DEIXIS REVEALING HANS CHRISTIAN ANDERSEN‟S LANGUAGE …

DEIXIS REVEALING

HANS CHRISTIAN ANDERSEN‟S LANGUAGE STYLE IN

“THE LITTLE MATCH SELLER”

AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra

in English Letters

By

ARIN OKTAVIANI PRASETYANING WIDI

Student Number: 174214098

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS

FACULTY OF LETTERS

UNIVERSITAS SANATA DHARMA

YOGYAKARTA

2021

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

i

DEIXIS REVEALING

HANS CHRISTIAN ANDERSEN‟S LANGUAGE STYLE IN

“THE LITTLE MATCH SELLER”

AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra

in English Letters

By

ARIN OKTAVIANI PRASETYANING WIDI

Student Number: 174214098

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS

FACULTY OF LETTERS

UNIVERSITAS SANATA DHARMA

YOGYAKARTA

2021


vi

Motto page

Philippians 4: 13

I Can Do All Things

through Christ Who

Strengthens Me


vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Praise to the Lord that I finally finished my undergraduate thesis. I could

not thank enough to people whose helps are really significant in the process of

writing the thesis. First of all, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my

thesis advisor and co advisor, Arina Isti‘anah, S.Pd., M.Hum and Dr. Fr. B. Alip,

M.Pd., M.A., who guided, supported, and assisted me to decide which path I

should take in terms of my educational journey at Universitas Sanata Dharma. I

thank them for their guidance, patience, wisdom, and time throughout the whole

process of finishing this research. And for my examiner, Anna Fitriati, S.Pd.,

M.Hum, I thank her for her guidance in finishing my final thesis. I would also say

my gratitude to all the staff of English Letters Faculty. I thank them for accepting

me in the first place and for all the facility that helps me finish my years of study

in this university.

My special gratitude goes to my beloved parents who never stop

believing on her daughter that everything is possible. My gratitude are also

dedicated to my best friends Nandha, Shafira, Elin, Lia, and Stefanny who always

there through ups and downs. Also, my high school‘s friends Ollie, Kidut, Sasa,

Bella, Dwi, Ade, Della. I am blessed that I am surrounded by another amazing

friends who help and support me that I could not mention one by one. Last but not

least, I would say sincerely my gratitude to my significant other, Fidelis Ian Puspa

Widais who encourage me to finish my study on time. I thank him for being my

living diary and my support system throughout the whole process.

Arin Oktaviani Prasetyaning Widi


viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ...................................................................................................... i

APPROVAL PAGE ........................................................................................... ii

ACCEPTANCE PAGE ..................................................................................... iii

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ................................................................. iv

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH

UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS ........................................................... v

MOTTO PAGE ................................................................................................. vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................. vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................ viii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................ x

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................ xi

ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................... xii

ABSTRAK ....................................................................................................... xiii

CHAPTER I : INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 1

A. Background of the Study ........................................................................... 1

B. Problem Formulation ................................................................................. 5

C. Objectives of the Study ............................................................................. 5

D. Definition of Terms ................................................................................... 5

CHAPTER II : REVIEW OF LITERATURE.................................................. 7

A. Review of Related Studies ......................................................................... 7

B. Review of Related Theories ..................................................................... 11

1. Stylistics .............................................................................................. 11

2. Deixis .................................................................................................. 15

3. Reference............................................................................................. 17

4. Language Style .................................................................................... 21

C. Theoretical Framework ........................................................................... 23

CHAPTER III : METHODOLOGY ............................................................... 25

A. Object of the Study .................................................................................. 25


ix

B. Approach of the Study ............................................................................. 26

C. Method of the Study ................................................................................ 27

1. Data Collection .................................................................................... 27

2. Data Analysis ...................................................................................... 28

CHAPTER IV : ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ..................... 28

A. The Types of Deixis and Its Reference in ―The Little Match Seller‖ Story

28

1. Types of Deixis in ―The Little Match Seller‖ ....................................... 30

2. Types of Reference in ―The Little Match Seller‖ .................................... 46

B. The Author‘s Language Style in Hans Christian Andersen‘s ―The Little

Match Seller‖ ................................................................................................. 50

CHAPTER V : CONCLUSION ...................................................................... 58

REFERENCES ................................................................................................ 60

APPENDICES .................................................................................................. 64

Appendix 1: Person Deixis in ―The Little Match Seller‖ Story .................... 64

Appendix 2: Place Deixis in ―The Little Match Seller‖ Story ...................... 64

Appendix 3: Time Deixis in ―The Little Match Seller‖ Story ...................... 65

Appendix 4: A Whole Story of ―The Little Match Seller‖ by Hans Christian

Andersen (1846) (Andersen, 2010, pp. 551–554) ........................................ 65


x

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

DS : Direct Speech

IS : Indirect Speech


xi

LIST OF TABLES

No. Table Page

1. Table 1. Stylistics: Level of Language 12

2. Table 2. Format for Presenting Type of Person Deixis 15

3. Table 3. Personal Reference 18

4 Table 4. The Types of Deixis Found in ―The Little Match Seller‖ Story 30

5. Table 5. Types of Person Deixis 31

6. Table 6. Types of Reference 46

7. Table 7. Deictic Expressions Referring to the Match Seller 47


xii

ABSTRACT

WIDI, ARIN OKTAVIANI PRASETYANING (2021). Deixis Revealing Hans

Christian Andersen‟s Language Style in “The Little Match Seller”.

Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Universitas Sanata

Dharma.

There were many forms of literature in this world. One of them was short

stories. In writing literary works, in this case short story, each author employed

different language style. Language style can be defined as the author‘s writing

style. In order to entertain the readers, certain language style was utilized by

certain authors. There were many famous short story authors and one of them was

Hans Christian Andersen. The researcher chose one of Hans Christian Andersen‘s

works entitled ―The Little Match Seller‖ as the object of the study. This study is

focused on the deixis used in the story to reveal Hans Christian Andersen‘s style.

The researcher formulated two research problems in this study. The first

one dealt with the types of deixis used in the story along with its reference. The

second problem aimed to reveal the language style used by Hans Christian

Andersen in writing ―The Little Match Seller‖ short story as seen from the deixis

found.

A stylistic approach in pragmatics level was applied in this study in order

to figure out the author‘s language style by analyzing the types of deixis and

reference in the story. Since the research dealt with how the deixis was depicted

to reveal the author‘s language style, therefore this study was a qualitative

research. The data collected qualitatively to classify which phrases and words in

the sentences in the story to interpret the language style used by the author.

The results of the study showed two findings. The first one was, there

were three types of deixis found in the story which are person deixis, time deixis

and place deixis. The second one was the author‘s language style were indirect

and less detailed. The style is indirect because the author used third-person

pronouns in telling the story, while the less detailed style was identified from the

lacks of basic detail such as character‘s name, the exact location, and the exact

time of the story.

Keywords: deixis, stylistics, language style


xiii

ABSTRAK

WIDI, ARIN OKTAVIANI PRASETYANING (2021). Deixis Revealing Hans

Christian Andersen‟s Language Style in “The Little Match Seller”.

Yogyakarta: Program Studi Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata

Dharma.

Ada banyak bentuk sastra di dunia ini. Salah satunya adalah cerita

pendek. Dalam menulis karya sastra, dalam hal ini cerpen, gaya bahasa yang

digunakan masing-masing pengarang berbeda-beda. Gaya bahasa dapat diartikan

sebagai gaya penulisan pengarang. Untuk menghibur pembaca, gaya bahasa

tertentu digunakan oleh penulis tertentu. Ada banyak penulis cerita pendek

terkenal dan salah satunya adalah Hans Christian Andersen. Peneliti memilih

salah satu karya Hans Christian Andersen yang berjudul ―The Little Match Seller‖

sebagai objek penelitian. Studi ini difokuskan pada deiksis yang digunakan dalam

cerita untuk mengungkap gaya Hans Christian Andersen.

Peneliti merumuskan dua masalah penelitian dalam penelitian ini. Yang

pertama berhubungan dengan jenis deiksis yang digunakan dalam cerita beserta

referensinya. Yang kedua bertujuan untuk mengungkap gaya bahasa yang

digunakan oleh Hans Christian Andersen dalam menulis cerpen ―The Little Match

Seller‖ dilihat dari deiksis yang ditemukan.

Pendekatan stilistika pada tataran pragmatis diterapkan dalam penelitian

ini untuk mengetahui gaya bahasa pengarang dengan menganalisis jenis deiksis

dan referensi dalam cerita. Karena penelitian ini membahas bagaimana deiksis

digambarkan untuk mengungkap gaya bahasa pengarang, maka penelitian ini

merupakan penelitian kualitatif. Pengumpulan data dilakukan secara kualitatif

untuk mengklasifikasikan frasa dan kata mana dalam kalimat pada cerita untuk

menafsirkan gaya bahasa yang digunakan oleh penulis.

Hasil penelitian menunjukkan dua temuan. Yang pertama adalah, ada tiga

jenis deiksis yang ditemukan dalam cerita yaitu deiksis persona, deiksis waktu dan

deiksis tempat. Yang kedua adalah gaya bahasa pengarang tidak langsung dan

kurang detail. Gaya tidak langsung karena pengarang menggunakan kata ganti

orang ketiga dalam bercerita, sedangkan gaya yang kurang detail diidentifikasi

dari kurangnya detail dasar seperti nama tokoh, lokasi tepatnya, dan waktu yang

tepat. cerita.

Kata kunci: deixis, stylistics, language style


1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study

There are many forms of literature in this world. One of them is short

story. Short stories are very popular for ages across the globe. Short story is

usually concerned with a single effect conveyed in only one or a few significant

episodes and scenes (Hansen, 1999). The setting of a short story is often

simplified and only includes few characters that introduced without full

backstories. Unlike novels, typically, short stories focus on a single plot. Short

stories tend to be simpler than novels. Novels have complex plots that involve

many characters. Short stories usually only focus on a certain occasion in a short

period of time.

Short stories have been known vastly all around the globe. There are

many famous short story authors. One of them is Hans Christian Andersen. Hans

Christian Andersen was a Danish author who was famous during Victorian era.

Victorian era is an era during the reign of Queen Victoria until the day she died

(1837-1901). The period was named after the queen‘s name. Hans Christian

Andersen was born on April 2, 1805, and died on August 4, 1875, at the age of 70.

Andersen has written many short stories. There are 156 stories across

nine volumes and translated into more than 125 languages (‗Hans Christian

Andersen : Fairy tales‘, 2019). His most remarkable works are ―The Little

Mermaid‖, “The Red Shoes‖, ―The Snow Queen‖, ―The Ugly Duckling‖, ―The


2

Little Match Girl/Seller‖, and many more. He is well-known for his tragic-end

kind of story. One of the examples of his story that has tragic ending is ―The Little

Match Seller‖. In his blog, Umbach (2009) states that Hans Christian Andersen

got the inspiration to write ―The Little Match Seller‖ from an illustration of a poor

child selling matches that was printed in an 1843 calendar. ―The Little Match

Seller‖ is one of Hans Christian Andersen fairy tales as listed on ―Fairy Tales of

Hans Christian Andersen‖ book (Andersen, 2010, pp. 551–554).

―The Little Match Seller‖ is a story about a little girl who sells matches

on a cold evening on a New Year‘s Eve to earn money. The story mentions that

she lives with her mother and abusive father after her grandmother, the only one

who loves and cares for her, died. She carries some matches and no one has

bought anything of her, nor has given her a penny. She dares not go home for she

has sold no matches and cannot bring a penny of money. In the cold and the

darkness, she is freezing to death as she walks with nothing to cover her head and

feet. Unable to endure the cold, the poor little girl decides to light one of the

matches to feel a little warmth in the freezing evening. When she does so, she

encounters several magical events. She saw visions of a delicious food, Christmas

tree, and the most magical of all; her grandmother. In the end, the poor little child

has been frozen to death on the last evening of the year.

Both ―The Little Match Seller‖ story and the author have been known

widely through decades. Previously, there are several researchers who have

conducted researches using ―The Little Match Seller‖ story or other Andersen‘s

story as the object of the study. Saputri (2020) conducted a research focused on a


3

syntactic analysis of ―The Little Match Girl,‖ based on Wittgenstein‘s language

games and private language theories. Another research conducted by Hidayat

(2016). In his research, the researcher analyzed the cohesive grammatical device,

especially the reference of a short story written by Hans Christian Andersen

entitled ―The Little Match Girl.‖ Capano (2012) also conducted a research using

―The Little Match Seller/Girl‖ story. In the study, Capano compared the two

stories by Hans Christian Andersen ―The Little Match Girl‖ and ―The Little

Match Girl with Passion‖ by David Lang. Herman, Sihombing and Thao (2018)

conducted a research using Hans Christian Andersen‘s ―Thumbelina.‖ The

research aimed to investigate the use of discourse markers in written fairy tale.

Saipul and Setyorini (2016) also contributed to do a research using Hans Christian

Andersen‘s creature. In their study, the researchers scrutinized the symbols of

gender-stereotype in ―Little Mermaid‖ by Hans Christian Andersen. Therefore,

the present study offers something different because the researcher analyzes the

use of deixis in the story to reveal the author‘s style.

In this research, the researcher decided to analyze the use of deixis

revealing the author‘s style, which is Hans Christian Andersen, using ―The Little

Match Seller‖ story. The researcher employs stylistics approach in analyzing the

data. Stylistics can be defined as a critical approach which uses the linguistics

methods and findings in analyzing the literary texts (Barry, 2002). Stylistics

developed in the twentieth century and its purpose is to show how the technical

linguistics features of a literary work, such as the grammatical structure of its

sentences, contribute to its overall meanings and effects (Barry, 2002). Style in


4

writing is very important since every author has their own style. Style is

considered as everything that gives uniqueness and individual ‗flavor‘ to a

particular text (Gould & Rankin, 2014, p. 4). To reveal the Andersen‘s style, the

researcher collects all words and phrases that contain deixis (person, place and

time).

Deixis or deictic expression is pointing or indicating via language.

According to Yule (2006), there are 3 types of indexical: Person deixis, spatial

deixis, and temporal deixis. In ―The Little Match Seller‖ story, the author also

uses this kind of expression. For instance, ―It was terribly cold and nearly dark on

the last evening of the old year, and the snow was falling fast.‖ The word ―it‖

there referring to the circumstance on that day. We can easily interpret it because

we know the context the author is trying to explain. It explains that on that

evening was cold because the snow was falling and dark because it is already

evening. Another example, ―The snowflakes fell on her long fair hair, which hung

in pretty curls over her neck.‖ The pronoun ―her‖ in the above sentence is a noun

phrase and is a person deixis that refers to the little match seller.

The study was worth analyzing because the research had not conducted

yet previously. The researcher analyzed Hans Christian Andersen‘s style in ―The

Little Match Seller‖ using deictic expression point of view. The researcher chose

―The Little Match Seller‖ story by Hans Christian Andersen because there were

many phrases and words that contained deictic expression and could be analyzed

using stylistics point of view to reveal the Hans Christian Andersen‘s style.


5

Therefore, hopefully this research was expected to contribute the knowledge in

stylistics and deictic expressions for the future research.

B. Problem Formulation

Based on the background of the study, the researcher formulates the

research questions of the present study as follows:

1. How are deictic expressions used in ―The Little Match Seller‖ by Hans

Christian Andersen?

2. What is the language style of Hans Christian Andersen in the story like?

C. Objectives of the Study

This research aimed to reveal Hans Christian Andersen‘s style in ―The

Little Match Seller‖ story using deictic expression found in the story. First of all,

the researcher would collect all words and phrases that contained deixis (person,

time, and space). The data would help the researcher to investigate which deixis

was used by Hans Christian Andersen in writing ―The Little Match Seller.‖

Second, the researcher was able to make an analysis on language style used by

Hans Christian Andersen from the data taken.

D. Definition of Terms

In this section, the definition of several terms will be explained in order

to avoid misunderstanding. There are three terms that will be explained below,

they are style, stylistics, and deixis.


6

The first term is style. Without specific reference to language, style is a

language which we use commonly in our everyday conversation and writing and it

occurs so naturally and frequently (Verdonk, 2002). Meanwhile, style in language

can be defined as distinctive linguistic expression (Verdonk, 2002, p. 3). The

ingredients that make up style in language will include: the grammar, vocabulary,

syntax, choice of tense, variety of sentences and many more (Gould & Rankin,

2014, p. 4).

The definition of stylistics is the second. Verdonk (2002) defines

stylistics as the study of style means ―the analysis of distinctive expression in

language and the description of its purpose and effect‖ (Verdonk, 2002, p. 4).

Thus, in stylistics, we discuss about the way in which something is done and

presented.

The third term is deixis. According to Yule (2006), expression such as

yesterday, tomorrow, and this city are examples of language that we can only

understand in terms of the speaker‘s intended meaning. Those expressions known

as deictic expression from the Greek word deixis, which means ―pointing‖ via

language (Yule, 2006). Therefore, deixis is an expression which uses general

words to refer to a specific person, time, and place.


7

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter is divided into three sections. The review of related studies

will be on the first section. There are three journal articles and one undergraduate

study that are going to be discussed. The researcher relates those studies in order

to support the discussion. The second section is review of related theories. It

provides theories that are needed for analyzing the problems. And theoretical

framework is for the third section. This section explains the contribution of the

theories mentioned and reviews in solving the problems of the study.

A. Review of Related Studies

In this section, the researcher discusses the four studies that are

previously done by other researchers and are related to the present study. A

review of related studies has a significant role in research. Since this research

cannot stand without any references, therefore related studies can assist to make

this study more reliable and accurate.

The first related study is by Saputri (2020). In her study entitled ―The

Analysis of Language Games and Private Languages on Hans Christian Andersen

(The Little Match Girl),‖ she conducted research focused on a syntactical analysis

of ―The Little Match Girl,‖ based on Wittgenstein‘s language games and private

language theories. She applied descriptive qualitative method also documentation

and observation methods to collect data. In her study, the researcher analyzed by


8

using grammar rules then presented in form of tables. The result shows that some

sentences do not comply with the grammatical rules. In conclusion, Hans

Christian Andersen has his own specific private languages. Therefore, some of the

writings do not follow the grammatical rules because it is part of poetical license.

Saputri‘s journal article and this study use the same object to analyze,

which is ―The Little Match Seller/Girl‖ short story by Hans Christian Andersen.

The difference is that Saputri applied syntactic as the main approach. Also, she

analyzed the grammar presented in the sentences of the story. Meanwhile, the

present study applies stylistics as the main approach. As well, this research

discusses what style that is used by Hans Christian Andersen as seen from deixis

point of view.

The second related study is conducted by Hidayat (2016). His research

entitled ―An Analysis of Grammatical Cohesive Device of the Short Story the

Little Match Girl by Hans Christian Andersen 2016/2017.‖ In his research, the

researcher focused on the grammatical cohesive device. He analyzed the reference

of a short story written by Hans Christian Andersen entitled ―The Little Match

Girl.‖ The research is done by analyzing the story by locating the references used

in the story. Then, calculating the amount of the references and determining the

type of references found in two categories, anaphoric and cataphoric references. In

conclusion, the researcher found that the short story contained 87 references,

which 81 references were anaphoric category and 6 references were cataphoric

category.


9

Hidayat also used the same title of story by Hans Christian Andersen,

which is ―The Little Match Seller/Girl‖ as his object of study. What differs his

study and this study is the approach applied. Hidayat applied discourse analysis

approach while this study is stylistics. In Hidayat‘s, he focused on the cohesive

device while the present study focuses on the deixis used that reveal Andersen‘s

style.

The third related study is conducted by Panggabean (2018). In his journal

article entitled ―Deictic Expression in Nasreddin‘s Selected Stories,‖ he discussed

deictic expressions or deixis in story book of ―Nasreddin, A Man with Thousands

of Ideas.‖ The book was written by Sugeng Hariyanto and was published in 1995.

Panggabean applied a qualitative research and used theory of deixis by Yule to

analyze the data. The data were limited to the words or phrases that contain deixis

in the book. His research aimed to identify the type of deixis and explain the

references.

The similarities between Panggabean‘s and mine are the theory used,

which is theory of deixis. However, Panggabean also analyzed the references,

while this research is not. This research analyzes the author‘s style right after

collecting all the words and phrases containing deictic expressions. Another

difference is the object used. This research uses ―The Little Match Seller‖ story by

Hans Christian Andersen while Panggabean used selected stories from ―Nasreddin,

A Man with Thousands Ideas‖ book by Nasreddin Hodja.

The fourth related study is by Dhewanggi (2020). The researher used

Hans Christian Andersen‘s story as her undergraduate thesis object. The title of


10

her undergraduate thesis is ―Phrases in Setting of Place and Time to Show

language Style in Hans Christian Andersen‘s Translated Short Stories ―What the

Old Man Does Is Always Right‖ and ―The Ugly Duckling‖.‖ In her study, the

researcher identified Andersen‘s language style in ―What the Old Man Does is

Always Right‖ and ―The Ugly Duckling‖ translated version. The researcher

focused on the phrases in setting of place and time. There are two problems

presented in her study. The first one is the types of phrases that are used in the

setting of place and time in the two stories. The second is analyzing the language

style used by Andersen as seen from the setting of place and time. The researcher

found that the author‘s language style is simple and direct. The simple style is

identified from the structure of the phrase, while the direct style is identified from

the word choice in describing the setting of place and time (p. xiii).

Between Dorothea‘s study and the present study, the similarities are

found in the topic about the style used by Hans Christian Andersen and the

approach applied, which is stylistics. The differences are the object of the study

and the data collected. In Dorothea‘s undergraduate thesis, she collected the

phrases of setting of place and time in ―What the Old Man Does is Always Right‖

and ―The Ugly Duckling‖ translated version. Meanwhile, this research collected

the phrases and words that contain deixis (person, time and time) in a short story

entitled ―The Little Match Seller.‖

The present study took different linguistic features to analyze as well as a

different object from the same author who is Hans Christian Andersen. The four

previous studies mentioned above show that the present study has not been


11

conducted yet before. None of the previous studies above discuss the author‘s

style as seen from the deictic expression in Hans Christian Andersen‘s ―The Little

Match Seller.‖ Therefore, this research is worth analyzing because it discovers

new findings. Therefore, this research is expected to contribute more in

understanding stylistics knowledge for future research.

B. Review of Related Theories

The researcher explains some related theories needed for this research in

this part. To solve the problem formulations in this study, there are four major

theories applied, they are stylistics, deictic expression or deixis, reference, and

language style.

1. Stylistics

Barry (2002) states, stylistics is a critical approach which uses the

methods and linguistics findings in a literary text analysis. Stylistics also can be

defined as the study of the ways in which meaning is created through language in

literature as well as in other types of text (Nørgaard, Montoro, & Busse, 2010).

Basically, stylistics is a ―study of style‖ in language which the goal is ―explaining

the relation between language and artistic function‖ (Leech, 2007, p. 11).

Different author has different style as well in creating literary works. That is what

make each literary work is unique.

Simpson (2004, p. 3) asserts that doing stylistics analysis enriches our

ways of thinking about language and, as observed, exploring language offers a

better understanding of literary texts. Simpson also introduces us a list of seven


12

levels of language and its technical terms relations in study of language in the

following table below.

Table 1. Stylistics: Levels of Language

Level of language Branch of language study

The sound of spoken language; the

way words are pronounced. Phonology; phonetics

The patterns of written language;

the shape of language on the page. Graphology

The way words are constructed;

words and their constituent

structures.

Morphology

The way words combine with other

words to form phases and

sentences.

Syntax; grammar

The words we use; the vocabulary

of a language. Lexical analysis; lexicology

The meaning of words and

sentences. Semantics

The way words and sentences are

used in everyday situations; the

meaning of language in context.

Pragmatics; discourse analysis.

Table 2 displays the majors of levels of language and the brief

explanation of the levels. There are seven levels of language in stylistics that are

interconnected that can assist the researcher organize and shape a stylistics

analysis. Among the seven levels of language, this research focuses on the

pragmatics levels because the main topic of this research is about deictic

expression or deixis. Deictic expression or deixis is one of the branches of


13

pragmatics. Pragmatics can be defined as the study of what the speakers mean; the

study of the speaker meanings; the study of contextual meanings; and the

interpretation of linguistic meaning in context (Yule, 2006).

Pragmatics deals with the study of meaning as communicated by a

speaker or writer and interpreted by a listener or reader (Yule, 2006). For instance,

he hand a jar to his son (Panggabean, 2018, p. 189). The previous sentence is

vague. We do not know who is talking to whom. Thus, pragmatics exists as the

bridge. The meaning of the sentence can be interpreted by using deixis. ―The

person deixis ‗his‘ refers to the subject ‗he‘ and it is also categorized into the

singular third person because it refers to someone who is not identified as a

speaker‖ (Panggabean, 2018, p. 189).

Reading a story is not only a matter of understanding what is told, but

also how it is told. In other words, the author‘s perspective or point of view and

narration also play a significant role in a story. Theory of narration and point of

view also come under stylistics area. Verdonk (2002) states that a participant role

within the fictional context and adopts a subjective perspective on events assumed

as the first-person narrator. On the other hand, the non-participant role of observer

and adopts an objective point of view is taken up by the third-person narrator.

Leech and Short (2007) compare the character talk in the novel with

everyday conversation in order to see the contributions to speech exchanges are

interpreted by the reader. He uses direct and indirect speech (DS and IS) as

example of the presentation of speech. For example:

[1] He said, „I‟ll come back here to see you again tomorrow.‘ (DS)


14

[2] He said that he would return there to see her the following day. (IS)

(‗Leech & Short‘, 2007, pp. 255–6)

There are some shifts in the deictic from DS to TS. The person deixis ‗I‘ changes

into ‗he‘, ‗you‘ into ‗her‘ as well as the time deixis ‗tomorrow‘ into ‗the following

day‘.

―The effect of these changes is to remove all those features which are directly

related to the embedded speech situation only and to subordinate the reported

speech to the verb of saying in the primary speech situation‖ (‗Leech & Short‘,

2007., p. 256). On the other hand, the changes in IS affect the speech situation but

not change the meaning. In the IS, the first-person pronoun changes into third-

person pronoun. Later, the researcher found ―The Little Match Seller‖ story is the

same. The author mostly uses third-person pronoun to refer to the match seller.

Such phenomenon can be occurred when IS is used to report speech by the person

who is reporting the conversation intervenes as an interpreter between the person

he/she is talking to (‗Leech & Short‘, 2007). In other words, the shifts of a

perspective influence the shift of the deixis. However, some relevant deixis can

then remain unchanged. For instance, if ‗I‘ll come back here to see you again

tomorrow‘ has been uttered in a hospital and the person who is reporting that

utterance to someone else is doing so on the same day and in the same building,

his utterance of ‗He said that he would come back here to see her again tomorrow‘

would correctly report that utterance in indirect speech because the ‗nearness‘

indicators (here, tomorrow) would be relevant to the primary speech situation

(‗Leech & Short‘, 2007, p. 256).


15

2. Deixis

A deictic expression or deixis can be defined as a word or phrase (such

as this, that, these, those, now, then, here) that points to the time, place, or

situation in which a speaker is speaking. Deixis is expressed in English by way

of personal pronouns, demonstratives, adverbs, and tense (Nordquist, 2020).

According to Yule (2006), there are 3 types of indexical: Person deixis,

spatial deixis, and temporal deixis used to point to time (now, then, tomorrow).

a. Personal Deixis

Personal deixis which is also known as person deixis, used to point to

things (these apples, this, it) and person (him, her, them). According to Levinson

(p. 62), ―person deixis concerns the encoding of the role of participants in the

speech event in which the utterance in question is delivered.‖ Person deixis is

divided into 3 categories: first-person, second-person, and third-person.

First-person is the grammaticalization of the speaker‘s reference to

him/herself. Second-person is the encoding of reference to one or more

addresses. And third-person is the encoding of reference to persons and

entities which are neither speakers nor addressees of the utterance in

question. (p. 62)

Here are some kinds of person deixis according to Cruse (2000, p. 320):

Table 2. Format for Presenting Type of Person Deixis

Singular Plural

First-person I/me We/us

Second-person You You

Third-person He/him, she/her, it They/them


https://www.thoughtco.com/personal-pronoun-1691616

https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-demonstrative-in-grammar-1690433

https://www.thoughtco.com/tense-grammar-1692532

16

An example that is taken from Panggabean‘s journal article (2018, p. 190), you

are not wise, Nasreddin. The person deixis ‗you‘ refers to Nasreddin and it is

categorized as singular second person and it is identified as a speaker

(Panggabean, 2018).

b. Spatial Deixis

Spatial deixis or place deixis used to point to a location. Spatial or place

deixis concerns the specification of locations relative to anchorage points in the

speech event (Levinson, 1983, p. 79). The adverbs here, there and the

demonstrative pronouns this, that are pure place-deictic words. For example, put it

here and I am waiting there. Levinson (p. 80) states that the adverbs here and

there are often thought of as simple contrasts on a proximal or distal dimension, as

in bring that here and take it there. Another example is found in ―Eat, Pray, Love‖

novel in a research by Sridana (2014, p. 5), they are: East, There, and Here from

―When the medieval Crusaders drove east for the holy wars, they witnessed

worshippers praying with these Japa malas, admired the technique, and brought

the idea home to Europe as rosary.‖ The researcher states that the place deixis

concerned to the encoding of spatial location of the participants in the speech

event (Sridana, 2014, p. 5).

c. Temporal Deixis

Temporal or time deixis used to point time. Spatial prepositions such as

in, on, at and by have developed into temporal meaning. For example, ‗in the

afternoon‘, ‗on Monday‘, ‗at night‘, and ‗by the evening.‘ Levinson (p. 73) states

in his book that there are the numbers of aspects of pure time deixis, where there


17

is no direct interaction with non-deictic methods of time reckoning. For instance,

adverbs like now, then, soon, recently and so on. Another example is taken from

―The Fault in Our Stars‖ novel by John Green in a research conducted by Putri

and Budiarsa (2018, p. 701). ―I‟m a lot better now.‖ The utterance is said by Hazel,

one of the characters in the novel. The time adverbial now is a temporal deixis

which indicates the speaker is trying to oppose her present situation. In the novel,

Hazel is terminally ill. The utterance above was when she talks to Isaac at the

Cancer Support Group meeting.

3. Reference

We cannot discuss deixis without discussing reference. Reference can be

defined as an act by which a speaker or writer uses language to enable a listener or

reader to identify something (Yule, 2006). An act of reference can be in the form

of proper nouns (Jennifer, Whiskas, and Shakespeare), other nouns in phrases (my

father, the box, the author) or pronouns (he, she, it). A successful reference must

recognize the role of inference since there is no direct connection between entities

and words. The listener has task to infer correctly which entity the speaker intends

to identify by using particular referring expression (Alfikasari, 2011).

There are exophora (situational) and endophora (textual) reference. When

there is no previous mention of the referent in the text, dependent on the context

outside the text for its meaning, therefore it is called exophoric reference. When

we find pronouns refer to items within the same text, we can call it endophoric

reference. The endophora reference is divided again into anaphoric (to preceding

text) and cataphoric (to following text). Anaphoric is referring to something that


18

has been mentioned previously in the text. And cataphoric is referring to

something that is not mentioned clearly at the beginning of the text.

According to Halliday and Hasan (1976, p. 37), there are three types of

reference, they are personal, demonstrative and comparative.

a. Personal Reference

Personal reference is reference by means of function in the speech

situation (Halliday & Hasan, 1976, p. 37). The personal category includes the

three classes of personal pronouns, possessive determiners or possessive

adjectives, and possessive pronouns. Different classes with diverse structural roles

may cause no general name for this category (Halliday & Hasan, 1976, p. 43).

Table 3. Personal Reference (Halliday & Hasan, 1976, p. 44)

Speech roles Other roles

Speaker Addressee

Specific

Generalized

Human Human

Non-

human

One I me

mine my you you

yours your

he him

his his it it

[its] its one one

- One‘s

she her

hers her

More than

one

we, us,

ours, our they them theirs their

Those items all belong to reference; they refer to something by

specifying its function or role in the speech situation (Halliday & Hasan, 1976).

The system of reference above is known as person, where ‗person‘ is used in the

special sense of ‗role‘; the traditionally recognized categories are first person,


19

second person, and third person, intersecting with the number categories of

singular and plural (Halliday & Hasan, 1976, p. 44).

―The significance of the person system is that it is the means of referring

to relevant persons and objects, making use of a small set of options centering

around the particular nature of their relevance to the speech situation‖ (Halliday &

Hasan, 1976, p. 45). The principal distinction is that between the persons defined

by their roles in the communication process, on the one hand, and all other entities

on the other (Halliday & Hasan, 1976, p. 45). The former that we call speech

roles; they are the roles of speaker and addressee. These are the two roles assigned

by the speaker and we use ‗addressee‘ in preference to ‗hearer‘ or ‗listener‘ to

suggest the meaning ‗person designated by the speaker as recipient of the

communication‘ –as distinction from one who chooses to listen or happens to hear

(Halliday & Hasan, 1976, p. 45). The latter, which we call other role, include all

other relevant entities other than speaker or addressee (Halliday & Hasan, 1976).

In terms of the traditional categories of person, the distinction is that between first

and second person on the other hand (I, you, we) and third person on the other (he,

she, it, they, one) (Halliday & Hasan, 1976).

b. Demonstrative Reference

Demonstrative reference is a form of verbal pointing (Halliday & Hasan,

1976). The speaker identifies the referent by locating it on a scale of proximity.

Here, there, now and then are the circumstantial (adverbial) demonstratives which

refer to the location of a process in space or time. They typically function as

adjuncts in the clause, not as elements within the nominal group. They have a


20

secondary function as qualifier, as in that man there. This, these, that, those, and

the which are the remaining (nominal) demonstratives, refer to the location of

some things, typically some entity - person or object - that is participating in the

process; they occur as elements within the nominal group. They belong to the

determiners, and have the experiential function of deictic; in the logical structure

they function either as modifier or as head, with the exception of the which is a

modifier only. In this respect the nominal demonstratives resemble the

possessives, which can also function either as modifier or as head, although unlike

the possessives, the demonstratives have only one form- there is no distinction

between demonstrative determiner and demonstrative pronoun corresponding to

that between possessive determiner (e.g.: your) and possessive pronoun (e.g.:

yours) (Halliday & Hasan, 1976, pp. 57–58).

c. Comparative Reference

Comparative reference is divided into two, general comparison and

particular comparison. General comparison means comparison that is simply in

terms of likeness and unlikeness, without respect to any particular property

(Halliday & Hasan, 1976, p. 77). It is expressed by a certain class of adjectives

and adverbs (bigger, better, faster, more quickly) (Halliday & Hasan, 1976, p. 77).

Particular comparison means comparison that is in respect of quantity or

quality. It is also expressed by adjectives or adverbs but in ordinary adjectives and

adverbs, unlike general comparison (e.g. more in more cards, better in the others

performed better) (Halliday & Hasan, 1976, p. 77).


21

4. Language Style

Language has a significant role in human life. It is used to communicate

with each other. Without language, it would be difficult in sharing our opinions to

others. Language used by certain people may vary. Besides for communication,

people might use language for write stories. The beauty of a literary work is

closely related to the language style used by the author. Therefore, language is the

important component in a variety of language (Jamil, 2018).

Style can be considered as the way writer writes. It means that the

uniqueness of a certain literary work depends on the author language style. Style

can be defined as an individual ‗flavor‘ (Gould & Rankin, 2014). The materials

needed to make up a style in language are the grammar, vocabulary, choice of

tense, syntax, register, and many more (Gould & Rankin, 2014). To understand

the particular style of a text, it is also helpful for the reader to explore the purpose

of the texts (e.g. to persuade, inform or describe), the context of the text, and the

reader at whom the text is aimed (Gould & Rankin, 2014, p. 4).

According to Jamil (2018), language style is the element and kind of

utterance that describe the sentence in speaking the ways that the author uses

words. A good style contains three elements, including honesty, courtesy and

interesting (Jamil, 2018, p. 191). Eckert (2001, p. 1) asserts that ―style is the locus

of the individual‘s internalizations of broader social distribution of variation.‖

However, ‗style‘ is the linguistic characteristics of a particular text (Leech &

Short, 2007). It means that the style study should rely on particular text to figure

out the generalization of an author‘s language (Isti‘anah, Krismarini, & Putri,


22

2020). Barry (2002, p. 207) claims that ―stylisticians try to provide ‗hard‘ data to

support existing ‗instuitions‘ about a literary work.‖ In other words, hard data is

observable that is provided to support the existing ‗intuitions‘ in the literary works

(Dhewanggi, 2020, p. 57). For instance, in reading a short story, stylisticians

cannot simply utter that the author has a plain language style. The stylisticians try

to be more specific about what they mean about plain style. Also, what linguistics

feature that makes the language style plain. There might be a comparison with

other author‘s work. We can consider that hard data is data or information that can

be proven (Dhewanggi, 2020, p. 57). A famous author that is known as his plain

style but al so very distinctive is Hemingway (Barry, 2002). Barry says that

Hemingway avoids descriptive words like adverbs and adjectives. Where another

author might write something like ‗Joe drove carefully through the heavy traffic‘

Hemingway will omit the adverb ‗carefully‘ and adjective ‗heavy‘. So the

sentence will go ‗Joe drove through the traffic‘ (Barry, 2002).

The use of style in language is based on certain intentions. Also, it can

cause effects towards the addressees (Pionery & Isti‘anah, 2017, p. 24). Verdonk

mentions that addresses might be influenced and interested emotionally by using

certain style. In other words, Verdonk argues that language may have power that

influences the reader‘s or hearer‘s emotion (Verdonk, 2002, p. 6). Aflahah (2017)

asserts that language style is one of the elements that build a story. The style of

language actually contained in all kinds of languages such as spoken and written

form, or literary and non-literary form (Aflahah, 2017). ―Language styling is

referred to language which has been mixed with stylistics elements, especially a


23

figure of speech or language style‖ (Aflahah, 2017, p. 87). In other words,

stylistics is a branch of applied linguistic which provides a way to understand the

theory and formal analysis of literary text (Aflahah, 2017, p. 87).

C. Theoretical Framework

There are two research problems formulated in the present study. There

are several theories used to examine the problems. Basically, this research focuses

on the deictic expression used in ―The Little Match Seller‖ story by Hans

Christian Andersen. The deictic expression is used to reveal the author‘s style.

The researcher applied stylistics approach to solve the problems in this

research. Stylistics is the main theory to point out Hans Christian Andersen‘s

language style in writing ―The Little Match Seller‖ story. The second theory is

deictic expression or deixis. The theory of deixis is applied to reveal the author‘s

style. The researcher analyzed the most dominant type of deixis to figure out

Andersen‘s style. Then, the theory of reference is included since it cannot be

separated from deixis. Reference and deixis are interconnected, it assists what the

deixis refers to. Reference is tightly tied to the speaker‘s goals and the speaker‘s

belief in the use of language (Alfikasari, 2011, p. 23). Therefore, theory of

reference is necessary. Furthermore, theory of language style is employed to

support the findings and discussions.

Overall, the theories applied for the first problem, which is to find the

types of deictic expression in Hans Christian Andersen‘s ―The Little Match Seller‖

is deictic expression theory. There are three kinds of deictic expression, they are


24

person deixis, time deixis, and place deixis. Meanwhile, for the second research

question, which is to find the style of Hans Christian Andersen‘s language in a

story entitled ―The Little Match Seller‖ is stylistics and language style theory.


25

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

There are three sections discussed in this chapter. The first section is

object of the study. It discusses the object chosen by the researcher in this study.

The second section is the approach of the study. The second section contains the

discussion about the approach employed in this study. The third section is method

of the study which later divided into two sub-chapters; data collection and data

analysis.

A. Object of the Study

The object chosen by the researcher in this study is a short story by Hans

Christian Andersen entitled ―The Little Match Seller‖. The story was first

published on 1846 in Dansk Folkekalender (‗The Little Match Girl‘, 2020). Its

original Danish title wass ―Den Lille Pie med Svovlstikkerne‖ which meant ―The

Little Girl with the Matchsticks‖ (‗The Little Match Girl‘, 2020). Nowadays, it is

known as ―The Little Match Girl‖ or ―The Little Match Seller.‖ It has been

adapted to a British short silent drama film directed by James Williamson on 1902.

The researcher retrieved the story script from

http://hca.gilead.org.il/li_match.html. The story was also written in a book entitled

―Fairy Tales of Hans Christian Andersen‖ (Andersen, 2010, pp. 551–554) which

contained the Andersen‘s fairy tales collections and one of them was ―The Little


http://hca.gilead.org.il/li_match.html

26

Match Seller‖. This study concerned about deictic expression or deixis in ―The

Little Match Seller‖ short story to reveal the author‘s style. The linguistic units

analyzed in this study are phrases and words in the sentences. Among all of Hans

Christian Andersen‘s works, the researcher decided to choose ―The Little Match

Seller‖ story because the story contains many words or phrases that contain

deictic expressions. Moreover, what sparks the researcher interest is the research

has not been conducted previously.

B. Approach of the Study

This study comes under the area of stylistics which is defined as study of

style. According to Simpson (2004, p. 2), ―stylistic is a method of textual

interpretation in which primacy of place is assigned to language‖. Simpson also

says that ―the reason why language is so important to stylisticians is because the

various forms, patterns and levels that constitute linguistic structure are an

important index of the function of the text‖ (2004, p. 2). Thus, stylistics approach

is the most suitable to be used as the core of the study. This study analyzed the

language style used by the author as seen from the deixis patterns that lies in the

story. Also, the research was in pragmatics levels of language because it was

focused on deixis which belong to pragmatics area.

Furthermore, Verdonk (2002) asserts that language style is the choice of

words used by someone or certain group of people when they speak or write. In

writing short story, the style of language used by the authors reveal the different

expressions to convey the content of the story itself. Therefore, this study is


27

purposed to reveal Hans Christian Andersen style as seen from its deictic

expressions.

C. Method of the Study

In the following, the present researcher would like describe the method

used in the research including the data collection and the data analysis. The

methods are described as follows.

1. Data Collection

The object of this study is the deictic expression mentioned in ―The Little

Match Seller‖ short story by Hans Christian Andersen. The researcher applied

qualitative research in this study since the study dealt with how the deictic

expressions build the author‘s style. Qualitative research is a research that focuses

on structures and patterns (Flick, Kardorff, & Steinke, 2004). The data will be

collected qualitatively to find which phrases and words in the story that contain

deixis.

The method used by the researcher to collect the data was population

study. According to Kabir in Dhewanggi‘s research (2020, p. 25), population is

the number of things which are desired for information. Population means ―a

complete set of elements (persons or objects) that possess some common

characteristic defined by the sampling criteria established by the researcher‖

(‗Population and Sampling‘, n.d.). Therefore, population study included the entire

people or objects to which the researcher wishes to generalize the study findings

(‗Population and Sampling‘, n.d.). In this study, the population was the deixis


28

found in the short story entitled ―The Little Match Seller‖ by Hans Christian

Andersen. The researcher included all of the sentences that contained deixis. The

researcher employed this method because the researcher tried to figure out the

language style used by the author. Among all of the short stories by Hans

Christian Andersen, the researcher decided to choose one story that has enough

deictic expression to be analyzed.

The steps of collecting the data were organized as follows. First, the

researcher read the short story repeatedly. Second, the researcher focused on the

sentences that contain deixis in ―The Little Match Seller‖ story. Then, the

researcher classified the types of deixis found in the story by mentioning the

sentences of each type of deixis (person, place or time).

2. Data Analysis

To obtain the data, the first step that the researcher did was reading the

short story repeatedly to gather all the words and phrases that indicate person,

time and place deixis. Second, split the phrases and bold the words and phrases

that contain deixis and that answered the first problem of this study. The

researcher used the theory of deixis based in Yule‘s book to categorize the types

of deixis. Third, the researcher analyzed the reference as well. Fourth, the

researcher was able to interpret the language style used by the author in writing

the story from the deixis found. To figure out the language style used by Hans

Christian Andersen, the author of ―The Little Match Seller‖ short story, the

researcher concluded from the deixis found in the story. Later on, the researcher

also related the analysis of the result to the plot of the story.


28

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

In this chapter, the researcher discusses the findings and discussions of

the study. The result answers to the problem formulations which were presented in

Chapter I. Since there are two problem formulations, therefore this section is

divided into two sub-parts. The first sub-part explains the answers of the first

research question, which is the analysis of the types of deixis found in ―The Little

Match Seller‖. The second sub-part explains the answer of the second research

question, which is language style used by Hans Christian Andersen in writing

―The Little Match Seller‖ story.

A. The Types of Deixis and Its Reference in “The Little Match Seller” Story

In the first sub-part, the researcher analyzes the types of deixis (person,

time, or place) found in the story chosen. The researcher includes the entire

sentences that contain deixis in the story. The sentences are then classified

according to the types. By analyzing the deixis, the researcher can find the

language style in Hans Christian Andersen‘s ―The Little Match Seller‖ story.

The conflict of the story is both internal and external. She was battling

against the world for survival and against her father who would beat her to death

for not making any money by selling the matches (‗The Little Match Girl -by

Hans Christian Anderson‘, 2013). The rising action occurred when she lighted the

matches to warm herself, but she ended up witnessing magical vision of delicious


29

food, Christmas tree and her grandmother. The climax was when she saw a vision

of her dead grandmother. She cried to her grandmother to take her with her

grandmother. The falling action occurs when her grandmother take the match

seller fly up with her. Then, the denouement happens when the citizen found a

little corpse leaning on the wall, the match seller‘s death body.

The researcher uses Yule‘s (2006) theory as the core of the study. Yule

(2006) defines deixis as ―pointing‖ via language. According to Yule (2006), there

are three types of deixis, person deixis, time deixis and place deixis. The types of

deixis that is found in Hans Christian Andersen‘s ―The Little Match Seller‖ story

are shown in the table below.


30

Table 4. The Types of Deixis Found in “The Little Match Seller” Story

No. Type of Deixis Frequency Percentage

1. Person Deixis 105 92.11%

2. Time Deixis 5 4.39%

3. Place Deixis 4 3.50%

Total 114 100%

The table above shows the percentage of each deixis in ―The Little Match

Seller‖. The researcher finds the three types of deixis in the story. There are 114

deixes found in total in the story.

As seen on the table above, the most frequent deixis that appears in the

story is person deixis. It appears 105 times and has 92.11% of the total amount.

The second frequent deixis is time or temporal deixis. It appears five times and

has 4.39% of the total amount. Then, the less frequent deixis is place or spatial

deixis. It appears four times and has 3.50% of the total amount. Finally, the

language style used by the author will be concluded from the deixis found which

are person deixis, place deixis, and time deixis. The discussion will be explained

further below.

1. Types of Deixis in Hans Christian Andersen‟s “The Little Match Seller”

story

a. Person Deixis

The researcher finds 105 person deixis in the story, which makes it the

most frequent deixis in the story. According to Cruse (2000), there are three types


31

of person deixis. The types of deixis based on Cruse will be shown in the

following table below.

Table 5. Types of Person Deixis

Types of person deixis Frequency

Third-person Deixis 100

Second-person Deixis 3

First-person Deixis 2

Total 105

The above table shows the types of person deixis along with each frequency based

on Cruse theory. The findings show that the total amount of person deixis is 105

with 100 deixis belong to third-person category, three deixis belong to second-

person category and two deixis belong to first-person category.

i. First-person Deixis

First-person deixis singular form is ‗I‘ or ‗me‘ and the plural form is ‗we‘

or ‗us‘. The researcher finds two first-person deixis in the story (‗Hans Christian

Andersen: The Little Match-Seller‘, n.d.), for instance:

(1) ―O take me with you; I know you will go away when the match burns

out.‖

The first-person singular deixis is found in the match seller‘s utterance to her

grandmother. The utterance occurs in the climax. Robert and Jacobs (1987) states

that climax is the high point in the action, in which the conflict and the

consequence tension are brought out to the fullest extent. The climax is when the

match seller sees a vision of her grandmother after she burns out a match because

her grandmother already passed away. ‗Me‘ an ‗I‘ refer to the match seller.


32

The context of the utterance is the match seller wants her grandmother to

take her (to heaven). The verb ‗take‘ here means die (take her soul) for she has no

hope to live longer. She cannot endure the cold or her father‘s abusiveness. Being

born in the problematic family, the only one who loves the match seller is her

grandmother. The one who loves her has long gone left her alone in the cruel

world.

ii. Second-person Deixis

Second-person deixis singular and plural form is identical, which is ‗you‘.

In the story, the researcher found three second-person deixis, as seen below:

(2) ―O take me with you; I know you will go away when the match burns

out; you will vanish like the warm stove, the roast goose, and the large,

glorious Christmas-tree.‖ (‗Hans Christian Andersen: The Little

Match-Seller‘, n.d.)

In the match seller‘s utterance to her grandmother in the climax, the researcher

also finds the second-person deixis ‗you‘. The second-person deixis ‗you‘ in the

utterance refers to the match seller's grandmother. The context of the utterance is

the same as the one in the first-person deixis. The match seller is helpless and

hopeless. She has no one who cares for her. She wants her grandmother to take

her to wherever her grandmother is because she feels safe around her. The little

girl is able to see her dead grandmother from the match she burns that turns into

magical things such as warm stove, roast goose, Christmas tree and her

grandmother. Those things vanish right after the match burns out.

iii. Third-person Deixis

The third-person singular form is ‗he‘ or ‗him‘, ‗she‘ or ‗her‘ and ‗it.

Meanwhile, the plural form is ‗they‘ or ‗them‘. The researcher finds 100 third-


33

person deixis in the story. The researcher mentions all of the sentences and

analyzes the reference below. The sentences are taken from ―The Little Match

Seller‖ story script (‗Hans Christian Andersen: The Little Match-Seller‘, n.d.).

(3) It was terribly cold and nearly dark on the last evening of the old year,

and the snow was falling fast.

In the example above, ―it‖ refers to the circumstances on that evening.

The sentence (3) appears in the first line of the story which belongs to exposition.

―It‖ here refers to the circumstances on that evening which is cold and nearly dark.

Then, the circumstances contribute to support the argument that the little girl is

pitiful and in a really poor condition. Hans Christian Andersen often calls the little

girl as poor little creature and poor little girl in the story.

(4) It is true she had on a pair of slippers when she left home, but they

were not of much use.

In the example number 4, the researcher found three third person deixis which are

she and they. The pronoun ‗she‘ mentioned twice. ―She‖ refers to the match seller.

Meanwhile, ―they‖ refers to the pair of slippers.

―It‖ in example (4) is different from the ―it‖ in example (3). The researcher does

not include it because it does not refer to anything. It is usually called as dummy

pronouns.

Sentence (4) also mentioned in exposition. The little match seller is the

main character of the story. The author never mentioned the match seller‘s real

name or any character mentioned in the story, such as the match seller‘s father and

grandmother. However, a book published by Oxford University Press entitled

―The Little Match Girl‖ (2012) mentions that the match seller‘s name is Anne


34

Marie. It is mentioned before that she wears her mother‘s slipper. Because the

slippers are the little girl‘s mother‘s slippers, therefore they are in bigger size. The

girl will have trouble in using them especially in a street full of snow.

(5) They were very large, so large, indeed, that they had belonged to her

mother, and the poor little creature had lost them in running across the

street to avoid two carriages that were rolling along at a terrible rate.

In above example, the researcher found four deixis that indicate third-person

deixis. They are ‗they‘, ‗her‘, and them. ―They‖ and ―them‖ refer to the pair of

slippers. ―Her‖ refers to the match seller.

The context of sentence (5) is the match seller lost one of her slippers when she

ran to avoid the carriages that are rolling really fast. The match seller lost one of

her slippers and do not find it.

(6) One of the slippers she could not find, and a boy seized upon the other

and ran away with it, saying that he could use it as a cradle, when he

had children of his own.

In sentence number 6, the researcher found six pronouns that belong to third-

person deixis category. ―She‖ refers to the match seller. ―It‖ refers to one of the

match seller‘s mother‘s slipper. ―He‖ and ―his‖ refer to a random boy that the

match seller met at the street.

Later in the (6), she figured out that the other slipper was stolen by a random boy.

(7) So the little girl went on with her little naked feet, which were quite

red and blue with the cold.

There is one pronoun in sentence number 7 that belong to third-person deixis

which is ‗her‘. ―Her‖ refers to the match seller.

In (7), she had no slippers left. She walked bare footed in the freezing evening that

makes her feet turns red and blue. Again, the example displayed above support the


35

argument that the match seller is in a poor condition (having to walk bare footed

in a cold evening).

(8) In an old apron she carried a number of matches, and had a bundle of

them in her hands.

In example number 8, there are three third-person pronouns which are also third-

person deixis, they are ‗she‘, ‗them‘, and ‗her‘. ―She‖ and ―her‖ refer to the match

seller. ―Them‖ refers to the matches that the match seller carries.

Moreover, in an old apron she strolled down the street, carried a number of

matches but no one bought her matches [data (8) and (9)]. In example (10), the

girl was helpless. She was freezing and starving. She let the snowflakes fell on her

hair for she had nothing to do about that [data (11)].

(9) No one had bought anything of her the whole day, nor had anyone

given her even a penny.

‗Her‘ is a third-person pronoun. ―Her‖ in example number 9 refers to the match

seller.

(10) Shivering with cold and hunger, she crept along; poor little child, she

looked the picture of misery.

Another ―she‖ that refers to the match seller is found in example 10.

(11) The snowflakes fell on her long, fair hair, which hung in curls on her

shoulders, but she regarded them not.

The pronoun ―she‖ and ―her‖ that are found in the example 11 refer to the match

seller and ―them‖ there refers to the snowflakes.

(12) Lights were shining from every window, and there was a savory smell

of roast goose, for it was New-year‘s eve—yes, she remembered that.


36

In data (12), ―she‖ refers to the match seller. The girl saw lights shone from every

window and she could smell a savory smell of roast goose which she remembered

that that evening was New Year‘s Eve.

(13) In a corner, between two houses, one of which projected beyond the

other, she sank down and huddled herself together.

The match seller which is pointed out by third-person pronoun ‗she‘ and ‗herself‘,

sank down and embraced her legs together in a corner between two houses to

make her felt a little warm [data (13)].

(14) She had drawn her little feet under her, but she could not keep off the

cold; and she dared not go home, for she had sold no matches, and

could not take home even a penny of money.

―She‖ and ―her‖ refer to the match seller who was freezing but could not go back

home either. She was afraid her father would beat her for she got no money from

selling matches. Though, it was no different, her house was as cold as where she

was right now [data (12) and (13)].

(15) Her father would certainly beat her; besides, it was almost as cold at

home as here, for they had only the roof to cover them, through which

the wind howled, although the largest holes had been stopped up with

straw and rags.

In example number 15, the researcher found pronoun ‗her‘, ‗it‘, ‗they‘, and ‗them.

―Her‖ refers to the match seller. ―It‖ refers to the circumstances at the street where

the match seller sell the match. ―They‖ and ―them‖ refer to the match seller and

her family.

(16) Her little hands were almost frozen with the cold.

―Her‖ refers to the match seller. Due to the freezing evening, the match seller‘s

hands were almost frozen with the cold because she wore no gloves.


37

(17) Ah! Perhaps a burning match might be some good, if she could draw

it from the bundle and strike it against the wall, just to warm her

fingers.

―She‖ and ―her‖ refer to the match seller. ―It‖ refers to the match that the match

seller wants to ignite to warm herself. The match seller thought that a burning

match was not a bad idea to get a little warmth even though it only warmed her

fingers [data (17) and (18)].

(18) She drew one out—―scratch!‖ how it sputtered as it burnt! It gave a

warm, bright light, like a little candle, as she held her hand over it.

―She‖ and ―her‖ refer to the match seller. ―It‖ in ―it sputtered as it burnt!‖ refers to

the match that the match seller successfully ignites and ―it‖ in ―It gave a warm….

over it‖ refer to the flame that comes out from the burnt match.

(19) It was really a wonderful light.

―It‖ refers to the light from the flame of burning match.

She found the light wonderful as if she was sitting by a large iron stove. The stove

was the first vision she witnessed that turned from the match she burned. The

stove vanished when the match burns out [data (19), (20), (21)].

(20) It seemed to the little girl that she was sitting by a large iron stove,

with polished brass feet and a brass ornament.

(21) How the fire burned! and seemed so beautifully warm that the child

stretched out her feet as if to warm them, when, lo! the flame of the

match went out, the stove vanished, and she had only the remains of

the half-burnt match in her hand.

In example number 20 and 21, the pronoun ―she‖ and ―her‖ refer to the match

seller and ―them‖ refers to the match seller‘s foot.

(22) She rubbed another match on the wall.


38

And then in example (22), ―She‖ refers to the match seller, who still trying to

warm herself. The poor girl rubbed another match. This time, she saw a table full

of Christmas food in a room.

(23) It burst into a flame, and where its light fell upon the wall it became as

transparent as a veil, and she could see into the room.

―It‖ in ―It burst into a flame‖ refers to another match that the match seller rubbed

to the wall. ―Its‖ and ―it‖ in ―…its light fell upon the wall it became…‖ refer to

the flame from the burnt match. ―She‖ refers to the match seller.

There was a roast goose on that table and unexpectedly, the goose hopped down

from the dish and waddled across the floor to the girl, with a knife and fork in its

breast [data (23) and (24)].

(24) And what was still more wonderful, the goose jumped down from the

dish and waddled across the floor, with a knife and fork in its breast, to

the little girl.

The pronoun ―its‖ in example number 24 refers to the jumped goose.

(25) Then the match went out, and there remained nothing but the thick,

damp, cold wall before her.

The match burned out again, only thick, damp, and cold wall remained before her.

―Her‖ refers to the match seller [data (25)]. The roast goose vanished as the match

burns out.

(26) She lighted another match, and then she found herself sitting under a

beautiful Christmas-tree.

In example (26), ―She‖ and ―herself‖ refer to the match seller. She lighted another

match and she saw a pretty Christmas tree. She found herself sitting under it.

(27) It was larger and more beautifully decorated than the one which she

had seen through the glass door at the rich merchant‘s.


39

―It‖ refers to the Christmas tree. The present Christmas tree was larger and prettier

than the one she saw at the rich merchant‘s earlier. ―She‖ refers to the match seller

[data (27)].

(28) Thousands of tapers were burning upon the green branches, and

colored pictures, like those she had seen in the show-windows, looked

down upon it all.

In example number 28, ―she‖ refers to the match seller. ―It‖ refers to the tapers.

The Christmas tree was decorated with thousands of tappers and colored pictures

[data (28)].

(29) The little one stretched out her hand towards them, and the match

went out.

―Her‖ refers to the match seller. The match seller tried to reach towards them and

the match went out [data (29)]. ―Them‖ refers to the tapers.

(30) The Christmas lights rose higher and higher, till they looked to her

like the stars in the sky.

In example (30), ―they‖ refers to the Christmas lights. The Christmas lights rose

higher to the sky till they looked like the stars to her. ―Her‖ refers to the match

seller.

The girl saw a star fall and she thought that someone was dying without realizing

that she was the one who was dying. Her grandmother once told her that when a

star falls, a soul was going up to God [data (31) and (32)].

(31) Then she saw a star fall, leaving behind it a bright streak of fire.

In example number 31, the researcher found two pronouns that belong to third-

person category which are ‗she‘ and ‗it‘. ―She‖ refers to the match seller. ―It‖

refers to the star fall.


40

(32) ―Someone is dying,‖ thought the little girl, for her old grandmother,

the only one who had ever loved her, and who was now dead, had told

her that when a star falls, a soul was going up to God.

(33) She again rubbed a match on the wall, and the light shone round her;

in the brightness stood her old grandmother, clear and shining, yet

mild and loving in her appearance.

In example (32) and (33), ―she‖ and ―her‖ refers to the match seller. The match

seller lighted another match and this one was brighter than the previous ones. In

the brightness, her grandmother appeared so lovely. ―Her‖ in ‗her appearance‘

refers to the match seller‘s grandmother.

(34) And she made haste to light the whole bundle of matches, for she

wished to keep her grandmother there.

In example (34), ―she‖ and ―her‖ refers to the match seller. She lighted the whole

bundle of matches hastily in order to keep her grandmother by herself because her

grandmother would vanish when the lights off like the others (stove, roast goose,

Christmas tree). She succeeded. The matches glowed brighter than the day and

she never saw her grandmother appeared so large and pretty [data (35)].

(35) And the matches glowed with a light that was brighter than the noon-

day, and her grandmother had never appeared so large or so beautiful.

(36) She took the little girl in her arms, and they both flew upwards in

brightness and joy far above the earth, where there was neither cold

nor hunger nor pain, for they were with God.

In example (35) and (36), ―she‖ and ―her‖ refers to the match seller‘s grandmother

and ―they‖ refers to the match seller and her grandmother. The match seller‘s

grandmother took her poor granddaughter in her arms and they flew to the sky full

of joy. The girl no longer felt any pain or hunger or cold. A soul was going up to

God.

(37) She had been frozen to death on the last evening of the year; and the

New-year‘s sun rose and shone upon a little corpse!


41

In example number 37, ―she‖ refers to the match seller. On the last evening of the

year, lied the match seller‘s death body, alone, in the middle of freezing evening

on New Year‘s Eve [data 37].

(38) ―She tried to warm herself,‖ said some.

In example number 38, the pronoun ―she‖ and ―herself‖ refer to the match seller.

The context of the sentence number 38 is the match seller‘s corpse is found the

morning after, on the first day of New Year. Some people, who found the corpse,

could tell that the match seller was trying to warm herself [data (38)]. As seen

from the burning matches that remained.

(39) No one imagined what beautiful things she had seen, nor into what

glory she had entered with her grandmother, on New-year‘s.

In the end, the poor girl died in the freezing cold, though she curled a smile on her

lips for no one imagine what beautiful things she had seen. ―She‖ and ―her‖ refers

to the match seller.

Examples (3) until (12) are in exposition area. Exposition is the

background of the story which appears in the beginning (Dhewanggi, 2020). The

exposition of ―The Little Match Seller‖ story contains the background of setting

of time (for instance on the last evening of the old year), setting of place (the

streets), and the character which is poor. The author mentions ―a poor little girl‖

in the beginning of the story then support the argument by mentioning ―with bare

head and naked feet roamed through the streets in the cold and the darkness.‖

Examples (13) until (32) appear in the rising action. Rising action is the

point where the main problem is revealed (‗Five types of plots – WWI Virtual


42

Academy‘, n.d.). The researcher mentioned previously that the main conflict of

―The Little Match Seller‖ short story is both internal and external. She was

battling against the world for survival (external) and against her father who would

beat her to death for not making any penny by selling the matches (internal).

Rising action involves the buildup of events until reach the climax. In this part,

the author shows not only the match seller struggle but also things she hopes for.

For instance, large iron stove because it can warm her.

The appearance of the match seller‘s grandmother is the climax. Climax

is the turning point of the story (‗Five types of plots – WWI Virtual Academy‘,

n.d.). ―The climax is where the protagonist receives new information, accepts the

information, realizes it and may or may not necessarily agrees with it and then

acts on that information‖ (‗Five types of plots – WWI Virtual Academy‘, n.d.). In

this case, the ‗new information‘ is that the match seller is able to see her

grandmother even though in different form (as an angel). Then, the match seller

accepts that and realizes that the match seller will not able to see her grandmother

when the match burned out.

Examples (33) until (36) are the falling action. Falling action is ―the point

that occurs immediately after the climax and reveals the details of the

consequences good or bad, that the protagonist must deal with after the turning

point of events‖ (‗Five types of plots – WWI Virtual Academy‘, n.d.). Actually,

the match seller is given two options here. She will die if she goes with her

grandmother and if she does not ask her grandmother to take her, she will

continue to live. In the end, she chooses to be with her grandmother. Therefore, in


43

the resolution or denouement [data (37), (38) and (39)], she dies. The resolution

is the part where the protagonist resolves the conflicts (‗Five types of plots –

WWI Virtual Academy‘, n.d.). The poor match seller is no longer feels any pain,

hunger, lonely, cold for her already with God (die).

The reader is able to figure out the context due to the involvement of

deixis. Deixis help to understand discourse and the behind situation of discourse

(Kubra, Murtza, & Mahmood, 2018). Deixis help the readers to know the ‗I‘ and

‗you‘ in the context (Verdonk, 2002). The reader is able to know that ―she‖ refers

to the match seller and the context within. Without deixis, readers may get

different or wrong perception about the story because they may not know who the

speakers, the hearers and the time and where the speakers alter the utterances

(Panggabean, 2018). It assumes that deixis are useful to make clear the

understanding.

b. Place Deixis

Based on the object of the study that the researcher chose, there are four

place deixes mentioned. The data are taken from ―The Little Match Seller‖ story

script (‗Hans Christian Andersen: The Little Match-Seller‘, n.d.).



In example number 40, the researcher includes ―in a corner‖ as a place deixis. It

refers to the corner between two houses at the edge of the street.

The sentences number (40) and (41) appear still in exposition. Not being able to

endure the cold, the poor girl huddles in between two houses. She has nothing to

cover herself (beanie, slippers, or jacket). The corner is as cold as at her house


44

because they only have roof to cover them and not in a condition which can give

warm to anybody beneath it.

(41) It was almost as cold at home as here.

In sentence number 41, ―here‖ is a place deixis which refers to the corner where

the match seller sinks down.

(42) And she made haste to light the whole bundle of matches, for she

wished to keep her grandmother there.

(43) She took the little girl in her arms, and they both flew upwards in

brightness and joy far above the earth, where there was neither cold nor

hunger nor pain, for they were with God.

―There‖ and ―upwards‖ in example number (42) and (43) is place deixis. ―There‖

refers to the match seller‘s side while ―upwards‖ refers to heaven.

Data (42) is still in falling action. After the girl lights the whole bundle,

the matches glows dazzlingly and her grandmother appears so huge and pretty.

Her grandmother brings the match seller (soul) with her and flies to the sky

(heaven) [data (43)].

c. Time Deixis

The researcher found five time deixis in the story. The data are also taken

from ―The Little Match Seller‖ story script (‗Hans Christian Andersen: The Little

Match-Seller‘, n.d.).

(44) It was terribly cold and nearly dark on the last evening of the old year,


(45) Lights were shining from every window, and there was a savory smell of

roast goose, for it was New-year’s eve—yes, she remembered that.

(46) In the dawn of morning there lay the poor little one, with pale cheeks

and smiling mouth, leaning against the wall; she had been frozen to death

on the last evening of the year; and the New-year‘s sun rose and shone

upon a little corpse!

(47) No one imagined what beautiful things she had seen, nor into what glory

she had entered with her grandmother, on New-year’s day.


45

In example number 44, 45 and 46, ―on the last evening of the old year‖, ―on the

last evening of the year‖ and ―New-year‘s eve‖ refer to the last night of the year at

which the match seller is producing utterance containing ―new-year‘s eve‖ and

―last evening‖. Meanwhile, ―in the dawn of morning‖ and ―on New-year‘s day‖ in

example number 46 and 47 refer to the first morning of the new-year which is on

January 1st.

Data (44) and (45) appear in the exposition. Meanwhile, data (46) and

(47) appear in the resolution. It can be assumed that the story takes place on

December 31st, but the year is uncertain. The author did not mention the exact

time clearly, for instance:

1. It was terribly cold and nearly dark on the last evening of the old year,


2. In the dawn of morning there lay the poor little one, with pale cheeks and

smiling mouth, leaning against the wall; she had been frozen to death on

the last evening of the year; and the New-year‘s sun rose and shone upon

a little corpse!

It can be assumed that the match seller‘s death body found on January 1st.

However the year is unknown.

Based on the examples above, the researcher sees that Hans Christian

Andersen did not really pay attention of who the characters are, where the story

takes place, and when exactly the events happen. Hans Christian Andersen

focuses on the plot of the story, telling about the girl‘s family, struggle, and things

that she wishes she has.


46

2. Types of Reference in Hans Christian Andersen‟s “The Little Match

Seller”

Yule (2006, p. 131) defines reference as an act by which a writer uses

language to enable a reader to identify something. Deixis and reference are

interconnected. The theory of reference supports the interpretations of people,

things, times or places that are pointed out by deixis. ―In discussing deixis, we

assumed that the use of words to refer to people, places and times was a simple

matter. However, words themselves don‘t refer to anything. People refer‖ (Yule,

2006, p. 131).

There are two types of references; they are exophora (situational) and

endophora (textual) reference (Halliday & Hasan, 1976). The endophora reference

is divided again into two. They are anaphoric (to preceding text) and cataphoric

(to following text) (Sugiharto, 2004). The types of references found in the story

script as follows.

Table 6. Types of Reference

Type of Reference Frequency Percentage

Exophoric Reference 90 78.95%

Anaphoric Reference 22 19.30%

Cataphoric Reference 2 1.75%

Total 114 100%

The table above displays the types of reference along with the frequency

and percentage found in the story. There are 114 references in total with 90

references belong to exophoric category, 22 references belong to anaphoric


47

category, and two references belong to cataphoric category. The explanation of

each type will be explained below.

a. Exophoric Reference

The researcher also analyzed the reference from the deixis found in order

to support the discussion in figuring out the author‘s style of the object chosen.

Exophoric reference is ―one which does not name anything; it signals that

reference must be made to the context of situation‖ (Halliday & Hasan, 1976, p.

33). To put it simply, exophoric reference is a reference which there is not

mentioned at all about the referent (Alfikasari, 2011, p. 30). ―The use of exophoric

reference requires some shared knowledge between two speakers or between

writer and reader(s)‖ (‗Anaphoric, Cataphoric and Exophoric Referencing -

Eslbase.com‘, 2020). In defining the author‘s style, the researcher uses the

exophoric reference to see whether or not the style is detailed or less detailed

because exophoric reference occurs when a word or phrase refers to something

outside the discourse. Therefore, it needs reference to the context of situation.

There are 87 deictic expressions that belong to the exophoric reference

mentioned in the story. There are 68 deictic expressions that have the same

reference, which is the match seller.

Table 7. Deictic Expressions Referring to the Match Seller

No Deictic Expressions Frequency

1. She 32

2. Herself 3

3. Me 1


48

4. I 1

5. Her 31

The data shown in the table above is the deictic expressions that refer to the match

seller. For instance:

1. It is true she had on a pair of slippers when she left home, but they were

not of much use.

2. They were very large, so large, indeed, that they had belonged to her

mother, and the poor little creature had lost them in running across the

street to avoid two carriages that were rolling along at a terrible rate.

3. In an old apron she carried a number of matches, and had a bundle of them

in her hands.

The examples above was taken from ―The Little Match Seller‖ short story script

(‗Hans Christian Andersen: The Little Match-Seller‘, n.d.). The context of above

examples is the match seller had on a pair of slippers when she left but they were

the slippers owned by the match seller‘s mother. Therefore, they are too big for

the match seller. The match seller left home to sell match. Wearing an old apron,

the match seller carried the matches and had some in her hands.

b. Endophoric Reference

When we find pronouns refer to items within the same text, we can call it

endophoric reference. Endophoric reference divides into two categories, which are

anaphoric and cataphoric reference.

i. Anaphoric Reference

Anaphoric is referring to something that has been mentioned previously

in the text (Yule, 2006). In other words, anaphora means referring back.

―Anaphoric reference often makes use of the definite article the, because one of

the functions of the definite article is to indicate that something has already been


49

mentioned‖ (‗Anaphoric, Cataphoric and Exophoric Referencing - Eslbase.com‘,

2020). In defining the author‘s style, the researcher uses anaphoric reference to

see whether or not the style chosen by author is detail. Detail here means that the

pronouns found refer to something that has been mentioned previously. The

researcher finds twenty-two deixis that belong to the anaphoric category, for

instance:

(48) The Christmas lights rose higher and higher, till they looked to her

like the stars in the sky.

―They‖ refers to the Christmas lights which mentioned previously, ―the

Christmas lights rose higher and higher, till they looked to her like the stars in

the sky.”

(49) And what was still more wonderful, the goose jumped down from the

dish and waddled across the floor, with a knife and fork in its breast, to

the little girl.

―Its‖ refers to the jumped goose which also mentioned previously, ―the goose

jumped down from the dish and waddled across the floor, with a knife and fork in

its breast”

ii. Cataphoric Reference

Cataphoric is referring to word or phrase that is mentioned later in the

discourse (‗Anaphoric, Cataphoric and Exophoric Referencing - Eslbase.com‘,

2020). There are two deixis that can be categorized as cataphoric reference, for

instance:

(50) It was really a wonderful light.


50

―It‖ refers to the light from the flame of the burning match which is mentioned

later in the discourse, ―it was really a wonderful light.‖



―In a corner‖ refers to the corner between two houses at the edge of the street

which is also mentioned later in the discourse, ―in a corner, between two

houses…‖

B. The Author‟s Language Style in Hans Christian Andersen‟s “The Little

Match Seller”

Barry (2002, p. 207) claims that ―stylisticians try to provide ‗hard‘ data

to support existing ‗intuitions‘ about a literary work.‖ In other words, hard data is

observable that is provided to support the existing ‗intuitions‘ in the literary works

(Dhewanggi, 2020, p. 57). For instance, in reading a short story, stylisticians

cannot simply utter that the author has a plain language style. The stylisticians try

to be more specific about what they mean about plain style. Also, what linguistics

feature that makes the language style plain. There might be a comparison with

other author‘s work. We can consider that hard data is data or information that can

be proven (Dhewanggi, 2020, p. 57).

Different readers have different interpretations. There are no similar

readers. There is no ‗correct‘ interpretation of a text (Simpson, 1997, p. 3). There

cannot possibly be because any interpretation of a piece of language is

conditioned by three factors (Simpson, 1997, p. 3). ―The first is to do with what is


51

in the language itself, the second with what‘s in the context of communication,

while the third is to do with what‘s in our head (the assumptions and knowledge

you bring to a text)‖ (Simpson, 1997, p. 3). Just like style of language, there will

be no similar language styles because there are no similar authors. Language

styles use by authors may vary. The interpretation of the readers may vary as well.

―This is stylistics in its literary interpretative guise, where it can assist critical

readings by highlighting and explaining linguistics patterns in literary texts‖

(Simpson, 1997, p. 5).

From the data findings after analyzing the deixis used in ―The Little

Match Seller‖ short story by Hans Christian Andersen, the researcher concludes

that the language styles used by Hans Christian Andersen in writing ―The Little

Match Seller‖ are indirect and less detailed. What it means will be described as

follows.

The researcher concludes the language style used by the author from the

deixis found in the story. After analyzing the data from the story script, the

researcher finds that the most frequent is person deixis, the second frequent is

time deixis, and the less frequent is place deixis. Among the three categories of

person deixis, the most frequent one is third person deixis. Therefore, the

researcher claims that the style used is indirect. ―Third person deixis is a deictic

reference to a referent(s) not identified as the speaker or addressee and usually

imply to the gender that the utterance refers to, for example: he, she, and they, him,

himself, her, herself‖ (Sari, 2015, p. 43). In deictic terms, third person is different

from first and second person. While the first and second person pronouns points to


52

participants directly, this is not the case for third person pronouns since they refer

to outsiders and thus suggest distance (‗ELLO‘, n.d.). Harman (1990) states that

third person pronouns are distal and therefore more appropriate to indirect speech

because they refer to entities outside the utterance. Unlike first and second person

pronouns, they are intimately connected with direct speech: as the role of speaker

alternates with that of hearer, there is constant switching from ‗I‘ to ‗You‘

(Harman, 1990). First and second person pronouns are proximal since the pronoun

‗we‘ may include the speaker or hearer or the speaker and other persons (Harman,

1990).

In indirect style, someone‘s words and actions translated or transformed

into a particular style of a third-person narration (‗Education - Direct and Indirect

Style (explained) in Grammar Notes‘, n.d.). ―In indirect speech, on the other hand,

the reporter comes to the fore. He relates a speech event as he would relate any

other event: from his own point of view‖ (Coulmas, 1986). The story is about a

match seller who struggle in a cold evening selling matches to get money. Hans

Christian Andersen chose match seller because he got the inspiration for this story

from a drawing by another Danish artist, Johan Thomas Lundbye (Capano, 2012).

The drawing was originally printed in a calendar and later sent to the writer with a

suggestion on writing a story about match seller. Then, Hans Christian Andersen

related the plot to the period he lived in, Victorian era, based on his own point of

view.

Hans Christian Andersen chose indirect style to tell the story of ―The

Little Match Seller.‖ It can be seen from the frequent used of third-person deixis


53

in the story. In the story, Hans Christian Andersen did not mention the real name

of the character. He only refers them in third-person deixis such as ‗she‘ that

refers to the match seller. The readers are able to know the characters through the

use of third person deixis for instance ‗her father‘, ‗her grandmother‘, and ‗her

mother‘, and ‗they‘. Therefore, the researcher also interprets the language style

used is less detailed.

The researcher also claims that the style is less detailed because

Andersen never clearly mentions the characters‘ name, set the specific place and

time throughout the story. The characters, time, and places are all mentioned in

deixis without any explanation of who the characters‘ name are, where the story

takes place and in what year the event in the story happens. For examples, instead

of mention even only one character‘s name, the author used third-person pronoun

to refer to the character (she, her father, her mother, her grandmother); the author

mentioned ―on the last day of the year‖, ―in the dawn morning of new-year‘s day‖,

―in a corner‖ without any explanation which year or which corner the author

meant.

Also, the researcher sees from the exophoric reference which is the most

frequent reference. The researcher found 90 deixis which there is not mentioned at

all about the referent with 68 person deixis that refer to the match seller. Besides,

there are only two deixis which their reference has been mentioned before in the

discourse (anaphora). Thus, this story entitled ―The Little Match Seller‖ lacks of

basic detail such as characters, places and times in particular. ―All background

shared knowledge and unsaid utterances are explicit by deictic expressions‖


54

(Kubra et al., 2018, p. 87). ―In this way the deixis help to understand discourse

and the behind situation of discourse‖ (Kubra et al., 2018). The theory of deictic

expressions explains the context behind the discourse.

Moreover, Andersen employs objective point of view in writing ―The

Little Match Seller‖. It can be seen from the frequent use of third-person deixis. It

can be seen from the frequent use of third-person deixis (100 occurrences).

Verdonk (2002) states that the different pronoun used in literary work shows

different point of view or perspective. Subjective pronoun ‗I‘ displays the author

subjectivity, while the third person pronoun displays the author‘s objectivity.

―The Little Match Seller‖ was written during Victorian era which Hans

Christian Andersen was living. At that period, Andersen was part of an art

movement that condemned social conditioning and class differentiation (Capano,

2012). ―The Little Match Seller‖ story contained critics of the society at that time.

Therefore, it can be assumed that is the reason why Andersen did not mention the

detail of person, place and time of ―The Little Match Seller‖ story.

Although the story is written in indirect and less detailed style, Andersen

still able to portray not only realistic and crude view of society in Victorian era,

but the deep criticism to social class differentiation as well (Capano, 2012).

Andersen is able to describe the poor condition of the match seller through his

story. The match seller is the picture of misery. She is alone, starving and cold.

Moreover, Hans Christian Andersen is still able to leave a moral teaching at the

end of the story. At that time, children were viewed as ‗miniature adults‘ that

usually used for cheap labor. ―Children were not regarded the same way people


55

regard them nowadays‖ (Capano, 2012, p. 4). We can see clearly in the story that

the little maiden suffering from the cold and the ignorance of the people around

her as depicted on these lines:

4. ―So, the little girl went on with her little naked feet, which were quite red

and blue with the cold. In an old apron she carried a number of matches,

and had a bundle of them in her hands. No one had bought anything of her

the whole day, nor had anyone given her even a penny.‖

The readers learn about the little maiden‘s family situation through the girl‘s

experiences daily. The parents do not care at all about her. The only one who

cares has gone, her grandmother.

As mentioned previously, Hans Christian Andersen joined a movement

that condemned social conditioning and class differentiation (Capano, 2012).

Andersen takes advantage of these powerful social differences and creates ―The

Little Match Seller‖ story. Throughout the story, we can see how the match

seller‘s parents treat the little maiden. ―This consist of the idea that children

should be considered as creative people, able to transcend difficult situations

through the power of imagination‖ (Capano, 2012, p. 4). When the girl suffers

from cold and ignorance of the people around her, she is still capable of imagining

several wonderful things that will make her feel better about her situation at that

time. For instance: huge Christmas tree, a table full of food, and her lovely

grandmother. The girl finds hope in the image of her loving grandmother, as seen

on ―O take me with you; I know you will go away when the match burns out; you

will vanish like the warm stove, the roast goose, and the large, glorious

Christmas-tree‖ (‗Hans Christian Andersen: The Little Match-Seller‘, n.d.). The

girl thinks that as long as she is with her grandmother, she will be fine.


56

The researcher then assumes that the reason why Hans Christian

Andersen chose indirect and less detailed language style is because he wanted to

emphasize the situation and condition of the little match seller which can be the

representation of children who live on that period. Hans Christian Andersen wants

to point out the struggle of the children encountered at that time. Therefore, the

indirect style is for retell the past event but from Andersen‘s point of view and the

less detailed style is for paying more attention to the plot rather than the detail of

characters, places, and time.

Deixis are the linguistic expressions which are used for the reference

within the context and out of the context to share knowledge (Kubra et al., 2018, p.

87). Deixis are the discourse device to operate the communication in actual

contextual meaning. The person who stands out of context will not understand the

meanings completely comparing to the person who knows about the context and

takes part in the background of the context (Kubra et al., 2018).

In this research, the researcher has read the story script of ―The Little

Match Seller‖ repeatedly and knows the context. Therefore, the researcher is

familiar with the context and can analyze and interpret it. Deixis is also used to

create linkage between the present talk and previous context (Kubra et al., 2018).

Deixis helps the reader to understand the previous context. Deixis comes under

pragmatics area. It is related to stylistics through the level of languages. There are

seven levels of language and one of them is pragmatics. Therefore, the language

style used in a story can be analyzed from the deixis found.


58

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

After analyzing the data, the researcher concluded that deictic expression

and reference in short story can be identified linguistically to find the language

style in Hans Christian Andersen‘s ―The Little Match Seller‖ short story. In this

study, the researcher analyzed the deixis found in ―The Little Match Seller‖ short

story along with its reference.

The researcher found 114 deixis and references in total in ―The Little

Match Seller‖ short story. One-hundred and two deixis belong to person deixis,

five deixis belong to time deixis, four deixis belong to place deixis, 90 references

belong to exophoric category, 22 references belong to anaphoric category, and

two references belong to cataphoric category.

From the data that have been analyzed, the researcher concluded that

Hans Christian Andersen employed indirect and less detailed language style in

writing ―The Little Match Seller‖ story. Hans Christian Andersen got the

inspiration to write the story from a drawing of match seller that was printed in a

calendar and wrote the seller about the match seller. Hans Christian Andersen

related the plot to the reality in the period he lived in (Victorian era), based on his

own point of view. Therefore, it indirectly told the story of an underage who

struggles to sell matches to earn money. It is indirect because of the frequent used

of third-person pronouns which also third-person deixis.


59

Besides, the researcher claimed that Hans Christian Andersen also

employed less detailed language style. The claim was supported by the most

frequent used of exophoric reference and the less frequent of anaphoric reference.

The characters‘ name, the exact location, and the exact time of the story were not

clearly mentioned throughout the story because Hans Christian Andersen wanted

to focused on the plot and emphasize the struggle of a child at that time. However,

the story was still understandable and Andersen was still able to leave a moral

value at the end of the story. Thus, in this matter, the deixis helped to understand

discourse and the behind situation of discourse.

Many stories that can be analyzed its language style using deictic

expression point of view. In the future, the present researcher hopes this research

influences other scholar to do a better research and find others language style

using another linguistics elements. In the end, this study is hoped to be able to

assist the reader to understand about language style based on deictic expression.


60

REFERENCES

Aflahah, A. (2017). Language Style of Habiburrahman El-Shirazy in the Dwilogy

of Ayat-ayat Cinta: A Stylistic Study. OKARA: Jurnal Bahasa Dan Sastra,

11(1), 85. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.19105/ojbs.v11i1.1239

Alfikasari, G. (2011). A descriptive study on person Deixis in Barack Obama`s

winning speech (skripsi). Sanata Dharma University. Retrieved 16 October

2020 from http://repository.usd.ac.id/26611/

Anaphoric, Cataphoric and Exophoric Referencing - Eslbase.com. (2020).

Retrieved 5 November 2020, from https://www.eslbase.com/tefl-a-

z/referencing

Andersen, H. C. (2010). Fairy tales of Hans Christian Andersen. Auckland, N.Z.:

Floating Press. Retrieved 4 January 2021 from

http://site.ebrary.com/id/10796761

Barry, P. (2002). Beginning theory: an introduction to literary and cultural theory

(2nd ed). Manchester ; New York : New York: Manchester University

Press ; Distributed exclusively in the U.S.A. by Palgrave.

Bowler, B., Armino, M., & Andersen, H. C. (2012). The little match girl (New

edition.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Capano, D. (2012). Analysis and Comparison of ‗The Little Match Girl‘ by Hans

C. Andersen and ‗The Little Match Girl Passion‘ by David Lang, 27.

Coulmas, F. (Ed.). (1986). Direct and indirect speech. Berlin: de Gruyter.

Cruse, A. (2000). 99626614-Meaning-in-Language-an-Introduction-to-Semantics-

and-Pragmatics-Oxford-Textbooks-in-Linguistics.pdf. Retrieved 6 October

2020 from

https://www.academia.edu/34471403/99626614_Meaning_in_Language_a

n_Introduction_to_Semantics_and_Pragmatics_Oxford_Textbooks_in_Lin

guistics_pdf

Dhewanggi, D. L. (2020). Phrases in setting of place and time to show language

style in Hans Christian Andersen`s translated short stories „What the Old

Man Does Is Always Right‟ and „The Ugly Duckling‟ (skripsi). Sanata

Dharma University. Retrieved 2 September 2020 from

http://repository.usd.ac.id/37646/

Eckert, P., & Rickford, J. R. (2001). Style and Sociolinguistic Variation, 359.

Education - Direct and Indirect Style (explained) in Grammar Notes. (n.d.).

Retrieved 27 November 2020, from

http://www.corollarytheorems.com/Grammar/style.htm


61

ELLO. (n.d.). Retrieved 9 December 2020, from

http://www.ello.uos.de/field.php/Pragmatics/PragmaticsPersonDeixis

Five types of plots – WWI Virtual Academy. (n.d.). Retrieved 5 December 2020,

from https://wwivirtualacademy.com/five-types-of-plots/

Flick, U., Kardorff, E. von, & Steinke, I. (Eds.). (2004). A companion to

qualitative research. London ; Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications.

Gould, M., & Rankin, M. (2014). Cambridge International AS and A level English

language.

Halliday, M. A. K., & Hasan, R. (1976). Cohesion in English. London: Longman.

Hans Christian Andersen : Fairy tales. (n.d.). Retrieved 9 September 2020 from

https://andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/register/eventyr_e.html

Hans Christian Andersen: The Little Match-Seller. (n.d.). Retrieved 1 October

2020, from http://hca.gilead.org.il/li_match.html

Harman, I. P. (1990). Teaching indirect speech: deixis points the way. ELT

Journal, 44(3), 230–238. Retrieved from

https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/44.3.230

Herman, H., Sihombing, J., & Thao, N. V. (2018). The Functions of Discourse

Markers in Fairy Tale of Thumbelina by Hans Christian Andersen. IJECA

(International Journal of Education and Curriculum Application), 1(2), 33.

Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.31764/ijeca.v1i2.2134

Hidayat, A. (2016). An Analysis of Grammatical Cohesive Device of the Short

Story the Little Match Girl by Hans Christian Andersen 2016/2017.

English Education, 13.

Isti‘anah, A., Krismarini, C. R., & Putri, E. A. P. L. (2020). Stylistic Analysis of

Maya Angelou‘s ―Woman Work‖. ENGLISH FRANCA : Academic

Journal of English Language and Education, 4(1), 55. Retrieved from

https://doi.org/10.29240/ef.v4i1.1460

Jamil, R. F. (2018). Language Style Used in J.K. Rowling‘s Harry Potter and The

Cursed Child, 05(02), 11.

Kubra, K. T., Murtza, A., & Mahmood, M. A. (2018). Deixis Role as an Index of

Style: A Comparative Corpus Stylistics Analysis of Self, Pakistani and

Other Translators. International Journal of English Linguistics, 8, 7.

Leech, G. N., & Short, M. (2007). Style in fiction: a linguistic introduction to

English fictional prose (2nd ed). New York: Pearson Longman.


62

Nordquist, R. (2020). Deictic Expressions in English. Retrieved 6 October 2020,

from https://www.thoughtco.com/deictic-expression-deixis-1690428

Nørgaard, N., Montoro, R., & Busse, B. (2010). Key terms in stylistics. London ;

New York, NY: Continuum International Pub. Group.

Panggabean, W. (2018). Deictic Expressions in Nasreddin‘s Selected Stories.

Ethical Lingua: Journal of Language Teaching and Literature, 5(2), 185–

199. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.30605/ethicallingua.v5i2.906

Pionery, H., & Isti‘anah, A. (2017). Modality Analysis in Melania Trump‘s and

Ivanka Trump‘s Campaign Speeches in Republican National COnvention,

July 19th, 2016. Journal of Language and Literature, 17(1), 24–35.

Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.24071/joll.2017.170104

Population and Sampling. (n.d.). Retrieved 22 October 2020, from

https://www.umsl.edu/~lindquists/sample.html

Putri, A., Budiarsa, M., & Sudana, I. G. P. (2018). The Analysis of Deixis in the

Novel The Fault In Our Stars by John Green. Humanis, 697. Retrieved

from https://doi.org/10.24843/JH.2018.v22.i03.p19

Roberts, E. V., & Jacobs, H. E. (1987). Fiction: an introduction to reading and

writing. Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice-Hall.

Saiful, J. A., & Setyorini, A. (2016). The Symbols of Gender-Stereotype in Hans

Christian Andersen‘s the Little Mermaid. Tell : Teaching of English

Language and Literature Journal, 3(1). Retrieved 7 September 2020 from

http://dx.doi.org/10.30651/tell.v3i1.312

Sari, R. (2015). Deixis Analysis Through the Interaction Among the Students with

Different Culture, 11, 8.

Simpson, P. (1997). Language through literature: an introduction. London ; New

York: Routledge.

Simpson, P. (2004). Stylistics: A Resource Book for Students (1st ed.). Routledge.

Retrieved 15 September 2020 from

https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203496589

Sridana, M. D. P. (2014). Analysis Kinds of Deixis and Their References in the

Novel Eat, Pray, Love, 9.

Sugiharto, S. (2004). Reference, Anaphora, and Deixis: An Overview, 4(2), 12.

The Little Match Girl. (2020). In Wikipedia. Retrieved 29 September 2020 from

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Little_Match_Girl&oldid

=978155365


63

The Little Match Girl -by Hans Christian Anderson. (2013). Retrieved 23

September 2020, from

http://autumnwilliams382.weebly.com/2/post/2013/10/the-little-match-

girl-by-hans-christian-anderson.html

Verdonk, P. (2002). Stylistics (2. impression). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Yule, G. (2006). The Study of Language, Fourth Edition, 340.


64

APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Person Deixis in “The Little Match Seller” Story

Person deixis Freq. Reference

She 32 The match seller

She 1 The match seller‘s grandmother

They 3 Slippers

He 2 A boy who ran away with one of the match

seller‘s slipper

His 1 The boy‘s child

Them 3 Matches

They 1 The match seller‘s family

It 4 Match

It 6 Flame from the match

Them 1 The match seller‘s feet that she stretched out

It 1 A Christmas tree which she had seen through

the glass door at the rich merchant's

Them 1 Tapers

They 1 Christmas lights

It 1 Star fall

Her 2 The match seller‘s grandmother

They 3 The match seller and her grandmother

Herself 3 The match seller

It 2 Circumstances

Me 1 The match seller

I 1 The match seller

You 3 The match seller‘s grandmother

Her 31 The match seller

Total 105

Appendix 2: Place Deixis in “The Little Match Seller” Story

Place Deixis Freq. Reference

In a corner 1 The corner where the match seller sinks down

Here 1 At the street/ The corner where the match seller

sinks down

There 1 By the match seller‘s side

Upwards 1 Heaven

Total 4


65

Appendix 3: Time Deixis in “The Little Match Seller” Story

Time Deixis Freq. Reference

On the last evening

of the old year 1 The last evening of that year.

New-year‘s Eve 1

The last night of the year at which the match

seller is producing utterance containing ―new-

year‘s eve‖

In the dawn of

morning 1

The first morning of the new-year. It can be

assumed on January 1st

and the year is

unknown.

On the last evening

of the year 1 The last evening of that year.

On new-year‘s day 1

The first day of the new-year which is on

January 1st

Total 5

Appendix 4: A Whole Story of “The Little Match Seller” by Hans Christian

Andersen (1846) (Andersen, 2010, pp. 551–554)

It was terribly cold and nearly dark on the last evening of the old year,

and the snow was falling fast. In the cold and the darkness, a poor little girl, with

bare head and naked feet, roamed through the streets. It is true she had on a pair of

slippers when she left home, but they were not of much use. They were very large,

so large, indeed, that they had belonged to her mother, and the poor little creature

had lost them in running across the street to avoid two carriages that were rolling

along at a terrible rate. One of the slippers she could not find, and a boy seized

upon the other and ran away with it, saying that he could use it as a cradle, when

he had children of his own. So the little girl went on with her little naked feet,

which were quite red and blue with the cold. In an old apron she carried a number

of matches, and had a bundle of them in her hands. No one had bought anything

of her the whole day, nor had anyone given her even a penny. Shivering with cold

and hunger, she crept along; poor little child, she looked the picture of misery.

The snowflakes fell on her long, fair hair, which hung in curls on her shoulders,

but she regarded them not.

Lights were shining from every window, and there was a savory smell of

roast goose, for it was New-year‘s eve—yes, she remembered that. In a corner,

between two houses, one of which projected beyond the other, she sank down and

huddled herself together. She had drawn her little feet under her, but she could not

keep off the cold; and she dared not go home, for she had sold no matches, and

could not take home even a penny of money. Her father would certainly beat her;

besides, it was almost as cold at home as here, for they had only the roof to cover

them, through which the wind howled, although the largest holes had been

stopped up with straw and rags. Her little hands were almost frozen with the cold.


66

Ah! perhaps a burning match might be some good, if she could draw it from the

bundle and strike it against the wall, just to warm her fingers. She drew one out—

―scratch!‖ how it sputtered as it burnt! It gave a warm, bright light, like a little

candle, as she held her hand over it. It was really a wonderful light. It seemed to

the little girl that she was sitting by a large iron stove, with polished brass feet and

a brass ornament. How the fire burned! and seemed so beautifully warm that the

child stretched out her feet as if to warm them, when, lo! the flame of the match

went out, the stove vanished, and she had only the remains of the half-burnt match

in her hand.

She rubbed another match on the wall. It burst into a flame, and where its

light fell upon the wall it became as transparent as a veil, and she could see into

the room. The table was covered with a snowy white table-cloth, on which stood a

splendid dinner service, and a steaming roast goose, stuffed with apples and dried

plums. And what was still more wonderful, the goose jumped down from the dish

and waddled across the floor, with a knife and fork in its breast, to the little girl.

Then the match went out, and there remained nothing but the thick, damp, cold

wall before her.

She lighted another match, and then she found herself sitting under a

beautiful Christmas-tree. It was larger and more beautifully decorated than the one

which she had seen through the glass door at the rich merchant‘s. Thousands of

tapers were burning upon the green branches, and colored pictures, like those she

had seen in the show-windows, looked down upon it all. The little one stretched

out her hand towards them, and the match went out.

The Christmas lights rose higher and higher, till they looked to her like

the stars in the sky. Then she saw a star fall, leaving behind it a bright streak of

fire. ―Someone is dying,‖ thought the little girl, for her old grandmother, the only

one who had ever loved her, and who was now dead, had told her that when a star

falls, a soul was going up to God.

She again rubbed a match on the wall, and the light shone round her; in

the brightness stood her old grandmother, clear and shining, yet mild and loving

in her appearance. ―Grandmother,‖ cried the little one, ―O take me with you; I

know you will go away when the match burns out; you will vanish like the warm

stove, the roast goose, and the large, glorious Christmas-tree.‖ And she made

haste to light the whole bundle of matches, for she wished to keep her

grandmother there. And the matches glowed with a light that was brighter than the

noon-day, and her grandmother had never appeared so large or so beautiful. She

took the little girl in her arms, and they both flew upwards in brightness and joy

far above the earth, where there was neither cold nor hunger nor pain, for they

were with God.

In the dawn of morning there lay the poor little one, with pale cheeks and

smiling mouth, leaning against the wall; she had been frozen to death on the last

evening of the year; and the New-year‘s sun rose and shone upon a little corpse!

The child still sat, in the stiffness of death, holding the matches in her hand, one

bundle of which was burnt. ―She tried to warm herself,‖ said some. No one


67

imagined what beautiful things she had seen, nor into what glory she had entered

with her grandmother, on New-year‘s day.


Documents

DEIXIS REVEALING HANS CHRISTIAN ANDERSEN‟S LANGUAGE …