DEFINITIONS OF MOTIVATIONDEFINITIONS OF MOTIVATION

“The degree to which an individual wants and

chooses to engage in certain specified behaviour.”

Motivation - The energy and commitment a person dedicates to a task.

• Motivating - What is done to release the energy and commitment in others.

• Performance is a product of motivation, ability and environment (Mullins: 1996,480)

The Nature of Motivation

• Intensity (how hard a person tries)

• Direction (efforts are not aimless)

• Persistence (how long a person can try)

The Motivation Framework

TYPES OF MOTIVATORSTYPES OF MOTIVATORS

• Extrinsic Motivation - Tangible rewards

• Intrinsic Motivation - Psychological rewards

Workplace MotivatorsWorkplace Motivators

Extrinsic Motivation(Economic rewards)• Pay, fringe benefits, pension rights, material goods and

security• This is an ‘instrumental’ orientation to work and concerned

with ‘other things’

Intrinsic Motivation• Derived from the nature of the work itself• Interest in the job• Personal growth and development• This is a ‘personal’ orientation to work and concerned with

‘oneself’

Workplace MotivatorsWorkplace Motivators

Social relationships• Friendships/informal groups• Group working• Desire for affiliation, status and independence - a

‘relational’ orientation to work and concerned with ‘other people’

• A person’s motivation, job satisfaction and workperformance will be determined by the comparativestrength of these sets of needs and expectations andthe extent to which they are fulfilled.

I.Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsI.Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

• Based on the assumption that human needs are inexhaustible

• A satisfied need is no longer a motivator

• Maslow categorises the needs in ascending order – physiological, security, affiliation, esteem and self-actualisation.

• Gradual emergence of higher-level/higher-order needs as lower-level needs become more satisfied

• Relative importance of needs changes during the psychological development of the individual

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Source: Adopted from Abraham H. Maslow, “A Theory of Human Motivation,” Psychology Review, 1943, Vol. 50, pp. 370-396.

• Proposed two distinct views of human being Negative (theory X) Positive (theory Y)

• Theory X (people are lazy, dislike work, wants to be controlled, avoid responsibility, show little ambition)

• Theory Y (self motivated to do work, self-direction, self-control, like work naturally, seek responsibility, innovative decision)

Theory X & theory Y (McGregor)

III. HERZBERG’S TWO-III. HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR THEORYFACTOR THEORY

Herzberg avoids using the word ‘need’ and maintainsthat in any work situation, you can distinguishbetween two sets of factors.

Hygiene factors• features of the work environment which, if present, help avoid

dissatisfaction with work.• concerned with job context e.g work environment, status,

company procedures, quality of supervision.• Can be related roughly to Maslow’s lower-level needs.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor TtheoryHerzberg’s Two-Factor Ttheory

Motivators

• features of the job itself that people find enjoyable and that have a motivational effect.

• Mainly intrinsic in nature e.g. sense of achievement, recognition, responsibility.

• can be related to Maslow’s higher-level needs.

The Two Factor Theory of The Two Factor Theory of MotivationMotivation

The Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg) The Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg) (cont’d)(cont’d)

• Motivation is a two-stage process:– Ensuring that the hygiene factors are not deficient and not

blocking motivation.– Providing employees the opportunity to experience increase

motivational factors through the use of job enrichment and the redesign of jobs.

• Criticisms of the Two-Factor Theory– Interview findings are subject to different explanations.– Sample population was not representative.– Subsequent research has not upheld theory.

II. ALDERFER’S ERG THEORYII. ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY

• Condenses Maslow’s model into three levels

• Based on core needs of existence, relatedness and growth

• Individuals progress through the ERG needs hierarchy though Alderfer suggests that it is a continuum rather than a hierarchy

ALDERFER’S ERG THEORYALDERFER’S ERG THEORY

• More than one need may be activated at the same time.

• Individuals may progress down the hierarchy.

• If needs are blocked at one level then attention will be focused on satisfaction of needs at other levels.

IV. McCLELLAND’S ACHIEVEMENT IV. McCLELLAND’S ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION THEORYMOTIVATION THEORY

• Need for affiliation – to interact with, and be liked by, other people (nAff)

• Need for power – to control the activities of other people (nPow)

• Need for achievement – to succeed or excel in areas of significance to the person (nAch)

McCLELLAND’S ACHIEVEMENT McCLELLAND’S ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION THEORYMOTIVATION THEORY

– People with a high need for achievement:– have a major preoccupation with succeeding in

whatever they do– prefer moderate task difficulty– want personal and full responsibility for

performance– like to receive clear and unambiguous feedback– tend not to value money for itself but more as a

symbol of success.

VI.VROOM’S EXPECTANCY THEORY

• Motivation = Valence x Expectancy x Instrumentality

 

Valence: value or strength of outcome or reward.

 

Expectancy: relates efforts to performance.

 

Instrumentality: the belief that performance is related to rewards

Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory

• Motivation depends on how much we want something and how likely we are to get it.

• Assumes that:– Behavior is determined by a combination of personal and

environmental forces.– People make decisions about their own behavior in

organizations.– Different people have different types of needs, desires, and

goals.– People choose among alternatives of behaviors in selecting

one that that leads to a desired outcome.

Expectancy Theory (cont’d)Expectancy Theory (cont’d)

• Model of Motivation– Suggests that motivation leads to effort, when

combined with ability and environmental factors, that results in performance which, in turn, leads to various outcomes that have value (valence) to employees.

The Expectancy Model of The Expectancy Model of MotivationMotivation

VII. Porter-Lawler Extension of VII. Porter-Lawler Extension of Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory

• Assumptions:–If performance in an organization results in equitable and fair

rewards, people will be more satisfied.

• High performance can lead to rewards and high satisfaction.

• Types of rewards:–Extrinsic rewards—outcomes set and awarded by external parties

(e.g., pay and promotions).

–Intrinsic rewards—outcomes that are internal to the individual (e.g., self-esteem and feelings of accomplishment).

The Porter-Lawler ModelThe Porter-Lawler Model

Evaluation and ImplicationsEvaluation and Implications

•Research studies have confirmed:–The association of both kinds of expectancies

and valences with performance and outcomes.

–That motivated behavior by people arises from their valuing expected rewards, believing effort will lead to performance, and that performance will lead to desired rewards.

Guidelines for the Use ofGuidelines for the Use ofExpectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory

• Practical use of the theory by managers:– Determine the primary outcome each employee wants.

– Decide what levels and kinds of performance are needed to meet organizational goals.

– Make sure the desired levels of performance are possible.

– Link desired outcomes and desired performance.

– Analyze the situation for conflicting expectations.

– Make sure the rewards are large enough.

– Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone.

VIII. Goal Setting Theory

• Assumptions– Behavior is a result of conscious goals and

intentions.– Setting goals influences the behavior of people in

organizations.

• Characteristics of Goals– Goal difficulty

• Extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort.• People work harder to achieve more difficult goals.• Goals should be difficult but attainable.

• Characteristics of Goals (cont’d)– Goal specificity

• Clarity and precision of the goal.• Goals vary in their ability to be

stated specifically.

– Acceptance• The extent to which persons

accept a goal as their own.

– Commitment• The extent to which an individual is

personally interested in reaching a goal.

The Expanded Goal-Setting Theory The Expanded Goal-Setting Theory of Motivationof Motivation

Source: Reprinted by permission of the publisher, from Organizational Dynamics, Autumn/1979, copyright © 1979 by American Management Association, New York. All rights reserved. (http://www.amanet.org)

IX. The Equity Theory of IX. The Equity Theory of MotivationMotivation

•Equity Theory– Based on the relatively simple premise that people in

organizations want to be treated fairly.

•Equity– The belief that we are being

treated fairly in relation to others.

•Inequity– The belief that we are being

treated unfairly in relation to others.

Forming Equity PerceptionsForming Equity Perceptions

People in organizations form perceptions of the equity of their treatment through a four-step process.

Step 1Step 1A person A person

evaluates how he evaluates how he or she is being or she is being treated by the treated by the

firm.firm.

Step 1Step 1A person A person

evaluates how he evaluates how he or she is being or she is being treated by the treated by the

firm.firm.

Step 2Step 2The person The person

forms a forms a perception of perception of

how a how a “comparison“comparison

other” isother” isbeing treated.being treated.

Step 2Step 2The person The person

forms a forms a perception of perception of

how a how a “comparison“comparison

other” isother” isbeing treated.being treated.

Step 3Step 3The personThe person

compares hiscompares hisor her ownor her own

circumstancescircumstanceswith those ofwith those of

the comparisonthe comparisonother.other.

Step 3Step 3The personThe person

compares hiscompares hisor her ownor her own

circumstancescircumstanceswith those ofwith those of

the comparisonthe comparisonother.other.

Step 4Step 4On the strengthOn the strengthof this feeling,of this feeling,

the person maythe person maychoose tochoose to

pursue one or pursue one or more more

alternatives.alternatives.

Step 4Step 4On the strengthOn the strengthof this feeling,of this feeling,

the person maythe person maychoose tochoose to

pursue one or pursue one or more more

alternatives.alternatives.

The Equity Comparison ProcessThe Equity Comparison Process

• Equity theory describes the equity comparison process in terms of an outcome-to-input ratio.

Outcomes (self)Outcomes (self)Inputs (self)Inputs (self)

Outcomes (self)Outcomes (self)Inputs (self)Inputs (self)

Outcomes (other)Outcomes (other)Inputs (other)Inputs (other)

Outcomes (other)Outcomes (other)Inputs (other)Inputs (other)compared withcompared with

Responses to Perceptions of Equity and Inequity

ENHANCING PERFORMANCE IN ENHANCING PERFORMANCE IN ORGANISATIONSORGANISATIONS

If a manager is to improve the work of an

organisation, attention must be given to the level of motivation of its members.

ENHANCING PERFORMANCE IN ENHANCING PERFORMANCE IN ORGANISATIONS/Motivating ToolsORGANISATIONS/Motivating Tools

• JOB DESIGN is how organisations define and

structure jobs and can have a positive or a negative

impact on the motivation, performance and job

satisfaction of those who perform them.

• Job Specialisation – e.g. FW TAYLOR. Consequent boredom and monotony for workers led to managers formulating a new approach.

ENHANCING PERFORMANCE IN ENHANCING PERFORMANCE IN ORGANISATIONSORGANISATIONS

• Job Rotation – systematic rotation of workers from one job to another to reduce boredom

• Job Enlargement – greater task variety

• Job Enrichment – Because rotation and enlargement did not have the desired effect, a more complex approach was taken i.e. enlargement of the job both horizontally and vertically to give more responsibility and control to the employee

THE JOB CHARACTERISTICS THE JOB CHARACTERISTICS THEORY THEORY (Hackman and Oldham)(Hackman and Oldham)

Three Critical Psychological States

• Experienced meaningfulness of the work

• Experienced responsibility for work outcomes

• Knowledge of results

THE JOB CHARACTERISTICS THE JOB CHARACTERISTICS THEORY THEORY (Hackman and Oldham)(Hackman and Oldham)

Enhancement of the three critical psychologicalstates can improve a variety of personal and workoutcomes:

– high internal work motivation– high quality work performance– high satisfaction with the work

– low absenteeism and turnover

ENHANCING PERFORMANCE ENHANCING PERFORMANCE IN ORGANISATIONSIN ORGANISATIONS

Hackman and Oldham suggest that the threecritical psychological states are triggered by fivecharacteristics of the job - core job dimensions:

• Skill variety • Task identity

• Task significance• Autonomy• Feedback

Popular Motivational StrategiesPopular Motivational Strategies

• Empowerment and Participation–Empowerment

• The process of enabling workers to set their own work goals, make decisions, and solve problems within their sphere of influence.

–Participation• The process of giving employees a voice in making decisions about

their work.

–Areas of Participation for Employees• Making decisions about their jobs.• Making decisions about administrative matters.• Participating in decision making about broader issues of product

quality.

New Forms of Working New Forms of Working ArrangementsArrangements

• Variable Work Schedules– Compressed work schedule—working a full forty-hour week

in less than five days.– “Nine-eighty” schedule—working one full week (five days)

and one compressed week (four days), yielding one off-work day every other week.

• Flexible work schedules (flextime)– Allowing employees to select, within broad parameters, the

hours they will work.

• Job sharing– When two part-time employees share one full-time job.

Effects of Organizational RewardsEffects of Organizational Rewards

• Effect of Rewards on Attitudes

– Satisfaction is influenced by how much is received and how much the person thinks should have been received.

– Satisfaction is affected by comparison with others.

– The rewards of others are often misperceived.

– Overall job satisfaction is affected by employee satisfaction with intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.

Effects of Organizational RewardsEffects of Organizational Rewards

• Effect of Rewards on Behaviors

– Extrinsic rewards affect employee satisfaction and reduce turnover.

– Rewards influence patterns of attendance and absenteeism.

– Employees tend to work harder for rewards based on performance.

Effects of Organizational RewardsEffects of Organizational Rewards

• Effect of Rewards on Motivation

– Employees will work harder when performance will be measured.

– Employees will work harder if performance is closely followed by rewards.

Conclusions

MOTIVATION AND MONEY

• Money, in the form of pay or some other sort of remuneration, is the most obvious extrinsic reward.

• Herzberg cast doubts on the effectiveness of money as a motivator.

• However, different people have different needs and some will be more motivated by money than others.

Conclusions

• Money is a powerful force as it is linked directly, or indirectly, to the satisfaction of many needs eg survival and security, self-esteem and status.

• Financial incentives motivate those people who

are strongly motivated by money and who expect to

receive a financial reward for their effort.

Thank You