbite, 1999). On the
contrary, the English Language has come to stay as the country’s official and national
language. Globally, English is recognized as a world language.
Language is understood as the particular set of speech norms of a particular
community (Alersandrowicz-Pedich and Lazar, 2002). It is expressed using a set of
symbols in form of letters or pictures which represent its sound system. According to
Offorma (2009) language expression can be verbal or non-verbal to convey thoughts,
feelings, and information. The way the information is conveyed would reveal that
language operates within a systematic arrangement. Again, there are some elements
or characteristics of language which one cannot easily explain or find reasons for
(Schmmit, 2000). For instance, in English, the object called “house” is so called not
on the basis of any rational explanation but that the English people have
conventionally agreed to call it so, otherwise different languages would have had the
same name to designate the same object. Therefore, no two languages express the
same idea exactly the same way. This suggests that language learning is by imitation
and that to be clear and acceptable one must use words and patterns of expression
1
2
which people of the group understand and accept and which have the same meaning
for the hearer as for the speaker (Alersandrowich-Pedich and Lazar, 2002).
Every language is made up of four skills in their hierarchical order of
acquisitions as follows: listening, speaking, reading and writing. The listening skill as
the first of the four major language skills is the key and the gateway to language
learning and it is very vital and fundamental in the process of language acquisition.
The three other skills, speaking, reading and writing build upon it and are more or
less dependent on it (Mgbodile, 1999). As the child consolidates his listening skill he
moves into the speaking stage that will enable him join his speech community.
Listening and speaking stages are termed natural stages because they are acquired
without any formal learning. Long before the child learns to read, he has started to
communicate. Reading is the extension of communication and it naturally builds
upon listening and speaking skills already acquired. With practice and further
exposure to reading materials children gradually learn to read at primary school and
perfect their reading as they move higher to secondary school and higher institutions.
Skills for reading aloud, silent reading, intensive, extensive and fast reading are then
acquired. According to Agwu (2003) and Nduka (2003) reading is an indispensable
tool of learning at the various levels of education.
Reading is an active mental process through which the reader gets into the
author’s mind and comprehends his view –expressed and unexpressed - on a subject
which is presented before him in the form of printed language. In other words, the
reader is involved in both mental and emotional interaction with the author’s ideas,
processes these ideas in the light of his total experience past and present. In order to
do this, the reader has to make speculations, think over, interpret, judge and evaluate
3
all that the author has said. In comprehending what is read, mere understanding of
sentences and language are not enough but the semantic (underlying meaning) and
not the syntactic (sentence arrangement) content which is retained after reading. In
other words, comprehension is an act or process of understanding the nature or
meaning of something, the act or process of grasping with the mind (Alberto and
Troutman, 2003). In the same vein, Nduka (2003) could be said to have lent support
to the above view when he observed that comprehension, as it refers to reading,
means getting meaning from what is perceived in writing. Perception here implies
forming mental images and concepts generated by the written symbols (words).
These images and concepts are not restricted to only the visible language symbols but
extend far beyond to include ideas not directly represented by the symbols of the
language. Basically, authors often use words perceptively to achieve special effects.
Using language figuratively is one such use. `
Figurative expressions are the expressive, non- literal use of language for
special effects usually through images. Figurative language is one of the richest
means of emotional communication and it is an indispensable tool for arousing the
feelings of hearers or readers. It enriches literary writing as images and evocative
expressions. According to Nwachuwkwu-Agbada (2001) the use of figurative
language makes for conciseness in speech and writing. In other words, its use gives
rise to economy of words, enhances clarification of meaning, provides vivid
examples, stimulates associations and emotions and gives life to inanimate objects
and ornaments. The kinds of figurative language people use stem from the underlying
values and assumptions of their culture or society. A well understood metaphor in
one culture may have an entirely different meaning in another culture. For example,
4
the figurative meaning of different colours varies from one language group to
another. According to Palmer and Brooks (2004) the conventional association in
British English between the colour “green” to mean nature and innocence might not
be the same for students in other cultures. Students ought to be aware of these
associations in order to make tense of idiomatic usages like “to be green” (referring
to the colour of a thing and “to have green fingers” which means “one good at
making plants grow”, as well as more literary uses of the colour green. The teacher’s
task is to sensitize students to the cultural significance obtainable to particular
examples of figurative language in English, while encouraging them to compare the
association with those in their own language.
Figurative language is found both in literary and study-type reading materials.
It is used in conversations too. Hence, it is part of every individual’s cultural
background. The embedded figurative language in a reading passage carries the
culture of that language and the reading process involves recognition and handling of
such cultural meanings (Dellicarpini, 2007). On the problem of recognizing and
handling cultural meanings, Dellicarpini (2007) stated that because figurative
expressions have become conventional components of everyday language, listeners
and readers are unaware of the extent of the metaphorical nature of language. Some
popular idioms, proverbs and metaphoric expressions are so deeply embedded into
language that they are comprehended immediately when used in oral conversations
without the individual knowing the initial, historical context of the word or phrase.
But Batolva (2006) observed that despite the copious usage of figurative language in
conversations, many readers struggle to interpret the language when it is encountered
in a text. This inability to interpret the language leads to a breakdown in text
5
comprehension which in turn can frustrate readers and discourage them from
continuing the reading task.
Figures of speech are numerous but the most commonly used are metaphors,
synecdoche, metonymy, personifications, idioms, proverbs and allusions (Palmer and
Brooks, 2006). Other commonly known forms are hyperbole (overstatement), litotes
(understatement), simile, which is a formal comparison of two things usually
introduced by the words “like” or “as”, and, irony. Metaphors on the other hand,
provide direct comparisons between two things that are usually considered not
similar. An important characteristic of one thing is used to describe another in a
metaphor. For example, in the statement, “The child was a bolt of lightning,”
characteristics of lightning are associated with the child’s quick movements.
Another important figure of speech in English Language is idiom. Idioms are
defined as fixed phrases or sentences whose meanings are different from the
meanings of the individual words (Baldeh, 2001). They form integral part of
everyday colloquial speech of native speakers. For instance, idioms such as “making
a mountain out of a molehill or burning the midnight oil are expressions that do not
mean what they literally say (Akmajian, Demers, Farmer, and Horrnish,2004).
One may ask what implications these examples have for the teaching of
figurative language. First, understanding figurative language involves a process of
inference whereby the learner is able to comprehend that two things which do not
normally collocate are being brought together. Understanding figurative language
requires a deeper level of text comprehension, an understanding beyond the literal
level using analytical and inferential skills. According to Fredricks (2006), analyzing
figurative language for meaning is found to be complex and challenging for both
6
native and nonnative English speakers. As a result, students’ inability to grasp
figurative language can lead to a breakdown in understanding key points or even
comprehending the passage as a whole. In the same vein, its being complex to
understand can also cause difficulty in teaching particularly if students’ prior
exposure occurred in a dry, dull format with material that they could not relate to,
thereby decreasing their incentives to learn. Therefore, two major tasks are needed to
interpret figurative language. These are the ability to recognize figurative language
and the ability to understand it. According to Batolva (2006), to recognize figurative
language the reader should see if the writer used language that would not make good
sense if taken literally; if he made a direct comparison; if the writer said that one
thing is something else; if the writer exaggerated the comparison. To understand
figurative language, students are expected to do the following: decide what things are
being compared; think of the qualities that are characteristic of the figurative
language; and, decide which of these qualities is appropriate to the context in which
the figurative language is used. In reading for comprehension then, word recognition
is not enough. Vocabulary knowledge is needed (Scarborough, 2001).
For English as a Second Language (ESL) learners, many factors have been
known to influence reading negatively. These factors have been categorized into
psychological, physical, environmental, pedagogical and linguistic. Generally,
reading achievement can be hampered by psychological problems and physical
defects ranging from general low intelligence leading to poor mental and perceptual
ability; auditory defects which lead to poor auditory perception; eye defects, defects
of the speech organs and emotional instability (Mgbodile,1999). Also, studies have
shown that Nigerian learners of English have poor reading habits which influence
7
comprehension. These habits include pointing at words thereby delaying the fast
movement of the eyes for fast reading; moving the head sideways along the line of
print, thereby making reading tiring and boring; vocalization in which the reader
pronounces words to oneself equating the speed of talking with the speed of reading;
sub vocalization, in this case, the lips are not moved, the tongue and vocal cords are
intact but a sort of inner speech is made to oneself; and, word by word reading which
results in excessive word analysis (Nduka, 2003; Ikonta,2005; and Offorma, 2009).
A variable considered important in reading skill is gender. Gender in this
study is regarded as a cultural constraint which distinguishes the roles, behaviour,
mental and emotional characteristics between males and females developed by a
society (Azikiwe, 2005). A society in this regard is a group of individuals who share
common interest and norms, living together in a particular geographic location
(Nwafor, 2002). In language learning, especially reading, there have been
controversial reports on gender performance. For instance, Akabogu (2002) and
Marja (2008) recorded no gender difference in performance of male and female
students in reading comprehension. Offorma (2001,2009) reported that girls achieve
more than boys in foreign language acquisition. On the other hand, Anizoba (2004)
and Oluikpe (2004) also reported no significant influence of gender on the students’
achievement in essay writing.
Closely related to the influence of gender on students’ performance in reading
comprehension is location of the school. Differences in location imply the existence
of differences in demographic and socio-economic parameters of the school.
(Anizoba, 2004), Uwa (2005) and Adepoju (2008) observed that students in schools
located in the urban area perform better in second language learning than those in
8
schools located in the rural area. The observation was that schools in the urban
centres had access to electricity which in turn attracted infrastructures like language
laboratory, computers for computer based learning, well equipped school libraries,
conducive classrooms and enough qualified English language teachers. On the
contrary, schools located in the rural areas lack most of these amenities. So far
studies carried out on the influence of location on reading comprehension have
shown controversial results. For example, Ene (2002) and Akabogu (2002) reported
that students in the urban area scored higher marks in reading comprehension than
the students in the rural area. Okeke (2000) and Anizoba (2004) reported a no
significant difference in achievement in reading comprehension of students from the
urban and rural areas.
Closely related to location variable is a linguistic factor which influences
reading comprehension among Nigerian students. This problem arises as a result of
interference of the learners’ mother tongue (MT) on the target language (TL).
According to Uwa (2005), students who are used to the pronunciation, stress, rhythm
and intonation patterns of their mother tongue before learning to read and write in a
language which has different phonological, lexical and syntactical arrangements with
their (MT), get in the printed material distorted thereby influencing the students’ rate
of comprehension (International Reading Association, 2001).
Unfortunately, students’ performances in examinations conducted by
examination bodies like West African Examination Council (WAEC) and National
Examination Council (NECO) have been very poor in English language. Reading
skill is at the centre of all the subjects offered in the school (Nduka, 2003). Therefore,
failure in reading is failure in all the other subjects including the English language.
9
For instance, WAEC’S statistical report on candidates’ performance in English
Language, May/June (2006-2008) showed very poor achievement. In May/June
(2006), 32.48% obtained credit and above; in May/June (2007), 30.32% scored credit
and above; in May/June (2008), 35.02% scored credit.
In the same examination, NECO’s statistical presentation on candidates’
performance in the same subject has not showed any improvement as one would
expect with all that the computer age has to offer. In NECO June/July (2009),
25.99% candidates scored credit and above. In June/July (2010), 21.00% candidates
scored credit and above; and in June/July (2011), 20.16% obtained credit and above
(http://www.neco.com). The results so far presented call for urgent need to explore
ways of making reading lessons effective in order to enhance students’ achievement.
WAEC Chief Examiners’ Reports on English Language Paper 1 sections B
and C which comprises Comprehension and Summary of passages have never
attracted favourable commentary on students’ performance for some years now. For
instance, they expressed sadness that after six years in the secondary school and
given a paper that conformed to standards, most candidates still performed very
poorly (WAEC, 2008). According to the report, the candidates’ expression was
generally poor and the range of vocabulary knowledge so limited. In the reading
comprehension and summary sections, candidates lost a lot of marks as a result of
lifting seeming answers. The report indicated that many candidates were yet to
understand the skills of reading comprehension one of which hinges on vocabulary
recognition and vocabulary knowledge.
The Senior Secondary Certificate Examination (SSCE) English Language
Syllabus has revealed the WAEC and NECO objectives for setting comprehension
10
questions. According to the objectives, it is expected that after six years in the
secondary school, candidates should be able to do the following:
(i) Find appropriate equivalents for selected words and phrases; (ii) Understand the factual content of a passage; (iii) Make inferences from the content of the passages; (iv) Respond to uses of English expressions to reveal, reflect
sentiments, emotions and attitudes; (v) Identify and label basic grammatical structures, words, phrases or
clauses, and explain their functions as they appear in the context; (vi) Identify and explain basic literary terms and expressions; (vii) Recast phrases or sentences into grammatical alternatives.
(WAEC 2004-2008:192-193)
Method of teaching the subject has been under severe criticism in recent time.
In most Nigerian secondary schools the conventional method of teaching reading
comprehension is teacher-oriented and not student -centred. It is patterned after the
Audio-Lingual Method which often ends in habit formation. The learning theory
underlying the (ALM) is the behavioural theory of stimulus-response which upholds
that language, like much of human behaviour, takes the form of repeated responses to
similar stimuli. In the adaptation of (ALM) to teaching reading comprehension in the
classroom, the English teacher has often done the following :(i) sets out purposes for
reading;(ii) builds background experience of the reading passage; and, (iii )teaches
unfamiliar vocabulary through the use of the dictionary. The audio-lingual method of
language teaching has been criticized for a number of reasons. For example, the
method is seen as an all- teacher affair. According to Richards and Rodgers (2001),
learners are viewed as organisms that can be directed by skill training to produce
correct responses such that teaching focusses on the external manifestations of
learning rather than on the internal processes of learning. Learners play a reactive
role by responding to stimuli.
11
On the contrary, a humanistic approach which centres on the schemata and
meta-cognitivism have gained increasing prominence in English Language teaching
and it has recognized the learner as a whole person who has analytic ability
(Fredricks, 2006). The theory of constructivism on which this teaching strategy is
based, states the nature of interaction between the cognitive processes resulting from
the influence of prior experience, both social and cultural, on the reading passage as
aids to comprehension if properly harnessed. This includes all the variables which
may influence the meaning any reader can give to a text.
Exposure to figurative language is discussion oriented. Recourse is made to
first language association (Peregoy and Boyle, 2000; Fredricks, 2006). The use of the
dictionary is encouraged so that learners can generate more metaphorical extensions
of the target words. Exposure takes the form of teaching vocabularies in their context.
The teacher adopts the following steps in exposing figurative language in a passage:
(i) Categorizing language according to metaphorical propositions which may require
act of “completion” from the readers whereby a “linkage” is established between the
two elements being compared and linguistic inferences made (Lazar, 1996:47). For
example, to what is “Love” compared to in the two verses below:
(a). Love is a smoke raised with the fume of sighs:
Being purg’d, a fire sparking in lover’s tears:
A madness most discreet. (from Romeo and Juliet I.i.) (b). Love is feeling cold in the back of vans. Love is a fanclub with only two fans. Love is walking holding painstained hands. (from “Love is” by Adrian Henri in Mc Gough 1981:108)
12
The question can be “Which comparison in the verses above about “love” do you
think is the most effective? and why?
Figurative language can be taught by asking the students to list the literal
qualities in a group of words in order to decode their figurative meanings in a text.
The aim of the activities which follow is to help the learners grapple with the more
sustained metaphors often found in certain texts such as humorous journalism,
advertisements, poetry and other literary texts. For instance in the following words
“peak”, “mountain”, “torrent”, can you match each word with the definition that best
explains its meaning?
a. a large amount of water that flows or falls very quickly
b. an extremely high hill that usually has steep sides
c. the pointed part of a mountain
The words defined have at least one other meaning which the students can find out.
According to Fredricks (2006) idioms and collocations with deeply
entrenched metaphors create the most difficult problems for ESL readers as the
embedded metaphors carry the culture of the second language. Unfortunately, many
studies have not been carried out on the extent to which figurative language can
expand students’ vocabulary for enhanced reading comprehension. Few works
available have given credit to its usefulness to ESL learners. For instance, Palmer,
Shackelford, Miller, and Leclere, (2006) observed that providing ESL students with
explicit instruction in interpreting figurative language- a bridge to reading
comprehension- is a significant goal for teachers who design instruction for
culturally and linguistically diverse population. Lazar (1996) suggested using
figurative language to expand students’ vocabulary. Fredricks (2006) identified it as
13
an aspect of vocabulary difficult to teach. In the present study, the researcher has
attempted to investigate whether exposure to figurative language will have any effect
on the achievement of senior secondary school students in English reading
comprehension.
Statement of the Problem
There have been consistent reports of poor achievement in English Language
among Nigerian students over the years. Also, results on students’ performance in
Senior Secondary Certificate Examination (SSCE) in English Language over the
years have not been commendable. Failure in this subject area has often been
attributed to the methods and strategies of teaching the reading skill which is the core
of the school curriculum. Another observation made is the limited vocabulary which
ESL students have. Previous reports from WAEC Chief Examiners noted that in
reading comprehension section, most candidates usually exhibited poor
understanding by giving the surface meaning of the passage, lacking the ability to
read between the lines or draw inferences. The reports also added that most
candidates performed poorly in questions testing figures of speech and concluded that
all these pitfalls pointed to the fact that the candidates were not adequately prepared
for the examination by the schools. The conventional method of teaching reading
comprehension has been found to have some limitations, one of which is that it is
teacher-centred instead of learner-centred.
Therefore, considering the need to improve students’ performance in reading
comprehension, the present study attempted to investigate the effect which exposure
to figurative language would have on senior secondary school students’ achievement
in reading comprehension. Put in question form, the problem of the study was: What
14
will be the effect of exposure to figurative language on senior secondary school
students’ attitude and achievement in English reading comprehension?
Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of the study was to determine the effect of exposure to
figurative language on senior secondary school students’ achievement in English
reading comprehension. Specifically, the study set out to determine:
i. the achievement of senior secondary school students exposed to figurative
language in English reading comprehension and those taught using the
conventional method.
ii. the influence of gender on the achievement of senior secondary school
students exposed to figurative language in English reading comprehension.
iii. the influence of school location on the achievement of senior secondary
school students exposed to figurative language in English reading
comprehension.
Significance of the Study
The findings of this study are expected to be beneficial to English Language
teachers, students, curriculum planners, course book writers, the Government and
stakeholders in education. Teachers of English will see the need to teach figurative
language as a special aspect of vocabulary in English reading passages for enhanced
comprehension. Basically, English writers often use words figuratively to achieve
special effects. The strategy is expected to encourage students to make use of
standard dictionaries to generate more figurative extensions of words for increased
vocabulary knowledge and vocabulary use. Recourse made to the students’ schema
15
through association with their first language provides stress-free and friendly
classroom that promotes learning.
Theoretically, this study recognized that reading comprehension has moved
from mere behavioural perspective to a cognitive developmental and socially
constructed task that goes beyond understanding the words in a page. The teaching
strategy is found to encourage successful discussion among groups in the class. The
teacher is the facilitator and the learning situation is students’ - centred for impactful
output. The discussion during reading is expected to promote higher level thinking
opportunities which aids the students to make critical and aesthetic contributions on
the text. Students are able to also generate new ideas and questions. Empirically, the
study has provided evidence that exposure to figurative language increases
vocabulary knowledge which goes beyond the literal knowledge of words to
inferential and analytic levels that promote reading comprehension. Students’ mental
capacity is sharpened which leads to creativity transferred to novel situations during
extensive reading.
In the same vein, textbook writers will be able to carry out a thorough review
of the existing reading section in English textbooks in order to incorporate and
organize linguistic activities which can give the learner more opportunities to process
language at a deeper level. There will be the need to integrate culturally based
linguistic differences that can promote understanding among students.
The result of this study is expected to sensitize the Government and
Stakeholders in education on the need to organize seminars and workshops for
English teachers who are already in the field about the new strategy. Finally,
educational researches bring innovations to teaching and learning. Hence, the present
16
study is an added resource material for educational purposes as well as reference
material for further research.
Scope of the Study
The present study is delimited to the effect of exposure to figurative language
on senior secondary students’ achievement in English reading comprehension in
Anambra State. For content coverage, two reading prose passages of WAEC
equivalent were selected from Senior Secondary School Students’ English Project
written by Grant, N., Nnamonu, S., and Jowitt, D. (2002).
The questions from the reading passages elicited students’ knowledge in the
six process objectives on knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis,
and evaluation (Wheeler, 1979). The variables of gender and location on the teaching
strategy were considered too.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided the study:
1. What is the difference in the mean achievement in English reading
comprehension of senior secondary school students exposed to figurative
language and those taught using the conventional method?
2. What is the difference in the mean achievement between male and female
students exposed to figurative language in English reading comprehension?
3. What is the difference in the mean achievement in English reading
comprehension of senior secondary school students from urban and rural
location exposed to figurative language?
17
Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study and were
tested at .05 levels of significance.
HO1 There will be no significant difference in the mean achievement in English
reading comprehension of senior secondary school students exposed to
figurative language and those taught using the conventional method.
HO2 There will be no significant difference in the mean achievement in English
reading comprehension of male and female students exposed to figurative
language.
HO3 There will be no significant difference in the mean achievement in English
reading comprehension of urban and rural students exposed to figurative
language.
HO4 There will be no significant interaction effect of instructional strategy and
gender on students’ achievement in English reading comprehension.
HO5 There will be no significant interaction effect of instructional strategy and
location on students’ achievement in English reading comprehension.
HO6 There will be no significant interaction effect of instructional strategy,
gender, and location on students’ achievement in English reading
comprehension.
18
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
The review of related literature has been organized and presented in the
following order: the Conceptual and Theoretical Framework, the Empirical Studies
and Summary of the literature. Conceptual framework presented the concept of word
“reading” and reading comprehension; reading comprehension skills and strategies;
vocabulary and reading comprehension; figurative language, and how it relates to
culture and language teaching; the variables of gender and location in language
acquisition; and, problems of Nigerian learners of English. Theoretical framework
focussed on language learning theories of behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism
and motivation; theories of reading centred on the schemata and metacognition.
Empirical studies focussed on various methods and strategies of learning vocabulary
for enhanced reading comprehension.
Conceptual Framework
Definition of “Reading”
Reading is an interaction between the reader’s prior knowledge and the text
which (he) the reader uses to construct a model of the author’s intended meaning.
Many people go on the assumption that they understand all that is involved in reading
and would not hesitate to offer a definition right away. In the attempt, definitions
have only emphasized one aspect of the reading process or the other. For example,
reading has been defined as a physiological process which requires the reader to be
able to focus on a line of print and move along the line (Smith, 2003). Other views of
reading have emphasized the perceptual process which utilizes perceptual clues, size,
shape, combination of letters and sounds, relationship of the part to the whole,
18
19
sequencing and ordering (National Reading Panel, 2001). Chomsky (1965)
emphasized the importance of the knowledge of grammar to the mastery of reading.
This view has prompted Biemiller and Slonim (2001) to emphasize that reading is an
integral part of language study which is linked with learning of grammar,
improvement in pronunciation (including intonation) and writing. Therefore, reading
is a very important skill in the school curriculum.
To some others, reading implies a capacity to decode letters and phonemes
without regard to meanings of words and larger units of expression. Hence, reading is
considered as a series of word perceptions (Smith, 2003). This definition refers to
early readers. Further still, reading implies getting meaning from certain combination
of letters. The aspect of letter recognition is taken as more important than getting
meaning.
To the psycholinguists, reading is a “psycholinguistic guessing game”
involving an interaction between thought and language (Kuhn, 2000). For instance,
Yule (1997) added an aspect vital to the definition of reading. “There is no meaning
in print itself, printed symbols merely represent the sounds of the language”. To
derive meaning from print, a reader has to translate the written symbols into the
sound symbols of language and utilize ones knowledge of the language. This view
highlights the importance of vocabulary in reading. The author and the reader have to
share the same language code if meaningful reading would take place. But the
language factor should not be overstressed to the neglect of shared experience. Agwu
(2003) sees reading at college or university level as essentially a cognitive or learning
activity. This activity appears to consist of perceiving, processing, interpreting,
comprehending, and synthesizing information that is conveyed by written or printed
20
language. Therefore, reading can be seen as the ability to decode and meaningfully
empathize with the writer. Nduka (2003) went further and defined reading as
extracting information from text. Text here includes not only printed symbols but
also combinations of texts, pictures , diagrams , graphs, illustrated instructions and so
on.
Efficient reading therefore, does not result from precise perception and
identification of all the elements in a printed page, but from skill in selecting the
fewest, most productive cues necessary to produce guesses which are right the first
time. The ability to anticipate that which has not been seen is vital to reading, just as
the ability to anticipate what has not yet been heard is vital to listening.
Comprehension or effective understanding of the literal and implied meaning of the
graphic symbols in a passage forms the major objective of reading. Hence, figurative
language helps to raise the dramatic import of utterance for enhanced comprehension.
Reading Comprehension
Reading comprehension is the culmination of all the reading skills and the
ultimate goal of learning to read. Reading comprehension is defined as the level of
understanding of a text. Rayner, Foorman, Perfetti, Pesetsky and Seidenberg (2001)
stated that this understanding comes from the interaction between the words that are
written and how they trigger knowledge outside the text, hence, reading for
comprehension is observed to be a multifaceted process (Nduka, 2003; Offorma,
2009). For students to adequately comprehend a text, they will need an awareness of
print which can be obtained through multiple channels to facilitate word recognition.
Carlisle and Rice (2002) observed that lack of phonological sensitivity did impede
reading, but other factors come into play as students progressed through the different
21
levels of reading comprehension. These factors are evident because children who
receive phonological awareness training do not necessarily become fluent readers
(Scarborough, 2001). In addition to decoding skills, students need vocabulary
knowledge and meta cognitive skills so that they can monitor their understanding and
reflect on what has been read. Competent readers learn these components
simultaneously and fluently. However, where either component is inadequate,
comprehension can be impeded.
Many a time, teachers of English assume that reading comprehension will
develop naturally without any direct teaching of comprehension (Denton and
Fletcher, 2003). This line of reasoning places reading in the same developmental
progression as oral language development. Children are able to acquire speech
without formal instruction if given enough exposure to it. This led many researchers
to believe that given enough exposure to print the child would experience the same
developmental pattern. Nevertheless, research has proved this line of reasoning to be
faulty (Rosenthal, Rosnow, and Rubin, 2000; Wren, 2002). Reading needs to be
taught formally.
Humans have been communicating through speech for thousands of years, but
have only used written communication for the masses for only several hundred years
(http://en.wikipedia.org, 2011). According to Boulware-Gooden, Carreker, Thornhill
and Joshua (http://en. wikipedia.org), the reading skill must be taught through formal
education. Boulware- Gooden et al in (http://en.wikipedia.org. 2011) emphasized
that research evidence over the last 20 years has shown that children need to learn
phonological, phonemic and print awareness. Phonics and fluency instruction of these
components enable the child to decide unknown words and they are basics or
22
prerequisites needed for reading. Learning to decode is a means to an end, and that
end is to read and understand written communication created by others and to be able
to write in order to communicate. In order words, reading instruction does not end
when students can decode the words. They continue to need instruction that will
support their understanding of what they are reading. If word recognition is difficult,
students use too much of their processing capacity to read individual words, which
interferes with their ability to comprehend, what is read. On the other hand, many
educators in the USA believe that students need to learn to analyze text (comprehend
it) even before they can read it on their own (National Reading Association, 2001)
Comprehension instruction generally begins in pre-kindergarten or kindergarten. But
other US educators consider this reading approach to be completely backward for
young children, arguing that the children must learn how to decode the words in a
story through phonics before they can analyze the story itself.
Traditionally, comprehension lessons usually comprised students answering
the questions posed by the teacher (Rayner et al, 2001). According to this view, the
whole group version of this practice also often includes “Round-robin reading”
wherein teachers called on individual students to read a portion of the text (and
sometimes following a set order). In the last quarter of the 20th century, evidence
accumulated that the read-test methods assessed comprehension more than they
taught it. The associated practice of “round-robin” reading has also been questioned
and eliminated by many educators (Rayner et al, 2001).
Instead of using the prior read-test method, research studies have concluded
that there are much more effective ways to teach comprehension (Pressley, 2006).
Accordingly, much work has been done in the area of teaching novice readers banks
23
of “reading strategies” or tools to interpret and analyze text. According to Pressley
(2006) there is not a definitive set of strategies, but common ones include
summarizing what one has read, monitoring ones reading to make sure it is still
making sense, and analyzing the structure of the text. Some programmes teach
students how to self monitor whether they understand and provide students with tools
for fixing comprehension problems.
It is expected that instruction in reading comprehension should involve the
gradual release of responsibility, wherein teachers initially explain and model
strategies. Over time, students are given more and more responsibility for using the
strategies until they can use them independently. Carreker (2004) observed that this
technique is generally associated with the idea of self- regulation and reflects a social
cognitive perspective, whereby the learners’ behaviours change as a result of
observing others.
Concerning the accomplished reader, he must be able to read between the
lines of the passage before him and frequently extend and assimilate the author’s
thought. According to Carlisle and Rice (2002), observation, exercises and activities
designed to check comprehension rarely probe beyond the understanding of the literal
level of a passage. Yet it is important to recognize the relevant details and be able to
abstract the main idea but this can only take place at the literal level. To derive full
comprehension, a reader must first become the co-author, suspending judgment until
he has absorbed the concepts presented and then scrutinize and assess the ideas in the
light of his own knowledge and experience.
Interpretation and evaluation have often been linked under the label of critical
reading. Fortunately, these are the areas which exposure to figurative language is
24
concerned. To produce functional readers in a technological society, growth in
reading must parallel and reinforce the children’s developmental cognitive growth.
Nist and Holschuh (2000) emphasized that construction of complete meaning is basic
to the other aspects of comprehension. For this to happen, the following abilities must
be developed to recognize and understand words or groups of words that are
meaningful as units, to recognize ever increasing groups or units of words, which
includes word meaning, paragraph meaning, meaning of continuous written discourse
(prose and poetry). The reader should realize the appropriate vocabulary of meanings
and understand nuances of meanings between words; detect figurative language and
well turned phrases; the function of grammar and syntax in controlling meaning and
interpret typographical devices as clues to meaning.
Accordingly, Nist and Holschul (2000) added that interpretation of meaning
which comes after the reader must have constructed meaning from the reading
passage, includes the ability of the reader to understand the meanings of words and
realize the effect of the context upon meaning, to make inferences or predictors; to
identify the tone of the passage, and to determine the authors attitude towards the
reader. In the same vein, evaluation of meaning is viewed as involving critical
reaction to the material read which may include many intellectual processes such as
discriminating, imagining, analyzing, judging and problem- solving via the writer’s
choice of words.
The following abilities are expected to be developed to obtain evaluation of
meaning, to recognize objective evidence and distinguish between fact and opinion,
evaluate statements that conflict with or contradict one another or judge if an
argument is supported, by detecting special pleading such as emotional appeal or
25
propaganda, and judge the effectiveness of the devices used by the author. Such
devices include metaphor, simile, rhetorical questions and others like adjectives
which contribute to the overall tone of the passage (Grabe and Stoller,2002).
Fredricks (2006) also observed that navigating one’s way through figurative
language requires a deeper level of text comprehension, an understanding beyond the
literal level using analytical and inferential skills. Since reading is an interactive
process that is dynamic and constantly changing, each new task or assignment will
alter the learning process, and challenge the reader to be active in his approach to the
text. Developing readers are often challenged with the changing nature of reading
tasks as they lack some of the strategies that expert readers employ as they read.
Likewise, instructors play an important role in preparing students for the task and can
help students become more aware of reading characteristics which they should bring
to the task (Fredricks, 2006).
Reading Comprehension Strategies
According to National Reading Panel Report (2001), little comprehension
instruction occurred in the United States before the 1980’s. A technique called
reciprocal teaching that taught students to predict, summarize, clarify and ask
questions for sectors of a text was developed. Since then, the use of strategies like
summarizing after each paragraph have come to be seen as effective strategies for
building students’ comprehension. The idea is that students will develop stronger
reading comprehension skills on their own if the teacher gives them explicit mental
tools for unpacking text (Pressley, 2006).
There are a wide range of reading strategies suggested by reading programs
and educators. For instance, Smith (2003) identified a positive effect only for a subset
26
particularly, summarizing, asking questions, answering questions, comprehension
monitoring, graphics, organizers, and cooperative learning. A combination of
strategies, as used in Reciprocal teaching can be effective. But today, most reading
comprehension programmes teach students explicit reading instruction with
additional student practice. Comprehension through discussion involves lessons that
are instructional conversations which create higher-level thinking opportunities for
students. The purpose of the discussion is to promote critical and aesthetic thinking
about text and encourage full classroom involvement (http//en.wikipedia.org). In the
same vein, figurative language is the deliberate use of language by the author to
create mental pictures. The mental pictures created not only promote learning but
also minimize learner stress in the classroom which encourages healthy interaction
for enhanced comprehension among learners. (Richard and Rodgers, 2001).
According to the National Reading Panel (2001), class discussions help
students to generate ideas and questions. But in classrooms where students speak
different mother tongues, such discussions become difficult. Again, the cultures of
the learners may be different from the target language. Lazar (1996) had earlier
emphasized that understanding figurative language demanded a comparative
discussion on the target language with that of the learners as figurative meanings are
culturally determined, involving a process of inference and ranges from the
conventional ones found in dictionaries to their idiosyncratic or original meanings .
The International Reading Association Report (2001) also added other
comprehension strategies that some teachers use in the classroom. The use of prior
knowledge is highlighted. One of the posters from the “into the Book website”
(http:// reading, ecb.org) explains that prior knowledge is using what one already
27
knows to help understand something new. It stated that to help students comprehend
and learn from a specific reading material, they can access their prior knowledge on a
subject to help them relate to the subject which they are learning at the moment. So,
making such connections help students understand what the author’s purpose is and
what the story is about.
Questioning is another reading strategy which has greatly benefitted students’
comprehension. According to IRA (2001) there are several types of questions that a
teacher should focus on. These include remembering, testing, understanding,
application or solving, synthesis or creating, evaluation and judging. The suggestion
is that teachers should model these types of questions through “think-aloud” before,
during and after reading text. (IRA, 2001).
Another strategy of reading for maximum recall is visualization (IRA, 2001).
Visualization is when students can create a picture or movie in their mind while
reading a text. According to IRA (2001) teachers should use terms like “mental
image” and ask sensory questions that will help students become better visualizers.
Another way of looking at visualization is to think about bringing words to life.
Exposure to figurative language involves the strategy of visualization even as Harries
and Hodges (1995) defined figurative language as the expressive, non-literal use of
language for special effect, usually through images.
Summarizing is another comprehension strategy that needs to be taught (IRA,
2001). Summarizing is not telling what is important about the text. A summary as the
IRA stated might include the answering to who, what, where, when, why and how.
Evaluation on the other hand is about making judgments on what is read and the
explaining why those judgments are made.
28
Synthesizing on the other hand, is putting the pieces together to see them in a
new way (IRA, 2001). Here students take what they already know about a subject
along with their reflections from the book to create their own interpretation and ideas
about a certain text. In summary, putting all these “tools” together will give students
a toolbox of strategies to help them with reading comprehension. Such tools are
imperative in exposing students to figurative language used in texts for enhanced
comprehension.
Another strategy for reading comprehension is the technique called SQ3R
(Nist and Mealy, 2001). This stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review.
In order to get an understanding of the text, one should first survey the passage or the
chapters. This consists of quickly looking at the title, headings and any subheadings.
It also involves looking at the end of the passage or the chapter questions as well.
While surveying, the reader asks questions about the topic(s) scanned, such as, “What
did my teacher say about this passage or topic?” The next stage is to begin reading.
According to Nist and Mealy (2000), the reader just reads quickly for the key words.
In a chapter of a book, one moves and reads the majority of the words. There are
words seen in the chapter questions, teacher made questions and in the titles or
subtitles of the chapter. After reading a portion or section of the book, the reader
recites what has been read aloud to himself. By orally summarizing what was read it
helps to cement the content in the memory. The last technique is to review of what
has been read again. Writing down key facts from the chapter and reviewing it
makes room for a better understanding of the information. Students’ understanding of
the authors’ choice of words plays a significant role in reading achievement.
29
Therefore, exposure to figurative language, vocabulary used for special effects, is
deemed of great importance in reading comprehension.
Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension
Vocabulary can be defined as the total number of words in a language or the
total number of words known to an individual (Smith, 2003). According to Adepoju
(2008) vocabulary has been found to be of central importance in second language
teaching and more especially in reading comprehension. Effective word recognition
is basic to all progress in reading but the development of the understanding of words
is basic to reading comprehension. Linguistic ability is not merely an ability to
memorize words or phrases with a view to being able to reproduce them
mechanically in response to a given cue, it is the ability to generate and use them in
meaningful situations.
Words an individual can speak and write make up his productive vocabulary
whereas words which the learner can understand what they mean when spoken or
when read in a passage make up his receptive vocabulary. Productive vocabulary is
sometimes referred to as the active vocabulary whereas receptive vocabulary is called
latent vocabulary. According to Laufer and Goldstein (2004) individuals can develop
listening, speaking reading and writing vocabularies but in the case of young children
and adults who have not yet learned to read, the listening and speaking vocabularies
are obviously much larger than the other two. As progress in reading evolves, reading
and writing vocabularies may begin to equal and at later levels may surpass the
spoken and even the listening vocabulary (http://en.wikipedia.org).
Further on this, four levels of individual’s word knowledge can be identified.
First, there are words that are completely unknown to the reader. Second, there are
30
words that may appear first unknown to the reader yet he can define, predict or form
concepts about their meanings. This is called the reading vocabulary (National
Reading Panel (2001). Third, words that may appear just familiar to the reader; these
are in his vocabulary, though with other levels of meanings unknown to him. This is
called recognition vocabulary. The fourth are words that are well-known to the
students. Such words must have been already owned by the reader and already part of
his sight vocabulary. He can recognize them as well as define those giving levels of
meanings. This is called mastered or owned vocabulary (NRP, 2001).
Several theories of vocabulary instruction exist. One focussed on intensive
instruction of a few high value words. Another focussed on broad instruction of many
useful words, and a third focussed on strategy for learning new words (IRA, 2000).
The idea of focussing intensely on a few words was popularized by Isabel Beck,
Margaret Mckeown, and Linda Kucan in their book for teachers called Bringing
Words to Life: Robust Vocabulary Instruction (2002). They argued that words occur
in three “tiers”, the lowest (tier 1) being common words such as “eat”, and “fish” the
top (tier 3) being very content-specific words such as “photosynthesis” and
“geopolitical”. The tier 2 words were what they considered general academic
vocabulary - words with many uses in academic contexts - such as “analyze” and
“frequent”. Beck et al suggested that teachers should focus on tier 2 words and teach
fewer of these words with greater intensity. They suggested that teachers should offer
multiple examples and develop activities to help students practice these words in
increasingly independent ways.
The method of focussing on broad instruction on many words was developed
by Andrew Biemiller (http// reading.ecb.org). He argued that more words would
31
benefit students more, even if the instruction was short and teacher-directed (IRA
2000). He suggested that teachers should teach a large number of words before
reading a book to students by merely giving short definitions, such as synonyms and
pointing out the words and their meanings while reading the book to the students
(Biemiller and Boote, 2006). The method contrasts with the Beck et al approach by
emphasizing quantity versus quality. There is no evidence to suggest the primacy of
either approach. Pressely (2006) advocated instruction on context and using
morphemes or meaningful units within words to learn their meanings. The result of
this study proved that morphemic instruction produced more positive outcomes for
students reading and vocabulary acquisition. Rayner, Foorman, Perfetti, Pesetsky and
Seidenberg (2001) had earlier advocated the value in learning morphemic analysis -
prefixes, suffixes and roots – but suggested that it be imparted incidentally and in
context.
An effective vocabulary instruction should be well-guided by some principles.
Idris (1996) suggested some of these principles as follows: (i) providing both
categories of meaning, contextual and definitional ;( ii) initiating and promoting deep
processing; and, (iii) providing multiple exposure. To be considered as knowing a
word, the individual needs to have two types of meaning about it, the definitional
meaning and the contextual meaning. At the definitional level, the individual is seen
as having knowledge of the logical relationship between a word and other words in
his sight vocabulary as in a dictionary meaning. At the contextual meaning level, the
individual is seen as having knowledge of the concept the word represents and how
the core concept is changed in different contexts. Idris (1996) further stated that
vocabulary instruction improves comprehension only when both definitions and
32
contexts are given. On the other hand, deep processing involves making more
connections between new and known words (relating the words to more information
than the students already know), as well as spending more of one’s mental effort on
learning. Osakwe (2002) observed that shallow processing of the new vocabulary
stands the risk of being forgotten by the learner. In other words, methods which make
students think deeply about a word and its relationship with others are more likely to
be effective in the process of vocabulary development. These include association
processing, comprehension processing and generation processing.
Association processing simply involves students learning the associations
between either a word and other words that share the same meaning with its synonym
or learning the association between a word and a single context, especially if the
student only sees the word in context with no added information about it.
Comprehension processing involves students’ application of the learned association
to demonstrate understanding of the word. This may include finding an antonym,
fitting the word into a sentence blank, classifying the word with other words or
requiring the students to go beyond giving back the association or something similar.
Generation processing on the other hand involves using comprehension association to
generate a novel product. This provides learners with a good deal of exposure either
through multiple repetitions on the same information about each word meaning or
providing students with multiple exposures to the word in different contexts or
settings (Fredrick, 2006). Earlier on Ooi and Kim–Seoh(1996) maintained that
teaching vocabulary in isolation was no longer tenable. Context plays a major role in
word meaning and comprehension. Vocabulary development is a primary
determinant of reading comprehension. Readers cannot understand the content of
33
what they are reading unless they understand the meaning of majority of the words in
the text.
Figurative Language
According to Palmer and Brooks (2004) figurative language also known as
figures of speech, is the expressive, non-literal use of language for special effects,
usually through images. It is any type of expression that does not literally mean what
it says; it provides a connotation rather than a denotative meaning. Figures of speech
are forms of expressions that depart from normal word or sentence order or from the
common literal meanings of words for the purpose of achieving a special effect.
Hence, figurative language employs a figure or some kind of resemblance to make
its meaning, such that the meaning is derived or transferred in sense from literal or
plain language to abstract or hypothetical language (Nwachukwu- Agbada, 2001;
Hui, 2005).
Figurative language can be a word or phrase used in some way other than the
main or usual meaning to suggest a picture in the mind or make a comparison.
Figures of speech help to raise the dramatic import of an utterance which can surprise
the reader because the statement or idea expressed does not ordinarily make a straight
sense. In like manner, Akwanya (1999) had earlier emphasized that in oral and
traditional societies, thought in the systematic phrase strives towards maximum
conciseness frequently occurring as a proverb or a maxim.
Delving more into this aspect of figurative expressions, philosophers,
rhetoricians, linguists, psychologists, anthropologists, sociologists and teachers of
literature have long studied the way language works. The studies have given rise to
various classifications of figures of speech also called tropes
34
(www/pfmbl:mb.so/eng). Classification has been done according to association,
comparison, substitution, contrast or inversion of image and idea. Nwachukwu-
Agbada (2001) classified them as follows: figures of comparison and substitution.
Figures of comparison include simile, metaphor, allusion, metonymy, analogy and
allegory. Figures represented by substitution are synecdoche, personification and
symbolism; and figures of contrast by discrepancy and inversion are namely,
overstatement, understatement, paradox and the various forms of irony.
Metaphors and similes are the most common figures of speech found in
exposition. A simile states that one thing is like another; it draws a comparison
between two things which are not usually regarded as similar to each other. This is
achieved through the use of words and phrases as: like, as, as though, as if, as… as,
as… so. “Anthony Powell used a simile in one of his sentences this way: As usual, a
lot of shaking was required to get him awake. Gwarkin always slept as if under an
anaesthetic” (Nwachukwu- Agbada, 2001).
Metaphor on the other hand, implies the similarity between two things by
insisting that one thing is another. As in simile, the two things in comparison would
mainly be thought of as similar to each other, but whereas the comparison in similes
is direct and explicit, that in a metaphor is indirect and subtle. For example, in
Shakespeare’s Macbeth (Act V sc 5) life is equated with three different dissimilar
things: a walking shadow, a poor player, a tale told by an idiot (Nwachukwu -
Agbada, 2001).
Allusion, another figurative expression is an explicit or indirect reference in a
work of literature to a person, a place or a historical event or to another literary work
or passage in the Bible, to the gods, to a society’s myths and legends or those of other
35
cultures for the purpose of association and comparison. According to Nwachukwu –
Agbada (2001:39) Chinweizu’s poem The Saviour is an allusion to the fate of Christ
in the hands of the Jews when He literally begs to die for their sins, but instead He is
cast off, unaccepted by those He had come to save:
He arrived and went straight to the city fathers and declared. “I’ve come to die for your sins. The surprised fathers looked at him and said: “We have no sins!” “How can that be?” he answered them. “Don’t you drink or smoke or cuss? “Don’t you rob?” “We do that everyday, what else is there to do?” “Well, then, I’ve come to die for your sins” (page 39)
Metonymy, derived from Greek metonumia, meaning change, name change, is
substitution of the name or an attribute of a thing for the name of the thing itself. For
instance, “crown” for “king”, “city” for “inhabitants”, “Shakespeare” for his “plays”.
According to Nwachukwu-Agbada 2001:40), in Shelley’s Death, the Leveller, the
poet writes in this form:
Scepter and crown, Must tumble down, And in the dust be equal made, With the poor crooked scythe and spade. (page40)
In the above passage, sceptre and crown stand for kings while scythe and spade”
refer to the peasant subject.
Another figurative language which writers employ is analogy. Analogy results
when two processes, one unknown and the other known are shown to function alike
or when unknown process is taken to result in a particular outcome because the
process is like that of the known process which gives a similar effect. Robert Graves
The Twin of Sleep is one in which both analogy types are found.
Death is the twin of sleep, they say: For I shall rise renewed Free from the cramps of yesterday.
36
Clear-eyed and supple -thawed Helps other folk face Disrepute, senility Madness, disease, disgrace I do not like Death’s greedy looks Give me his twin instead- Sleep never auctions off my books My boots, my shirts, my bed.(in Nwachukwu- Agbada, 2001)
Allegory on the other hand, is the description of one thing under the guise of
another which is suggestively alike. For example, John Bunyan’s The Pilgrims
Progress described the adventures of the human soul in the guise of a journey. In
Bunyan’s story, the characters, their actions and story’s setting, are such that they
make meaning at the ordinary level of signification as well as at a deeper, correlated
level.
Synecdoche, another figurative language is an expression in which a part of an
object or idea stands for the whole, or the whole stands for a part. For example, “Give
us this day our daily bread” (bread is only a type of food).
Personification is a metaphor which attributes the human characteristic to non-
human things or to abstract qualities. For example:
Death lays his hand on kings. (Shakespeare) (in Nwachukwu-
Agbada 2001)
O sleep! Nature’s sweet nurse. (Shakespeare) (in Nwachukwu-
Agbada,2001)
Another figure is symbol. A symbol is anything which stands for something else.
Symbolism avoids a direct connection between the meaning and the image and
instead invests image with a meaning that transcends it. In other words, a symbol
bears a meaning with which it is not always directly connected. For example, in the
37
first chapter of Charles Dickens’ Bleak House, the author’s intensive picture of
London fog symbolized the anarchy in the human world, particularly near the Law
Courts: as in
Fog everywhere. Fog up river where it flows among green arts and meadows: Fog down the river, where it rolls defiled among the tiers of shipping, and the waterside pollution of a great (and dirty) city. For on the Essex marches, fog on the Kentish heights… (in Nwachukwu Agbada 2001:42)
Another figure, overstatement known as hyperbole, is an extravagant
exaggeration of fact, often deployed for serious or comic effect as in “O elephant,
huge as a hill, even in a crouching posture”. On the other hand understatement (Greek
meiosis, lessening) is a figure of speech which purposely represents something as
being less in importance than it actually is. According to Nwachukwu - Agbada
(2001), the effect achieved is often ironic and laconic. In understatement something
less than the total truth is revealed. For instance, in Femi Fatoba’s “Signs and
Times,” a soldier arrests the poem’s protagonist for carrying a dangerous weapon”
even though “all I had on me was/ A pen”. The full truth is that the soldier is after
him not because of any physical weapon, but because of his questioning, critical
power as an intellectual.
Paradox is a figure which is built on contrasts as well as a seeming illogicality
in the surface meaning. It is the combination in a single expression of two words or
phrases of opposing meaning for the purpose of achieving artistic effect. Paradoxes
appear self-contradictory but underneath the surface inconsistency there is a basis of
truth. For example,
38
i. Cowards die many times before their death (Shakespeare) (in Nwachukwu-
Agbada, 2001)
ii. The child is the father of the man (Wordsworth) (in Nwachukwu-Agbada,
2001)
Irony, derived from the Greek eironcia, meaning simulated ignorance, is the
use of words with humorous or satirical objective so as to infer a meaning which is
directly opposite of what is really uttered. It is one of the indirect uses of language
meant to convey a particular meaning which ordinarily appear to be saying exactly
the opposite. Nwachukwu-Agbada (2001) noted that irony constitutes ways of
speaking, writing, acting, behaving, painting otherwise in which real or intended
meaning presented or evoked is intentionally quite other than, and incompatible with
the ostenable or pretended meaning. Irony can also include saying two things and
meaning neither. For example, when Mark Anthony in Shakepeare’s Julius Caesar
declared Brutus and his fellow conspirators honourable, he is being verbally ironic.
“For Brutus is an honourable man: so are they all, all honourable men” (Shakepeare).
Furthermore, another figurative language which English learners could be
exposed to is the idiom. As Corbett (2003) indicated, idioms are rich in figurative
meanings but they are highly conventionalized that their figurative origins are
forgotten by the native speakers.” It is only when they are placed incongruously
along side literal language that the metaphorical meaning may be reactivated often
with humorous regrets.
Idioms or idiomatic expressions involve language peculiar to a people or to a
district or region, community or class, hence, idioms form an integral part of the
everyday colloquial speech of native speakers and need to be learnt by the learner.
39
Baldeh (2001: 106) emphasized, “The learner of English as a second language is
advised to grasp the meaning of this very useful aspect of the language as effective
knowledge of idioms will save him a lot of embarrassment.” For example, idioms,
such as “making a mountain out of a molehill” or “burning the midnight oil” are
expressions that do not mean what they literally say. Hence, the literal meaning of
many idioms often is relevant only to a specific group within a language.
In essence, figurative meanings are culturally determined as the kinds of
figurative language used stem from the underlying values and assumptions of a
culture or society (Baldeh, 2001).Such observation underscores the need to expose
students to figurative expressions employed by the author to enrich his writing.
Language, Culture and Language Teaching
The relationship between language and culture is deeply rooted. Language is
used to maintain and convey culture and cultural ties. Culture is the beliefs and
practices governing the life of a society for which a particular language is the vehicle
of expression (Adegbite and Akindele, 1999; Offorma, 2009). Different ideas stem
from differing language use within one’s culture and the whole intertwining of these
relationships start at one’s birth (Tromquist and Monkman, 2000). Stromquist et al
(2000) argued that from birth, the child’s life, opinions and language are shaped by
what it comes in contact with. They argue that physically and mentally everyone is
the same while the interactions between persons or groups vary widely from place to
place. It is from these differences that one’s view of the world is formed. Corbett,
(2003) puts forth the idea that culture is the beliefs and practices governing the life of
a society for which a particular language is the vehicle of expression. Hence,
everyone’s views are dependent on the culture which has influenced them.
40
The understanding of a culture and its people can be enhanced by the
knowledge of their language. Emmit and Pollock (1997) argue that if people are
brought up under similar behavioural backgrounds or cultural situations but speak
different languages, their world view may be different. Sapir-Whorf in
(http//en.wikipedia.org) argued that different thoughts are brought about by the use of
different forms of language. One is therefore limited by the language used to express
one’s ideas.
The kinds of figurative language used stems from the underlying values and
assumptions of our culture or society: a well-understood metaphor in one culture may
have entirely different meaning in another part of the world. The conventional
association in British English between the colour “green” and “nature” and
“innocence” might not be the same for students in other cultures. Students may need
to be aware of these associations in order to make sense of idiomatic usages like “to
be green” and to have green fingers” as well as more literal uses of the colour
“green”.
The implication of the observation above for teachers of English is the need to
sensitize students to the cultural significance which accrues to particular examples of
figurative language in English while encouraging them to compare these associations
with those in their own language. For teachers of English, exposure to figurative
language via reading passages not only aids vocabulary learning but also establishes
attitudes to and/or perceptions of other culture and peoples (Mills, 2001; Byram and
Feng, 2004). Reading as earlier noted is an integrated skill that aids in the study of the
other language skills of listening, speaking and writing.
41
Gender and Language Skills Acquisition
Gender is defined as a cultural constraint which distinguishes the roles,
behaviour, mental and emotional characteristics between males and females
developed by a society (Uwah, 2005; Azikiwe, 2005). A society in this regard is a
group of individuals who share a common interest and norms and live together in a
particular geographical location. In the same vein, Umoh (2004) defined gender as a
psychological term used in describing behaviour and attributes expected of
individuals on the basis of being born of either male or female.
Gender stereotyping has been a controversial issue all over the world. As a
result, two contending theories of language ability based on gender exist. The first of
these theories states that differences in language ability between sexes result from
biological differences. A leading proponent of the theory was Jesperson in (Oluikpe,
2004). According to Oluikpe (2004), if sentences constructed by men and women are
compared, many instances of intricate structures of clause within clause or
subordination within subordination abound with men. On the other hand, sentences
made by women are direct, more coordinated, straight forward sentences and clauses.
The second theory on language ability of males and females stated that the
difference between males and female language is not due to biological differences but
rather on gender socialization. Among the proponents of this theory are Corson
(1993) and Norton (2000).
On the influence of gender on achievement in language learning, Azikiwe
(2005) observed that although the assumption of gender differences in English
Language in favour of females seem to be accepted to a large extent through research
42
evidence in English speaking countries, to generalize the result in Nigeria where
English is a second language, need to be verified.
Using a survey method Azikiwe (2005) collated the findings of available
relevant empirical studies which investigated the effect of gender on language use
and performance. The main focus of the study was on English, Igbo, and French
languages. The result revealed that gender had no influence on language use,
acquisition and performance in Nigeria.
Again, studies of Eze (1998); Akabogu (2002); Ene (2002); Anizoba (2004);
Oluikpe (2004); and Agada (2008) showed that there was no significant difference in
the mean achievement in reading comprehension between males and female students.
On the contrary, Offorma (2001) reported that girls achieved more than boys in
foreign language acquisition.
A study of Alloway, Gilbert, and Penderson (2003) titled Boys Performing
English focussed on the role of masculinity in achievement in classroom English
activities, particularly in oral performance which can contribute about 40% of the
English grade in Australian junior secondary schools. The study consists of
observation of 24 English lessons in Year 10 classrooms in two provincial Australian
cities. Semi structured interviews were also carried out with 6 of the fifteen year old
boys and their teacher.
In each school most boys did not perform as well as the girls, and both boys
and girls performed better on oral than on written tasks. The article also focussed on
four of the case studies-two from each school -and their responses to an oral
performance task in English. The boys’ behaviour in class was described along with
their feelings about English classes and oral tasks. The two more confident yet
43
disruptive boys could give a talk with the knowledge that other children would not
mock them. The two more marginalized boys found the oral task more difficult
because of the public performance aspect. The findings indicate that some boys enjoy
classroom oral work and achieve better marks than for written work.
The findings of the study have implications for the present study. The friendly
social climate present in the classroom induced the boys to speak with confidence
which resulted in better performance. Likewise, it is believed that in the strategy of
exposure to figurative language a stress–free classroom where students can discuss
one another’s culture is expected to bring positive outcomes. As such, motivation in
a learning environment is very important in second language learning.
Another related study on gender has recognized the existence of a marked
gender gap in educational attainment at secondary school level. According to Davies
(2004) this disparity in performance is significantly greater in modern foreign
language (MFL) where boys underperform substantially at 15.6% compared with 9%
for girls. In their article on The Gender Gap in Modern Language: a Comparison of
Attitude and Performance in Year 7 and 10, they outlined a quantitative study carried
out with 270 pupils in a mixed comprehensive school in the UK. It explored whether
boys and girls embark on the study of French with a gap in attitude and whether the
gap in attainment emerged during year 7 or later.
One of the significant findings was that prior to the study 26% of boys and 3%
of girls had already misapplied or been misapplied from MFL. Findings indicated that
boys who fail to achieve prior to year 7 may never have got started rather than
switched off later, and boys’ overall attainment profile did not alter much with age.
The paper concluded that negativity towards MFL has remained constant in the past
44
two decades and cautions that the too frequent “diet” of chunk learning which has led
to widespread disaffection with MFL study should be addressed by the National
Council for Education for Citizenship (Davies 2004).
In another instance, Houston (1994) revealed that there is no pronounced
difference in the psycho-cognitive characteristics of male and females except at the
infant stage. From the discussions, reports have shown that gender influence in
language performance is a controversial issue. Some have shown no gender
influence. The present research has considered gender as a crucial variable in reading
comprehension achievement among ESL learners of English.
Studies on Location and Language Skills Acquisition
One of the correlates of learning has been found to be the location of the
school. Location in this context refers to the geographical position of the school
which can be urban or rural. Differences in location imply existence of differences in
demographic and socio-economic parameters of the school tone (Ezema, 2002; and
Udorsen, 2007). The two works indicated that due to urban involvement, students in
urban schools perform better in second language learning than those in the rural
schools.
In another study on “The Effect of Contextual Clues on Students Reading
Achievement in Reading Comprehension, Akabogu (2002) examined the influence of
students’ location on their performance. The result of the study showed that there is
significant difference in achievement between urban and rural students. Students
from the urban location performed better than those from the rural area. Thus location
has significant impact on achievement in reading.
45
Again, Igbenyi (2002) on the “Effects of the Communicative Language
Teaching Method” (CLTM) on the achievement of secondary school students in
English reading comprehension examined the effect of the teaching method on the
mean reading achievement scores of students from urban and rural schools.
Results of data analysis revealed that the (CLT) method was effective in the
teaching of reading comprehension. There was significant difference in the scores of
students in the urban and rural areas, and students in the urban schools obtained
higher scores than those in the rural schools.
In another study of Akorede (2002) on “Environmental Factors and Positive
Pleasure Reading”, it focussed on whether the slow reading habits of students can be
limited to the socio-economic and educational status of the parents. The researcher
studied the reading habits of selected secondary school students in Ondo Local
Government Area Ondo State, Nigeria. Result showed that the poor socio- economic
status of the family coupled with wrong information about reading in the home are
very significant factors in the poor reading habits of the Nigerian child.
Commenting on poverty as a contributory factor affecting reading habit,
Ezema (2002) stated that rarely do parents buy literature texts for their children. The
reason the parents give being that there are many expensive textbooks that they have
to buy. Consequently, there is no money left for books for leisure. The influence of
location on reading achievement has been controversial in many research reports
(Ene, 2002; Akabogu, 2002; Agada, 2008). Hence, one of the variables which this
particular study considered was location and how it can influence reading
comprehension.
46
Problems of Nigerian Learners of English
It has been mentioned in the background of this study that every human
language is unique in itself in that it has its own structure and its own system of
organizing its component units into meaningful patterns. The Nigerian learner of
English Language who had already acquired his first language (L1) is faced with a lot
of challenges. Some English writers have categorized some of these challenging
factors. For instance, Ikonta (2005), Ogidi (2005), and Udorsen (2007) categorized
these factors as psychological, sociological, physical and educational. Mgbodile
(1999) grouped these factors in these four categories as follows: (i) physical factors,
(ii) environmental factors (iii) pedagogical factors; and (iv) linguistic factors.
The physical factors relate to the general physiological challenges imposed on
the learner by nature through the circumstances of birth. Such handicaps include low
intelligence, which leads to poor mental and perceptual ability, auditory defects,
emotional instability and such like.
The environmental factors relate to the conditions in the learners’ homes
which can promote or hinder the learner’s reading ability. Ezema (2002) and Ugwu
(2003) stressed that many students do not possess reading ability because they come
from unstimulating homes and backgrounds. This automatically affects their
comprehension ability.
Pedagogical factors relate to teacher factors which are generally in the realm
of the methodology applied in teaching reading. Onukogu (2002) stressed that poor
or lack of preparation and even non-application of effective reading strategy affect
the rate of comprehension
47
Since reading is an interaction process that is dynamic and consistently changing,
understanding the readers’ role in the comprehension process is imperative. Each new
task or assignment will alter the learning process, and challenge the reader to be
active in his approach to the text. According to Nist and Holschuh (2000) developing
readers are often challenged with the changing nature of reading tasks. They may also
lack some of the strategies that expert readers employ as they read. Exposure to
figurative language in texts involves a highly complex reading comprehension skill.
As a result, students should be encouraged to take on active roles in the learning
process. Likewise, instructors should play important roles in preparing students for
the task as well as helping students become aware of the reading characteristics they
bring to the task. Apart from pedagogical factors which relate to the teacher, students
themselves exhibit certain bad reading habits which affect comprehension (Nduka,
2003). Such bad reading habits include the following: pointing at words, head
movement, regression or backward reading, vocalization, word by word reading
instead of reading for thoughts and ideas, inflexibility in reading and lack of
motivation.
Finally, linguistic factors which have been associated with reading
backwardness among ESL learners are what Mgbodile (1999) referred to as
interference problems. The interference is between the learners’ mother tongue (L1)
and the second language (L2). According to Akindele and Adegbite (1999), the
phenomena of interference feature at the phonological, lexical, grammatical and
discourse levels. Phonology deals with the act of speaking. According to Offorma
(2009) the speaking skill involves using a language in talking. Students who listen
acquire the right speech skills. Without adequate knowledge of speech skills, learners
48
may have difficulties in pronunciation, spelling and intonation; hence, adequate
acquisition of speech skills leads to fluency in speech and reading. Lexical
interference takes two different forms. The first form can be traced to linguistic
factors while the second form can be traced to cultural factors. According to Akindele
and Adegbite (1999) lexical interference identified linguistically are regarded as
errors, whereas that identified culturally expresses the local colour of socially
recognized phenomena.
Lexical interference can be described under these categories (i) semantic
contrast; (ii) semantic extension;
(iii) semantic transfer; and, (iv) coinages, that is loan – creation. Akindele and
Adegbite (1999:42) give the following examples:
Semantic contrast – some items in Nigerian English (NE) may have equivalent items in native English but express different meanings through them. For example, “masquerade” has to do with ancestral cult worship in NE, but it means “deceit” or hiding one’s identify in native English.
Semantic extension- Some items in NE may have equivalence in native English but expresses a wider meaning in NE. For example, brother, father, mother… Semantic transfer – Some items in NE are present in native English but the concepts they express in the former are absent in the latter. For example, tight friend, Water has gone again; Open the tap; I am coming, afternoon meal… Coinages (loan creation) Certain items are peculiar to NE but denote NE experiences which are also present in native English. Eg. Long-leg (nepotism) go-slow (traffic jam); cash madam (wealthy woman)…
It can be observed that word recognition and word knowledge are essential
ingredients for improved performance in a linguistic programme. More so, improved
vocabulary instruction leads to improved reading comprehension.
49
In her contribution towards improved reading comprehension, Ikonta (2005)
advocated remedial and developmental reading programme. Remedial reading is for
backward readers and those who have reading difficulty. On the other hand,
developmental reading, that is, reading to learn, is engaged in to develop in the
readers various desirable reading skills which can enhance comprehension. In
essence, the English teacher is the key motivator in any reading class. The teacher is
seen as responsible for collecting materials and designing their use. These materials,
according to Krashen and Terrel (1983), are based not just on the teacher’s
perceptions but on elicited students’ needs and interests. Using language depends on
exposure to the specialized environment of a culture. In the same vein, enhanced
reading comprehension will depend on a careful exposure to the ornamental use of
words and expressions in a reading passage.
The objectives of a method whether defined primarily in terms of product or
process, are attained through the instructional process, through the organized and
directed interaction of teachers, learners, and materials in the classroom. Differences
among methods at the level of approach manifest themselves in the choice of
different kinds of learning and teaching activities in the classroom (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001). Therefore, design of an instructional system is considerably
influenced by how learners are regarded. Learner roles in an instructional system are
closely linked to the teacher’s status and function. Invariably, teacher and learner
roles define the type of interaction characteristic of classrooms in which a particular
strategy is being used. The strategy of exposure to figurative language upholds a
socio-cognitive classroom approach to reading for maximum comprehension.
50
Theoretical Framework
Learning Theories
No one knows exactly how people learn language although a great deal of
research has been carried out on the subject (Scarborough, 2001). Certain theories
however, have had a profound effect upon the practice of language teaching and
continue to do so despite the fact that they are often originated in studies of how
people learn their first language. According to Mgbodile (1999) and Offorma (2001;
2009) language learning follows a sequential pattern of listening, speaking, reading
and writing.
Listening and speaking are considered natural or automatic language skills
whereas reading and writing are taught formally to the child in order to acquire the
skills of reading and writing. Hence, the following learning theories are considered
useful in second language acquisition, namely behaviourism, cogntivism,
constructivism and motivational theories of learning (Elliot, 1999).
Behaviourism Theory
Behaviourism is an approach to psychology which purports that learning is the
result of Operant conditioning (Skinner, 1957). “Operant” refers to the way in which
behaviour operates on the environment.
A behaviour may result either in reinforcement, which increases the likehood
of that behaviour recurring again, or punishment which decreases the likelihood of
the same behaviour recurring in the future (McGoey and DuPaul, 2000; Theodore,
Bray, Kehle and Jenson, 2001). According to Alberto and Troutman (2003), a set of
learning techniques based on the behavioural principles of operant conditioning is
effective in a range of educational settings. Thus, teaching the technique of reading in
51
ESL classroom demands the behavioural principles which aid the reader to apply the
skills he has been taught for impactful result into new learning situations in the
process of reading.
Cognitive Theory
Cognitivism also known as Cognitive Information Processing (CIP) became
the dominant force in psychology in the late 20th century, replacing behaviourism as
the most popular paradigm for understanding mental function (Zimmerman and
Schunk,2003). According to the authors, cognitive psychology is not a wholesale
refutation of behaviourism but rather an expansion that accepts that mental states are
appropriate to analyse and subject to examination. Such observation was made due to
the increasing criticism towards the end of the 1950’s of behavioural models. For
instance, Noam Chomsky argued that language could not be acquired purely through
conditioning. It must be partly explained by the existence of internal mental states
and the states which can be described and analyzed. Mental constructs such as traits,
beliefs, memories, motivations, even the emotions of the learners come into play.
Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen and Sweller (2001:30) had this to say:
A student is taught to interpret a problem by assigning it to a schema retrieved from long term memory. When the problem is assigned to the wrong schema, the students’ attention is subsequently directed away from features of the problem that are inconsistent with the assigned schema.
Parallel to the processes of first language learning, the foreign language learner first
internalizes a “cognitive map” of the target language through the listening exercise.
The reading passage is deemed appropriate in presenting such cognitive maps to
(ESL) learners.
52
Another aspect of cognitivism is the social cognitive theory. This theory is a
highly influential fusion of behaviourist cognitive and social elements that was
initially developed by an educational psychologist, Albert Bandura in
(http://en.wikipedia.org 2011). Bandura emphasized the process of observational
learning in which a learner’s behaviour changes as a result of observing other’s
behaviour and its consequences. The theory identified several factors that determine
whether observing a model will affect behavioural or cognitive change. These factors
include the learner’s developmental status, the perceived prestige and competence of
the model, the consequences received by the model, the relevance of the model’s
behaviours and consequences to the learner’s goals, and the learner’s self-efficacy.
The social cognitive theory encourages peer modelling which is highly
recommended in a second language acquisition. Exposure to figurative language
involves the skill of description and analysis. The cognitive map of the learner plays
a crucial role in the learners’ performance in reading comprehension.
Constructivism Theory
Constructivism refers to a category of learning theories in which emphasis is
placed on the agency and prior knowledge of the learner and often on the social and
cultural determinants of the learning process (http;//en.wikipedia.org). Educational
psychologists distinguish individual (or psychological) constructivism identified with
Piaget’s learning theory, from social construction. The work of Byram, Nicholas and
Stevens (2001) on socio-cultural learning, describe how interactions with adults,
more capable peers and cognitive tools are internalized to form mental constructs
state that behaviour, skills, attitudes, and beliefs are inherently situated. This means
53
that they are bound to a specific socio-cultural setting and the learner is acculturated
through social interactions within a community of practice.
The tacit components of a complex skill are made explicit through
conversational interactions occurring between expert and novice in the setting in
which the skill is embedded (Woolfolk, Winnie and Perry,2006). Conversational
interactions are necessary in reading lessons where understanding of figurative
language involves a processing and interpretation of certain idiosyncratic expressions
whose meanings are culturally determined.
Motivation Theory
Another instrument of learning that is of importance to ESL learners is
motivation. Motivation is an internal state that activates, guides and sustains
behaviour (Weiner, 2000). Educational psychology research on motivation is
concerned with the volition or will which students bring to task, their level of interest
and intrinsic motivation. The personality - held goals that guide their behaviour, and
their belief about the causes of their success or failure also come into play
(http://en.wikipedia.org).
A form of attribution theory developed by Weiner (2000) describes how
students’ beliefs about the causes of academic success or failure affect their emotions
and motivation. When students attribute failure to lack of ability and ability is
perceived as uncontrollable, they experience the emotions of shame and
embarrassment. Consequently, there is decreased effort and poorer performance. In
contrast, when students attribute failure to lack of effort and effort is perceived as
controllable, they experience the emotion of guilt. Consequently, there is increased
effort and improved performance. Elliot (1999) however, explains how learner’s
54
goals affect the way they engage with academic tasks. He says that learners who have
mastery goals strive to increase their ability and knowledge. Those who have
performance approach goals strive for high grades and seek opportunities to
demonstrate their abilities. On the other hand, those who have performance
avoidance goals are driven by fear of failure and avoid situations where their abilities
are exposed.
The present study upholds the effectiveness of mastery goals and performance
approach goals in reading ability among students and comprehension achievements.
This is so because there can be no meaningful language learning without positive
motivation. Consequently, the behaviourist, cognitive, socio- cognitive, constructivist
and motivational theories are integrated and utilized in second language learning for
near-native competence among learners.
In summary, language is behaviour which is acquired not only through
conditioning but must be partly explained by the existence of internal mental states
which can be analyzed. Exposure to figurative language demands a high cognitive
skill. In this cognitive analysis, mental constructs such as traits, beliefs, memories,
motivations and the emotions of the learners come into play. The social cognitive
theory encourages peer modelling which is recommended in ESL classrooms. The
constructivist theories lay emphasis on the learner, prior knowledge which the learner
acquired and on the social and cultural determinants of the learning process.
Exposure to figurative language demands a lot of effort not only on the part of the
teacher but on the students. According to Burwitz-Meeler (2001) it maintained that
despite the copious usage of figurative expressions in oral language, many readers
struggle to interpret such language when encountered in texts. This problem of
55
interpretation leads to a breakdown in text comprehension, which in turn frustrates
the readers and discourages them from continuing the reading task. Figurative
language interpretation instruction should be a necessary component of teachers
reading comprehension curriculum and for students who are studying English as a
second language.
Comprehension Approaches to Language Teaching
The objectives of a method or strategy, whether defined primarily in terms of
product or process are attained through the instructional process. They can be
attained through the organized and directed interaction of teachers, learners and
materials in the classroom. Thus Richards and Rodgers (2001) stated that differences
among methods at the level of approach manifest themselves in the choice of
different kinds of learning and teaching activities in the classroom. The present study
has considered of great importance two methods which emphasize understanding
language in order to learn, rather than just producing it. These exist as varieties of the
Comprehension Approach. They are the Total Physical Response (TPR) and the
Natural Approach (http://en.wikipedia.org).
According to Richards and Rodgers (2001), comprehension approach refers to
several different comprehension – based language teaching proposals which share the
beliefs that (a) comprehension abilities precede productive skills in learning a
language; (b) teaching of speaking should be delayed until comprehension skills are
established; (c) skills acquired through listening transfer to other skills; (d) teaching
should emphasize meaning rather than form; (e) teaching should minimize learner
stress.
56
Total Physical Response
Total Physical Response (TPR) developed by Asher (1981) is a language
teaching method built around the coordination of speech and action. It attempts to
teach language through physical (motor) activity. According to Richards and Rodgers
(2001) TPR is linked to the “trace theory” of memory in psychology which holds that
the more often or the more intensively a memory connection is traced, the stronger
the memory association will be and the more likely it will be recalled. In a
developmental sense, Asher (1981) sees successful adult second language learning as
a parallel process to child first language acquisition. He also shares with the school of
humanistic psychology a concern for the role of affective (emotional) factors in
language learning.
TPR has serious implications for the present study. According to National
Clearing House for Bilingual Education (2002) it asserts that learning to speak
English first contributes to children’s eventual fluency in English reading, as oral
proficiency provides a foundation to support subsequent learning about the alphabetic
principle through an understanding of the structure of spoken English words and of
the language and content of the material they are reading. This reinforces the
recommendation for vocabulary development in English Language Learners (ELLs).
Again, fluent readers recognize words and comprehend them simultaneously
(Peregoy and Boyle, 2000).
In support of the TPR teaching method which advocated a coordination of
speech and action, Snow, Burns, and Griffen (1998:324) had this to say: The abilities
to hear and reflect on the structure of spoken English words as required for learning
how the alphabetic principle works, depend on oral familiarity with the words being
57
read. Similarly, learning to read for meaning depends on understanding the language
and referents of the text to be read. To this extent, ELLs should have opportunities to
develop literacy skills in their home language as well as in English. Furthermore,
Rowsell, Sztainbok, and Blaney,(2007) emphasized that as ELLs may be working
diligently to translate concepts literally, figurative language such as “crocodile tears”
or “sweet tooth” can be perplexing. As such, they recommended scanning students’
text beforehand to anticipate these difficulties and engaging students in a discussion
about literal and figurative meanings of these expressions. In essence, the teacher
controls the language input the learners receive, providing the “cognitive map” that
the learners will construct in their own minds.
The Natural Approach
The Natural Approach of Krashen and Terrel (1983) are believed to conform
to the naturalistic principles found in successful second language acquisition. The
approach lays emphasis on exposure or input, rather than practice; and in which
emotional preparedness for learning is optimized. There is a prolonged period of
attention to what the language learners hear before they try to produce language. The
approach emphasizes a willingness to use written and other materials as a source of
comprehensible input. Thus acquisition can take place only when people understand
messages in the target language (Richards and Rodgers, 2001). The principal tenets
of the theory on which the design and procedures in the Natural Approach are based
are (i) the Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis; (ii) the Monitor Hypothesis; (iii) the
Natural Order Hypothesis; (iv) the Input Hypothesis; and, (v) the Affective Filter
Hypothesis. The Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis claims that there are two
distinctive ways of developing competence in a second or foreign language.
58
Acquisition is the “natural” way in first language development in children whereas
learning refers to a process in which conscious rules about a language are developed
(Richards and Rodgers, 2001). Conscious learning can function only as monitor or
editor that checks and repairs the output of the acquired system.
The Monitor Hypothesis claims that learned knowledge is used to correct
speakers during communication. On the other hand, the Natural Order Hypothesis
maintains that the acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a predictable
order. The Input Hypothesis explains the relationship between what the learner is
exposed to of a language (the input) and language acquisition. The hypothesis claims
that people acquire language best by understanding input that is slightly beyond their
current level of competence. Clues based on the situation and the context, extra
linguistic information and knowledge of the world make comprehension possible.
The Affective Filter Hypothesis stresses that the learner’s emotional state or attitudes
is an adjustable filter that freely passes, impedes or blocks input necessary to
acquisition. According to Krashen (1983) a low affective filter - a situation where
motivation is high, self-confidence and good self-image and low personal anxiety and
low classroom anxiety are present - enhances input.
These five hypotheses have obvious implications for language teaching. As
Richards and Rodgers (2001:133) puts it:
i. As much comprehensible input as possible must be presented.
ii. Whatever helps comprehension is important. Visual aids are useful, as is
exposure to a wide range of vocabulary rather than study of syntactic
structure.
59
iii. The focus in the classroom should be listening and reading, speaking should
be allowed to emerge.
iv. In order to lower the affective filter, students’ work should centre on
meaningful communication rather than on form; input should be interesting
and so contribute to a relaxed classroom atmosphere.
In summary the Natural Approach to language learning has rich implications
in the teaching of reading for maximum achievement. In the present study, figurative
expressions found in reading passages offer enough comprehensible input which the
student, as the processor, is guided to interpret through active use of context and extra
linguistic information.
Theories of Reading
Just like teaching methods and learning strategies, reading theories have had
their shift and transition (IRA 2001). Starting from the linguistic view which
focussed on the printed form of a text and moving to the cognitive view that
enhanced the role of background knowledge in addition to what appeared on the
printed page they ultimately culminated in the meta-cognitive view which is now in
vogue. It is based on the control and manipulation that a reader can have on the act of
comprehending a text. The cognitive view of reading presented reading as a
psycholinguistic guessing game, a process in which readers sample the text, make
hypotheses, confirm or reject them, make new hypotheses, confirm or reject them,
and so forth. Here the reader rather than the text is at the heart of the reading process
(www.landmark.edu. 2007).
60
The Schema Theory
One of the cognitively-based views of reading comprehension is the schema
theory now widely accepted as playing a key role in reading comprehension. This
theory is based on the assumption that the readers’ prior knowledge directly impacts
new learning situations. (www.landmark.edu). While the schema theory has existed
in various forms since the 1930’s, it has recently re-emerged and has been re- defined
as an important concept in reading instruction.
Reading theorists view schema theory as a “framework” that organizes
knowledge in memory by putting information into the correct “slots” each of which
contains related parts. When new information enters the memory, it must not only be
compatible with one of the slots, but it must actually be entered into the proper slot
before comprehension can occur (Nist and Mealey, 2000). If this notion is accepted,
reading shifts from a text- based activity to an interactive process in which the reader
constructs meaning by interacting with the text. According to these reading
specialists, schemata are the readers “concepts, beliefs, expectations, processes-
virtually everything from past experiences that are used in making sense of reading.
Moreover, schemata are used to make sense of text, the printed word evoking the
reader’s experiences, as well as well as past and potential relationships. Based on
this, reading teachers emphasize three types of schemata namely: (i) knowledge of
the concepts and processes that pertain to certain subject matter, like in, science,
mathematics, humanities; (ii) general world knowledge, that is, social relationship,
causes and effects; (iii) knowledge of rhetorical structures, that is, patterns, rules for
organizing text and cues to the reader. Therefore, cognitively based views of reading
comprehension emphasize the interactive nature of reading and the constructive
61
nature of comprehension. Zimmerman et al (2003) have stated that besides
knowledge brought to bear on the reading process, set of flexible, adaptable strategies
are used to make sense of a text and to monitor ongoing understanding.
The Meta-cognitive Theory
According to Block (1992) in (www.landmark.edu) there is now no more
debate on whether or not reading is a cognitively language - based process. It is also
no more problematic to accept the influence of background knowledge on both L1
and L2 readers. Research has gone even further to define the control readers execute
on their ability to understand a text. This control has been referred to as meta-
cognition. According to Boulware-Gooden et al (2007), meta-cognition involves
thinking about what one is doing while reading. They are of the view that strategic
readers attempt the following while reading: identifying the purpose of the reading
before reading; identifying the form or type of the text before reading; and thinking
about the general character and features of the form or type of the text. For instance,
readers try to locate a topic sentence and follow supporting details towards a
conclusion. They project the author’s purpose for writing the text (while reading it)
they choose, scan or read in detail; and, make continuous predictions about what will
occur next based on information obtained earlier, prior knowledge, and conclusions
obtained within the previous stages.
Carrying out the previous steps requires the reader to be able to classify
sequence, establish whole-part relationships, compare and contrast, determine cause-
effect, summarize, hypothesize and predict, infer and conclude. In summary, the
various theories of reading examined have obvious implications for the present study.
Understanding figurative language involves a process of inference. This involves the
62
learner inferring the features which are salient in understanding the subject of the
sentence. Meta - cognition is essential in comprehending that two things which do not
normally collocate together are being compared or brought together. Prior knowledge
also plays a part in unravelling the meanings of figurative expressions as figurative
language are culturally determined and range from the conventional to the native use
of the expressions.
Empirical Studies
Studies on Vocabulary and Students’ Achievement in English Reading
Comprehension
Several researches have been carried out on ways to improve reading for
maximum comprehension among ESL learners. Vocabulary knowledge and
vocabulary acquisition has also been found to be a high predictor of reading
comprehension (Biemiller and Slonim, 2001). Figurative language is also an aspect
of vocabulary used in both oral and written discourse for special effects.
The purpose of vocabulary instruction is to help the learner identify,
comprehend and use words in meaningful contexts. In line with this purpose, Ooi and
Kim-Seoh (1996), “Vocabulary Teaching: Looking Behind the Word” wanted to
ascertain the lexical competence of a group of undergraduates who were not native
speakers of English, but who had been through an education system in which that
language used was the medium of instruction.
There were a total of 110 subjects: 20 native-speaker faculty members (NS)
and 90 non-native speaker (NNS) first year students from Nanyang Technological
University, Singapore. The subjects were asked to complete two general – interest
63
texts, each containing 50 deleted items. The students’ sample was discriminated to
reflect three levels of proficiency high (SH), intermediate (SI), and low (SL).
The fixed-ratio method of deletion was employed, and responses were judged
according to the acceptable word scoring method. A response was deemed acceptable
if it was the original word, or a replacement that met both semantic and syntactic
constraints. A response would be unacceptable if it was contextually appropriate but
did not fit syntactically or stylistically. An altogether wrong answer would be any
item that was clearly contextually inappropriate, that contained two words instead of
one, or was not attempted. Data analysis showed that the only qualitative difference
between the performance of native speakers and SH learners lay in the fact that native
speakers were able to provide original word answers more often than NNS.
The findings of Ooi and Kim-Seoh (1996) indicate that lexical competence
implies more than just knowing what a word means. It subsumes a number of other
kinds of knowledge, including knowing what differentiates one word from other
words that appear to mean the same; what other meanings a word might have; what
other words derive from it; what kinds of associative links it has with other items in
the lexicon; how it behaves syntactically and, just as importantly, its limitations of
use according to situation and function.
To accomplish these wider goals for vocabulary instruction, the study
suggested that lexis, grammar and discourse should no longer be thought of as
separate strands in the language syllabus. An integrative approach would allow the
teacher to shift attention from one to the other and back again, in a manner that is
natural and unforced. The above findings uphold the view that exposure to figurative
64
language through reading passages will not only lead to vocabulary recognition but
also to vocabulary development for enhanced comprehension.
A study of Carlo (2004), “Addressing the Vocabulary Needs of English
Language Learners in Bilingual and Main-stream Classrooms”, observed that a large
gap in reading comprehension capacity separates Latino children from their Anglo-
Saxon peers in the USA. To verify the assumption that their deficit is largely a result
of inadequate vocabulary knowledge, the authors of the report designed a 15 week
language enrichment course focussed on academically useful words and word
learning strategies. It was attended by 254 fifth grade pupils (including 142 native
speakers of Spanish) from schools in California, Virginia and Masachusetts. They
were tested before and after intervention for reading comprehension, polysemy
production, morphology, word mastery, word association and picture vocabulary
tasks.
Multivariate analysis of these six variables – combined with learner language,
status and location. Data revealed considerable improvements in vocabulary
knowledge and processing skills among all participants, with native English speakers
scoring higher on pre-and post-test measures; reading comprehension was also
enhanced, though less dramatically. The result indicated that ESL learners still
needed learning strategies that will offer enough comprehensible input for enhanced
reading comprehension.
Another study of Lui (2004) conducted in the University of Arizona, USA,
focussed on the Effects of Comic Strips on L2 Learners’ Reading Comprehension.
The study investigated whether comic strips increases reading comprehension by
providing visual support. The author also set out to investigate whether texts geared
65
to proficiency level had a significant effect on comprehension. Adult learners were
divided into two groups (a low intermediate level proficiency group and a high
intermediate level proficiency group). Students in each group were presented with
either a high level text or a low level text. The text was presented with or without a
comic strip. Data was collected through 107 immediate recall protocols and also
through short answer questionnaires.
The results revealed that low level students (receiving the high level text with
the cosmic strips scored significantly higher than their counterparts receiving the high
level text only. The paper supports the view that materials developers should choose
visuals cautiously and that overloading may lead to too much cognitive challenge.
Lui (2004) calls for further research into other genres of cartoons and their
effect on reading comprehension. Cosmic strips offered enough comprehensible input
to the learners. The present study is an aim to ascertain whether exposure to
figurative language in literary texts will offer enough comprehensible input to
learners too.
In another study, Pulido (2004) investigated the role of text comprehension at
various stages of L2 incidental vocabulary gain and retention in the presence of
another factor known to affect the two processes: topic familiarity. Ninety-nine (99)
adult learners of L2 Spanish from three distinct university course levels read more or
less familiar scripts-based narratives, containing nonsense words. They performed a
free written recall in the L1 with intake and gain measures administered at two time
intervals.
Analysis revealed a generally robust consistent role of passage comprehension
in lexical gain and retention, but differential patterns of relationships in intake due to
66
effects of topic familiarity. The finding strengthens the general claim of a reciprocal
relationship between L2 vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension or
reading success. Thus this study is of interest to the present researcher because the
notion of topic familiarity based on the learner’s background and contexts enhance
learner’s achievement in reading comprehension.
Herrera, S., Murry, K., and Cabral, R. (2007) agree that in intercultural
interactions two types of context come into play, external and internal contexts. The
former refers to the settings or locations where the interaction takes place and the
meanings the society attaches to them, whereas the latter, internal context is the
culture the interactants bring to the encounters. Byram and Feng (2004) stated that in
inter-cultural communication, misunderstanding is much more likely to occur
because the internal contexts and the meanings associated with the settings, can differ
greatly from one culture to another. Consequently, exposure to figurative language is
exposure to the culture of a people. It is essential while teaching students to draw
emphasis from the learners own language and relate the idea to the target language,
creating a stress free classroom that promotes learning.
In the same vein, many studies have been conducted in the Nigerian context
on ways to improve reading comprehension among Nigerian students. In one of the
studies, Okeke (2000) engaged in a research on the “Effect of Exposure to In-text
Vocabulary Recognition Strategy on Secondary School Students’ Performance in
Reading Comprehension”. The researcher employed a quasi-experimental research
design. Intact classes were used for the study. Research subjects were assigned to
experimental and control groups through simple ballotting. The area of study was
Awka Education Zone of Anambra State. Four secondary schools, two male and two
67
female, each from urban and rural locations of the zone were used for the study. The
sample totalled (275) SS3 students. One reading passage was used for the pretest and
posttest.
Four research questions and three null hypotheses were formulated to guide
the study. Mean scores and standard deviations were used to answer the research
questions whereas the Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used to answer the
null hypotheses at .05 level of significance. Result showed that in- text vocabulary
recognition strategy improved reading comprehension at all levels of secondary
school. Influences of gender and location on the instructional strategy were also
considered. Result obtained showed that gender and location had no significant
influence on the students’ reading performance. Hence the strategy benefitted both
gender and students from urban and rural locations. The present research is not only
interested in word recognition and comprehension but knowledge of figurative
expressions in reading passages and the extent such recognition and knowledge could
improve comprehension.
The implications of the above result for the present study are the following.
First, if exposure to word recognition in reading passages could enhance
comprehension, then word knowledge and word development which the present is
focussed on would achieve more. According to Boulware-Gooden, Carreker,
Thornhill and Joshi(2007) the limitation of vocabulary recognition strategy to reading
comprehension is that the learning approach relies more on intensive reading and
vocabulary learning method that is definitional. On the other hand, exposure to
figurative language is a high comprehension skill which enables the learner to acquire
an extensive vocabulary through word association and deep semantic processing and
68
also by being exposed daily to thousands of lexical items through extensive reading
(Ellis et al, 1980 and Boulware-Gooden, et al 2007).
In a study carried out by Ene (2002), the “Effect of the Cloze Instructional
Approach on Senior Secondary School Students’ Achievement in Reading
Comprehension” was examined. The study also considered the influence of gender
and location and the interaction effects on the instructional approach. Three research
questions and five null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. The study was
a non-equivalent control group design. Four schools from Enugu Education Zone
were selected through stratified random sampling method. One intact class from each
school was chosen for the study giving a total of one hundred and eighty- six students
from urban and rural locations. Two intact SS2 classes from each selected schools
were randomly selected and assigned to experimental and control groups.
The schools were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. The
English Language Reading Comprehension Achievement Test (ERCAT), the
instructional package for the treatment and control groups and lesson plans were
developed, validated and used for the study. Two different lesson plans were
prepared for the experimental and control groups. The achievement tests (forms I and
II) were used for the pretest and posttest assessments. Data obtained from the
research questions were analyzed using means and standard deviations. The null
hypotheses were tested with Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) at .05 level of
significance.
The result of the study showed that the cloze approach enhanced achievement
in reading comprehension. The approach had no differential effects on the
achievement of male and female students in reading comprehension. Students in the
69
urban schools performed better than their counterparts in the rural schools. The
interaction effect between gender and instructional approach on students’ mean
achievement in reading was not statistically significant whereas interaction effect of
location and the teaching method on students’ achievement was significant.
The cloze approach represents one of the techniques in vocabulary
development and is concerned with providing the students with partially obliterated
version of a previously read selection and the students were asked to reconstruct the
original. Hence, this approach is more or less structured as it does not give room for
extensive practice in vocabulary. Likewise the present study examined the two
variables of gender and location and the interaction effects on the teaching strategy.
In the same vein, Akabogu (2002) investigated the “Effect of Contextual
Clues Exposure to English Registers on Senior Secondary School Students’
Achievement in Reading Comprehension”. The study employed a non-equivalent
control group quasi-experimental research design. Stratified random sampling
technique was used to select the eight schools used for the study. Two intact classes
of SS2 from each of the schools were randomly selected and assigned to
experimental and control groups. The treatment group was made up of a total of one
hundred and thirty - three (133) students comprising males and females from schools
located in urban and rural areas of Enugu Education Zone. The control group, on the
other hand, was made up of a total of one hundred and twenty seven (127) students
comprising male and female students from schools located in urban and rural areas of
the zone. In all, 260 students were used. The treatment group was taught reading
comprehension using contextual clues exposure to English registers, while the control
group was taught using the conventional method of background knowledge of text.
70
Five research questions and five hypotheses guided the study. A Reading
Comprehension Achievement Test (RCAT) was used to collect data on students’
performance. The data were analyzed using mean, standard deviation and Analysis of
Covariance (ANCOVA). Results obtained showed that contextual clues enhanced
achievement in reading comprehension. There was no significant effect of gender on
students’ achievement in reading comprehension whereas location of the school had
significant effect on the students’ performance. Also, there was a significant
interaction effect between the teaching method and gender and the teaching method
and location. Gender and location were variables considered in the present study.
Since reading as an interaction process that is dynamic and cognitively
demanding, each new task or assignment will alter the learning process, and
challenge the reader to be active in one’s approach to the text. Developing readers are
often challenged with the changing nature of reading tasks. They may lack some of
the strategies that expert readers employ as they read (Adepoju, 2008). Because of
this, students should be encouraged through strategies that encourage active
participation in the learning process.
In yet another research on ways of improving reading comprehension among
English learners, Marja (2008) this time carried out a research on the “Effect of
Cooperative Learning Method on Achievement in Reading Comprehension” of
College of Education Students. The study employed a quasi-experimental research
design using experimental and control groups, pre-test and posttest. The sample size
for the study was one hundred and thirty two (132) Year I students. Intact classes
were used. Assignment to experimental and control groups was done through coin
tossing while the division of the experimental group into cooperative learning groups
71
of five students in each group was done by ballotting with replacement. Both the
treatment and control groups had sixty six (66) students each. The treatment group
was taught with cooperative learning method while the control group was taught
using the conventional lecture method. Ten research questions and seven hypotheses
guided the study.
A researcher - constructed reading comprehension achievement test (RCAT)
was used to collect data on the achievement of the students in reading
comprehension. The instrument was trial-tested on 35 Year I students studying
English as single major in College of Education Jalingo, Taraba State. The data
obtained from the trial test were used for calculating the reliability of the instrument
using Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient. It yielded an index of .81.
The data collected from the reading comprehension achievement test were analyzed
using means, standard deviations and Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA). The
hypotheses were tested at .05 level of significance.
The result of the study showed that Cooperative Learning Method (CLM)
significantly enhanced students’ achievement in reading comprehension more than
the conventional lecture method. Also the cooperative learning method was
consistent across gender and ability levels.
So far, reading for maximum comprehension is a psycholinguistic activity.
Each new task or assignment alters the learning process and challenges the reader to
be actively involved in text interpretation. Studies reviewed excluded some realities
in ESL classrooms. Language is heavily influenced by culture (Byram and Feng,
2004). As cultures come up with new ideas, they develop language components to
72
express those ideas. Hence, the socio-cultural situation in which reading is taught to
learners has to be considered.
The empirical studies reviewed have indicated that there has been no study, to
the knowledge of the researcher, which has been carried out in exposing students to
figurative language to improve their achievement in reading comprehension. As
Fredrick (2007: 3) stated:
In observing students’ difficulties with practice tests and reading activities, figurative language clearly generates the largest number of questions….Outside the class students (both native and nonnative) visit his office for additional help request explanations of symbolic language more than other class topic. For native English speakers, the issue may be a lack of extensive exposure to sophisticated reading materials that contain figurative language. For nonnative speakers, issue is likely the absence of exposure in both spoken and written discourse.
There was therefore, the need to investigate the extent to which exposure to figurative
language influenced achievement in reading comprehension among secondary school
students. This study also considered the influences of gender and location on the
students’ performance.
Summary of Literature Review
Figurative language as an aspect of vocabulary is a group of words which
authors employ for special effect in reading passages. Figures create pictures in the
mind of the reader to enhance understanding. Conceptually, reading and reading
comprehension have been defined by various schools of thought. In the present study
reading comprehension is understood as the level of understanding of a text which
comes from the interaction between the words that are written and how they trigger
knowledge outside the text. Hence, the author’s choice of words plays a major role in
reading comprehension as words have both denotative and connotative meanings.
73
Words which are used connotatively are sometimes referred to as figurative
expressions.
Vocabulary knowledge and vocabulary acquisition were noted to be high
predictors of reading comprehension. Language and culture are intertwined hence
figurative meanings are, in the main, culturally-determined. Two variables, gender
and location of the learners, and their influences on reading comprehension were
discussed. Controversial results on gender and location variables in reading
comprehension were observed in many of the studies.
Theoretical framework presented various language learning theories.
Behaviourism purports that learning takes place as the learner applies the skills taught
for impactful result. Cognitivism purports that the language learner first internalizes a
“cognitive map” of the target language. Likewise, social cognitive theory fuses
together behaviourist, cognitive, and social elements which trigger off the learners’
behaviour changes and its consequences. Constructivism emphasizes the agency and
prior knowledge of the learner and often, the social and cultural determinants of the
learning process. Motivation theory emphasizes an internal state which activates,
guides and sustains behaviour.
Comprehension approaches to language teaching was considered too. Reading
has been labelled an integrated part of language study which is linked with learning
of grammar, improvement in pronunciation and intonation, and linked with writing.
Total Physical Response (TPR) and the Natural Approach (NA) are comprehension-
based language teaching proposals, which share the beliefs that comprehension
abilities precede productive skills in language learning. Teaching of speaking should
be delayed until comprehension skills are established. Skills acquired through
listening transfer to other skills of speaking, reading and writing, hence teaching
should emphasize meaning rather than form.
74
Theories of reading presented focussed on the schema theory that purported
the role of background knowledge in addition to what appeared on the reading
passage. These ultimately culminated in the meta-cognitive view which is based on
the control and manipulation that a reader can have on the act of comprehending a
text.
Due to the uniqueness of every human language in terms of its structure and
organization, Nigerian learners of English in their ability to read for comprehension
encounter a lot of problems which are noted to be psychological, sociological,
physiological and educational. Towards improved reading comprehension, reading
programmes should be both remedial and developmental in a second language
situation.
Reviewed empirical studies focussed on various methods and strategies
already conducted on the teaching of vocabulary for improved reading
comprehension in English Language. Methods of teaching the subject have been
under severe criticism in recent times as a result of students’ poor performance in
external examinations. In the literature, a dearth of empirical evidence on the strategy
of exposing students to figurative language for enhanced reading comprehension was
observed, hence, the present study identified a gap in this area and the need to
investigate exposure to figurative language which requires a deeper level of text
comprehension, both inferential and analytic, and its effect on reading comprehension
achievement in English of senior secondary school students. Again, there have been
inconsistent research findings on the influences of gender and location on students’
achievement in reading comprehension which this study investigated.
75
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHOD
This chapter is a presentation of the research methods employed in the study.
The chapter was discussed under the following sub-headings: research design, the
area of the study, population of the study, sample and sampling technique, instrument
for data collection, validation of the instrument, reliability of the instrument,
experimental procedure, control of some extraneous variables, and, the method which
was used for analysis of the data.
Design of the Study
The study adopted a quasi-experimental research design. Specifically, the
design was the pretest-posttest non-equivalent control group design. The design
permitted the use of intact classes, hence there was no random assignment of subjects
to treatment conditions rather, intact classes were randomly assigned to treatment
conditions (Okeke and Offorma, 2001). Two groups, treatment and control, were
involved in the study. The specific design is diagrammatically represented as follows:
E 01 x 02
--- --- --- ---
C 01 - 02
Where E is the experimental group
C is the control group
01, 01 refer to the pretest for the experimental and control groups
respectively
02, 02 refer to the posttest for the experimental and control groups
respectively
X stands for treatment with the exposure teaching strategy to figurative
language in reading comprehension
– stands for no treatment for the control group while
75
76
--- dotted lines indicate that the two groups were not equivalent before
treatment in the random sense.
Area of the Study
The area of the study was Awka Education Zone in Anambra State. The study
was restricted to all the secondary schools in the Education Zone. Sixty-one (61)
government–owned secondary schools existed in Awka Education Zone in
2010/2011 academic session (source: Planning, Research and Statistics Unit, Post
Primary Schools Service Commission, Awka, 2010 (page 116). Five Local
Government Areas, namely, Awka-South, Awka North, Anaocha, Dunukofia and
Njikoka, make up the education zone. Schools used for the study are situated in urban
and rural locations of the Education zone.
Settlers in the urban areas are mainly people from diverse occupations ranging
from civil servants and non-governmental employed workers from different tribes
and countries to business men and women, hence, students from such literate homes
coupled with basic infrastructures available are known to promote effective reading
culture among them. There are advantages of having enough trained English
Language teachers, well-equipped library which enhance extensive reading and
electricity in the schools which encourage the use of television and computers in the
classroom.
On the contrary, the rural populaces are mainly peasant farmers and petty
traders. Students from this background have parents who are not literate enough and
reading culture is not encouraged. Such homes that are not stimulating academically
are said to result in poor reading achievement.
77
Population of the Study
The population of the study comprised all Senior Secondary Two (SS2)
students in the sixty-one (61) government- owned secondary schools in Awka
Education zone. The population of SS2 students in the 2010/2011 academic session
was ten thousand, three hundred and fifty six (10,346) (Source: Planning Research
and Statistics Unit, Post Primary Schools Service Commission, Awka). SS2 students
were used because students in this category had spent more than four years in the
secondary school and also to ensure that subjects for the study were adequately
exposed to senior secondary English Language curriculum.
Sample and Sampling Technique
Two hundred and ninety-nine (299) about 35% of SS2 students’ population in
Awka Education Zone made up the sample for the study. Before the sample was
drawn, the total number of schools exclusively males and exclusively females were
categorized according to location and local government area (Appendix 1, page 116).
In all, eight (8) male schools and eleven (11) female schools are located in four
government areas in the Zone. There is no single sex school in Awka North, hence
four Local Government Areas (LGAs) were purposely sampled for the study. Among
the four LGAs, Awka South and Anaocha were selected because Awka South
satisfied urban characteristics while Anaocha satisfied rural characteristics. In Awka
South, one (1) male school and two (2) female schools exist. Therefore, the only male
school in the area was used while through simple balloting, 1 out of the 2 female
schools was selected. Also in Anaocha, 2 male and 3 female schools exist. 1 male and
1 female schools were selected through simple ballotting. In all, 4 schools were used
in the study (see page 120 for list of schools, location and local government area).
78
In each school, two intact classes of SS2 were randomly selected and assigned
to experimental and control groups. The treatment group had a total of one hundred
and fifty two (152) comprising forty-three (43) males and forty-seven (47) female
students from schools located in the urban area, and twenty-six (26) males and thirty-
six (36) females from the rural. The control group totalled one hundred and forty-
seven (147) students comprising forty-seven (47) males and forty-five (45) females
from the urban, and twenty-five (25) males and thirty (30) females from the rural
area. In all, all the students in each intact class, making a total of 299 were used for
the study (page 121 for the composition of the sample).
Instrument for Data Collection
The data for the study were collected using the English Reading
Comprehension Achievement Test (ERCAT). The ERCAT was based on two reading
prose passages which elicited students’ ability on knowledge, comprehension,
application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation (see pages 136 and 143 for Table of
Specification in ERCAT). The first reading passage was used for the pretest while the
second passage was used for the posttest. The two reading passages were adopted
from the English Project Book for Senior Secondary School Students’ written by
Grant, Nnamonu and Jowitt (2002) (Appendixes VI and IX pages 129 and 137). The
course book from which the reading passages were lifted is recommended by both the
Federal and State Ministries of Education in Nigeria. The course book is prepared in
such a way that WAEC’S (2009-2010) objectives in testing reading comprehension
among candidates preparing for WASSCE and other external examinations are
achieved (Appendix IV page 122).
Interpreting figurative language is considered an analysis skill which borders
mainly on the inferential and critical levels of comprehension. This takes cognizance
79
of the author’s language, purpose, style or structure of the passage, author’s
intentions, attitude and point of view of the writer, and identifying facts versus
opinions (Fredricks, 2006).
Twenty-five questions were drawn from each of the passages. In the pretest
passage three questions tested students’ skill on knowledge; six questions tested
comprehension; five questions tested application; six questions dwelt on analysis;
two questions were on synthesis while three questions were on evaluation. Each
question in each of the passages was scored 4 marks. Questions on the posttest
reading passage had three questions on knowledge; eight questions on
comprehension; five questions on application; four questions on analysis; two
questions on synthesis and three questions on evaluation.
Four marks were allotted to each correctly answered question number. For any
question that has subsections, the four marks were shared among the answers. For
any answer with grammatical error half a mark was deducted. For instance, in
number one question on the pretest passage, “Who are the international giants?” The
answer which attracted four marks was, “The giants are Unilever and Procter and
Gamble (P&G)/the international giants are Unilever and Procter and Gamble”. But
students who wrote, “The giants Unilever and Procter and Gamble (P&G) omitting
the primary/lexical verb “are” lost half a mark. One word answer for questions that
demanded a full sentence reduced the score to only two marks. Wrong spelling of a
word in a sentence attracted the deduction of some marks (Appendices VII and X
pages 134 and 141).
Validation of the Instrument
The face and content validity of The English Reading Comprehension
Achievement Test (ERCAT) blueprint and the two non-equivalent prose passages
were carried out by four specialists in English Language and Education. One
specialist in English was from the Department of English, University of Nigeria,
80
Nsukka; two were from Department of English Language and Literature, Nnamdi
Azikiwe University, Awka; and one other specialist was from Faculty of Education,
Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.
The four specialists were presented with the blueprint on the content area
which guided the construction of the questions at the end of each of the reading
passages. The researcher also made available the WAEC Regulations and Syllabuses
for WASSCE (2009-2010) Paper I (Appendix III page 121).
The subject specialists were requested to:
- assess the suitability of each of the reading passages in evaluating exposure to
figurative language;
- indicate whether the questions represented the ERCAT process objectives of
knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation;
- assess whether the marking scheme addressed the demands of the questions;
and
- assess the suitability of the questions based on the reading passages.
The subject specialists adjudged the two prose passages suitable for the research and
suitable for the research subjects. They also added that many public schools
sprawling in our forsaken communities in Nigeria surely cannot fully boast about
most of their students approaching such reading passages without exposure strategy
effortlessly, in contrast to many private schools where the students are from well-to-
do parents and come from homes which encourage reading activity.
Reliability of the Instrument
The reliability of the English Reading Comprehension Achievement Test
(ERCAT) based on the two reading prose passages was estimated by subjecting the
passages to trial testing. The data collected were used to estimate the reliability
coefficient of each of the reading passages. Two schools which were not the ones
81
used for the actual research participated in the trial testing. Twenty-five (25) SS2
students from each school participated in the testing, hence, a total of fifty (50)
students were involved.
The scores from the two reading passages were used to determine the
reliability coefficient using Cronbach Alpha. The reliability indices for the pretest
and posttest passages were .84 and .91 respectively (see Appendices XV and XVI
pages 176 and 184).Inter-rater reliability estimate of the two tests was established
using the scores obtained from the trial testing. Kendall’s coefficient of concordance
(W) Test was used to determine inter-rater reliability because four raters were
involved in the marking. The result showed significance of .51 (Appendix XVII page.
192).
Experimental Procedure
On the first day of the actual experiment, two intact classes in each of the
sampled schools were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups through
simple ballotting. The reading passage for the pretest was then administered to the
two groups in the sampled schools that same day.
The actual experiment was conducted by the regular English teachers of the
sampled schools trained for the experiment. The experiment lasted for five weeks. In
each of the schools, four periods of 40 minutes each was allotted to English
Language. One period was used for the teaching of reading comprehension. Out of
the five weeks the experiment lasted, one day in the week was used for teaching
reading comprehension. Two different lesson plans were drawn for the experimental
and the control groups. The behavioural objectives and questions at the end of the
lesson periods were the same for the two groups but the teaching strategies were
different. The experimental group was taught using the exposure strategy to
figurative language whereas the control group was taught using the conventional
method (Appendices XIII and XIV pages 151and 166).
82
Before the commencement of the experiment, the researcher had already had a
one-day training session with the participating English Language teachers from the
four schools used for the study. The purpose of the training was to:
- enable the teachers acquire the necessary competence for implementing the
experimental conditions.
- enhance the achievement of a minimum standard in the implementation of the
experimental conditions.
Contents of the training include:
A. familiarizing with the contents, performance objectives and activities of the
students during the instruction, which included identifying and understanding
figurative language through
- analyzing the author’s language;
- identifying the author’s purpose;
- identifying and explaining the author’s style; the style and structure of the
passage;
- discovering the writer’s intentions, attitude and point of view; and
B. review the lesson plans prepared by the researcher;
review the marking guide.
At the end of the training the researcher administered a trial test to evaluate
the participating teachers. There was exchange of papers for marking by the teachers.
After marking the scripts, discussion of the answers followed (Appendix XII page
144 for the content of the training).
The trained teachers used the lesson plans provided by the researcher to teach
the experimental subjects. The lesson procedure involved the pre-reading stage,
reading-stage, post-reading or discussion stage and evaluation. The experiment lasted
for five weeks and at the end of it, the posttest reading passage was administered on
83
the research subjects (page 137 for the posttest reading passage). Both the
experimental and control groups participated in the posttest.
The researcher prepared two marking schemes for the two reading passages.
The marking schemes were prepared in order to enhance both intra-rater and inter-
rater reliability. Thus the marking schemes ensured uniformity in scoring among the
participating teachers who did the marking themselves. The scores obtained were
used to answer the research questions and test the null hypotheses.
Control of Some Extraneous Variables
The following steps were taken to control some variables extraneous to the
study.
i. Initial Group Differences
Because intact classes were used for the study and not randomly composed,
the control for the non-equivalence of such intact classes was determined using the
Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) to partial out the initial differences among the
research subjects.
ii. Experimenter’s Bias
To eliminate this extraneous variable the actual instructional presentation in
the sampled schools were carried out by the regular English Language teachers who
had already been trained for the experiment. Thus the researcher was not personally
involved in the administration of the research conditions.
iii. Teacher Variable
To control this variable and enhance the achievement of a minimum uniform
standard in the implementation of the experimental conditions, the researcher
prepared lesson plans on the units of instruction for the participating English
Language teachers of the sampled schools. Further discussion with the teachers on
the units of lesson presentation revealed a high degree of uniformity among the
84
teachers. Furthermore, the teachers were not allowed to see the test instruments
before hand. The final vetting of the two tests- the pretest and posttest – was done by
the researcher after the trained teachers used for the experiment had done their own
marking.
iv. Experimental Environmental Conditions
To control this variable, the experimental groups stayed in their original
classrooms of study. The participating English Language teachers adhered to the time
allotted to English Language on the school timetable for their teaching.
v. Effects of Pretest /Posttest
To avoid the influence of earlier treatment experiences the experiment was
spread over a period of five weeks. Two different reading passages which were not
equivalent were used. One was used for the pretest while the second passage was
used for the posttest.
vi. Contamination
To check this variable, the researcher ensured that no student from the control
group went to the experimental group during the teaching. Thus the researcher
ensured that a system of roll call was maintained. The researcher made sure that the
control group also received their own instruction in the reading comprehension.
Contamination was also minimized by ensuring that the various classes were
engaged at the same time when the language teacher was adopting any instructional
strategy for the particular class. Furthermore, since the regular subject teachers were
doing the teaching, it was assumed that the students may not notice any differences in
the strategy or attach any importance to it.
85
Method of Data Analysis
The research questions were answered using the mean and standard deviation
while the Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was employed to test the null
hypotheses at 0.05 significant levels. The pretest scores were used as co-variates to
the posttest scores. The ANCOVA was employed to partial out the initial differences
between the experimental and control groups.
86
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
In this chapter, the results of the present study are presented according to the
corresponding research questions and hypotheses.
Research Question One
What is the difference in the mean achievement in English reading
comprehension of secondary school students exposed to figurative language and
those taught using the conventional method of structured response?
Table 1: Students’ Pretest/Posttest Mean ( X ) Achievement and Standard
Deviation (SD) in English Reading Comprehension through Exposure to
Figurative Language
Group N Pretest X SD Posttest X SD Mean Gain
Experimental 150 7.52 2.30 12.08 2.68 4.56
Control 149 7.25 2.44 8.40 2.36 1.15
Table 1 presents the students’ pretest/posttest mean achievement and standard
deviation in reading comprehension through exposure to figurative language. The
mean score of the experimental group numbering 150 is 7.52 with a standard
deviation of 2.30 in the pretest, while their posttest means score is 12.08 with a
standard deviation of 2.68.
The mean score of the control group in the pretest is 7.25 with a standard deviation
of 2.44, their posttest means score is 8.40 with a standard deviation of 2.36.
Consequently there is a mean gain score of 4.56 in the experimental group and 1.15
mean gain score in the control group.
86
87
The above result revealed that the experimental group which was taught
reading comprehension by exposing then to figurative language in the passage
performed better than the control group taught with the conventional method. The
significant difference in the mean scores was further determined by testing null
hypothesis I.
HO1 There will be no significant difference in the mean achievement in English
reading comprehension of senior secondary school students exposed to
figurative language and those taught using the conventional method of
structured response.
Table 2: Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) of Students’ Achievement in
English Reading Comprehension through Exposure to Figurative Language
Source of Sum of Degree of Mean Square F-observed Sign. Decision
Variation Squares Freedom of P
Corrected Model 1718.317 8(df) 214.790 52.726 .000 Intercept 909.974 1 909.974 223.379 .000 Pretest 510.625 1 510.625 125.347 .000 Treatment 793.916 1 793.916 194.889 .000 S Gender 1.918 1 1.918 .471 .493 Location 4.084 1 4.084 1.003 .318 Treatment and Gender 8.781 1 8.781 2.156 .143 NS Treatment and Location 60.788 1 60.788 14.922 .000 S Gender and Location 7.743 1 7.743 1.901 .169 Treatment, Gender and Location 10.190 1 10.190 2.501 .115 NS Error 1181.369 290 4.074 Total 34298.000 299 Corrected 2899.686 298 Total a. R squared= .593 (Adjusted R Squared = .581
88
Table 2 above illustrates the Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) of the students’
achievement in reading comprehension through exposure to figurative language. The
table reveals that P observed for the effect of the strategy of exposure to figurative
language on the students’ achievement in reading comprehension is 194.89 at .00
level of significance. If P significant level at .000 is less than the critical value of .05
at l df for the numerator and 298 for the denominator, then the effect of the
instructional strategy was significant. Therefore the researcher fails to accept the null
hypothesis of no significant difference in the mean achievement between the
experimental group and the control group.
Research Question Two
What is the difference in the mean achievement in reading comprehension of male
and female students exposed to figurative language?
Table 3: Mean Performance of Male and Female Students Taught English
Reading Comprehension through Exposure to Figurative Language
Gender N Pretest X SD Posttest X SD Mean Gain
Male 141 7.78 2.40 10.45 3.15 2.67
Females 158 7.03 2.30 10.06 3.09 3.03
The result presented in Table 3 above indicates that male students who were
exposed to figurative language had mean scores of 7.78 and 10.45 in the pretest and
posttest with standard deviations of 2.40 and 3.15 in the pretest and posttest
respectively, while the female students had mean scores of 7.03 and 10.06 with
standard deviations of 2.30 and 3.09 in the pretest and posttest respectively. From the
result, the males exposed to figurative language had mean gain score of 2.67 while
that of the females is 3.03. The result showed that even though the female students
89
had a higher mean gain, the males scored slightly higher than the females in both the
pretest and posttest. All the same, the teaching strategy benefitted the two groups.
HO2 There will be no significant difference in the mean achievement in English
reading comprehension of male and female students exposed to figurative
language.
A close observation of Table 2 revealed that the P observed for effect of
gender on the students’ achievement in reading comprehension by exposure to
figurative language is 2.16 with a significant level of .14. If the P observed at 2.16 of
.14 level of significance is greater than the critical value of .05 at 1df for the
numerator and 298 denominator, then, gender was not significant. Hence, the
researcher accepts the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the mean
achievement of male and female students exposed to figurative language in reading
comprehension.
Research Question Three
What is the difference in the mean achievement in English reading
comprehension of senior secondary school students from urban and rural location
exposed to figurative language?
Table 4 Mean and Standard Deviation of Students’ Achievement in Reading
Comprehension based on Location
Group Location N Pretest X SD Posttest X SD Mean Gain
Experimental Urban 90 7.90 2.28 10.64 3.17 2.64
Rural 60 6.60 2.29 9.63 3.11 3.03
90
The presentation in Table 4 indicates the mean and standard deviation in achievement
in reading comprehension of urban and rural students exposed to figurative language.
Urban students numbering 90 obtained mean scores of 7.90 and 10.64 with standard
deviations of 2.28 and 3.17 in the pretest and posttest respectively. On the other hand,
the rural counterparts, numbering 60 also obtained mean scores of 6.60 and 9.63 with
standard deviations of 2.29 and 3.11 in the pretest and posttest respectively. The
experimental students in the urban had mean gain score of 2.64 while the rural
counterparts had 3.03. The instructional strategy benefitted both groups but students
in the urban area scored higher than their rural counterparts.
HO3 There will be no significant difference in the mean achievement in English
reading comprehension of urban and rural students exposed to figurative
language.
Table 2 reveals that P observed for the influence of location on the students
achievement in reading comprehension through exposure to figurative language is
14.92 with significant level of .000. So, if the significance of P at 14.92 is less than
.05 critical value (I df as the nominator and 298 as denominator), then the null
hypothesis is significant. The instructional strategy benefitted students in the urban
schools more than those in the rural. Therefore, the researcher fails to accept the null
hypothesis.
Further breakdown of the students’ performance according to location is shown in
Table 5.
91
Table 5: Performance of Experimental Group (Male and Female) in
Urban and Rural Locations
Treatment Location of Gender of N Pretest Posttest Mean Gain
Group Respondents Respondents Mean Score Mean Score
Experimental
Group Urban Male 43 8.37 13.00 4.63
Females 47 7.79 12.85 5.06
Total 90 12.95
Rural Males 24 6.96 11.71 5.65
Females 36 6.53 10.22 3.69
Total 60 10.82
Table 5 above goes further to show the performance of the experimental
group, males and females in both urban and rural locations. In the pretest and
posttest, males and females in the urban obtained the following scores: 8.37 and 7.79
in the pretest; and 13.00 and 12.85 in the posttest and mean gain scores of 4.63 and
5.06 respectively. Likewise, males and females from rural location obtained the
following scores in the pretest: 6.96 and 6.53, and 11.71 and 10.22 in the posttest and
mean gain scores of 5.56 and 3.69 respectively.
HO4 The interaction effect of instructional strategy and gender on students’
achievement in English reading comprehension will not be statistically
significant.
From the presentation in Table 2 showing the interaction effect of instructional
strategy and gender, the result indicated that the P observed for interaction of strategy
and gender is 2.16 at .14 level of significance. If the significant level of P at .14 is
greater than the critical value of .05 (1 df for the numerator and 298 for the
92
denominator, the result is not significant and the researcher accepts the null
hypothesis.
HO5 The interaction effect of instructional strategy and location on students’
achievement in English reading comprehension will not be statistically
significant.
A close look at Table 2 indicates that the interaction effect of the instructional
strategy and location is 14.92 at .000 level of significance If P observed at 14.92 is
less than its corresponding critical value of .05 at 1 df for the numerator and 298 for
denominator, then the null hypothesis of no significant difference is rejected.
HO6 The interaction effect of instructional strategy, gender and location on students’
achievement in English reading comprehension will not be statistically
significant.
Considering the result presented in Table 2 on the interaction effect of instructional
strategy, gender and location on the students’ performance in reading comprehension,
P observed at 2.50 is .12. If P observed at .12 is greater than the critical value of .05
at 1 df for the numerator and 298 for the denominator, then the interaction effect of
instructional strategy, gender and location was not significant. Thus, the researcher
accepts the null hypothesis.
The summary of the findings are the following:
1. Exposure to figurative language in English reading passages improved
students’ achievement in reading comprehension.
2. Gender had no significant influence on students’ achievement in
reading comprehension.
93
3. Location had significant influence on students’ achievement in reading
comprehension.
4. The interaction effect of instructional strategy and gender was not
significant.
5. The interaction effect of instructional strategy and location was
significant.
6. The interaction effect of instructional strategy, gender, and location
was not significant.
94
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS, CONCLUSION, IMPLICATIONS,
RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUMMARY
This chapter presents the discussion of the major findings from the study. The
discussion is organized under these sub-headings:
- Effect of exposure to figurative language on achievement in English reading
comprehension,
- Gender on the students’ achievement in English reading comprehension,
- Location on the students’ achievement in English reading comprehension,
- Interaction effect of instructional strategy and gender on the students’
achievement in English reading comprehension,
- Interaction effect of instructional strategy and location on the students’
achievement in English reading comprehension, and
- Interaction effect of instructional strategy, gender and location on the
students’ achievement in English reading comprehension.
Discussion of the Major Findings
Effect of Exposure to Figurative Language on Achievement in English Reading
Comprehension
Works on the relative effect of exposure to figurative language on achievement in
reading comprehension are scanty (Fredrick, 2006, and Lazar, 1996). In any case, the
present study has shown that exposing students to figurative language found in
reading passages enhanced achievement in reading comprehension. The present
teaching strategy is based on the exposure approach which purports that L1 learners
of English acquire an extensive vocabulary because of being daily exposed to
94
95
thousands of lexical items (Ellis and Tomlinson, 1980). The implication is that
reading or studying a new item frequently leads to learning it. According to
Dellicarpini (2007) a child exposed to reading of creative writing, technical, scientific
and agricultural and such like, is exposed to an array of words and meanings.
Moreover, the instructional strategy of exposure to figurative expressions in a
passage corroborates the interactive approach to reading comprehension today
(Arieta, 2000). The practitioners of this approach view reading as a cognitive,
developmental and socially constructed task that goes beyond understanding the
words on a page. Current researches view reading as a more dynamic process in
which the reader constructs meaning based on the information gathered from the text.
In the same vein, navigating one’s way through figurative language is observed to
require a higher level of text comprehension, an understanding beyond the literal
level using analytical and inferential skills. In this study, the students had to analyze
the author’s language as one of the writer’s tools to make inferences related to the
passage.
The result of this study also supports the view that vocabulary acquisition is a
high predictor of reading comprehension. According to Biemiller and Slonim (2001)
students who were behind in vocabulary knowledge in third grade remain behind
throughout the duration of their schooling.
The finding is also consistent with the results of Okeke (2000) and Akabogu
(2002) which stressed the importance of vocabulary knowledge and vocabulary
development on achievement in reading comprehension. (Okeke, 2000) reported on
the effectiveness of exposure to in text vocabulary recognition strategy on students’
achievement in reading comprehension. In the same vein, Akabogu (2002) reiterated
96
the effectiveness of exposing students to English registers contextual clues for
improved reading achievement.
The present study has also supported some principles of effective vocabulary
instruction. To be considered as knowing a word, the student needs to have two types
of meaning about it: first, the definitional meaning, such as found in the dictionary
and second, the contextual meaning. For some concrete words, a mental picture
showing demonstration of the meaning could provide the context as well and this is
the area where figurative expressions play a vital role.
The effectiveness of the instructional strategy in the passage also emphasizes
the principle of effective vocabulary instruction which promotes initiation and deep
processing of words (Nist and Holschuh, 2000; Wren, 2002; and Fredrick, 2006).
Decoding figurative language involves comprehending that two things which do not
normally collocate together are being compared; deducing the features which are
salient in the comparison; and being able to re-interpret how the meaning of the other
is altered when the salient features are applied to it.
Another explanation for the superiority of exposure to figurative language to
the conventional method of teaching reading comprehension is the role of the schema
(Slonim, 2001; Dellicarpini, 2007). According to these reading specialists schemata
are the readers’ concepts, beliefs, expectations, processes and virtually everything
from past experiences that are used in making sense of reading. Dellicarpini (2007)
maintained that when students are familiar with a topic or are able to connect the
topic to events or situations in real life, comprehension is increased and motivation
enhanced.
97
Influence of Gender on the Students’ Achievement in English Reading
Comprehension
The study has shown that gender is not a significant variable in the students’
overall achievement in reading comprehension. Male students however, recorded
greater mean achievement than their female counterparts. Thus the result showed that
both the male and female students benefitted from the treatment.
The result agrees with the findings of Okeke (2000), Akabogu (2002),
Anizoba (2004), Oluikpe (2004), and Marjah (2008). In previous studies on gender
performance, it was found that girls were better though not significantly than boys in
literary tests while boys performed significantly better than girls in numeracy
(Faleyajo, Makonjo, Okebukola, Onugha and Olubodun, 1997). In the same vein,
Offorma (2001) observed that girls achieve more than boys in foreign language
acquisition. Yule (1997) also noted that female speakers tend to use more prestigious
forms than male speakers even within the same social and economic background.
On the contrary, the finding of the present study in the posttest records a
slightly higher score of the males to that of the females. This can be adduced to the
fact that teaching figurative language has social undertones which enhance a
conducive classroom situation for maximum participation of both learners. Houston
(1994) revealed that there is no pronounced difference in the psycho-cognitive
characteristic of males and females except at the infant stage. By implication, the
teaching strategy adopted was beneficial to both gender and does not call for separate
instructional approach.
Influence of Location on the Students’ Achievement in English Reading
Comprehension
The result of the present study showed that location had significant influence
on achievement using the instructional strategy. Students in the urban area scored
higher than those in the rural area. This result agrees with the studies of Ene (2002)
98
and Akabogu (2002). On the contrary, studies of Okeke (2002) and Anizoba (2004)
reported no significant difference in achievement in reading comprehension of
students from the urban and rural locations.
From the result of the present study, even though students from both locations
achieved high mean scores in the posttest, the mean scores from the urban area was
higher, hence, the result has proved that students in the urban achieved higher than
their rural counterparts because urban schools have enriched environment and the
most of the learners come from literate home backgrounds. Added to this is that
urban students have access to modern communication facilities like computer and
television which are necessary resources to learning English. Fredrick (2006) had
termed exposure to figurative language a higher order comprehension skill which
only students who have been exposed to various tasks through extensive reading can
handle. Therefore, the effectiveness of exposing students to figurative expressions in
texts is based on the fact that the strategy makes connections to learners’ cultural
experiences and built schema which enhanced comprehension.
Interaction Effect of Instructional Strategy and Gender on the Students’
Achievement in English Reading Comprehension
This study has shown no significant interaction effect of instructional strategy
and gender. The result agrees with Ene, (2002); Anizoba, (2004); Oluikpe, (2004);
and Marja (2008). On the contrary Akabogu (2002) reported that a significant
interaction effect of instructional strategy and gender exists as the females
performed better than males in the posttest using the instructional strategy of
exposure to English Registers’ Contextual Clues on Achievement in Reading
Comprehension. The result implies that the strategy of exposure to figurative
99
language on achievement in reading comprehension was effective on the subjects
irrespective of gender.
Interaction Effect of Instructional Strategy and Location on the Students’
Achievement in English Reading Comprehension
The result showed a significant interaction effect of the instructional strategy
on subjects based on location of the students. This shows that the students from the
urban location performed better than those from the rural location even though there
was enhanced achievement in reading comprehension by the two categories of
students used for the study. The reason for this is not far-fetched. In language-
learning situations, stimulating background is a necessary factor if learning is to take
place. According to Adepoju (2008) there is a high correlation between parental
socio-economic status and academic achievement. For students residing in rural areas
such stimulating background was lacking.
The result obtained in this study corroborates those of Ene, (2002) and
Akabogu, (2002). Ene (2000) stressed that successful learners were those who were
motivated. To emphasize the importance of motivation in second language learning,
Adepoju (2008) stressed that a language learning situation should be encouraging if
the teacher was to achieve success. The improved performance of students in the rural
area suggests the efficacy of the instructional strategy.
Interaction Effect of Instructional Strategy, Gender and Location on the
Students’ Achievement in English Reading Comprehension
This study revealed that the interaction effect of instructional strategy, gender
and location on the students’ achievement in reading comprehension was not
significant. The result has shown that the instructional strategy benefitted both urban
and rural students. Again, gender variable was not significant. Consequently exposure
100
to figurative expressions in texts offered adequate comprehensible input needed in
reading for maximum comprehension irrespective of gender or location of learners.
Conclusion
The results presented in chapter five and the discussion that followed show
that the strategy of exposure to figurative language in texts improved achievement in
reading comprehension more than the conventional method. Hence, there is a
significant difference in the mean achievement of the students taught reading
comprehension by exposing them to figurative expressions found in the texts than
those students who were asked to read the passage and answer the questions which
follow.
The choice of a reading passage in this study was born out of the
consideration that vocabulary instruction goes beyond just helping students to
internalize the dictionary meaning of words. There was a desire to make the learners
develop vocabulary beyond their dictionary meaning. Another reason for teaching
figurative language, an aspect of vocabulary through a reading passage, was to
encourage and help the learners to become aware of how native speakers and other
proficient speakers use the target language. The students’ sensitivity was needed to
differentiate nuances and shades of meaning of words and expressions irrespective of
gender and or location.
Finally, cultural background plays a part in students’ understanding and the
ability to situate learning within a broader social context (Dellicarpini, 2007).
Concepts that educators and peers may take for granted as “common knowledge”
may be completely unknown to students from diverse linguistic and cultural
backgrounds.
101
Knowledge learned from enculturation by native speakers and users but
unknown to second language learners can be a source of difficulty in the
comprehension of concepts and new knowledge. Students acquire new concepts by
integrating new ideas into existing schema. Therefore, the result of the present study
has to a large extent, proved the efficacy of the exposure strategy to vocabulary
learning which improved reading comprehension.
Educational Implications of the Study
The result of this study has some educational implications for teachers of
English, curriculum planners, textbook writers, the government, stakeholders in
education and students. The study has provided empirical evidence as to the efficacy
of the strategy of exposure to figurative language in teaching to read for maximum
comprehension in English Language. This suggests the need for teachers especially
the English language teachers, to adopt the innovative approach as alternative to the
conventional method of presenting reading lessons in the classroom.
Another important area which this study addresses is inter-language problem
known as errors or linguistic deviations from the target language. An error is
contrastive when it identifies differences between the two languages which may
cause difficulty. Another kind of error deals with a situation where the learner
commits errors in an attempt to produce the target language. It is necessary that
topics and exercises which promote linguistic and communicative competencies
among learners are included in the syllabus to handle such errors. Figurative
language can be difficult to teach particularly if students’ prior exposure occurred in
a dry, dull format with material that they could not relate to, thereby decreasing their
incentive.
102
The result of the study has proved that organized class discussion facilitates
comprehension irrespective of gender. The discussions promoted critical and
aesthetic thinking through novel questions and ideas generated by the students. In
teaching figurative language, the teacher makes recourse to the learners’ first
language. It is noted that language forms acquired by the learners are part and parcel
of the linguistic context in which vocabulary acquisition and knowledge are
developed. Comprehension is enhanced when the learners have some familiarity
with and interest in the content of instruction. Therefore activating interest and
familiarity with the content enhances language learning.
The result of the study points to the fact that language learning no longer
focus on biological gender differences. Rather gender identity and language learning
should be reexamined within the nexus of age, culture and social identity in learning
environments. For this reason, English teachers do not need separate instructional
approaches for male and female students.
Students’ location posed significant variable in the study. Students in the urban
area performed better in reading comprehension than those in the rural area because
there were facilities which enhanced reading implying that adequate learning
facilities enhanced learning.
Recommendations
The recommendations given are drawn from the discussions, observations and the
implications of the study and are suggested for teachers, students, curriculum
planners and the government.
i. The results of the study have proved the effectiveness of the strategy of
exposure to figurative language on the students’ achievement in reading
103
comprehension. Vocabulary knowledge improves reading comprehension.
Thus, serving teachers should be encouraged to adopt the new strategy as
alternative to the conventional method of teaching reading comprehension.
ii. Seminars and workshops should be organized regularly for reading
teachers to help them keep abreast of the new trends in language teaching.
This should help improve their skills and practices in reading instruction.
iii. Reading Association of Nigeria (RAN) should step up activities in this
area with the support of Ministries of Education and other stakeholders in
education.
iv. Language is heavily influenced by culture. Consequently, culture learning
should be encouraged for English teachers and the students.
v. At the university and other higher levels of education, proper training
should be given to prospective language teachers. The curriculum of such
programmes should be reviewed to include vital reading courses and
methods of teaching that will help to place the education teachers in the
right perspectives thereby leading to improved and sufficient capacity
building.
vi. Students should be encouraged to engage in extensive reading of books on
diverse subjects like anthropology, socio-linguistics, and cultural studies.
vii. Adequate facilities and materials should be provided by governments,
donor agencies, parents and Old Students’ Associations to facilitate
language studies. These should include adequate reading materials with all
forms of usages should be placed in the library and made available for
students’ use.
104
Limitations of the Study
The following limitations are inherent in the study:
1. After training the teachers used in the study, other extraneous variables like
teaching experience, teacher personality and classroom environment may have
introduced some uncontrollable factors which may have affected the results of
the study.
2. The use of only SS2 students may have affected the universal implication
of the findings.
Suggestions for Further Research
Further research which can be undertaken as a result of the findings of this
study include to:
1. Replicate this work as majority of serving English Language teachers are not
yet exposed to the new teaching strategy.
2. Replicate this study using more classes and/ or schools to increase the
universal implication of the findings.
3. Repeat this study in another setting where the treatment conditions will be
located in a different environment.
4. It is suggested that after six years of the implementation of this teaching
strategy there be a comparison of the students’ Senior School Certificate
Examination (SSCE) results in the English Language of those who have
benefitted from the approach with those who have not. Such a longitudinal
study is expected to go a long way to authenticate the efficacy of the teaching
strategy.
105
Summary of the Study
Students’ achievement in English Language has been declining over the past
years. A number of reasons have been given for the poor performance among which
is use of teaching methods that are not result–oriented. Reading, the third skill in the
hierarchical order of language acquisition, is the core of the school curriculum and
the skill involves the ability to comprehend, react, assimilate, summarize and utilize
information extracted from the text, hence, comprehension is the reason for reading,
and vocabulary plays a significant role in comprehension. Figurative language also
labelled as picture language, is an aspect of vocabulary used for special effect and it
is believed that exposing students to it will go a long way in helping to tackle reading
comprehension questions at the inferential and evaluative levels.
Several researches have been carried out on ways to improve reading
comprehension among Nigerian students which were expected to improve
performance in the English language. There was, therefore, a pressing need for
continued researches aimed at developing more effective instructional strategies. The
purpose of this study was to determine the effect of the strategy of exposure to
figurative language on secondary school students in reading comprehension. The
study also considered the influences of gender and location and the interaction effects
on the instructional strategy. For this, three research questions were drawn and six
null hypotheses were formulated.
Review of literature embodied the conceptual, theoretical and empirical
framework for the research. After the literature review, the researcher embarked on a
quasi-experimental research study design, a pretest-posttest non-equivalent control
group design, involving two intact classes from each of the randomly selected
106
schools used for the study. Two hundred and ninety – nine (299) SS2 students
comprising males and females from four schools located in the urban and rural areas
of Awka Education Zone in Anambra State served as subjects in the study. The
subjects in the intact classes were randomly assigned to experimental and control
groups and were separately taught by the regular English teachers in the sampled
schools who were trained for the study.
Efforts were made to control identified extraneous variables which posed
potential threat to each group and to the validity of the study. Subjects in each group
were subjected to pretest and posttest using two non-equivalent reading passages. The
experiment lasted five weeks. The pretest was administered the first day of the
commencement of the experiment while the posttest was given on the last day of the
experiment.
Data collection was done using the English Reading Comprehension
Achievement Test (ERCAT) which were based on two reading passages from Senior
Secondary English Project, and were face and content validated by four specialists in
English Language and Education. Five different lesson plans for each group were
provided. The reliability indices for the two reading passages using Cronbach Alpha
were .84 and .91 respectively. Kendall’s coefficient of concordance (W) Test was
used to determine inter-rater reliability at .51.
Data analysis was computed using mean and standard deviation to answer the
research questions. Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test the null
hypotheses.
The result indicated that the strategy of exposure to figurative language
enhanced secondary school students’ achievement in reading comprehension
107
compared to the conventional method. Gender had no significant effect on students’
achievement in reading comprehension. Location had significant influence on
students’ achievement in reading comprehension.
While interaction effect of instructional strategy and gender was not
significant, the interaction effect of instructional strategy and location was
significant. In the same vein, interaction effect of gender, location and instructional
strategy was not significant.
Following discussion on the findings, educational implications were
highlighted and recommendations made. Among others, it is recommended that
English Language teachers should be willing to adopt the new strategy as alternative
to the conventional method. Recognition and knowledge of figurative expressions
aided reading comprehension and for this, a stronger reading foundation should be
laid right from the pre nursery to junior secondary school during which learners
should be made to engage in extensive reading for more exposure to figurative
expressions embedded in texts. Limitations of the study were given and suggestions
for further research were made.
108
REFERENCES
Adepoju, A.A. (2008). The Needs of English Language Teachers in a Second Language Situation. Nigerian Journal of Curriculum Studies, 15, 2, 126 – 131.
Ager, D.E (2001). Motivation in Language Planning and Language Policy.
Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Agwu, S.N. (2003) Reading at the Tertiary Level: Skills for Effective
Comprehension. In Ogbazi, I.J., Osakwe, N.N., and Ekpunobi, D.C (eds.) English for Communicative Competence. Enugu: John Jacob’s Classic Publishers.
Akabogu, J.U. (2002) Effect of Secondary School Students’ Exposure
to English Registers Contextual Clues on Achievement in Reading Comprehension. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis. University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Akindele, F. and Adegbite, W. (1999). The Sociology and Politics of English in
Nigeria: An Introduction. Nigeria: Obafemi Awolowo Press. Akmajian, A., Demers, R., Farmer, A., and Horrnish, R. (2004) Linguistics: An
Introduction to Language and Communication. India: Prentic Hall. Akpan, E.E. (1996). The Teaching of English Vocabulary in Nigerian Secondary
Schools: Principles and Methods. In Oyetunde, T., Famwang, W.V., Ogunmola, C. T., Banfa, M. and Wuyep, S. Innovative Approaches to
Education and Human Development, 2, 71- 77. Akwanya, A.N. (1999). Language and Habits of Thought. Nsukka: Afro Orbis
Publishers. Alberto, R and Troutman, A. (2003). Applied Behaviour for Analysis for Teachers
(6th ed.) Columbus, OH. Alexander, P.A. and Jetton, T.L. (2000) Learning from Text: A Multidimensional and
Developmental Perspective. In Kadmil, Alersandrowicz-Pedich, L. and Lazar, 1 (2002). Cross-cultural Communicative
Competence in Teaching English as a Foreign Language: Research Project in Four European Countries (Estonia, Hungary, Iceland and Poland), in Sick Piskozub, T. (Ed). European Year of Languages (2001) Poland: Adam Michiewicz.
Alloway, N., Gilbert, P., Gilbert, B., and Ponderson, R. (2003). Boys Performing
English. Gender and Education. 15, (4), 351-364. Anigbogu, P., Mbah, M., and Emeh, C. (2001). Introduction to Linguistics. Awka
JFC Limited.
108
109
Anizoba, E.N. (2004). The Effect of the Writing Process Method on Students’
Performance in English Composition Unpublished Ph.D Thesis. University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Baldeh, F. (2001). The Students’ Companion to Good English. Nigeria: Rex Charles
and Patrick Ltd. Batolva, J. (2006). Spotlight on Limited English Proficient Students in the United
States. Migration Policy Institute: OELA Newshine U.S. Department of Education.
Biemiller, A., and Slonim, N. (2001). Estimating Root Word Vocabulary Growth in
Normative and Advantaged Populations: Evidence for a Common Sequence of Vocabulary Acquisition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 498-520.
Burwitsz–Meeler, E. (2001).Teaching Intercultural Communicative Competence
through Literature. In Byram, M., Nicholas, A., and Stevens, D. (eds), Developing Intercultural Competence in Practice. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Byram, M., Nichols, A., and Stevens, D. (2001). Developing Intercultural
Competence in Practice. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Byram, M. and Feng, A. (2004) Culture and Language Learning. Teaching,
Research and Scholarship. Language Teaching, 36 (1), 149 – 164. Carlisle, J.F. and Rice, M.S. (2002). Improving Reading Comprehension: Research–
based Principles and Practice. Timonium, MD: York Press. Carlo, M.S. (2004). Closing the Gap: Addressing the Vocabulary Needs of English
Language Learners in Bilingual and Mainstream Classroom. Reading Research Quarterly, 39 (2), 188- 215. Carreker, S. (2004). Developing Metacognitive Skills Vocabulary and
Comprehension. Bellaire, TX: Neuhaus Education Centre. Cooke, M., Wallace, C, and Shrubshall, P. (2004). Inside Out/Outside In: A study of
Reading in ESOL Classrooms. Language Issues. Birmingham. 16 (1), 7 -12. Dellicarpini, M. (2007). www.scientific journals org. journals. Denton, C.A. and Fletcher J.M (2003). Scaling Reading Interventions. In B.R.
Foorman (Ed.) Preventing and Remediating Reading Difficulties Bringing
Scene to Scale. Timonium, MD: York Press. Dornyei, Z. (2001). Motivational Strategies in the Language Classroom. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
110
Elliot, A.J. (1999) Approach and Avoidance. Motivation and Achievement Goals.
Educational Psychologist, 34, 169-189. Ellis, R. and Tomlison, (1980). Teaching Secondary English: A Guide to the
Teaching of English as a Second Language. London: Longman Group Ltd. Englebert (2004). Character or Culture? ELF Journal. 24,2, 37-41. Eze, U.N. (1998). Effect of Training in Comprehension Monitoring Strategies on
Academic Achievement of Secondary School Students Unpublished Ph.D Thesis University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Ezema, P.A. (2002) Improving the Teaching and Learning of the English Language
in the Rural Areas in Nigeria. Journal of the World Council for Curriculum
and Instruction in Nigeria 3, (2) 27-34. Falayajo, W., Makonjo, G.A., Okebukola, P., Onugha, A. and Olubudun, J. (1997).
Assessment of Learning Achievement of Primary Four Pupils in Nigeria: A National Report, Nigeria Federal Ministry of Education/ UNICEF/UNESCO.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) National Policy on Education. Lagos: NERDC. Fredricks, L. E.(2006). Everyone’s a Critic: Introducing Figurative Language with
Popular culture. The Reading Matrix. 6,1, 106-110. Grabe, W.,and Stoller, F.L. (2002). Teaching and Researching Reading. New York:
Longman. Grabe, W. (2004). Research on Teaching Reading Annual Review of Applied
Linguistics. New York, 24, 44 - 69. Grant, N.H.J., Nnamonu, S., and Jowitt, D., (2002). Senior English Project for Senior
Secondary Schools 3. Nigeria: Longman. Gordon, B. (2000). Steps for Better Reading Skills: Practice Tests for the Georgia
Regents’ Reading Exam. Raleigh, N.C: Contemporary Publishing Co. Herrera, S. Murry,K., and Cabral, R. (2007). Assessment and Accommodations for
Classroom Teachers of Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students. Boston: Pearson, Allen and Bacon.
Houston, A. (1994). An Analysis of the Cloze Procedure as a Teaching Technique
with Advantaged Children. Dissertation Abstract, 6459A. Hui, D. (2005) False Alarm or Real Warning? Implications for China of Teaching
English. http://iff.immigration.gov.front/residence.php
111
Idris, A.A. (1996). Guidelines for Vocabulary Instruction. In Oyetunde, T., Wilson,
V., Fanwang, C., Ogunmola, M., and Wuyep, N. Innovative Approaches to
Education and Human Development. Jos: LECAPS, 79 - 85. Igbenyi, A. (2002). Effects of the CLTM on the Achievement of Students in English
Reading Comprehension. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis. University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Ikonta, N.R. (2002). Improving the Literacy Level and Reading Ability of Selected
Secondary School Students in Lagos Metropolis Through Practice of Some Desirable Reading Skills. Literacy and Reading in Nigeria. 9 (3), 247-257.
Ikonta, N.R. (2005). Strategies for Developing Efficient Reading Skills Among UBE
Students. Nigeria Journal of Curriculum Studies, 12 (1), 239- 245. International Reading Association. (2001). Summary of the National Reading Panel
Report, Teaching Children to Read. Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Reading Association, DC. July, 2001.
Kalyuga, S., Chandler, P., Tuovinen, J., and Sweller, J. (2001). When Problem
Solving is Superior to Studying Worked Examples. Journal of Educational
Psychology 93, 579 -588. Kim, J. (2004). Coping with Cultural Obstades to Speaking English in the Korean
Secondary School Context. Asian EFL Journal, 6, 3. Kramsch, C. (2003). From Practice to Theory and Back Again. In Byram, M., and
Grundy, P. (eds). Context and Culture in Language Teaching and Learning. UK: Cambridge University Press.
Kuhn, D, (2000). Metacognitive Development. Current Directions in Psychological
Science. 9,178-181. Laufer, B., and Goldstein, Z. (2004) Testing Vocabulary Knowledge: Size, Strength,
and Computer Adaptiveness. Language Learning. 54, (3) 399 - 436. Lawal, A., Isiugo-Abanihe, I., and Ohia, I. N. (2002) (eds). Perspectives in Applied
Linguistics in Language and Literature. Ibadan: Sterling – Horden. Lazar, G. (1996). Using Figurative Language to Expand Students’ Vocabulary. ELT
Journal 50, (1); 43-51. Leveridge, A.N.(2008). The Relationship Between Language and Culture and the
Implications for Language Teaching. TEFL. Lui, J. (2004). Effects of Cosmic Strips on L2 Learners’ Reading Comprehension.
TESOL Quarterly 38, 2, 225-243.
112
Marja, R.R. (2008). Effect of Cooperative Learning Method on Students’
Achievement in Reading Comprehension. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Mgbodile, T. O. (1999). Fundamentals of Language Education, Nsukka : Mike
Social Press. Mills, J. (2001). Being Bilingual: Perspectives of Third Generation Asian Children on
Language, Culture and Identity. International Journal of Bilingual Education
and Bilingualism, 4, 6, 383-402. Murphy-Lejeune, E. (2002). Student Mobility and Narrative in Europe: The New
Strangers. London: Routledge.
National Reading Panel. (2001). Frequently Asked Questions (Online).
http://www.nationalreadingpanel.org/fag/fag:htm Nduka, D.M. (2003). Developing Effective Reading Habits. In Ogbazi, I.J. Osakwe,
N. N., and Ekpunobi, D.C. (eds.) English for Communicative Competence. Enugu: John Jacob’s Classic Publishers.
NECO 2009-2011. http://www.neco.com Ngochal, N. (1998). Promoting Reading at Higher Levels for Sustainable National
Development” In Adenole, A., Umolu, J.J., and Oyetunde, T.O. (eds). Innovative Approaches to Education and Human Development. Jos: LECAPS Publishers.
Ngonebu, C. (2000). Syntactico – Cohesive Strategies in the Expository Writing of
Engineering Freshmen of the University of Nigeria. A Deficiency Analysis. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis. University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Nist, S. L. and Holschuh, J. (2000). Active Learning Strategies for College Success.
Boston: Alyn and Bacon. Norton, B. (2000). Identity and Language Learning: Gender, Ethnicity and
Educational Change. Harlow: Longman. Norton, B. and Pavlenko, A. (2004). Gender and English Language Learners:
http://www.writing. Berkeley.edu./ TESL-EJ/ej31/r 10.html Nwachukwu – Agbada, J. O. J. (2001). A Handbook of Creative Writing. Nigeria:
John Jacobs. Offorma, G.C. (2001). The Underachievement of Boys: Finding the Solution. In
Comfort Angela (ed). Book Review. Language Learning Journal. United Kingdom: Association of Language Learning. Winter, 24, 80.
113
Offorma, G.C. (2009). Curriculum Across Languages. 49th Inaugural Lecture. Nsukka: University of Nigeria Senate Ceremonials Committee.
Ogidi, O.C. (2005). The Need for a Result – Oriented Language Teaching
Programme in the 21st Century in Nigeria. Journal of Curriculum Studies. 12, (1), 230-233.
Okeke, N.E. (2000). Effects of Exposure to In-Text Vocabulary Recognition
Strategies on Secondary School Students’ Performance in Reading Comprehension. Unpublished M.Ed. Thesis. University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Oluikpe, E.N. (2004). Effects of English for Academic Purposes (EAP) Method on
the Achievement of University of Nigeria Education Students in Expository Writing. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis. University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Omojuwa, J.(2004). Laying a Strong Foundation for Higher Level Reading
Achievement: Problems and Prospects. A Keynote Address Presented at the 2nd Regional Conference of Reading Association of Nigeria, Uyo.
Onukaogu, C. (2002). Some Classroom Hints for the Effective Teaching of Reading
in Nigeria Schools and Colleges. Literacy and Reading in Nigeria, 9 (2), 23-30.
Ooi, D., and Kim-Seoh, J.l. (1996). Vocabulary Teaching: Looking Behind the Word. ELT Journal, 50 (1), 52-58.
Osakwe, N.N. (2002). Teaching Reading in Schools: A Survey of English and Non-
English Language Teachers’ Attitude in Jos, Nigeria. Literacy and Reading in
Nigeria, 9 (2), 77-87. Palmer, B.C., Shackelford, V.S., Sharmane, C., Leclere, J.T. (2006) Bridging Two
Worlds: Reading Comprehension, Figurative Language Instruction, and the English Language Learner. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy. 50, 4, 258-267.
Pressley, M. (2006). Reading Instruction that Works: The Case for Balanced
Teaching. (http://books.google.co,uk/ Pulido, D. (2004). The Relationship Between Text Comprehension and Second
Language Incidental Vocabulary Acquisition: A Matter of Topic Familiarity. Language Learning, 54, 3, 469-523.
Read, J. (2004). Research on Teaching Reading. Annual Review of Applied
Linguistics, 24, 146-161. Richards, J.C. and Rodgers, T.S. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language
Teaching. A Description and Analysis. Cambridge:
114
Rowsell, J., Sztainbok ,v.,Blancy .J. (2007). Losing Strangeness : Using Culture to Mediate ESL Teaching. Language , Culture and Curriculum. 20, 2, 140-150.
Cambridge University Press. Scarborough, H.S.(2001).Connecting Early Language and literacy to Later Reading
(Dis)abilities: Evidence, Theory, and Practice. In S.B. Neuman and D.K. Dickinson (Eds), Handbook of Early Literacy Research. 97 -110. New York: Guilford.
Schmitt,N.(2000) Vocabulary in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal Behaviour. New York: Appleton- Century – Crofts Smith, B. (2003). Bridging the Gap: College Reading. New York: Longman
Publishers.
The West African Examinations Council Regulations and Syllabuses for the West African Senior School Certificate Examination 2004-2008. Nigeria www.waecdirect.org.
The West African Examination Council (2002) Chief Examiners’ Reports, (Nigeria). The West African Examination Council (2007) Senior School Certificate
Examination May/June (2005 – 2006) Chief Examiners’ Reports. (Nigeria). The West African Examination Council (2009) Senior School Certificate
Examination May/June (2006 – 2008) Chief Examiners’ Reports. (Nigeria). Theodore, L.A., Bray, M.A., Kehle, T.J., and Jenson, W.R. (2001). Randomization of
Group Contingencies and Reinforcers to Reduce Classroom Disruptive Behaviour. Journal of School Psychology 39, 267-271.
Udosen, A.E (2007). English Language Education in Nigeria in the 21st Century:
Problems and Projection. In Etuk, I.M Udofot and A.E Udosen (Eds). Education
in Nigeria in the 21st Century: Focus and Imperative: Uyo Abaram Publishing Co.
Ugwu, R. N. (2007). Motivation: An Instrument for Optimization of Service Delivery
for Personnel Management in Secondary Schools. In Nworgu, B.G. Optimization of Service Delivery in the Education Sector: Issues and
Strategies. Nsukka: University Trust Publishers. Uwah, C. (2005). De–emphasizing Gender Difference in Human Resource
Development. The Need for Family Education. Nigerian Journal of
Curriculum Studies. 2 (1), 60 – 63.
115
Vaezi, S. (2001). Metacogntive Reading Strategies Across Language and Techniques. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. Allameh Tabatada University, Tehran, Iran.
Weiner, B. (2000). Interpersonal and Intra-personal Theories of Motivation from an
Attributional Perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 12, 1-14. Wheeler, D. K. (1979). Curriculum Process. London: Hodder and Stroughton. Woolfolk, A.F., Winnie, P.H., and Penry, N.E. (2006). Educational Psychology. (3rd
Canadian ed.). Toroto. Canada: Pearson.
Wren, S (2002). Ten Myths of Reading Instruction. SEDL Letter.14,3, 3-8. www/pfmbl.mb.so/eng (2007)
Wikipedia, (2011) Reading Comprehension. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reading Comprehension. 26/11/2011 9.49a.m.
116
APPENDIX I
Names and Population of Senior Secondary Schools in Awka Education Zone of
Anambra State as at June, 2010/2011 Session
S/N Name of School Types of School Population LGA
1* Igwebuike Grammar School,
Awka
Male 870 Awka-South
2 St. John of God Secondary
school, Awka.
Female 1016 Awka-South
3* Girls’ Secondary School,
Awka
Female 716 Awka-South
4 Kenneth Dike Memorial
Secondary School, Awka
Mixed 117 Awka-South
5 Capital City Secondary
School, Awka
Mixed 188 Awka-South
6 Ezi-Awka Community
Secondary School, Awka
Mixed 80 Awka-South
7 Community Secondary
School, Agulu-Awka
Mixed 133 Awka-South
8 Community Secondary
School, Okpuno
Mixed 165 Awka-South
9 Ezeike High School, Nibo Mixed 160 Awka-South
10 Nneoma Community
Secondary School, Nibo
Mixed 14 Awka-south
11 Emeka Aghasili High School,
Nise
Mixed 73 Awka-South
12 Community Secondary
School, Umuokpu
Mixed 410 Awka-South
13 Boys Secondary School,
Amawbia
Mixed 34 Awka-South
14 Holy Cross High School,
Umuawulu
Mixed 94 Awka-South
117
15 Community Secondary
School, Mbaukwu
Mixed 161 Awka-South
16 Girls Secondary School,
Amawbia
Mixed 39 Awka-South
17 Community Secondary
School, Isiagu
Mixed No Senior
Secondary-
Awka-South
18 Union Secondary School
Umuawulu
Mixed No SS class Awka-South
19 Community Secondary
School, Amansea
Mixed 102 Awka-North
20 Community Secondary
School, Mgbakwu
Mixed 95 Awka-North
21 Community Secondary
School, Achalla
Mixed 97 Awka-North
22 Community Secondary
School, Amanuke
Mixed 96 Awka-North
23 Community Secondary
School, Isuaniocha
Mixed 45 Awka-North
24 Community Secondary
School, Urum
Mixed 68 Awka-North
25 Community Secondary
School, Ebenebe
Mixed 105 Awka-North
26 Community Secondary
School, Awba Ofemili
Mixed 52 Awka-North
27 Girls High School, Agulu Female 506 Anaocha
28 Community Secondary
School, Agulu
Mixed 87 Anaocha
29 Union Secondary School,
Agulu
Mixed 105 Anaocha
30 Agulu Grammar School,
Agulu
Male 26 Anaocha
118
31 Community High School,
Adazi
Mixed 40 Anaocha
32 Loretto Special Science
School, Adazi
Female 494 Anaocha
33* Burbendorf Memorial
Grammar School, Adazi
Male 132 Anaocha
34* Girls’ Secondary School,
Adazi-Nnukwu
Female 66 Anaocha
35 Ojiako Memorial School,
Adazi-Ani
Mixed 107 Anaocha
36 Lake City Secondary School,
Nri
Mixed- 104- Anaocha
37 Flora Azikiwe Memorial
Secondary School, Nneni
Mixed 251 Anaocha
38 Community High School
Agulu-Uzoigbo
Mixed 100 Anaocha
39 Community Secondary
School, Obeledu
Mixed 159 Anaocha
40 Community Secondary
School, Ichida
Mixed 118 Anaocha
41 Community High School
Akwaeze
Mixed 42 Anaocha
42 Regal Secondary School, Nri Mixed 93 Anaocha
43 Girls’ Secondary School,
Nimo
Female 114 Njikoka
44 GTC Enugwu-Agidi Male 10 Njikoka
45 Comprehensive Secondary
School, Nawfia
Male 250 Njikoka
46 Ide Girls’ Secondary School,
Enugwu-Ukwu
Female 126 Njikoka
119
47 Girls’ Secondary School,
Enugu-Agidi
Female 49 Njikoka
48 Nnamdi Azikiwe Secondary
School, Abagana
Male 309 Njikoka
49 Community Secondary
School, Nawfia
Mixed 23 Njikoka
50 Community Secondary
School, Abba
Mixed 78 Njikoka
51 St. Michael’s Model
Comprehensive Secondary
School, Nimo
Male 131 Njikoka
52 Girls’ Secondary School,
Abagana
Female 340 Njikoka
53 Okutalukwe Community
Secondary School Enugu-
Ukwu
Mixed No Senior
Secondary yet
Njikoka
54 St. Mary’s High School Ifite-
Dunu
Male 480 Dunukofia
55 Nneamaka Girls’ Secondary
School, Ifite-Dunu
Female 130 Dunukofia
56 Girls’ Secondary School,
Umudioka
Female 197 Dunukofia
57 Community Secondary
School, Umunnachi
Mixed 122 Dunukofia
58 Community Secondary
School, Ukpo
Mixed 34 Dunukofia
59 Community Secondary
School, Ukwulu
Mixed 81 Dunukofia
60 W.E.M.S.S. Ukpo Mixed 94 Dunukofia
61 Community Secondary
School, Nawgu
Mixed- 23 Dunukofia
120
APPENDIX II
List of Secondary Schools in Awka Educational Zone used for the Study
S/N Name of School Sex Location LGA
1 Igwebuike Grammar
School, Awka
M Urban Awka-South
2 Bubendorf Memorial
Grammar School, Adazi-
Nnukwu
M Rural Anaocha
3 Girls’secondary School,
Adazi-Nnukwu
F Rural Anaocha
4 Girls’ Secondary School,
Awka
F Urban Awka-South
121
APPENDIX III
Sample Size for the Study
Experimental Control
Experimental Male Female Total Control Male Female Total
Group Group
Urban 43 47 90 47 45 92
Rural 26 36 62 25 30 55
Total 69 83 152 72 75 147
122
APPENDIX IV
123
APPENDIX V
READING PASSAGES
Reading Passage 1 for Lessons 1 and 2
Instruction: You are expected to read the passage below and answer the questions
that follow it.
It was in the morning that the rain woke him. He heard it on the roof-top like
horses’ hooves and he shuddered involuntarily but thought nothing of it until he
heard it driven against the window panes like bullets, and then the wind howled very
sharply, violent, and all of a sudden, he could not lie on the bed any more but sat up,
the sweat breaking out on his face.
If the rain had been falling without the wind, the corn would have been all
right. The corn loves the rain that falls without the wind. The wind always thrashes
the corn, particularly if the corn is full grown and tawny green at the leaves. When
the corn is full grown and its ears are almost out after the silky crown that is like so
many fine strands of woman’s hair is out, then a strong wind can do anything it likes
with the corn. The wind can take the corn then and pull it from its roots or break it in
its middle, and afterwards, the corn will be lying flat on its back, its backbone
broken, paralyzed and helpless.
Osimere lyere sat on the bed and he could not move and the bile was in his
mouth as he thought about his corn at the back of the house. He jumped up from the
bed and went and stood against the wall by the window and then, very cautiously, he
parted the window blinds and peered outside. The sky was wild and black, the floods
ran wild and strong in the street, the wind was fierce and passionate, as it chased after
124
the rain, everything was wild and black and dangerous and passionate and desolate,
and yet beautiful.
(from Grant, Nnamonu and Jowitt, 2002, 68-69)
“like bullet”
1. What kind of figurative expression is this?
2. What impression does the expression give?
3. From the passage give two more examples of such expression.
4. Why did sweat break out in Osimere lyere’s face?
5. What is Osimere Iyrere’s attitude towards (i) rainfall
(ii) wind?
6. What time of the day did the action take place?
“If the rain had been falling without the wind”
7. What grammatical name is given to the above expression as it is used in the
sentence?
8. What is its function?
9. Why does the author use the present simple tense “loves” and “thrashes”?
“The bile was in his mouth”
10. What kind of figurative expression is the above?
11. What does it mean?
12. Form two figurative expressions with the word “horse”.
13. Identify a sentence in the passage that gives the wind a human quality.
14. What literary name do you give to such expression?
15. Give one word that can describe the activity of the wind in the passage.
125
Explain the following expressions as used in the passage.
16. He shuddered involuntarily.
17. The wind always trashes the corn.
18. …howled very sharply
19. The sky was wild and black.
20. The floods ran wild and strong
21. The wind was fierce and passionate.
22. Identify a word in the passage that means “could not move”.
“…and its ears are almost out”
23. Is the use of the “ears” literal or metaphorical?
24. What impression does this expression give of the corn?
25. Suggest a suitable title for the passage.
Reading Passage 2 for Lessons 3 and 4
The Law is an Ass-Part I
They say the law is an ass, and I fully endorse this statement. You know why?
I’ll tell you.
There is a banana tree next door to where I live. This tree overhangs my
premises. Every morning I have to sweep up the dead leaves of the banana tree next
door. Now this banana tree has two lovely bunches of fruit on it. The two lovely
bunches overhang my premises. I love bananas and my children love bananas too. If
we have to sweep up the dead leaves from the tree, surely we are entitled to some
compensation for our trouble? Suppose one day, I cut down one of the bunches and
eat the bananas. After all, we did not go into our neighbours compound to cut it. We
found the bananas right in our yard. What would the law say about it?
126
The law would say I have converted another man’s property to mine. Which is
a roundabout way of saying that I am a thief? As far as the law is concerned, even
though the banana bunches overhang my premises, they do not belong to me.
But I say to the law, what about the dead leaves I have to sweep up every
morning? Has a tree that does not belong to me a right to litter my premises?” And
the law replies, “That is a different matter; the law allows you to cut down the
overhanging branch because every owner of premises also owns the air or space
above the premises. If your neighbour’s branch overhangs your premises, which is an
infringement of your space”.
All this is puzzling to me. So I say to the law, “if I cut down the offending
branch, the fruits will be lying on the ground, and will become rotten if they are not
eaten. And yet you say I must not eat the bananas.” The law replies, “That is true.
You may cut down the branch because it is a nuisance, but you are certainly not
allowed to eat the bananas. They belong to your neighbour. After all, it was his tree
that bore them!”.
So there it is - the law at its silliest. I may cut down the bananas but I must not
eat them, indeed I came across this bit of law in an old book written by a lawyer for
the laymen, that is, you and me. And the feeling I got after reading this book was that
the law is the most complicated business one can ever be involved in. No wonder
they need lawyer to interpret it.
One of the most risky things a person can do is defend himself in court. He
may think his case is a straight forward one, but in law, nothing is ever straight
forward.
127
I used to wonder why the law is like this. But now I know. The law has to be
incomprehensible to the layman otherwise everybody would become his own lawyer
and that would spell doom to the legal profession and the exorbitant fees it demands.
The ramifications of the law are such that only a lawyer can understand them.
Take the paperwork, for example. It’s incredible the number of things you have to
file, the number of affidavits you have to swear to, the number of motions you have
to make before the case is heard. Some litigants don’t know the importance of this
paperwork. Right is never right in law until it is proved. And it has to be proved
according to the rules of court, and paperwork is a part of these rules. A good case
can be lost because the paperwork is defective.
(from Grant, Nnamonu and Jowitt, 2002, 28 -29)
Questions
Answer the following questions as clearly and briefly as you can. Use your own
words as far as possible.
a. To understand the main point which the writer of this passage is making, you need
to understand the meaning of the title. Therefore,
i. What is the meaning of “ass”?
ii. What figure of speech is used in the title?
iii. What adjective can you find in the passage that draws out the meaning of the title?
b. The writer thinks the law is complicated and difficult to understand. According to
her, what is the reason for this?
c. “If I cut down the offending branch…”
i. What is the name of this grammatical expression as it is used in the passage?
ii. What is its function?
128
d. For each of the following words and expressions, find another word or phrase that
means the same and can replace it as used in the passage
i. endorse
ii. are entitled
i. infringement
ii. spell
iii. exorbitant
e. Using a complex sentence state the writer’s puzzle about infringement.
f. What word class does lawyers belong to? What is its function in the sentence where
it occurs?
129
APPENDIX VI
PRETEST READING PASSAGE AND FOR LESSON 5 Time: 1½ Hours
Read the article properly and answer the questions at the end.
Soap Stars at War
Unilever and Procter and Gamble (P&G) are international detergent giants. At
the moment, these two companies are battling each other with a high degree of
venom.
At the centre of the dispute is a concentrated detergent launched across
Europe earlier this year by the Unilever known as Persil Powder in Britain, the new
detergent contains a chemical “accelerator, which the Anglo-Dutch firm claims
removes stains from clothes at lower temperatures than conventional powders.
America’s P & G asserted that its experiments show that the accelerator rots clothes.
Though Unilever denies this, in June it dropped a libel action against P & G
and said it would change Persil Powder, weakening the accelerator. But in early
August P & G returned to the attack in full page adverts in the British press. It
claimed that even in its new form the Unilever Power (which it did not name directly)
could cause damage to clothes.
Unilever, which insists that its product represents a breakthrough, claims that
P & G is attempting to buy time before bringing out a similar (though accelerator-
free) powder to be called Ariel Future in the autumn. It also says that Persil Powder
and its equivalents have boosted Unilever’s previously dwindling 23% share of the
$9 billion European detergent market.
130
However, up to now there are few independent figures to support this claim.
Whatever the market’s ultimate verdict, Unilever is already paying a penalty for
garbling its messages to customers (in some countries it failed to make clear that the
new powder should not be used at high temperatures).
Its efforts to protect its product launch from P & G’s attack may add an extra
E50m ($77m) to an advertising bill of around £150m for the new detergent this year,
reckons John Campbell of Paribas Capital Markets, a French Securities house.
Campbell thinks that Unilever’s pre-tax profit this year is likely to be below £1.94
billion, despite stronger ice cream sales in Europe because of this summer’s hot
weather. This drop in profit margin may mean smaller dividends for Unilever
shareholders and investors. It may also mean that stockbrokers and speculators will
look elsewhere, away from Unilever. It can even lead to some shareholders selling
their stock and stakes in the company.
Indeed, the whole episode may serve to confirm P & G as the overall leader in
detergents. Unilever estimates that it has 20% of the $25 billion world market for
fabric detergents versus P& G’s 24%. Although the Cincinnati - based firm has long
been ahead in America, it now also leads Unilever in Europe (by 32% to 23%). But P
& G would be unwise to claim victory too soon. Unilever will presumably feel stung
into using similarly aggressive tactics in an effort to discredit Ariel Future later this
year.
Once again, consumers can feel flattered by the attention, not to mention the
special offers thrown at them by the competing soap stars. Yet the risk for both
companies is that with so much mud being thrown, the consumer may decide that
neither is particularly clean-and buy from some other maker. If that happens then the
131
elephants, instead of the grass will, at least for once, suffer as a result of their fight.
(Adapted from the Economist, 6-12 August, 1994).
1. Who are the international giants? (Knowledge)
2. a. What literary name is given to the title of the passage? (Comprehension)
b. In one sentence, explain what the title means. (Analysis)
3. What claim did Unilever make? (Knowledge)
4. How did Unilever claim advantage of its new detergent over the old?
(Analysis)
5. In what way did Unilever try to improve its product after P&G attack?
(Comprehension)
6. What impact, according to Unilever, has the controversial product made on
the Anglo Dutch’s fortune? (Analysis)
7. “… consumers can feel flattered” what is the writer’s intention in using the
word “flattered”? (Application)
8. According to the passage, P&G mounted two separate attacks on Unilever.
Why did the author use the word “attack”? (Evaluation)
9. “…garble its message to customers”
What picture does the expression portray? (Analysis)
10. Reconstruct this sentence from the passage in your own words: “Unilever will
presumably feel stung into using similarly aggressive tactics in an effort to
discredit Ariel’s future later this year”. (Synthesis)
11. What did P&G say about Persil Power (Knowledge)
12. What evidence is suggested in this passage to support the view that P&G is
doing much better than Unilever? (Application)
132
13. “But P&G would be unwise to claim victory”.
Why did the author say so? (Analysis)
14. According to the passage, the competing soap stars should show restraint in
their aggressive marketing. The writer supports his point by referring, in the
last sentence, to the old African proverb: “When two elephants fight, it is the
grass that suffers”.
a. What two things are being compared? (Comprehension)
b. What likeness is being emphasized? (Application)
15. In this case, who are the elephants and who is the grass? (Comprehension)
16. How might the elephants suffer instead of the grass in this case (Analysis)
17. “At the moment, these two companies are battling each other with a high
degree of venom”
Are the two companies literally battling?
In one sentence, give your answer. (Synthesis)
18. What normally has venom? (Comprehension)
19. For what purpose does the author use venom? (Evaluation)
20. What grammatical name is given to the expression “with a high degree of
venom” (Application)
21. What is its function in the sentence? (Application)
22. Look at this sentence from the passage: “Indeed, the whole episode may serve
to confirm P&G as the overall leader in detergents.”
a. Identify the subject of the above sentence. (Comprehension)
b. What is the verb? (Comprehension)
23. Identify the complement of the sentence. (Comprehension)
133
24. State the author’s opinion on the advertising strategies of Unilever
(Evaluation)
25. For each of the following words, find another word or phrase that means the
same and can replace as used in the passage.
a. breakthrough
b. boosted
c. dwindling (Comprehension)
134
APPENDIX VII
Model Answers to Pretest Reading Passage: “Soap Stars at War”
Instruction:
Award four marks to any correctly answered question.
For any answer with any grammatical error, deduct ½ a mark.
Where a candidate gives two answers to a question and one of them is wrong, award
zero. If, however, both answers are correct award full marks.
Where words/expressions are expected to be given to replace words/expressions in
the passage, they must fit in perfectly. Otherwise, award zero.
1. The giants are Unilever and Procter and Gamble (P&G)
2. a. It is a metaphor.
b. There is dispute/misunderstanding between the two companies.
3. Unilever claimed that P&G is attempting to buy time before bringing out a
similar powder.
4. According to Unilever, the new detergent contains a substance that removes
stains from clothes at low temperatures.
5. Unilever, tried to weaken the accelerator.
6. The product has improved the dwindling Anglo – Dutch’s fortune.
7. The consumers can be embarrassed by the way the two companies want to
impress them with each other’s product.
8. The author used “attacks” to portray the commercial hostility existing between
the two companies.
9. It creates a picture of deceit/message not well – understood or clear to the
customers.
10. If care is not taken Unilever may be pushed into using the same unfriendly
approach to run down P&G.
11. P&G claimed that the accelerator destroyed clothes.
12. P&G leads the market in Europe by the ratio 32:23 per cent.
135
13. The author wants to caution P&G not to think that the consumers were now on
their side to buy their product.
14. a. The two things compared are elephants and grass.
b. The emphasis is on strength.
15. The elephants are the two soap stars while the grass is the consumers.
16. When the two companies might have run each other down the customers would
turn to an entirely different detergent from another company.
17. No, the two companies are expressing each other’s superiority over the other
through aggressive use of language.
18. A snake has venom.
19. The author uses “venom” to indicate that the two companies are making
destructive statements against each other.
20. It is an adverbial phrase of manner.
21. It qualifies/ describes the attitude of the two companies.
22. a. the whole episode
b. may serve to confirm.
23. P&G as the overall leader in detergents
24. The writer does not support Unilever’s advertising strategies.
25. a. discovery
b. improved
c. falling, decreasing
136
APPENDIX VIII
PRETEST PASSAGE
TABLE OF SPECIFICATION IN ENGLISH READING COMPREHENSION
ACHIEVEMENT FOR SSII
Test
Items
Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation Total
1. �
2. �
3. �
4. �
5. �
6. �
7. �
8. �
9. �
10. �
11. �
12. �
13. �
14. �
15. �
16. �
17. �
18. �
19. �
20. �
21. �
22. �
23. �
24. �
25. �
Total 3 Items
or 12%
6 Items
or 24%
5 Items
or 20%
6items
or 24%
2 items
or 8%
3items
or 12%
25 items
or
100%
137
APPENDIX IX
Time: 1½ hours
POSTTEST READING PASSAGE
Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow below.
OUT OF THE DITCH AND INTO PRINT
Having one’s first novel published is not as glamorous an affair as the media
make readers believe. The would-be author should start by convincing himself that
‘this is it, this is what I want to do; I must tell a story or do nothing else. it is novel-
writing for me, no matter how long it takes, no matter whether I’m published or not.
Write I must, and a novel it must be.’
There follows that secret joyous state of the actual writing… The next stage of
the would-be author’s life is the most cruel and disheartening, the end of the road for
many. This is the endless trips to the publishers, letters to newspaper and magazine
editors. In my case, for example-not a typical one, by any means, as I happen to be
one of the unluckiest would-be authors that ever lived - I spent almost every week for
three years trying to persuade publishers just to read my work. I did not care whether
I was paid or not; my only wish was that someone would share in my dreams;
someone would tell me where it was that I was wrong.
I soon got used to the sound of returned manuscripts on the lino-covered floor
of my council flat. The plop sound of the fat envelope dug an immediate pit in my
stomach. I would leave the manuscript there, knowing perfectly how the letter, a
nicely worded photocopied rejection slip, would go. “Thank you for letting us read
your Ms which we have enjoyed enormously…but…it cannot be published at the
moment…”
138
So what kept me going? Maybe I was young and stupid. I was about 22 then,
very hopeful; nothing was impossible. And I was stubborn in my own quiet
determined way. Then, when I was coming to the end of my degree course, the failure
hit me frontally; I would get an honours degree in Sociology, then what?
I stopped writing imaginative stories. I started writing ‘observations’ based on
what we call in Sociology ‘social realities’. I ran out of paper, so I started to scribble
them in my diary.
Then one evening I tried to read one of my ‘observations’ aloud to a friend.
He said, ‘Don’t read me that stuff, send it to a radical paper like the New Statesman
or something, He said it by way of ridicule. Me, whose work was still being
considered by some Nigerian papers!
I had nothing to lose. I typed out my first three ‘observations’ and sent one
every Tuesday when I went to the Post Office to collect the children’s family
allowance. The first week nothing happened, not even a rejection slip. That was odd.
The next one, nothing happened, not even a rejection slip. That was odd. The next
one, nothing happened. After the third one, I think the poor man got tied of seeing
them, and he sent me a short note saying that he was amused and interested in my
observations of life in London.
I screamed until I almost lost my voice. I was going to be a success at last!
1. How old is the author when she started writing? (Knowledge)
2. In the first three paragraphs, Buchi Emecheta describes the first two stages of
a writer’s life: the writing and the struggle to get the work published. In what
ways does her attitude to the two stages differ? (Analysis)
3. “… The end of the road for many”
139
Identify figure of speech employed in the above expression. (Comprehension)
4. In one sentence explain what the above expression means. (Synthesis)
5. “The plop sound dug an immediate pit in my stomach.”
What figure of speech is used in the above expression (Comprehension)
6. What picture does the expression above create? (Application)
7. “When I was coming to the end of my degree course…”
What grammatical name is given to this expression?
8. What is the grammatical function of the expression in no 7 (Application)
9. “.. The failure hit me frontally
Why did the author employ the word “frontally”? (Analysis)
10. What can you infer about the author’s friend’s attitude to her observations?
(Evaluation)
11. “Write must”
What literacy device is employed in the expression above? (Comprehension)
12. What is the effect of the expression above to the passage? (Application)
13. a. What literary name is given to the title of the passage?
(Comprehension)
b. In one sentence explain its meaning. (Analysis)
14. How long did it take Buchi to persuade publishers to read her work?
(Knowledge)
15. Identify one simile from the passage (Knowledge).
16. In the simile what two things are being compared? (Comprehension)
17. What likeness is being emphasized in the simile? (Analysis)
140
18. In what way did the author’s writing change as she came to the end of her
degree course? (Comprehension)
19. “Me, whose work was still being considered by some Nigerian papers!”
Why did the author exclaim above? (Evaluation)
20. “Having one’s first novel published is not as glamorous an affair as the media
make readers believe”.
Give the grammatical name of the underlined expression (Comprehension)
21. What is the grammatical function of the expression underlined? (Application)
22. “I screamed until I almost lost my voice. I was going to be a success at last”
In one sentence, rewrite the above expression in your own words. (Synthesis)
23. “So, what kept me going”?
What literary device is used in the above expression? (Comprehension)
24. What is the effect of the above expression in the passage? (Evaluation)
25. For each of the following words and expressions, find another word or phrase
that means the same and can replace it as used in the passage.
a. disheartening
b. would-be authors
c. stubborn
d. rejection slip (Comprehension)
141
APPENDIX X
Model Answers to Posttest Reading Passage “Out of the Ditch and into Print”
i. Award four marks to any correctly answered question.
ii. Deduct ½ a mark for any grammatical pitfall in any answer.
iii. Where a candidate gives two answers to a question and one of them is wrong,
award zero. If, however, both answers are correct award full marks.
iv. Where words/expressions are expected to be given to replace
words/expressions in the passage, they must fit in perfectly. Otherwise, award
zero.
1. She was about 22 years.
2. Her attitude in the first Stage X-rayed hope, enthusiasm; her second stage
portrayed despair, frustration.
3. It is a metaphor.
4. It means that many expectant authors would be discouraged and stop writing.
5. It is personification
6. The impression is that of discomfort
7. It is a dependent clause
8. It state the period or time of the action
9. She expressed dismay that she had not been able to produce anything at that point
in time/ It dawned on her that she had failed to achieve her dreams a that point.
10. His attitude is that of ridicule/ He exhibited non- challant attitude towards the
friend’s work.
11. The author used inversion.
12. It is used for emphasis./It showed her determination to write no matter what.
13. a. It is an idiomatic expression.
142
b. The writer emerged from an amateur to a celebrated/professional writer.
14. She persuaded then for three years.
15. Having one’s first novel published is not as glamorous an affair as the media
make readers believe.
16. The two things being compared are publication of a novel and the media.
17. The comparison is on the difficulty encountered before publication
18. She stopped writing imaginative stories and started writing on social realities.
19. The author expressed her ego that she was not a nonentity after all/She has been
able to write something and send to some publishers.
20. It is a noun phrase.
21. It is the subject of the sentence.
22. She shouted for joy because at last she would have her work published.
23. It is a rhetorical question.
24. It s used to express the author’s determination.
25. a. discouraging
b. novice authors, amateur authors, intending authors
(c) determined/blunt/unrelenting (d) refusal letter/note/notice
143
APPENDIX XI
POSTTEST PASSAGE
TABLE OF SPECIFICATION IN ENGLISH READING
COMPREHENSION ACHIEVEMENT FOR SSII
Test
Items
Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation Total
1. �
2. �
3. �
4. �
5. �
6. �
7. �
8. �
9. �
10. �
11. �
12. �
13. �
14. �
15. �
16. �
17. �
18. �
19. �
20. �
21. �
22. �
23. �
24. �
25. �
Total 3 Items
or 12%
8 Items
or 32%
5 Items
or 20%
4items
or 16%
2 items
or 8%
3 items
or 12%
25
items
or
100%
144
APPENDIX XII
One-day Training Package for English Language Teachers in the Schools used
for the Study on “Effect of Exposure to Figurative Language on Students’
Achievement in English Reading Comprehension”
The researcher acquainted the English teachers with these ideas. Figurative
language is language that makes comparisons between things so that readers can
understand them better or visualize them more vividly. It is important for you to be
able to do the following two things:
a. Recognize figurative language, and
b. Understand figurative language.
Read the following statements to discover their meanings:
i. He hit a solid wall in his attempt to solve the Maths problem.
ii. The old man’s face was a raisin.
iii. Ask the teachers what these sentences are really saying. For instance, in
sentence (i) the statement certainly does not mean that the person involved
was so frustrated in trying to solve the Maths problem that he will hit his
head against a wall. What does a solid wall represent? One thing that it
suggests is separation, things that are on one side of the wall. Another
quality is “impenetrability”. A solid wall stops you and prevents you from
progressing any further. It is the quality of a solid wall that is being
compared to the progress being made in solving the Maths problem. In
other words, you must discover the qualities of the figurative language that
help you understand the comparison being made.
Look at sentence (ii) What are some of the qualities of raisons? They are small, soft,
and wrinkled. They are really dried-up grapes. Which of these qualities would help
145
you to visualize the old man’s face? The most appropriate one is the quality of being
wrinkled.
c. How can you recognize figurative language when you read it? First of all,
look for language that would not make good sense if taken literally. There
is a good possibility that it is figurative language.
Here are some of the common ways in which figurative language is used;
1. Sometimes authors make a direct comparison: George is a fish in the water.
Jaya is really a tiger.
2. Sometimes authors compare two things indirectly by saying that one thing is
something else using words like, “like”, “as”, or “as if”:
The grass was like a green carpet. The room was as quiet as a graveyard.
3. Sometimes authors mention only the figurative part of the comparison they
want you to understand that it is equal to the thing being compared.
i. A hurricane whipped through the office and got all the work done in one day.
ii. The grapevine recommends that I take a course with Mr. Jones.
4. Sometimes authors exaggerate the comparison. When they do this, they
intensify the thought making it more vivid.
i. I was so thirsty that I drank an ocean.
ii. She was a goddess of beauty.
5. Sometimes authors do not limit the figurative language to an expression in a
sentence but extend it to a number of sentences, a paragraph, or even a group
of paragraphs. When this is done, the same step-by-step procedure would
apply.
146
Let us look at another example Read the following passage carefully. Try to
understand what the author is really saying.
No one is an island, entire of itself, every man is a piece of the continent, a
part of the main. If a clod be washed away by the sea, Europe is the less… any man’s
death diminishes me because I am involved in Mankind. And, therefore, never send
to know for whom the bell tolls. It tolls for thee.
Analysis:
In this example, the individual is likened to a piece of a continent, a part of the
mainland – instead of an independent and isolated island. Humanity is compared to
the total continent, to the mainland as a whole, and to Europe as a representative
mainland. Death is compared to the sea. The qualities of the figurative language that
are important here are that an island is separate and distinct from the mainland, that a
clump of mainland is part of that mainland, that a continent or mainland is composed
of many individual clumps, and that the sea can wash away individual clumps of the
mainland so that they are gone forever. The author is saying, then, that no person is
an entirely separate and isolated being, instead, each one is united to and a part of all
humanity. Therefore, whenever any individual dies, all other individuals are
“diminished”.
The researcher also discussed with the participating English teachers the kinds
of questions that may be asked to help students to read more perceptively. The
overall aim is to explore what the words say, all of it. Interpreting figurative language
also referred to as literary devices, is considered an analysis skill which involves
analyzing the author’s language as one of his tools to make inferences related to the
passage. The items to test analytic skill relate to the students’ ability to make
147
inferences about the author’s purpose and style; the structure of the passage; and, the
author’s intentions. On the other hand, analysis questions relate to the attitude and
point of view of the author and the ability to identify facts from opinions. For
inferential comprehension questions, students are required to draw on critical
thinking skills and make judgment about the text.
Read the article properly and answer the questions at the end.
Soap Stars at War
Unilever and Procter and Gamble (P&G) are international detergent giants. At
the moment, these two companies are battling each other with a high degree of
venom.
At the centre of the dispute is a concentrated detergent launched across
Europe earlier this year by the Unilever known as Persil Powder in Britain, the new
detergent contains a chemical “accelerator, which the Anglo-Dutch firm claims
removes stains from clothes at lower temperatures than conventional powders.
America’s P & G asserted that its experiments show that the accelerator rots clothes.
Though Unilever denies this, in June it dropped a libel action against P & G
and said it would change Persil Powder, weakening the accelerator. But in early
August P & G returned to the attack in full page adverts in the British press. It
claimed that even in its new form the Unilever Power (which it did not name directly)
could cause damage to clothes.
Unilever, which insists that its product represents a breakthrough, claims that
P & G is attempting to buy time before bringing out a similar (though accelerator-
free) powder to be called Ariel Future in the autumn. It also says that Persil Powder
148
and its equivalents have boosted Unilever’s previously dwindling 23% share of the
$9 billion European detergent market.
However, up to now there are few independent figures to support this claim.
Whatever the market’s ultimate verdict, Unilever is already paying a penalty for
garbling its messages to customers (in some countries it failed to make clear that the
new powder should not be used at high temperatures).
Its efforts to protect its product launch from P & G’s attack may add an extra
E50m ($77m) to an advertising bill of around £150m for the new detergent this year,
reckons John Campbell of Paribas Capital Markets, a French Securities house.
Campbell thinks that Unilever’s pre-tax profit this year is likely to be below £1.94
billion, despite stronger ice cream sales in Europe because of this summer’s hot
weather. This drop in profit margin may mean smaller dividends for Unilever
shareholders and investors. It may also mean that stockbrokers and speculators will
look elsewhere, away from Unilever. It can even lead to some shareholders selling
their stock and stakes in the company.
Indeed, the whole episode may serve to confirm P & G as the overall leader in
detergents. Unilever estimates that it has 20% of the $25 billion world market for
fabric detergents versus P& G’s 24%. Although the Cincinnati - based firm has long
been ahead in America, it now also leads Unilever in Europe (by 32% to 23%). But P
& G would be unwise to claim victory too soon. Unilever will presumably feel stung
into using similarly aggressive tactics in an effort to discredit Ariel Future later this
year.
Once again, consumers can feel flattered by the attention, not to mention the
special offers thrown at them by the competing soap stars. Yet the risk for both
149
companies is that with so much mud being thrown, the consumer may decide that
neither is particularly clean-and buy from some other maker. If that happens then the
elephants, instead of the grass will, at least for once, suffer as a result of their fight.
(Adapted from the Economist, 6-12 August, 1991).
Questions
1. What advantage did Unilever claim for its new detergent Persil Powder?
2. What did P & G say about Persil Powder?
3. In what way did Unilever try to improve its product after
P & G’s attack?
4. What impact, according to Unilever, has the controversial product made on the
Anglo-Dutch’s future?
5. What is the opinion of the writer on the advertising strategies of Unilever?
Give one illustration of your answer from the passage.
6. What evidence is suggested in this passage to support the view that P & G is doing
much better than Unilever?
7. Look at this sentence from the passage
“Indeed, the whole, episode may serve to confirm P & G as the overall leader in
detergents”.
a) What is the subject of this sentence?
b) What is the verb?
c) What is the complement?
150
Figurative Language
Writers often use figurative language - language that is used in some way other than
the ordinary or literary meaning. For example the writer says:
Unilever and Procter and Gamble (P & G) are international detergent giants.
A giant is a person who is unusually big or tall. What does the word “giant” mean in
this case?
As you can see, the word “giant” is used figuratively, not literally.
Here are two more examples from the passage. In pairs discuss the answers to
the following questions.
1. According to the passage, the “competing soap stars” should show restraint in their
aggressive marketing. The writer supports his point by referring, in the last sentence,
to the old African proverb, “When two elephants fight, it is the grass that suffer”.
Clearly the writer is not talking about elephants, or grass, here! Explain:
a) What this proverb means
b) In this case, who are the elephants, and who is the grass?
c) How might the elephants suffer instead of the grass in this case?
2. Look at this sentence from the passage: “At the moment, these two companies are
battling each other with a high degree of venom”.
a) Are the two companies literally “battling”?
b) What normally has “venom”?
What does “with a high degree of venom” mean here? Explain in your own words.
c) What grammatical name is given to the expression “with a high degree of venom”?
What is its function?
151
APPENDIX XIII
Five-week Lesson Plan of Activities for the Experimental Group on the Effect of
Exposure to Figurative Language on Students’ Achievement in Reading
Comprehension
LESSON PLAN 1 FOR EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
Subject: English Language
Class: SS2
Broad Area – Reading Comprehension on “Osimere Iyere”
Topic – 1. Identifying figurative language
2. Generating figurative language
3. Using figurative language
Time – 1 Period of 40 minutes
Instructional Materials – Students’ Course-book: Senior English Project,
Dictionary, Audio cassettes, Flash cards, Electronic White Board.
Behavioural Objectives – At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Make inferences from the content of the passage.
2. Respond to the use of English expressions to reveal/reflect emotions, sentiments/
attitudes of the author.
3. Identify and explain basic literary terms and expressions.
4. Answer questions based on the facts of the passage.
Instructional Procedure:-
Identification of Previous Knowledge
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher asks the
class the main things to
remember and put into
practice when reading a
passage. The teacher
explains in detail what
SQ3R stands for after
Students respond to the teacher’s
questions by enumerating the study
skills already known.
Response: SQ3R or SQRRR method
of reading. Students explain each of
the letters
S- the survey stage
Individuals Questioning
Explanation
152
students’ contribution. Q- Questions about the topic, passage
R- Read stage
R- Recite stage
R- Review
Exploration
Teacher’s
Activities
Students’
Activities
Mode Techniques
The teacher introduces the
lesson by stating that efficient
reading is not all it takes to read
but to read for comprehension.
So, to understand a text, there
is need to understand the
language of the author. She
mentions that authors often use
words connotatively or
figuratively for special effects.
She asks students to She
mention some figurative
expressions they know. Asks
students to turn to the reading
passage for the day’s lesson
“Osimere Iyere”
Students pay attention
to the teacher’s
explanations
Students mention some
figurative expressions:
metaphor, simile,
personification, idioms
etc.
Individuals
Individuals
Explanation
Questioning
Application
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher pairs students and asks them to read the passage on “Osimere Iyere” silently. She asks the pairs to identify some expressions they think are used figuratively.
Students stay in pairs and read the passage on Osimere Iyere silently. Each pair identifies words used figuratively 1. Metaphors: howled very sharply, sweat breaking out on his face. 2. Simile –like horses’ hooves 3. Idiom – The bile was in his mouth etc.
Pair Silent reading Identification
153
Discussion
Teacher’s
Activities
Students’
Activities
Mode Techniques
The teacher asks each pair to read out the figurative expressions they found in the passage. Teacher writes them on the board. She asks students to explain the meaning of those expressions and to state how each expression appealed to their senses. She displays examples on the flash card. She asks students to go to the dictionary and get other idiomatic expressions with the word “horse”.
Each group reads out the figurative expressions they found in the reading passage as in He heard it on the roof top like horses’ hooves …until he heard it driven against the wall Students in pairs explain the meaning of the expressions listed on the board Students state How the expressions appeal to their senses. Students in pairs, search through the dictionary for the expressions. Examples i. Straight from the horse’s mouth ii. hold your horses British English - used to tell somebody that they should wait a moment and not to be so excited that they take action without thinking about it first. iii. horse for courses – the act of matching people with suitable jobs or tasks.
Pair Pair
Loud reading Explanation Discussion
154
Evaluation
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher asks students to answer these questions in their English exercise book 1. What is Osimere’s attitude towards i. rainfall ii. wind 2. “The bile was in his mouth”. i. What kind of figurative expression is this? ii. What does it mean? 3. Write down three expressions from the passage to show that the rain was falling heavily.
Students answer the questions in their English exercise books.
Individuals Writing
155
LESSON PLAN 2 FOR EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
Subject: English Language
Class: SS2
Broad Area – Reading Comprehension on “Osimere Iyere”
Topic – 1. Identifying figurative language
2. Generating figurative language
3. Using figurative language
Time – 1 Period of 40 minutes
Instructional Materials – Students’ Course-book: Senior English Project,
Dictionary, Audio cassettes, Flash cards, Electronic White Board.
Behavioural Objectives – At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Make inferences from the content of the passage.
2. Respond to the use of English expressions to reveal/reflect emotions, sentiments/
attitudes of the author.
3. Identify and explain basic literary terms and expressions.
4. Answer questions based on the facts of the passage.
Instructional Procedure:
Identification of Previous Knowledge
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher asks students to give examples of figurative expressions- simile, metaphor personification idiomatic expressions She ask students to construct sentences with those expressions. Displays flashcards
Students respond to the teacher’s demand. Give examples of simile, metaphor personification idiomatic expressions etc.
Individuals Questioning
Exploration
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The pairs students Explains that the author’s choice of words often portrays his attitude and point of view in a passage. The asks students to take note of
Students pair up Students listen to the explanations given by the teacher Students open to the
Pair Explanation
156
words and expressions that appeal to the senses: sight, touch smell, feeling, hearing as they read the passage silently.
reading passage Osimere Iyere.
Application
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher asks students to read the passage on Osimere Iyere silently. She asks students to identify words which have been used connotatively or figuratively.
Read the passage silently. Identify words used connotatively. Students note words and expressions such as: i. ears are out ii. The sky was mild and black. iii. The floods ran wild and strong. iv. The wind was fierce and passionate as it chased after the rain v. Everything was wild and black and dangerous and passionate and desolate, and yet beautiful.
Pair Reading Silent reading Identification
Discussion
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher points at good readers to read the She asks each pair of students to read out the words and expressions that appeal to their senses or that are used figuratively. Teacher writes those words and expressions on the board. The teacher directs the students to use their dictionaries and get other figurative expressions on “ear”. She displays examples on the flash card
Students read out such words and expressions under Application. Students search their dictionaries to get other expressions to do with “ear” such as: i. be all ears meaning “to be waiting with interest ii. be out on your ear meaning “to be forced to leave (a job) etc. iii. be up to your ear in something meaning “to have a lot of something to deal with etc.
Pair
Loud reading Questioning Discussion
157
Evaluation
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher asks students to answer the questions on the board in their class work exercise book. 1. Why did sweat break out in Osimere Iyere’s face? 2. Give in a word or a phrase the meaning of the following words as used in the passage i. involuntarily ii. particularity iii. cautiously iv. passionate 3. …the corn will be lying flat on its back, its backbone broken, paralyzed i. What kind of figurative expression is this? ii. In one sentence explain what the author is saying.
Students answer the questions in their exercise books.
Individuals Writing
158
LESSON PLAN 3 FOR EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
Subject: English Language
Class: SS2
Broad Area – Reading Comprehension “The Law an Ass”
Topic – 1. Identifying figurative language
2. Generating figurative language
3. Using figurative language
Time – 1 Period of 40 minutes
Instructional Materials – Students’ Course-book: Senior English Project,
Dictionary, Audio cassettes, Flash cards, Electronic White Board.
Behavioural Objectives – At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Make inferences from the content of the passage.
2. Respond to the use of English expressions to reveal/reflect emotions, sentiments/
attitudes of the author.
3. Identify and explain basic literary terms and expressions.
4. Answer questions based on the facts of the passage.
Instructional Procedure:
Identification of Previous Knowledge
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
Can you give other idiomatic uses of the word “ear”? make full sentences with those expressions. The teacher uses audio cassette for recorded examples.
Students state idiomatic expressions to do with “ear”. Students make sentences with the expressions. For example: i. shut/close your ears to something - to refuse to listen to something Sentence: She decided to shut her ears to all the rumours.
Individuals Questioning
Exploration
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher writes the passage to read on the board: “The Law is an Ass” She tells the students to survey the passage quickly as they sit in pairs. Take note of the author’s language identifying connotative/figurative expressions.
Students pay attention to the teacher’s explanations
Pair Explanation
159
Application
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher asks students to read the passage on the Law is an Ass silently. Discover why the author used the word “ass” in the caption
In pairs, read the passage silently. Students identify words and expressions used figuratively as in. i. The law is an “ass”
Pair Silent reading
Discussion
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher selects good readers to read aloud. Asks each pair of students to justify the use of the word “ass” for the caption of the passage. Use your dictionary for idiomatic uses of “ass”. She uses audio cassette for more examples.
Good readers read aloud Each pair of students gives reasons why the title of the passage is fit for the content of the passage. For instance, students compare the facts in the first paragraph with that in the second and third to see the puzzle stated by the author. Students supply other idiomatic uses of “ass” 1. get your ass in gear/move your ass (slang especially North American English) a rude way of telling somebody to hurry. ii. get your ass over/in here (slang NAmE) a rude way of telling somebody to come here.
Pair Individuals
Loud reading Discussion Questioning
Evaluation
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher asks students to answer these questions in their English exercise book 1. To understand the main point which the author of this passage is making, you need to understand the meaning of the title. Therefore, a. What is the meaning of “ass”? b. What figure of speech is used in the title? c. What adjective can you find in the passage that draws out the meaning of the title? 2. The author thinks the law is complicated and difficult to understand. According to her, what is the reason for this?
Students answer the questions in their class- work exercise book.
Individuals Writing
160
LESSON PLAN 4 FOR EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
Subject: English Language
Class: SS2
Broad Area – Reading Comprehension on “The Law is an Ass”
Topic – 1. Identifying figurative language
2. Generating figurative language
3. Using figurative language
Time – 1 Period of 40 minutes
Instructional Materials – Students’ Course-book: Senior English Project,
Dictionary, Audio cassettes, Flash cards, Electronic White Board.
Behavioural Objectives – At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Make inferences from the content of the passage.
2. Respond to the use of English expressions to reveal/reflect emotions, sentiments/
attitudes of the author.
3. Identify and explain basic literary terms and expressions.
4. Answer questions based on the facts of the passage.
Instructional Procedure:
Identification of Previous Knowledge
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
“Ass” is a word that can be used idiomatically apart from its ordinary meaning “an animal”. In North American English “ass” is used idiomatically to connote rudeness. In British English as in this passage, it connotes silliness. In your own language state how rudeness or silliness can be expressed idiomatically.
Pay attention to teacher’s explanation and questions. State in their own language how they express silliness or rudeness
Individuals Questioning
161
Exploration
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher pairs students in groups. She asks students to pay attention to words and expressions that reflect the author’s opinions and sentiments. She asks students to identify basic literary terms and expressions from the passage.
Students stay in pairs. Turn to the reading passage. Listen to the teacher’s instructions. Make quick survey of the passage.
Pair Explanation
Application
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher asks students to read the passage silently taking note of the author’s expressions that depict his opinions and sentiments about the topic.
In pairs students read the passage silently. Identify expressions that reflect the author’s opinions and sentiments.. For example: i. If we have to sweep the dead leaves from the tree, surely we are entitled to some compensation for our trouble. ii. “Suppose one day…” (paragraph 2) iii. “What about the dead leaves…” (paragraph 3) iv. If your neighbours’ branch…” (paragraph 4) Students identify literary expressions that create pictures in the mind.
Pair Silent reading
Discussion
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher calls out each pair of students to supply their findings to the class. The teacher writes down such findings written under Application. Teacher writes them on the board. Displays examples on the flash card
Students supply their answers. Give reasons for their answers. Each pair reads out from the passages sentences that support their answers.
Pair Discussion Questioning Loud reading
162
Evaluation
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher writes these questions on the board She asks students to answer the questions in their class work exercise book i. “If I cut down the offending branch…” a. What is the name of this grammatical expression as it is used in the passage? b. What is its function? 2. For each of the following words and expressions, find another word or phrase that means the same and can replace it as used in the passage. i. infringement ii. spell iii. endorse
Students write the answers in their exercise books
Individuals Writing
163
LESSON PLAN 5 FOR EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
Subject: English Language
Class: SS2
Broad Area – Reading Comprehension on “Soap Stars at War”
Topic – 1. Identifying figurative language
2. Generating figurative language
3. Using figurative language
Time – 1 Period of 40 minutes
Instructional Materials – Students’ Course-book: Senior English Project,
Dictionary, Audio cassettes, Flash cards, Electronic White Board.
Behavioural Objectives – At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Make inferences from the content of the passage.
2. Respond to the use of English expressions to reveal/reflect emotions, sentiments/
attitudes of the author.
3. Identify and explain basic literary terms and expressions.
4. Answer questions based on the facts of the passage.
Instructional Procedure:
Identification of Previous Knowledge
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher reminds students that the objective of the lesson is to identify and understand and utilize figurative expressions used by authors to improve their vocabulary for enhanced reading comprehension. She asks students to list and explain some figurative expressions they came across in the course of their private study. She plugs the audio tape with a passage rich in figurative expressions.
Students listen to the teacher. Students list and using sentences explain the meaning of those figurative expressions: -metaphor, - idioms - personification etc. Listen to audio tape.
Individuals Discussion Questioning Answering
164
Exploration
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher pairs up students Asks students to turn to the reading passage “Soap Stars at War” She reminds students that the author’s purpose, style, structure of the passage, his intentions, attitudes and opinions are influenced by his choice of words. More often than not, they use words that create mental pictures for clarity and conciseness.
Students pay attention to the teacher. Students make quick survey of the reading passage
Pair Explanation Questioning
Application
Teacher’s
Activities
Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher asks students to read the passage silently. She asks students to identify expressions used figuratively
Students in pairs, read through the passage silently. Students note such expressions used figuratively as in i. “Soap Stars at War” ii. “Unilever and Procter and Gamble (P & G) are international giants”. iii. “When two elephants fight, it is the grass that suffers” iv. “At the moment, these two companies are battling each other with a high degree of venom”.
Pair Silent Reading
Discussion
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher selects good readers to read aloud The teacher asks each pair of students to read aloud the figurative expressions they came across in
Good students read aloud in the class. Students in pairs, give the examples of figurative language they came across in the passage as in under Application. Students respond that the word “giant” has been used figuratively to indicate that the
Pair Loud reading Questioning Discussion Explanation
165
the passage. Teacher writes them on the board. The teacher guides students to explain those expressions for instance: A giant is as person who is unusually big or tall. What does the word “giant” mean in this case? She displays more examples on the flash card.
soap companies are popular and flourishing. Students use dictionary to find other idiomatic expressions on the word “war”.
Evaluation
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher asks the students to answer the following questions in their English exercise books 1. What is the opinion of the writer on the Anglo-Dutch’s fortune? 2. Look at the sentence from the passage: “At the moment, these two companies are battling each other with a high degree…” a. Are the two companies literally battling? b. What normally has venom? What does “with a high degree of venom” mean here? c. What grammatical name is given to the expression “with a high degree of venom”? d. What is its function? 3. For each of the following words, find another word or phrase that means the same and can replace it as used in the passage i. breakthrough ii. boosted iii. dwindling iv. verdict
Students answer the questions in their exercise books.
Individuals Writing
166
APPENDIX XIV
Five-week Lesson Plans on Reading Comprehension for the Control Group
LESSON PLAN 1 FOR CONTROL GROUP
Subject – English Language
Class – SS2
Broad Area – Reading Comprehension
Topic – Passage on “Osimere Iyere”
Time - 1 period of 40 minutes
Date –
Instructional Materials – Students’ Course-book: Senior English Project,
Dictionary, Electronic White Board.
Behavioural Objective – At the end of the lesson the students should be able to:
1. Make inferences from the content of the passage.
2. Respond to the use of English expressions to reveal/reflect emotions,
sentiments/attitudes of the author.
3. Identify and explain basic literary terms and expressions.
4. Answer questions based on the facts of the passage.
Instructional Procedure:
Identification of Previous Knowledge
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher asks the students to mention one of the strategies for effective reading. She asks students to state each letter in full.
Students listen to the teacher. Students mention the SQ3R or SQRRR strategy Students state full meaning of the letters S – Survey Q – Read R – Recite R – Review
Class Questioning
Exploration
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher asks students to turn to the passage on Osimere Iyere. Ask students to survey the passage noting the number of paragraphs in the passage.
Students listen to the teacher. Students survey the passage
Class Explanation Survey
167
Application
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
She asks the students to read the passage silently.
Students read the passage silently. Use dictionary to locate meaning of difficult words.
Individuals Silent reading
Discussion
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher selects good readers to read the passage aloud. The teacher asks the following questions while loud reading is going on 1. What is the author saying in the first paragraph? 2. What information is given in the second and third paragraphs?
Good readers read aloud. Students listen. Students give a gist of each of the paragraphs in the passage.
Class Loud reading
Evaluation
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher writes the following questions on the board. She asks the students to answer them in their exercise book. 1. What is Osimere Iyere’s attitude toward i. rainfall ii. wind? 2. “The bile was in his mouth”. i. What kind of figurative expression is this? ii. What does it mean? 3. Write down three expressions from the passage to show that the rain was falling heavily.
Students write the answers in their exercise books.
Individuals Writing
168
LESSON PLAN 2 FOR CONTROL GROUP
Subject: English Language
Class: SS2
Broad Area – Reading Comprehension
Topic – Passage on “Osimere Iyere”
Time – 1 Period of 40 minutes
Instructional Materials – Students’ Course-book: Senior English Project,
Dictionary, Electronic White Board.
Behavioural Objectives – At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Make inferences from the content of the passage.
2. Respond to the use of English expressions to reveal/reflect emotions, sentiments/
attitudes of the author.
3. Identify and explain basic literary terms and expressions.
4. Answer questions based on the facts of the passage.
Instructional Procedure:
Identification of Previous Knowledge
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher asks the students what SQ3R or SQRRR stands for? Enumerate them.
Students answer the question. Students say what SQ3R acronym stands for.
Class Questioning
Exploration
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher asks the students to turn to the passage for the lesson. She asks the students to skim through the passage. She asks the students to go through the questions at the end of the passage.
Students turn to the passage on Osimere Iyere. Students skim through the passage and the questions.
Class Survey
Application
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher asks the students to read the passage silently
Students read the passage silently. Students note difficult and unfamiliar
Individuals Silent reading
169
She asks the students to note difficult words and expressions. Use dictionary to check meaning of unknown words.
words. Use dictionary to locate meaning of unfamiliar words
Discussion
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher selects good readers to read aloud. She emphasizes on important sections of the passage, for example in the sentence 1. “He could not lie on the bed any more but sat up the sweat breaking out on his face” Why could he not sleep again? 2. Can you describe how you felt on a particular day it rained heavily?
Students listen attentively. Students suggest answers to the question. Students share their experience on a particular day it rained heavily.
Class Loud reading Discussion Explanation
Evaluation
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher asks the students to answer these questions in their class workexercise books. 1. Why did sweat break out in Osimere Iyere’s face? 2. Give in a word or phrase the meaning of the following words as used in the passage: i. involuntarily ii. particularly iii. cautiously iv. passionate 3. “The corn will be lying flat on its back, its backbone broken, paralyzed…” i. What kind of figurative expression is the this? ii. In one sentence explain what the author is saying.
Students answer the questions in their English class work exercise book.
Individuals Writing
170
LESSON PLAN 3 FOR CONTROL GROUP
Subject: English Language
Class: SS2
Broad Area – Reading Comprehension
Topic – Passage on “The Law is an Ass”
Time – 1 Period of 40 minutes
Instructional Materials – Students’ Course-book: Senior English Project,
Dictionary, Electronic White Board.
Behavioural Objectives – At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Make inferences from the content of the passage.
2. Respond to the use of English expressions to reveal/reflect emotions, sentiments/
attitudes of the author.
3. Identify and explain basic literary terms and expressions.
4. Answer questions based on the facts of the passage.
Instructional Procedure:
Identification of Previous Knowledge
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher asks the students to mention some of the bad habits that hinder reading speed. The teacher expatiates on the points mentioned.
Students pay attention students mention some bad habits that hinder reading efficiency such as i. pointing at words as you read; ii. moving your head as you read; iii. moving your lips, or whispering the words as you read them; iv. reading each word one at a time.
Class Questioning Discussion Explanation
Exploration
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher asks the students to turn to the passage on “The Law is an Ass” She asks the students to survey the passage quickly taking note of the title and the number of paragraphs in the passage. She ask the students to note the sentence structure at the beginning of each paragraph.
Students listen attentively. Students survey the passage.
Class Survey
171
Application
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher asks the students to read the passage silently.
Students read the passage silently.
Individuals Silent reading
Discussion
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher selects good readers to read. She asks questions that questions that lead to understanding such as: 1. What is the author saying in paragraph one? etc. The teacher fills the gaps in the summary.
Good readers read aloud. Students attempt summary of the paragraphs.
Class Loud reading Explanation Discussion
Evaluation
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher writes the following questions on the board. She asks the students to answer the questions in their class work exercise book. 1. To understand the main point which the author of this passage is making, you need to understand the meaning of the title. Therefore, (a), what is the meaning of “ass”? (b)What figure of speech is used in the title? (c) What adjective can you find in the passage that draws out the meaning of the title? 2. The author thinks the law is complicated and difficult to understand. According to her, what is the reason for this?
Students write the answers in their exercise book.
Individuals Writing
172
LESSON PLAN 4 FOR CONTROL GROUP
Subject: English Language
Class: SS2
Broad Area – Reading Comprehension
Topic – Passage on The Law is an Ass
Time – 1 Period of 40 minutes
Instructional Materials – Students’ Course-book: Senior English Project,
Dictionary, Electronic White Board.
Behavioural Objectives – At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Make inferences from the content of the passage.
2. Respond to the use of English expressions to reveal/reflect emotions, sentiments/
attitudes of the author.
3. Identify and explain basic literary terms and expressions.
4. Answer questions based on the facts of the passage.
Instructional Procedure:
Identification of Previous Knowledge
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher engages the students in this discussion. In answering comprehension questions, you have to demonstrate that you understand the passage. Make sure you understand the question. If you misunderstand the question and fail to answer it, you will not score any marks. The teacher reminds the students of these points. She encourages the students to contribute as follows: 1. Students have to write their own answers to questions 2. Answers must be given in complete sentences in correct English. 3. Use your own words as far as possible; don’t just lift words from the passage.
Students pay attention. Students make contribution,
Class Discussion Questioning
173
Exploration
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher asks the students to turn to the reading passage. She asks the students to make a quick survey of the passage and the questions at the end of it.
Students turn to the reading passage and the questions at the end of the passage.
Class Survey
Application
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher asks the students to read the passage silently taking note of unfamiliar words and expressions
Students read silently Use dictionary to locate meanings of unfamiliar words and expressions.
Individuals Silent reading
Discussion
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher selects good readers to read aloud. The teacher makes input such as: Why did the author use “if” in the sentence “If I cut down the offending branch…”
Students pay attention. Students suggest answers to the question.
Class Loud reading Discussion
Evaluation
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher writes these questions on the board. 1. “If I cut down the offending branch…” a). What is the name of this grammatical expression as it is used in the passage? b). What is its function? 2. For each of the following words and expressions, find another word or phrase that means the same and can replace it as used in the passage. i. infringement ii. spell iii. endorse
Students answer the questions in their class work exercise books.
Individuals Writing
174
LESSON PLAN 5 FOR CONTROL GROUP
Subject: English Language
Class: SS2
Broad Area – Reading Comprehension
Topic – Passage on “Soap Stars at War”
Time – 1 Period of 40 minutes
Instructional Materials – Students’ Course-book: Senior English Project,
Dictionary, Electronic White Board.
Behavioural Objectives – At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Make inferences from the content of the passage.
2. Respond to the use of English expressions to reveal/reflect emotions, sentiments/
attitudes of the author.
3. Identify and explain basic literary terms and expressions.
4. Answer questions based on the facts of the passage.
Instructional Procedure:
Identification of Previous Knowledge
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher asks a question like this; Why am I reading a text as all reading has a purpose? She encourages the students to contribute answer such as: Possible purposes include: i. Searching for a specific piece of information ii. Surveying a text to get an overview, perhaps to decide whether the text deserves closer study iii. Studying the text and understanding the contents in details. iv. Skimming through the text to get the gist of it, perhaps because you are preparing for a test and time is short.
Students pay attention Students suggest possible reasons
Class Questioning Discussion
175
Exploration
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher asks the students to turn to the reading passage. She asks the students to go through the passage quickly.
Students turn to the reading passage. Students make a quick survey of the passage.
Class Survey
Application
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher asks the students to read the passage silently observing the arrangement of material before you. Mark unfamiliar words and expressions.
Students read the passage silently. Use dictionary to locate meanings of unfamiliar words.
Individual Silent reading
Discussion
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher selects good readers to read aloud in the class. Leads in the discussion of the individual paragraphs.
Students pay attention. Students contribute to the summary of the individual paragraphs.
Class Loud reading Discussion Explanation
Evaluation
Teacher’s Activities Students’ Activities Mode Techniques
The teacher writes the following questions on the board. Asks students to answer them in their class work exercise books. 1. What is the opinion of the writer on the Anglo-Dutch’s fortune? 2. Look at the sentence from the passage: At the moment, these two companies are battling each other with a high degree of venom”. a. Are the two companies literally “battling”? b. What normally has venom? What does “with a high degree of venom” mean here? Explain in your own words. c. What grammatical name is given to the expression with a high degree of venom” d. What is its function?
Students answer the questions in their English class work exercise book.
Individuals Writing
176
