Definition+of+Engineering

8/6/2019 Definition+of+Engineering

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DEFINITION OF ENGINEERING

Engineering is the application of science to the optimum conversion of theresources of nature to the uses of humankind. The field has been defined bythe Engineers Council for Professional Development, in the UnitedStates, asthe creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures,machines, apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing themsingly or in combination; or to construct or operate the same with fullcognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specificoperating conditions; all as respects an intended function, economics ofoperation and safety to life and property. The term engineering is sometimesmore loosely defined, especially in Great Britain, as the manufacture orassembly of engines,machinetools, and machine parts.

The words engine and ingenious are derived from the same Latin root,

ingenerare, which means to create. The early English verb enginemeant tocontrive. Thus the engines of war were devices such as catapults, floatingbridges, and assault towers; their designer was the engine-er, or militaryengineer. The counterpart of the military engineer was the civil engineer, whoapplied essentially the same knowledge and skills to designing buildings,streets,watersupplies,sewagesystems, and other projects.
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Associated with engineering is a great body of special knowledge; preparationfor professional practice involves extensive training in the application of thatknowledge. Standards of engineering practice are maintained through theefforts of professional societies, usually organized on a national or regionalbasis, with each member acknowledging a responsibility to the public over and

above responsibilities to his employer or to other members of his society.

The function of the scientist is to know, while that of the engineer is to do.The scientist adds to the store of verified, systematized knowledge of thephysical world; the engineer brings this knowledge to bear on practicalproblems.

Engineering is based principally on physics, chemistry, and mathematics andtheir extensions into materials science, solid and fluid mechanics,thermodynamics, transfer and rate processes, and systems analysis.

Unlike the scientist, the engineer is not free to select the problem thatinterests him; he must solve problems as they arise; his solution must satisfyconflicting requirements. Usually efficiency costs money; safety adds tocomplexity; improved performance increases weight. The engineering solutionis the optimum solution, the end result that, taking many factors into account,is most desirable.

It may be the most reliable within a given weight limit, the simplest that willsatisfy certain safety requirements, or the most efficient for a given cost. In

many engineering problems the social costs are significant.

Engineers employ two types of natural resources, materials and energy.Materials are useful because of their properties: their strength, ease offabrication, lightness, or durability; their ability to insulate or conduct; theirchemical, electrical, or acoustical properties. Important sources of energyinclude fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, gas), wind, sunlight, falling water, andnuclearfission. Since most resources are limited, the engineer must concernhimself with the continual development of new resources as well as the efficientutilization of existing ones.
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HISTORY OF ENGINEERING

The first engineer known by name and achievement isImhotep, builder ofthe Step Pyramid at aqqrah, Egypt, probably in about 2550 bc. Imhotepssuccessors Egyptian, Persian, Greek, and Roman carriedcivilengineeringtoremarkable heights on the basis of empiricalmethods aided by arithmetic,geometry, and a smattering ofphysicalscience. The Pharos (lighthouse) of

Alexandria, Solomons Temple in Jerusalem, the Colosseum in Rome, thePersian and Roman road systems, thePontduGardaqueduct in France, andmany other large structures, some of which endure to this day, testify to theirskill, imagination, and daring. Of many treatises written by them, one inparticular survives to provide a picture of engineering education and practice inclassical times: Vitruvius De architectura, published in Rome in the 1stcentury ad, a 10-volume work covering building materials, constructionmethods, hydraulics, measurement, andtownplanning.

In construction medieval European engineers carried technique, in the formof the Gothic arch and flying buttress, to a height unknown to the Romans.The sketchbook of the 13th-century French engineer Villardde Honnecourtreveals a wide knowledge of mathematics, geometry, natural and physicalscience, and draftsmanship.

In Asia, engineering had a separate but very similar development, withmore and more sophisticated techniques of construction, hydraulics, andmetallurgy helping to create advanced civilizations such as the Mongol empire,whose large, beautiful cities impressedMarcoPoloin the 13th century.
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Civil engineering emerged as a separate discipline in the 18th century, whenthe first professional societies and schools of engineering were founded. Civilengineers of the 19th century built structures of all kinds, designed water-supply and sanitation systems, laid out railroad and highway networks, andplanned cities. England and Scotland were the birthplace of mechanical

engineering, as a derivation of the inventions of the Scottish engineerJamesWatt and the textile machinists of the Industrial Revolution. Thedevelopment of the British machine-tool industry gave tremendous impetus tothe study of mechanical engineering both in Britain and abroad.

The growth of knowledge of electricity from Alessandro Voltas originalelectric cell of 1800 through the experiments ofMichaelFaradayand others,culminating in 1872 in the Gramme dynamo and electric motor (named

after the Belgian Z.T. Gramme) led to the development of electrical andelectronicsengineering. The electronics aspect became prominent throughthe work of such scientists as JamesClerkMaxwellof Britain andHeinrichHertz of Germany in the late 19th century. Major advances came with thedevelopment of the vacuumtubebyLeeDeForestof the United States inthe early 20th century and the invention of the transistor in the mid-20thcentury. In the late 20th century electrical and electronics engineersoutnumbered all others in the world.

Chemical engineering grew out of the 19th-century proliferation of industrialprocesses involving chemical reactions in metallurgy, food, textiles, andmany other areas. By 1880 the use of chemicals in manufacturing had createdan industry whose function was the mass production of chemicals. Thedesign and operation of the plants of this industry became a function of thechemical engineer.
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Engineering functions

Problem solving is common to all engineering work. The problem mayinvolve quantitative or qualitative factors; it may be physical or economic; it

may require abstract mathematics or common sense.Of great importance is the process of creative synthesis or design, putting ideastogether to create a new and optimum solution.

Although engineering problems vary in scope and complexity, the samegeneral approach is applicable. First comes an analysis of the situation and apreliminary decision on a plan of attack. In line with this plan, the problem isreduced to a more categorical question that can be clearly stated. The statedquestion is then answered by deductivereasoningfrom known principles orby creative synthesis, as in a new design. The answer or design is always

checked for accuracy and adequacy. Finally, the results for the simplifiedproblem are interpreted in terms of the original problem and reported in anappropriate form.

In order of decreasing emphasis on science, the major functions of allengineering branches are the following:

Research. Using mathematical and scientific concepts, experimentaltechniques, and inductive reasoning, the research engineer seeks newprinciples and processes.

Development. Development engineers apply the results of research touseful purposes. Creative application of new knowledge may result in aworking model of a new electrical circuit, a chemical process, or anindustrial machine.
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Design. In designing a structure or a product, the engineer selectsmethods, specifies materials, and determines shapes to satisfy technicalrequirements and to meet performance specifications.

Construction. The construction engineer is responsible for preparingthe site, determining procedures that will economically and safely yieldthe desired quality, directing the placement of materials, and organizingthe personnel and equipment.

Production. Plant layout and equipment selection are the responsibilityof the production engineer, who chooses processes and tools, integratesthe flow of materials and components, and provides for testing andinspection.

Operation. The operating engineer controls machines, plants, andorganizations providing power, transportation, and communication;determines procedures; and supervises personnel to obtain reliable andeconomic operation of complex equipment.

Managementandotherfunctions. In some countries and industries,engineers analyze customers requirements, recommend units to satisfyneeds economically, and resolve related problems.

TYPES OF ENGINEERING

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

It consists on the development of processes and the design and operationof plants in which materials undergo changes in their physical or chemicalstate. Applied throughout the process industries, it is founded on the principlesof chemistry, physics, and mathematics.

The laws ofphysical chemistryand physics govern the practicability and

efficiency of chemical engineering operations. Energy changes, deriving fromthermodynamic considerations, are particularly important. Mathematics is abasic tool in optimization and modeling. Optimization means arrangingmaterials, facilities, and energy to yield as productive and economical anoperation as possible. Modeling is the construction of theoretical mathematicalprototypes of complex process systems, commonly with the aid of computers.
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Chemical engineers are employed in the design and development of bothprocesses and plant items. In each case, data and predictions often have to beobtained or confirmed with pilot experiments. Plant operation and control isincreasingly the sphere of the chemical engineer rather than the chemist.Chemical engineering provides an ideal background for the economic evaluationof new projects and, in the plant construction sector, for marketing.

CIVIL ENGINEERING

It is the profession of designing and executing structural works that serve thegeneral public. The term was first used in the 18th century to distinguish thenewly recognized profession from military engineering, until thenpreeminent. From earliest times, however, engineers have engaged in peacefulactivities, and many of the civil engineering works of ancient and medievaltimessuch as the Roman public baths, roads, bridges, and aqueducts; theFlemish canals; the Dutch sea defenses; the French Gothic cathedrals; andmany other monumentsreveal a history of inventive genius and persistentexperimentation.

The functions of the civil engineer can be divided into three categories:those performed before construction (feasibility studies, site investigations, and

design), those performed during construction (dealing with clients, consultingengineers, and contractors), and those performed after construction(maintenance and research).

SCIENCE AND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING

Computer engineering involves many aspects of computer design, thecreation of individual components for computer equipment, networking design,

and integrating software options with the hardware that will drive theapplications. A competent computer engineer can secure work in any

environment where computers play a role in the operation of the business.Because a computer engineer will have an extensive understanding of such
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electronic devices as microprocessors, local and wide area networks, andeven supercomputers that form the basis for worldwide communications, thecareer paths are wide and varied. Computer engineers can find work in such

fields as telecommunications, transportation, manufacturing, and productdevelopment.

Some of the common tasks associated with the computer engineer include

software design that is customized for a particular industry type. Operatingsystems that are peculiar to the culture of a given company often require theinput of a computer engineer, ensuring that the functionality of the customdesign meets all the needs of the application. In general, a computer engineer is

not only part of the design process of a new application, but also continues toprovide service and support as new versions of software are released, and inimplementing additional customizations or fixes to existing software.

One area where

opportunities are expanding forqualified computer engineers is

in the robotics industry. Theunique skills of the computer

engineer is helping to moverobotics forward, by making thebest use of traditionalelectronic technology and thelatest in computer generatedapplications. The computer

engineer can find significantopportunities within robotic s topurse the design of new motors, improved communication devices, and moresensitive sensors that can help robotic equipment function more efficiently.

ELECTRIC AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Electric engineering is the branch of engineering concerned with the practicalapplications of electricity in all its forms, including those of the field ofelectronics. Electronics engineering is that branch of electrical engineeringconcerned with the uses of the electromagnetic spectrum and with theapplication of such electronic devices as integrated circuits, transistors, andvacuum tubes.
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In engineering practice, the distinction between electrical engineering andelectronics is based on the comparative strength of the electric currentsused. In this sense, electrical engineering is the branch dealing with heavycurrentthat is, electric light and power systems and apparatuseswhereaselectronics engineering deals with such light current applications as wire and

radio communication, the stored-program electronic computer, radar, andautomaticcontrol systems.

The distinction between the fields has become less sharp with technicalprogress. For example, in the high-voltage transmission of electric power,large arrays of electronic devices are used to convert transmission-line currentat power levels in the tens of megawatts. Moreover, in the regulation andcontrol of interconnected power systems, electronic computers are used tocompute requirements much more rapidly and accurately than is possible bymanual methods.

The functions performed by electrical and electronics engineers include basicresearch in physics, other sciences, and applied mathematics in order toextend knowledge applicable to the field of electronics, applied researchbased on the findings of basic research and directed at discovering newapplications and principles of operation, development of new materials, devices,assemblies, and systems suitable for existing or proposed product lines, designof devices, equipment, and systems for manufacture, field-testing of equipmentand systems, establishment of quality control standards to be observed inmanufacture, supervision of manufacture and production testing,

postproduction assessment of performance, maintenance, and repair, andengineering management, or the direction of research, development,

The rapid proliferation of new discoveries, products, and markets in theelectrical and electronics industries has made it difficult for workers in the fieldto maintain the range of skills required to manage their activities. Consultingengineers, specializing in new fields, are employed to study and recommendcourses of action.
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The educational background required for these functions tends to be highest inbasic and applied research. In most major laboratories a doctorate in science orengineering is required to fill leadership roles. Most positions in design,product development, and supervision of manufacture and quality controlrequire a masters degree. In the high-technology industries typical of

modern electronics, an engineering background at not less than the bachelorslevel is required to assess competitive factors in sales engineering to guidemarketing strategy.

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Environmental engineering consists on the development of processes andinfrastructure for the supply of water, the disposal of waste, and the controlof pollution of all kinds. These endeavours protect public health bypreventing disease transmission, and they preserve the quality of the

environment by averting thecontamination and degradation of air,water, and land resources.

Environmental engineering is a field ofbroad scope that draws on suchdisciplines as chemistry, ecology,geology, hydraulics, hydrology,microbiology, economics, and

mathematics. It was traditionally aspecialized field within civilengineering and was called sanitaryengineering until the mid-1960s, whenthe more accurate name environmentalengineeringwas adopted.

Projects in environmental engineering involve the treatment and distributionof drinking water (seewater supply system); the collection, treatment, anddisposal of wastewater (see wastewater treatment); the control of airpollution and noise pollution; municipal solid-waste management andhazardous-waste management; the cleanup of hazardous-waste sites; andthe preparation of environmental assessments, audits, and impact studies.Mathematical modeling and computer analysis are widely used to evaluate anddesign the systems required for such tasks.

Chemical and mechanical engineers may also be involved in the process.Environmental engineering functions include applied researchand teaching;project planning and management; the design, construction, and operation offacilities; the sale and marketing of environmental-control equipment; and theenforcement of environmental standards and regulations.
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The education of environmental engineers usually involves graduate-levelcourse work, though some colleges and universities allow undergraduates tospecialize or take elective courses in the environmental field. Programs offeringassociate (two-year) degrees are available for training environmentaltechnicians. In the public sector, environmental engineers are employed by

national and regional environmental agencies, local health departments, andmunicipal engineering andpublic worksdepartments. In theprivate sector,they are employed by consulting engineering firms, construction contractors,water and sewerage utility companies, andmanufacturing industries.

INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING

It is the application of engineering principles and techniques of scientificmanagement to the maintenance of a high level of productivity at optimum costin industrial enterprises.

The managers responsible for industrial production require an enormousamount of assistance and support because of the complexity of mostproduction systems, and the additional burden of planning, scheduling, andcoordination. Historically, this support was provided by industrial engineerswhose major concern was with methods, standards, and the organization ofprocess technology.

Industrial engineering originated with the studies of Taylor, the Gilbreths,and other pioneers of mass productionmethods. Their work expanded into

responsibilities that now include the development of work methods to increaseefficiency and eliminate worker fatigue; the redesign and standardization ofmanufacturing processes and methods for handling and transporting materials;the development of production planning and control procedures; and thedetermination and maintenance of output standards for workers and machines.Today the field is characterized by an emphasis on mathematical and computermodeling.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

It is the branch of engineering concerned with the design, manufacture,installation, and operation of engines and machines and with manufacturingprocesses. It is particularly concerned with forces and motion.

Four functions of the mechanical engineer, common to all branches ofmechanical engineering, can be cited. The first is the understanding of anddealing with the bases of mechanical science. These include dynamics,concerning the relation between forces and motion, such as in vibration;automatic control; thermodynamics, dealing with the relations among thevarious forms of heat,energy, and power; fluid flow; heat transfer; lubrication;

and properties of materials.
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Second is the sequence of research, design, and development. This functionattempts to bring about the changes necessary to meet present and futureneeds. Such work requires a clear understanding of mechanical science, anability to analyze a complex system into its basic factors, and the originality tosynthesize and invent.

Third is production of products and power, which embraces planning,operation, and maintenance. The goal is to produce the maximum value withthe minimum investment and cost while maintaining or enhancing longer termviability and reputation of the enterprise or the institution.

Fourth is the coordinating function of the mechanical engineer, includingmanagement, consulting, and, in some cases, marketing.

In these functions there is a long continuing trend toward the use ofscientific instead of traditional or intuitive methods. Operations research,valueengineering, and PABLA (problem analysis by logical approach) are typicaltitles of such rationalized approaches. Creativity, however, cannot berationalized. The ability to take the important and unexpected step that opensup new solutions remains in mechanical engineering, as elsewhere, largely apersonal and spontaneous characteristic.
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