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8/2/2019 Defining Arab World
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Faculty of Philosophy and CivilizationParamadina University, Indonesia
Defining Arab World Polemics as
the Challengesfor a Redirection of
American Foreign Policy
A Case Study of Genealogical Theme in International
Relations
Islamic Modernity Indonesian
Author:
DIKY KURNIAWAN SAPUTRA
210000026
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Defining Arab World Polemics as the Challenges
for a Redirection of American Foreign Policy
- A Case Study of Genealogical Theme in International Relations -By: Diky Kurniawan Saputra*
Introduction
American administrative is in case of facing challenges to strengthen its relation with the Middle
East. The challenges came from the regions internal that also would be defined a
neotransformation of regionalism in the Middle East. Development of people perception on the
need to democratization and people polemics, seen as the reason why American must constantly
redirect its foreign policy strategy in engaging the Middle East control. Looking at in depth
capacities of America is not meaning an absolute opportunity to shift the Middle East control
through diplomatic approach and its the soft side by both only. Therefore, that should define a
must of the relevancy and adapting strategy for America to formulize its foreign policy
instruments. Before application of the adaptation that mentioned before, we have to see the
importance of understanding region context. After contextualizing value of American foreign
policy with the Middle East transformation, instruments those agreed would be the best way for
America to step forward for the Middle East.
Connecting with contextualization, at the point of the Middle East, we must recognize what
happened around 1990 with the end of the Cold War. Because we have to see changes underway,
but real turning point that the Middle East begun to transform significantly. Revolutions around
the Middle East and the Gulf started cutting away of many aspects of human kind on the ground.
The most influential was in term of ideological progressivity that had been seen freezing
periodically. Unfortunately, in the past, the decline of ideology in the Middle East has added
with the losing advance. Therefore, when the situation was going negatively, Islamic intellectual
*A 2nd year student of Paramadina University, Jakarta, Indonesia, majoring International Relations
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party did not come with positive movements. Outside of freezing ideological discourse,
pragmatism-based relation between states of the Middle East led to high performance.
Resolution of the Iranian nuclear issue, Syrians and Israelis doing indirect negotiations on
weaponry and power distribution, movements on Arab-Israelis dispute and even we have seen
Israel sign cease fires with Hezbollah and Hamas, all of facts above, explained to us how
extreme the Middle East and the Gulf buried ideological movement which was a regional
issue[1].
Papers Questions
But, did mentioned transitions above freezing ideology in the Middle East really happen? Or that
ideological term decreased as the civil value being never influenced. Although transformation
comes with neo form in the Middle East, must American administrative deny the possibility of
ideological challenges inside of the region? In regard to neo form of Middle Eastern
transformation, what inevitably happen on the ground? At last, what all of matters in the Middle
East might challenge to American administrative to maintain its rule of hegemonic power?
Upcoming answers are hoped being an objective result, considering the complex of ideology,
value, need and pragmatism in the Middle East. So, with this paper, the Middle East will be
understood clearly as the challenge for American administrative.
Defining Moments and How to Understand the Middle Eastern Origins:
A Quest to Theoretical Guide
As a need to clarify substance of moments, prior of doing, we have to classify in detail divisions
of each moment we found from historical reality of the Middle East bridging to high
understanding of historical sense and implications. In constructing exclamations of several
moments in the Middle East, acknowledges of politics, social movements, human histories and
ideological dynamics should be first to be a analytical knife for the Middle East introductions[2].
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When a primary understanding project is being done, a motive to imagine indications or
phenomena righteously should be owned by a researcher. This point pressures development of
views in dealing with understanding relation senses between states over the world, particularly
the Middle East. Therefore, if we are going on to address future challenges and opportunities in a
coherent and rational way, and if we are going on to find out how to make the Middle East a
more stable, rational and prosperous region that engages more intelligently and peacefully with
the rest of the world, it is very important to start by acknowledging and understanding what is
actually happening on the ground of the Middle East[3].
Defining moments have been passed for recent years, all of which were negatively missed
because of political incompetence by the Arab world, by Israel, by United States, by Europe and
by Iran. Abundantly, that incompetence goes around for the missed opportunities. These were
opportunities like the Madrid Peace Conference in 1991, the Oslo Israeli-Palestinian Process, the
Camp David Process, the Syria-US-Israel talks in 2000, the post 9/11 response to the 9/11 terror
attacks and the Arab Peace Plan in the year 2002. In case there was no good leadership in the
Middle East to capitalize those opportunities, the accumulation of failures finally talks about a
defining moment, a moment that defines the beginning of destroy. Of no discourses on inevitable
moments for more being learned, I attempt at enlightening this paper with being guided by
postmodernism direction, primarily, I turned back to how historical arrangements structuralized
in region which are often affect to latter matters. This look is called by genealogy. History, in
regard to genealogists, is less often to refer to a phase in of meaning disclosure in future[4].
Thus, the Middle East with its complex is expected to be understood as well by referring to what
has been closed from its real history. As Roland Bleiker (2000) explains, genealogies are always
focus on the process by which people have constructed origins and given meaning to particular
representations of the past, representation that continuously guide human daily lives and set clear
limits to political and social options[5].
Then we continue to how urgent that America must be consolidated with the topic of this paper.
In regard to regional change of the Middle East which forge international stability, America
known well as the positioned above on its relevance in being called by Great Power of the
century-past Cold War. When a state obtains top-dog status, hegemon promote regime that
benefit not only for itself but also others. Here, I never mean to seek a truth trough paranoia to
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what seldom accused by groups who are in favor of conspiracy theory, however, I objectively
remain, based on academic principals, a previous clause must be a scene advanced to predictions
about consequences that will result a decline of hegemon, if it, failed to define how a region
changes and affects to world stability. Therefore, when this kind of structural transformation
occurs and the system is left without an unchallenged leader, instability follows, I must be
guided by hegemonic stability theory[6] in order to explain in depth approach to understand how
America is importance to included for this discourse of the Middle Eastern changes.
Then, in similar with the urgent term of other guidance, equally I stress an ideological, even
more, a valuable norms and ideas addressing the Middle Eastern approach to how each foreign
policy of state influence non-Arab countries. This stand brought from what Fred Halliday (2005)
has stated in his book, The Middle East in International Relations: Power, Politics and Ideology,
stressing a common idea of the Middle East was anti-hegemonic, instead of in regard to trade
or oil. But with a more discourse, how I make sure that ideological decrease must be in after
Cold War passed? Moreover, historically I found it somewhat difficult to identify the
authoritarian and sometimes murderous projects served by ideas. But however, I should never
deny every possibility of identification of ideas in the Middle East which built responds to many
interventions from outside. Thus, here I would not be much to discuss how ideas decline since
post Cold War. But I will more ensure how ideology in the Middle East was played by political
shoot of American administrative driven by hidden agency.
State Formation, Social Change, Impact of Colonialism:
A Genealogical Guide part I
Such as I have mentioned above, genealogy must guide here to arrange the Middle East from its
history of the state formation, social change and impact of colonialism with the relevance toideological dynamics within the region. Thus, it would be defined that the Middle East is so
wretched for American supply of its strategy to take overbearingly a super control, with no the
exception for other countries.
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In retrospect, however, potentially significantly equally inter-state relations of the Middle East
region caused domain of the formation of states and societies that the post-1918 period was to
prove so important for latter events occurs eventually[7]. It was emphasized that period must be
in large measure; the political, social and international formation of the region took place.
Moreover, internal processes of the Middle East itself promoted a change of ideological and
hence political dimension of the modern region were so decisively shaped. Immediately, the
Middle East after 1918 was provided to further become articulated with much of particular
attentions. Related to that, I took several analysis of Fred Halliday (2005), to essentially describe
how the Middle East shaped and dynamicizationed in ideological movements to latter influences.
Classifiably, here Fred arranges four merit attentions on the Middle East formation as the region
which has cohesion within. One of these was the creation of modern state institutions. A word of
state itself was penetrated as well as the region differentiated into several states independently.
Or even dynasty coercions should be recognized that is still on, but legally state occurred for a
modern attribute that must be in. The creation of modern states since after 1918 that resulted a
number of bureaucratical administrations representing a modern western system in the Middle
East. Firstly, this matter was run by colonial and the national powers. They provided
employment of for growing numbers of people, and came to social, economic development and
education. Through this new door of open creation, people run to no little importance for latter
politics of their countries. Then, people in the Middle East were directed either directly or
indirectly to modern values, increasingly became aspirants to political powers and the status of
defenders of the nations. The statement above is supported also by Charles Tripp (2001), which
his book of A History of Iraq deployed an explanation of how state formations were prone of
creation of the inter-war. It was started by Turkish invention, remembering to its existence
powerfully defeated several regions over the Middle East. Somehow, inter-war was not only
becoming a status of creation after 1918, but since older, the Middle East had been confronted by
great event of wars and instabilities. However, I must mention the following attentions probablyaffected to the ideological and behavioral movements in the Middle East; 1) the cradle of
civilization, 3500 BC (the Sumerians and the Akkadians); 2) the Assyrian Empires, 1365-1076
B; 3) the Iranian Empires, 6th
BC; 4) the Roman Empire, 1st
BC; 5) the Islamic Caliphate, 7th
AD; 6) Turks, Crusaders and Mongol, mid-11th
AD; and 7) the Ottoman Empire, 15th
AD[8].
Moreover, I feel obliged to underline about how Palestine seem continuously pressured by
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confrontations from either obvious or unobvious outside, because on one time due to recently we
live up to today, it was proven that one indication. When the Ottoman Empire was defeated by
British Empire forces after the Shinai and Palestine campaign in 1918, the Arab population was
met with what it perceived as betrayal by the British. The British and French governments
concluded a secret treaty (the Sykes-Picot Agreement) to partition the Middle East between them
and, additionally, the British promised via the Balfour Declaration the international Zionist
movement their support in creating a Jewish homeland in Palestine[9]. In searching of many
causes to why Western invoke Palestine to be an object apart, the secret treaty above explained
us how great in past that the Middle East was.
Still in line with the discourse of
creation of states in the Middle East, in
the past, powers had become a full
consideration over the region within.
During the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s,
Syria and Egypt made moves towards
independence. In 1919, Saad Zaghloul
orchestrated mass demonstrations in
Egypt known famously as the First
Revolution[10]. Therefore, as the
consequence, the betrayal against the
British was forwarded by the Great
Power of the Middle East in the time,
so continuing to the Suez Canal. Then,
with this contextualization, I introduce
you how polemics the Middle East
really was.
In regard to a presence of America in the Middle East, it was developed when the departure of
the European Powers from direct control of the region and continued by the establishment of
Israel which increased importance of the oil industry. Thus, the Middle East was marked as the
modern realm which led to a growing presence of America in the region affairs. When radical
Figure 1 the Balfour Declaration, a letter from the UK's ForeignSecretary, Arthur James Balfour to Baron Rostchild
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revolutions brought radical anti-Western regimes to power in Egypt in 1954, in Syria in 1963, in
Iraq in 1968 and in Libya in 1969, the Soviet Union, seeking to open a new arena of the Cold
War in the Middle East. It normally is called by the confusion of idea against Western.
Secondly, it is all about national identity after these states embarked as the modern revolution.
Part of this involved the controlled of claims regarding to other states, based on views were
constructed as historic rights. Those claims maintained the sustainable view of how ideology
being shared to each other. I argue that ideological confusion was from historical confusion too,
in regard to what a complex of empires period.
Fred stated that:
Based on, or on denunciation of the partitions and divisions imposed by colonialism.
Egypt claimed Sudan, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia the rest of the Peninsula.
Yemenis citing al-Hamdani, the medieval geographer, said that Yemen ran from Mecca (or
Taif) to Muscat. Education was a central means for the promotion of these identities, and
rested upon the creation of a national history, drawing where available on both Islamic and
pre-Islamic elements; while each state sought to assert its own individual identity and
historic validity, each also made a claim to be a part or wider communities-Pharanoic
(Egypt), Sabaean and Himyaritic (Yemen), Sumerian and Mesopotamian (Iraq), Phoenician
(Lebanon, Libya, Tunisia), but also Islamic, Arab in some cases, Iranian and Aryan in the
case of Iran, ancient Hittite, Anatolian and modern Europe in the case of Turkey. Zionism
engaged in a similar promotion of a modern nationalism, while drawing on both selected
and invented elements of the biblical past[11].
In order to explain that the Middle East has passed a phase when every communal of the region
widened a more boarder of individual identity, after of all I must conclude that with the
expansion of unstructuralised identity implicates to latter recognitions. The confusion of those
clauses must be indicated as the internal polemic might be a cause of an undirected change of the
Middle East today.
Thirdly, after these states embarked, I must recognize as well as Fred do so that the European
heritage has modified the Middle East to uphold what as exemplified in Europe. The heritage
that I mean is a process of cultural and ideological change, closely linked to a certain form of
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secularization. Commonly, a term of secularization is not often well defined. Indirectly, this
term has been installed since the embarkation of states over the region. The significant influence
of the term above was spread over the social and political realities which all of these identified to
a request to democratization, even more Sharia, to be upheld as the principal of the state
continuity. But, for many years, the absence of secularization has brought the dynamics to an
abuse of leaders who claim their authorities must absolutely under Islamic Law. Here, I never
mean that Islamic Law is closer to an abuse, but it remain the Middle Eastern Leadership is
closely to do whatever that they claim from Islamic Law but it never constitute.
Fourthly, the most importance attention that must be asserted to be in depth consideration of how
the Middle East gone to what we see today via widespread free-information of televisions, online
news, journals, YouTube, Facebook, newspapers, radios, magazines and others, is about
radicalization. In sum, the rise of nationalism, the disruption of World War I, the very formation
of the new state system and resistance to secularization had produced a context in which more
widespread social and political movements could, and did, emerge[12]. Therefore, the stage of
radicalization in the side of the Middle East region was set by the combination powers of internal
and external actors. That much of the drama has been settled by outside rules; the detailed
explanation of radicalization in the Middle East will be expanded in next chapter on a
genealogical guide part II which concerned specifically on its scheme and influence to the
insufficient development of Islamic understanding in the Middle East.
Continuing to the last guidance part I of genealogical investigation of how we ought to
understand correctly about the Middle Easts polemics, the impact of colonialism to a
configuration of regional formation must be coercive for our looking at the objective clarification
of the Middle East situation that might challenges American administrative. We have known and
seen very well that the European hegemony in its historical review, provided the form of
language, development and political mobilization[13]. Then, the former started to propose
changes and modernities, the latter some return to tradition. The existence of European
intervention in the land of desert had activated much of direct form of military and colonial rule
over bureaucratic administrations. It was not only that European colonial drew its significant
influence on military establishment, but rather to commercial, financial and cultural. The
essential view from a look at the military side is its vulnerability to the positive matter-for that
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time-when external powers conditioned some Arabs must be in World War I. Later nationalism
and religious movements combining Islamic with nationalist themes drew on the experience of
domination which was eventually contested the cultural aggression. But the domination was not
able to go on as well. Because it was found that striking interactions brought the region to a more
heated situation which was often linked with World War II; but some arguments are weak to be
explained.
In line with clauses above, before I conclude a short explanation of the impact of colonialism to
the configuration of the Middle East region, I feel opened to state that beyond its impact on
states, economies and societies, colonialism had one further consequence; its important impact
on the ideology and sentiment of peoples in the region[14]. In regard to World War II, since
Soviet support for autonomous regions in Azerbaijan and Kurdistan was unsuccessful, in contrast
to World War I, dispute between Arab and Jewish on Palestine claim forces in the immediate
aftermath of World War II. Thus, the political map of the region remained as it had been
before[15]. This is a short conclusion I promised previously that many changes would be found
within the Middle East during and after World War II and Post Cold War. The most frontiers of
them were a shift in the balance of the external powers in the region. As Britain and France
which both had been the dominant external powers for the Middle East around the 1960s and
1970s, the place today has been taken not by Soviet but America. There were several particular
trends helped America to hold the region; a rising US interest in what was now the major of oil
trade, a special close relationship between America and Israel and lastly, America has potentials
to concern forward Soviet in order to be a hegemonic state after its victory in Cold War. From
here, I am sure that you understand very well how the Middle East has grown up and how
America must be considered as the influential state might be strongly influenced by the changes
or transformations happened in the Middle East. But this part I (one) is never enough to elaborate
whole complications of the Middle East transformations since it was a regional baby. Thus, the
other hidden possibilities of the current crucial within the region of the Middle East, especiallyrelated to this paper on the ideological dynamics, that must be identified as well as the genealogy
guide me to keep searching for the closest to an absolute truth, or even I recognize that there is
the only truth of the world; the God.
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A Conditioned Radicalization, Ideological Obstacles and Current Internal Polemics:
A Genealogical Guide part II
I would like to facilitate a new outlook in transformations moved systematically in the Middle
East, somehow particularly, but however, by this second section of genealogy, I expected the
Middle East is further viewed as a region with controlled ideological regime and must be freed
and democratized as well. This is very urgent to open what really hidden from the face. Realities
of radical sects had never been since a long time of past period engaged as the nurturing theme in
the region. But sometime, whether it must radical or not, I believe that in the Middle East and
other Muslim populations were gradually reduced its authentic value of Islamic Law. Then, is it
must be a natural? Of course not. There was a great fact to prove that the Middle East
ideologically has ever conditioned by other outside. In line with genealogical approach, I
emphasize a point that enlightened a past dark seeing. The point that I mean is a process of
radicalization itself which further openly affects to latter confusion matters in the Middle East.
Basically, here we must recognize that Wahabism is one of the most outstanding sects that
usually known as an Arabic religious mainstream redefining Islamic Law to traditional
interpretation and refuse to any modernization of its exclamation and contextualization. Some
saw this as one of revolutionary movement to uphold the Islamic Law in the World. But some
other saw this as a breaking down which is likely timely undermines the truth of Islamic
meanings. Then, politically an interpretation-based mainstream was prone to be claimed as an
identity legalizing every deed amid its greediness to occupy. It must be called as an abuse.
However, this is only one sample must not be used to generalize all behavior of the Middle East.
But, actually, the extreme mainstream had existed for a very long time. Supported by her
statement, Sami Zubaida (2012), with a full honor, I must say that part of religious participation
in politics is the power and recourses of institutions and personnel, the authority and interest of
churches, prelates and preachers[16]. Crucially a term of nationalism or proto-nationalism wasintroduced really happened engaged with the religious underpinning. Thus, frequently the
Middle East installed the undefined character to whoever realize, but deceived common Muslim
in the World, simply in Indonesia to practice reduced interpretation of Islamic teaching. More
deeper inside, this radicalization had used by hegemonic states to impose the power.
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Before then I explore how a controlled radicalization influenced promotion of advance
development decline in the Middle East, firstly I must state that there were hidden personal and
outside driver found engaging with the activation of radicalization in the Middle East. The drive
was consolidated by funding several movements concerning with the radicalization of Islamic
society within the region. Beside of Wahabism, for example, attempted at establishing itself in
Afghanistan in the 1970s and early 20th
century but had little success. Dealing with it, Saudi
Arabia boomed flowing fund to encore the play of Wahabism in some targeted regions of the
Middle East and particularly in South Asia.
Going on what above, especially it is about funding, I participate to boom an exploration of
information is rarely known by people. Historically, when the Soviets invaded Afghanistan in
1979, Saudi money joined with CIA money to fund the Wahhabi-inspired mujahideen in the
fight against the Soviet. To complete that flow, Pakistan was a conduit floating distributions of
money to diverse extreme groups. A group that is able to be accused as the recipient of fund is
Taliban. Thus, Taliban openly acknowledged as the axis of money distribution despitefully
acting a central role of extreme Islamist militia[17]. Pakistan itself, a place where Taliban was
born, played with its prime minister at the time, Zia ul Haq,
who decided who got money and doled it out through
Pakistans Inter-Service Intelligence (ISI). With this rotation,
Taliban was facilitated to engage with other Islamist extremists.
Focus on Pakistans reason in this camouflage, I identify that
were two reasons dominated. Both were to use radicals to fight
India in Kashmir, and to use it to impose Pakistani influence in
Afghanistan. Therefore, it has concluded that politic of identity
essentially was dominant here. Moreover, Hizb el-Islami, an
extremist group which was led by Gulbudin Hikmetyar, a friend
of Zia, was alliance with Taliban too.
Beside of political donations, the influence that came from a booming radicalization had spread
to intellectual Diasporas in the Middle East. Negatively, this impact influenced and caused the
decline of modern Islamic intellectuals. The Islamic reforms of Muhammad Abduh in Egypt, al-
Kawakibi in Syria, and the cosmopolitan and mercurial reformer Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, served
Figure 2 Zia ul Haq, Pakistani PrimeMinister of 1976
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as just such a bridge between new construction of Islam and science, rationality and a
constitutional order (Sami Zubaida, 2005). Hence, Islam population among the Middle East
genuinely own capacity to create a wonderful Islamic civilization. Moreover, added by the
existence of Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt, which appealed in 1928. But here, radicalization had
never seen the intellectual movement as the friendship rule; on the contrary, extremist groups
were willing to erase those who committed to the development of rationality in enlightening
Islamic Law. And this purpose was also directed and expected by the sponsors of money whom
were we discussed above. Thus, the dynamics of ideological realm in the Middle East had much
been became a main vehicle to be radicalized; and it spread to several regions in Asia, including
Indonesia. But, in real CIA (American administrative) is seen failed to install its believe in
applying ideological hampers in the Middle East as the great strategy. Hence, it will never be
defined as helping moment for America, whereas it will pressure America to step down from its
hegemonic position.
Here, we are in the last of guidance that driven by genealogy to seek hidden truth in the Middle
East polemics. As I arranged the historical hurling on the Middle Eastern confusion of
ideological realm and its influence to latter matters, here I am with humility going to explain the
current polemics of the Middle East. On the one hand, I feel sponsored overwhelmingly for
intellectual matters to explain the following current polemics of the Middle East by Rami Khouri
(2008), a scholar from Georgetown University School of Foreign Service in Qatar, represented
by her paper of America, the Middle East, and the Gulf: An Arab View of Challenges Facing the
Next U.S. Administration. The crises currently happen on the ground of the Middle East, there
are at least five main points. The first of these five crises, almost every Arab country has a border
problem and most Arab countries had major internal rebellions and insurrections. Its second is a
crisis in state relationships as it is not clear where the power of state ends and the power of the
individual assert itself. The third is a crisis in basic human needs and sustainable socioeconomic
development. The fourth is the crisis of identity at the personal, the individual, the communityand the collective national level. The fifth is the crisis of non-clear definition in the Middle East
relationship with the non-Arab world. Some want to make peace with Israel and some want to
make a war dealing with the Zionist racism[18]. This is a five result of a long history which
might be understood as the current situation which must be cleared in the Middle East.
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Ten Issues of Contemporary Forces that America must Challenged to Frustrate:
A Conclusion of Genealogical Guidance
There are ten issues transformed gradually and currently exist on the ground of the Middle East
region and successfully ensure American administrative to frustrate as well as the awareness of
its abuse ejaculation imposed to the field and people started to realize and deal with it. The first
issue is about demographical development among Arab people. Where the Arab people from
1930 were predominantly by middle-aged or old, uneducated or rural, today we see all
mentioned are coming with the situation that predominantly by young, urban and educated
population. The second issue became a very clear trend with the rise of the current Islamist wave,
the economic trends related to oil, we have seen a contraction in the control, credibility, impact
and legitimacy of the central nation-state and central government in the Arab world. The third
issue is in major view that everybody in Arab world has to deal with, particularly important for
Israelis, the end of docility and the end of acquiescence. The fourth major trend is the emergence
of Islam moderate with the traditional value introducing the truth of Islamic Law and introducing
many hidden abuses of American and western aggression in the Middle East region which
attempted at changing values of education and social system within. The fifth issue is around the
western action itself which emphasized on the point of when they misdiagnosed the terrorism
issue in the Middle East region. The sixth issue is the continuing Arab-Israeli conflict may led to
the suspicions of world people towards American administrative, and it is very equal for that.
The seventh issue is today the Middle East is a region that is defined by multiple conflicts and
several active wars, but slowly this makes America frustrated to uphold its responsibility to
protect. The eight issue is when people realize that America intervenes in insulting situations in
the Middle East and actively sides with one group against the other with providing needs, but
overall that makes the image comes worse. The ninth issue is when Iran and Turkey followed by
Bahrain and Lebanon to exterminate all intervenes with the better security architecture. The last
issue is a clear polarization of societies being pulled into opposite directions but coexisting, more
or less, peacefully with each other.
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Citations
[1]Ruthven, Malise, A Fury for God; the
Islamist Attack on America, London, Granta,
2002
[2]Cleveland, William,A History of the Modern
Middle East, 2nd Edition, Boulder, CO,
Westview Press, 2000
[3]Khouri, Rami,America, the Middle East and
the Gulf; an Arab View of Challenges Facing
the Next U.S. Administration, CIRS (Qatar), no.1, 2008
[4]Burchill, Scott & Andrew Linklater, Teori-
teori Hubungan Internasional (Bahasa Indonesia
translation), Bandung, Nusa media, 2009, ch.
Posmodernisme
[5]Devetak, Richard, Theories of International
Relations, New York, Palgrave McMillan, 2005,p. 163
[6]W. Kegley, Jr., Charles & Eugene R.
Wittkopf, World Politics; Trend &
Transformation, 5th
Edition, New York, St.
Martins, 1995, p. 36
[7] opcit. P. 86
[8]Tripp, Charless, A History of Iraq,
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2001
[9]Lewis, Bernard, The Middle East; a Brief
History of the Last 2,000 Years, New York,
Scribnerr, 1995
[10]ibid, p. 172
[11] Op cit, p. 87
[12] Op cit, p. 91
[13] Op cit, p. 95
[14] Op cit, p. 92
[15] Op cit, p. 91
[16]www.opendemocracy.net/sami-
zubaida/arab-spring-in-historical-perspective,
accessed on Sunday, April 28, 2012, 02.24 am
[17]Wall Street Journal, Monday, August 10,
2009, vol. CCLIV no. 84
[18] ibid,
[19] Op cit, p. 4