What is Argumentation?Definitions & Characteristics

Everyday Perspective Interpersonal conflict=2 people engaged in verbal

hostilityHow do I win these arguments?

Debate=verbal competition Collaboration=working out disagreements

constructively Cooperative knowledge seeking Emphasis on communal knowledge-whole is

greater than the sum of its parts Feminists/Women=connected knowers fusing

ideas & opinions

Nature of Argumentation• Definition:• Argumentation: a form of instrumental communication

relying on reasoning and proof to influence belief or behavior through the use of spoken or written messages.

• Instrument=musical, surgical, panel in your car• Tools or implements used for doing something or

understanding how something works• Instrument=a set of concepts or ideas that allows you

to accomplish something. • Language is an instrument for communicating with others• Mathematics is an instrument for counting and measuring• Argumentation is an instrument for reasoning with others.

Techniques for Argumentation

• Pull information together• Structure your ideas• Offer reasons for others to consider

Arguers are Persuaders• Persuasion is an attempt to move an audience to

accept or identify with a particular point of view• Emotion and reason are appeals used in

persuasion• Proof and reasoning are used to appeal to rational

side of human nature

Elaboration Likelihood Model(ELM)

• How do listeners process persuasive messages?• Take one of two routes:• Central Route=highly involved, message is relevant,

identify with it by using own experience to help explain and make sense of it—thinking about the message, the quality of the argument, the soundness of the reasoning, the believability of the evidence

• Peripheral Route=less involved, message relevant, simple cue pulls you in and is seized on (message, context, situation)-a shortcut that becomes what does the thinking for us

The Audience: consists of 1 or more persons who are capable of being influenced, who may accept or reject, the arguer’s message.

• Truism: to succeed in argumentation, must adapt your message to audience—all relative to the quality of the audience that carries out the evaluation.

• How to assess audience to adapt? Field Theory: 3 ways1. People who function together based on expertise2. People who share common characteristics, e.g.,

demographics3. How will people use the argumentation as an instrument to

make decisions-use argumentation to solve-impartial judge determines who makes better case-individual/self through internal dialogue weighing pros/cons for a belief or a course of action

Historical Development• Began in Ancient Greece. Citizenship in Athens

required communication skills• Studied Rhetoric to primarily persuade or change

listener by finding all means of persuading an audience to believe a proposition• Developed meaningful probabilities or arguments to

support contested claims

• Aristotle-one of greatest Greek rhetoricians-argumentation was central to human nature

Presumption: Who occupies the ground at the beginning of the argument/controversy?

• 2 Viewpoints:• Artificial Presumption-assigned arbitrarily to one side in a

dispute because of a field-accepted belief, i.e., innocent until proven guilty. Could just as easily assigned presumption as the French do-the accused is guilty until he or she proves the probability of innocence• Field-institutions, ideas, rules, policies & customs that

differentiate one from the other, create an order for what is typical or natural, and are ongoing until sufficient change is required

• Natural Presumption-derived from observing natural order of whatever field we are in at given time and recognizing over time what things work for that field• If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it.

• Presumption is the status quo

More Presumption• Hypothesis Testing: Creating a Proposition-a statement that

identifies the argumentative ground and points to a change in belief or behavior-that is given provisional, artificial acceptance and argued to determine if that acceptance should continue or should be rejected after thorough reasoning• Scientific method used for study or experiment

3 Perspectives about Presumption:1. Identifies existing institutions, ideas, laws or rules, policies,

practices or customs2. Identifies what sources of info & expert opinion constitute good

& sufficient reasons for accepting or rejecting a proposed change in belief or behavior

3. Is a decision rule that determines what the advocate must prove in testing the proposition as a hypothesis

Burden of Proof• The obligation of the advocate to contest the ground by

offering arguments that are logically sufficient to challenge presumption• Balancing Act-shifting or transferring of the weight of evidence &

reasoning from one side to the other• Requires passing judgment on & criticizing present belief or

behavior & recommends a new belief or behavior

Principles:1. The advocate has the responsibility to make a case of

good and sufficient reasons for change=burden of proof2. In fulfilling the burden of proof, present beliefs &

behaviors described by presumption are judged & evaluated based on the available evidence, & an alternative pattern of thought or action is proposed

A Prima Facie Case• Is one that “at first sight” or “on the face of it” is

sufficient to justify changing belief or behavior• Suspension of presumption or what we rely on as a guide

for our belief/behavior• Consist of evidence supporting the arguments• A prima facie case can be determined by using stock

issues/questions that are applied to the propositions; questions that listeners want answered before they accept the advocate’s arguments to warrant a change. They focus the controversy and are naturally derived from the propositions being argued.

Types of Propositions• Proposition of Fact• Does or does not exist; what has or has not happened;

what may occur in the future• Few American presidents have enjoyed favorable press

coverage while in office.• The American mass media are relatively free from

government regulation.• Most wildlife species will cease to exist outside of zoos

in the next decade.

• The controversy concerns the relationship b/t something & what we are asked to believe about it.

• A particular cause has led to a particular significant event

Propositions cont.• Proposition of Value• What is virtuous, right or wrong, moral or immoral

or with our sense of priorities• The rights of endangered animal species are more

important than the rights of indigenous human populations.• American commercial broadcasters have sacrificed quality

for entertainment.• Protecting the environment is a more important goal than

satisfying America’s demands for full employment.

• Establishes a judgmental standard or set of standards & applies them.

• This value is more important than that value

Propositions cont.• Proposition of Policy• What specific actions we should take to deal with

significant social problems• The federal govt should significantly strengthen the

guarantee of consumer product safety required of manufacturers.• The federal govt should control the supply and utilization

of energy in the USA.• The US should restore normal diplomatic relations with the

government of Cuba.

• Seeks to change behavior• We should do this policy to solve this problem

Phrasing Propositions1. A clear statement of the change in belief or behavior

the advocate will seek• Something should be done about strikes by professional athletes

• VS

• An independent labor relations board for professional sports contract negotiations should be created to arbitrate all labor-management disputes.

2. Contain one central idea• An independent labor relations board for professional sports

contract negotiations should be created to arbitrate all labor-management disputes and mandate the use of video play of contested plays in professional sports.

3. Should be couched in neutral terms• “greedy” owners & “overpaid” players

Proposition Examples• Spontaneous human combustion is real.• Family friendly companies are more successful.• Alcohol should be banned at all sporting events.• We should volunteer.• Concealed gun permits reduce crime.• Mandatory voting is better than the voluntary

method.• American diplomats are adequately trained.• Couples should limit their families to one child.• Small town communities are better places to live.• Cultural images of beauty are used against

women.

More!• Humans, by nature, are monogamous.• The penny is a costly and irrelevant form of

currency that needs to be eliminated.• Casinos are detrimental to the communities they

are in.• Criminal tendencies are genetic.• We should participate in mentoring programs.• Amateurs should be banned from climbing Mt.

Everest.• The jury system is ineffective.• The elderly are overmedicated.• Regular sodas are healthier than diet sodas.