Debate Fossil vs Biofuels

8/6/2019 Debate Fossil vs Biofuels

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Although there are many different types of fossil fuels, we have chosenthree that we feel are especially important: coal, petroleum, and naturalgas. Because virtually all fossil fuel uses produce energy in pretty much thesame way Fossil fuels have been a widely used source of energy everysince the Industrial Revolution just before the dawn of the 20th century.Fossil fuels are relatively easy to use to generate energy because they onlyrequire a simple direct combustion. However, a problem with fossil fuels istheir environmental impact. Not only does their excavation from the groundsignificantly alter the environment, but their combustion leads to a greatdeal of air pollution

Many of the benefits we derivefrom our way of life, and our high

standard of living, are due tofossil fuel use. Light, heat, food,communication, travel,community -- all are based onour ability to produce and useenergy. And most of our energy,about 85%, comes from fossilfuel. (Another 8% comes fromnuclear power, and 7 % from allother sources, mostlyhydroelectric power and wood.)

Here is the view of the greatIsaac Asimov on the importanceof fire, and fossil fuel:

The vast amount of energyplaced at the disposal of humanity, through fire, could be,

and was, used to revolutionizethe nature of our existence.

The mere fact that fire was asource of light and heatindependent of the sun meantthat humans could roam beyond


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the tropics that imprison our nearest living relatives, the greatapes, and into the damp, coldregions with seasons of snowand long freezing nights. Inaddition, the heat of the firebrought about changes in foodthat were the equivalent of partial digestion, and this madeordinarily inedible food palatableand nourishing. Our food supplywas thus multiplied greatly.

It was fire and fire alone that

enabled man to become acreature native to all the worldand put mastery into his hand.Nor has the importance of firediminished with time; rather thereverse. Wood was undoubtedlythe first fuel used in building andmaintaining a fire. Coal tookprimacy of place in the 17thcentury, joined by gas and oil inthe 20th.

From: "Life and Energy",Doubleday, 1962


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It is beyond the scope of thissite to go into detail about thebenefits we derive from fossilfuel energy. That would take usinto areas such as philosophy,history & archeology (how weused to live), and anthropology(how others live). Here aresome suggestive links:


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Advantages of fossil fuels:

y Very large amounts of electricity can be generated in one place usingcoal, fairly cheaply.

y Transporting oil and gas to the power stations is easy.

y Gas-fired power stations are very efficient.

y A fossil-fuelled power station can be built almost anywhere, so longas you can get large quantities of fuel to it. Didcot power station, inOxfordshire, has a dedicated rail link to supply the coal.

y Depending on fuel, good availabilityy Simple combustion process can directly heat or generate electricityy

Inexpensivey Easily distributedy


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What is biofuel?

Broadly speaking, biofuel refers to any solid, liquid or gas fuel that hasbeen derived from biomass. It can be produced from any carbon sourcethat is easy to replenish such as plants.

One of the main challenges when producing biofuel is to develop energythat can be used specifically in liquid fuels for transportation. The mostcommon strategies used to achieve this are:

y Grow plants Plants that naturally produce oils include oil palm, jatropha, soybean and algae. When heated resistance (viscosity) isreduced they can be burned within a diesel engine or they can beprocessed to form biodiesel.

y

Grow sugar crops or starch These include sugar cane, sugar beet,corn and maize which are then turned into ethanol through theprocess of yeast fermentation.

y Woods By-products from woods can be converted into biofuelsincluding methanol, ethanol and woodgas.

What are the different types of biofuel?

There are many different biofuels available in the UK. One of the mostcommon worldwide is E10 fuel, which is actually a mixture of 10% ethanol

and 90% petroleum. This formula has been improved in recent years withthe introduction of E15 fuel (15% ethanol, 85% petroleum); E20 fuel (20%ethanol, 80% petroleum); E85 fuel (85% ethanol, 15% petroleum); E95 fuel(95% ethanol, 5% petroleum) and E100 fuel which is ethanol with up to 4%water.

In Europe, biodiesel is the most popular form of biofuel it can be used inany diesel engine when mixed with mineral diesel. This is produced fromoils and fats and is now readily available at many petrol stations. Likeethanol, biodiesel is available in a number of mixes including B5 (5%biofuel, 95% diesel), B10 (10% biofuel, 90% diesel), B20 (20% biofuel, 80%diesel), B80 (80% biofuel, 20 diesel) and B100 (100% biofuel).

In the UK, the Renewable Transport Fuels Obligation (RTFO) obliges thatall road transport fuels-petrol and diesel-sold in the UK, must contain apercentage of biofuel. This amount, currently around 3 per cent, increases


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annually until April 2013 when it will reach 5 per cent. Thereafter, it willremain at that level for subsequent years.

There are many sources of biofuel including vegetable oil, which is used inmany older diesel engines; butanol, which is seen as a replacement for petroleum; and biogas which is produced from biodegradable wastematerials.

This technology has been expanded with the introduction of secondgeneration biofuels which use biomass to liquid technology. Examplesinclude biohydrogen, biomethanol and mixed alcohols.

Third generation biofuels are also known as algae fuels. They have manyadvantages including have a low input and a high yield level they produce

30 times more energy per acre than land and are also biodegradable. Asa result, they are relatively harmless to the environment if spilled.

Where are biofuels used?

Biodiesel can, in theory, be used in all diesel engines. However, due to theparts attached to the diesel engine, some manufacturers do not approveengines running on higher biofuel blends of biodiesel.

Volkswagen, SEAT, Audi and Skoda all approved their cars built from

1996-2004 running on 100% RME biodiesel that is biodiesel made fromrapeseed on the condition that it meets specification EN14214.

Generally speaking, it is recommended that you use a combination of biodiesel blended with regular diesel. Indeed at the majority of petrolstations, a mix up to 5 per cent biofuel is already included in diesel, thanksto the RTFO. It is also worth bearing in mind that biodiesel made fromwaste cooking oil can freeze in the winter and so no more than a 50 per cent blend is recommended.

Between 2000 and 2005 ethanol production doubled, and biodieselproduction quadrupled, so biofuels are clearly on the rise.

What are the advantages of biofuels?

The aim of all biofuels is to be carbon neutral. They have the potential toreduce greenhouse gas emissions when compared to conventional


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transport fuels but whether they live up to this depends on the way they areproduced and managed.

In reality, biofuels are not carbon neutral simply because it requires energyto grow the crops and convert them into fuel. The amount of fuel usedduring this production (to power machinery, to transport crops, etc) doeshave a large impact on the overall savings achieved by biofuels. However,biofuels could potentially still prove to be substantially moreenvironmentally friendly than their fossil alternatives.

In fact, according to a technique called Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) firstgeneration biofuels can save up to 60% of carbon emissions compared tofossil fuels. Second generation biofuels offer carbon emission savings up to80%. This was backed by a recent UK Government publication which

stated biofuels can reduce emissions by 50-60%. Another advantage of biofuels is that they save drivers money. The UKGovernment in particular has introduced many incentives to drivers of green cars based on emissions with reduced taxation dependent on howenvironmentally friendly your vehicle is. With petrol prices on the rise,replacing petroleum with a renewable energy source should also offer significant savings at the pump in the long term, particularly when biofuelsare more readily available.

However, there are arguments though that biofuel production hascontributed to the destruction of natural habitats to make room for it. Also insome cases they are reported to have displaced valuable food productionand contributed to rising food prices. Developing countries seemparticularly vulnerable to the potential negative impacts of the production of first-generation biofuel crops . More on these problems is below. But on apositive note, it is hoped that tightening environmental requirements inEurope, the US and other developed countries coupled with thedevelopment of more advanced, non-food source biofuels will help stampout these problems experienced while importing first-generation biofuels.

What are the disadvantages of biofuels?

There are several concerns about biofuels and particularly including.

y Biodiversity A fear among environmentalists is that by adaptingmore land to produce crops for biofuels, more habitats will be lost for


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animals and wild plants. It is feared for example, that some Asiancountries will sacrifice their rainforests to build more oil plantations.

y The food V fuel debate Another concern is that if biofuels becomelucrative for farmers, they may grow crops for biofuel productioninstead of food production. Less food production will increase pricesand cause a rise in inflation. It is hoped that this can be countered bysecond generation biofuels which use waste biomass though again,this will impact the habitat of many organisms. The impact isparticularly high in developing countries and it is estimated thataround 100million people are at risk due to the food price increases.

y Carbon emissions Most LCA investigations show that the burning of biofuels substantially reduces greenhouse gas emissions whencompared to petroleum and diesel. However, in 2007 a study waspublished by scientists from Britain, the USA, Germany and Austria

which reported the burning of rapeseed or corn can contribute asmuch to nitrous oxide emissions than cooling through fossil fuelsavings.

y Non-sustainable biofuel production Many first generation biofuelsare not sustainable. It is necessary to create sustainable biofuelproduction that does not effect food production, and that doesntcause environmental problems.

The production of non-sustainable biofuels has been criticised in reports bythe UN, the IPCC and many other environmental and social groups. As aresult many governments have switched their support towards sustainablebiofuels, and alternatives such as hydrogen and compressed air.

The controversy

Biofuels have been blamed for pushing up food prices, failing to meetenvironmental standards, increasing demand for water and nitratefertilizers, and encouraging the destruction of natural habitats includingrainforests. Its still an on-going controversy which governments around the

world are struggling to contain. In 2010 it was revealed that the manycompanies supplying biofuel to the UK were failing to fully report on thesustainability of their fuel sources. However from end of 2010, mandatoryrequirements for companies to report their fuel sources and environmentalimpacts to the Department for Transport come into force, so that thesituation will at least be monitored. The environmental damage associatedwith the production of some first generation biofuels should not immediately


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lead us to label all biofuels as hazardous, this is still a developing arena for fuels and besides, the word biofuel is merely a catchall term andrepresents many different fuel sources and methods of production. There isthe danger that people may confuse the likes of palm oil production inIndonesia, where rainforest has been destroyed to make way for it, withnew methods of biofuel production such as using biomass waste or algaeoil. As new fuel technologies emerge, the situation may change radicallyand we may be able to minimise environmental impact down to a fraction of current production

Biofuel emissions six times higher than fossil fuels

African biofuels destined for Europe will result in up to six times the carbonemissions of fossil fuels, a new study has revealed.

The report, commissioned by the RSPB, ActionAid and Nature Kenya,focuses on the Dakatcha Woodlands in Kenya which the charities say areset to be destroyed to make way for jatropha plantations.

Jatropha is a second generation, non-food source biofuel crop which ispurported to have the potential to solve the problems seen using firstgeneration, food crops such as soya bean, which divert land use away fromfood production, push up food prices and have, in the past, resulted in the


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destruction of natural habitat to make more agricultural land. Campaignerssay the results of the study make a mockery of claims that biofuels are agreen, renewable alternative to fossil fuels or that such new biofuel cropssolve the problems associated within biofuels as a whole.

Biofuel currently makes up around 3.5 per cent of the petrol and diesel inUK fuel pumps. However, the UK Government wants to increase this tomeet EU targets.The Dakatcha Woodlands is one of the last remaining coastal forests inKenya and is home to thousands of indigenous tribespeople who will bemade homeless if the plans go ahead, as well as a range of threatenedwildlife.

Dr Helen Byron, RSPBs Kenya expert, said: The Dakatcha Woodlands

are a haven for wildlife and the threat they face is a direct result of European demand for biofuels. No government has done a proper assessment of biofuels imported from overseas to see if they will, in fact,reduce our carbon emissions so we decided to do it for them.

The UK Government recognises the problems that subsidising biofuels iscausing across the world and last week announced that it intends to limitsuch subsidies. But ministers must go further, they must challenge theEuropean targets for biofuels and instead adopt an ambitious programmeto reduce emissions from cars through improving efficiency and a massiveroll-out of electric vehicles.

Taking into account the emissions produced throughout the productionprocess, the study found that jatropha would emit between 2.5 and 6 timesmore greenhouse gases than fossil fuels. Much of the biofuel produced inDakatcha is destined for Europe because of new European Union targets.The Renewable Energy Directive (RED) requires 10 per cent of transport tobe renewable by 2020 and most member states plan to meet this almostentirely through biofuels which is likely to result in a doubling of biofueluse in Europe by 2020.

The Dakatcha Woodlands is home to over 20,000 people and is theancestral land of the indigenous minority Watha and Giriama tribes. Theplantation will not only evict the tribes from their land, but will destroy their livelihoods and sacred burial sites.The area is also a global biodiversity hotspot and home to a number of


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globally threatened animal and bird species including the spectacular Fischers turaco, southern banded snake eagle, Sokoke scops owl, and theSokoke pipit. The Clarkes weaver bird is found in only two places on earthand is threatened with extinction if the plantation goes ahead.


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Geothermal energy:

Geothermal electricity is electricity generated from geothermal energy.Technologies in use include dry steam power plants, flash steam power plants and binary cycle power plants. Geothermal electricity generation iscurrently used in 24 countries [1] while geothermal heating is in use in 70countries

Estimates of the electricity generating potential of geothermal energy varyfrom 35 to 2000 GW. [2] Current worldwide installed capacity is 10,715megawatts (MW), with the largest capacity in the United States (3,086MW),[3] Philippines, and Indonesia.

Geothermal power is considered to be sustainable because the heat

extraction is small compared with the Earth's heat content.[4]

The emissionintensity of existing geothermal electric plants is on average 122 kg of CO 2 per megawatt-hour (MWh) of electricity, about one-eighth of a conventionalcoal-fired plant. [5]

The first geothermal power plant built at The Geysers in northern Californiadates back to 1921. Back then, it had a generation capacity of 250 kW. Inthe years preceding 1989, new capacity was added, finally reaching aninstalled capacity of 2043 MW. Since then electrical generation hasdeclined and then levelled off. The Geysers still generates more electricitythan any other geothermal field in the world. Current active generationcapacity is close to 1000 MW.


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Power station types

Dry steam plant

Flash steam plant

Geothermal power stations are not dissimilar to other steam turbine thermalpower stations - heat from a fuel source (in geothermal's case, the earth'score) is used to heat water or another working fluid. The working fluid isthen used to turn a turbine, which in turn a generator to produce electricity.

The fluid is then cooled and returned to the heat source.

[edit] Dry steam power plants

Dry steam plants are the simplest and oldest design. They directly usegeothermal steam of 150C or more to turn turbines. [2]


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[edit] Flash steam power plants

Flash steam plants pull deep, high-pressure hot water into lower-pressuretanks and use the resulting flashed steam to drive turbines. They requirefluid temperatures of at least 180C, usually more. This is the mostcommon type of plant in operation today. [22]

[edit] Binary cycle power plantsM ain article: Binary cycle

Binary cycle power plants are the most recent development, and canaccept fluid temperatures as low as 57C. [11] The moderately hotgeothermal water is passed by a secondary fluid with a much lower boilingpoint than water. This causes the secondary fluid to flash to vapor, which

then drives the turbines. This is the most common type of geothermalelectricity plant being built today. [23] Both Organic Rankine and Kalinacycles are used. The thermal efficiency of this type plant is typically about10-13%.

The largest group of geothermal power plants in the world is located at TheGeysers, a geothermal field in California, United States. [26] As of 2004, fivecountries (El Salvador, Kenya, the Philippines, Iceland, and Costa Rica)generate more than 15% of their electricity from geothermal sources. [2]

Naknek Electric Association (NEA) is going to make an exploration wellnear King Salmon, in Southwest Alaska. It could cut the cost of electricityproduction by 71 percent and the planned power is 25 megawatts. [27]

Geothermal electricity is generated in the 24 countries listed in the tablebelow. During 2005, contracts were placed for an additional 500 MW of electrical capacity in the United States, while there were also plants under construction in 11 other countries. [12] Enhanced geothermal systems thatare several kilometres in depth are operational in France and Germany andare being developed or evaluated in at least four other countries.

Installed geothermal electric capacity

Country Capacity (MW)2007 [6] Capacity (MW)

2010 [28]

percentageof national

productionUSA 2687 3086 0.3%


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Philippines 1969.7 1904 27%Indonesia 992 1197 3.7%Mexico 953 958 3%Italy 810.5 843New Zealand 471.6 628 10%Iceland 421.2 575 30%Japan 535.2 536 0.1%El Salvador 204.2 204 14%Kenya 128.8 167 11.2%Costa Rica 162.5 166 14%Turkey 38 94 0.3%Nicaragua 87.4 88 10%Russia 79 82Papua-New Guinea 56 56Guatemala 53 52Portugal 23 29China 27.8 24France 14.7 16Ethiopia 7.3 7.3Germany 8.4 6.6

Austria 1.1 1.4 Australia 0.2 1.1Thailand 0.3 0.3

TOTAL 9,731.9 10,709.7

Environmental impact

Krafla Geothermal Station in northeast Iceland


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Fluids drawn from the deep earth carry a mixture of gases, notably carbondioxide (CO 2), hydrogen sulfide (H 2S), methane (CH 4), and ammonia (NH 3).These pollutants contribute to global warming, acid rain, and noxioussmells if released. Existing geothermal electric plants emit an average of 122 kg of CO

2per megawatt-hour (MWh) of electricity, a small fraction of

the emission intensity of conventional fossil fuel plants. [5] Plants thatexperience high levels of acids and volatile chemicals are usually equippedwith emission-control systems to reduce the exhaust. Geothermal plantscould theoretically inject these gases back into the earth, as a form of carbon capture and storage.

In addition to dissolved gases, hot water from geothermal sources mayhold in solution trace amounts of toxic chemicals, such as mercury, arsenic,boron, antimony, and salt. [29] These chemicals come out of solution as the

water cools, and can cause environmental damage if released. The modernpractice of injecting geothermal fluids back into the Earth to stimulateproduction has the side benefit of reducing this environmental risk.

Plant construction can adversely affect land stability. Subsidence hasoccurred in the Wairakei field in New Zealand. [30] Enhanced geothermalsystems can trigger earthquakes as part of hydraulic fracturing. The projectin Basel, Switzerland was suspended because more than 10,000 seismicevents measuring up to 3.4 on the Richter Scale occurred over the first 6days of water injection. [31]

Geothermal has minimal land and freshwater requirements. Geothermalplants use 3.5 square kilometres per gigawatt of electrical production (notcapacity) versus 32 and 12 square kilometres for coal facilities and windfarms respectively. [30] They use 20 litres of freshwater per MWh versusover 1000 litres per MWh for nuclear, coal, or oil. [30]


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WIND E NER GY

ND POWER:with modern technology it can be captured efficiently.e is built the energy it produces does not cause green house gases or other pollutants.s can be very tall each takes up only a small plot of land. This means that the land below can s

gricultural areas as farming can still continue.d farms an interesting feature of the landscape.e not connected to the electricity power grid can use wind turbines to produce their own supply.role to play in both the developed and third world.

ailable in a range of sizes which means a vast range of people and businesses can use them. Scan make good use of range of wind turbines available today.

WIND POWER:ind is not constant and it varies from zero to storm force. This means that wind turbines do not

the time. There will be times when they produce no electricity at all.the countryside should be left untouched, without these large structures being built. The landsyone to enjoy.sy. Each one can generate the same level of noise as a family car travelling at 70 mph.e wind turbines as unsightly structures and not pleasant or interesting to look at. They disfigure

re being manufactured some pollution is produced. Therefore wind power does produce someneeded to provide entire communities with enough electricity. For example, the largest single tnough electricity for 475 homes, when running at full capacity. How many would be needed for

Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy,such as using wind turbines to make electricity, windmills for mechanicalpower, windpumps for water pumping or drainage, or sails to propel ships.

At the end of 2010, worldwide nameplate capacity of wind-poweredgenerators was 197 gigawatts (GW). [3]

Energy production was 430 TWh, which is about 2.5% of worldwideelectricity usage; [3][4] and has doubled in the past three years. Severalcountries have achieved relatively high levels of wind power penetration,such as 21% of stationary electricity production in Denmark, [3] 18% inPortugal, [3] 16% in Spain, [3] 14% in Ireland [5] and 9% in Germany in 2010. [3]

As of May 2009, 80 countries around the world are using wind power on acommercial basis. [4]


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Large-scale wind farms are connected to the electric power transmissionnetwork; smaller facilities are used to provide electricity to isolatedlocations. Utility companies increasingly buy back surplus electricityproduced by small domestic turbines. Wind energy, as an alternative tofossil fuels, is plentiful, renewable, widely distributed, clean, and producesno greenhouse gas emissions during operation. The construction of windfarms is not universally welcomed because of their visual impact, but anyeffects on the environment from wind power are generally less problematicthan those of any other power source.

The intermittency of wind seldom creates problems when using wind power to supply a low proportion of total demand, but as the proportion rises,increased costs, a need to upgrade the grid, and a lowered ability tosupplant conventional production may occur. [6][7][8] Power management

techniques such as exporting and importing power to neighboring areas or reducing demand when wind production is low, can mitigate theseproblems.

The Earth is unevenly heated by the sun, such that the poles receive lessenergy from the sun than the equator; along with this, dry land heats up(and cools down) more quickly than the seas do. The differential heatingdrives a global atmospheric convection system reaching from the Earth'ssurface to the stratosphere which acts as a virtual ceiling. Most of theenergy stored in these wind movements can be found at high altitudeswhere continuous wind speeds of over 160 km/h (99 mph) occur.Eventually, the wind energy is converted through friction into diffuse heatthroughout the Earth's surface and the atmosphere.

The total amount of economically extractable power available from the windis considerably more than present human power use from all sources. [11] The most comprehensive study as of 2005 [12] found the potential of windpower on land and near-shore to be 72 TW, equivalent to 54,000 MToE(million tons of oil equivalent) per year, or over five times the world's current

energy use in all forms. The potential takes into account only locations withmean annual wind speeds 6.9 m/s at 80 m. The study assumes six 1.5megawatt, 77 m diameter turbines per square kilometer on roughly 13% of the total global land area (though that land would also be available for other compatible uses such as farming). The authors acknowledge that manypractical barriers would need to be overcome to reach this theoreticalcapacity.


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The practical limit to exploitation of wind power will be set by economic andenvironmental factors, since the resource available is far larger than anypractical means to develop it.

Electricity generation

Typical components of a wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft and brakeassembly) being lifted into position

In a wind farm, individual turbines are interconnected with a mediumvoltage (often 34.5 kV), power collection system and communicationsnetwork. At a substation, this medium-voltage electric current is increasedin voltage with a transformer for connection to the high voltage electricpower transmission system.

The surplus power produced by domestic microgenerators can, in some

jurisdictions, be fed into the network and sold to the utility company,producing a retail credit for the microgenerators' owners to offset their energy costs. [15][16]

Worldwide there are now many thousands of wind turbines operating, witha total nameplate capacity of 194,400 MW. [50] Europe accounted for 48% of the total in 2009. World wind generation capacity more than quadrupledbetween 2000 and 2006, doubling about every three years.

In 2010, Spain became Europe's leading producer of wind energy,achieving 42,976 GWh. However, Germany holds the first place in Europein terms of installed capacity, with a total of 27,215 MW at December 31,2010. [51] Wind power accounts for approximately 21% of electricity use inDenmark, [3] 18% in Portugal, [3] 16% in Spain, [3][51] 14% in the Republic of Ireland, [3] and 9% in Germany. [3][52]


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Top 10 wind power countries (February 2011) [3] Country Windpower capacity (MW)

China 44,733United States 40,180Germany 27,215Spain 20,676India 13,066Italy 5,797France 5,660United Kingdom 5,204Canada 4,008Denmark 3,734

Top 10 electricity generation EU countries (March 2011) [51] Country Windpower electricity production ( G Wh)

Spain 42,976Germany 35,500United Kingdom 11,440France 9,600Portugal 8,852Denmark 7,808Netherlands 3,972Sweden 3,500Ireland 3,473Greece 2,200

Austria 2,100

G rowth trends

Worldwide installed capacity 19972020 [MW], developments andprognosis. Data source: WWEA


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In 2010, more than half of all new wind power was added outside of thetraditional markets in Europe and North America. This was largely fromnew construction in China, which accounted for nearly half the new windinstallations (16.5 GW). [53]

Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) figures show that 2007 recorded anincrease of installed capacity of 20 GW, taking the total installed windenergy capacity to 94 GW, up from 74 GW in 2006. Despite constraintsfacing supply chains for wind turbines, the annual market for windcontinued to increase at an estimated rate of 37%, following 32% growth in2006. In terms of economic value, the wind energy sector has become oneof the important players in the energy markets, with the total value of newgenerating equipment installed in 2007 reaching 25 billion, or US$36billion.[54]

Although the wind power industry was impacted by the global financialcrisis in 2009 and 2010, a BTM Consult five year forecast up to 2013projects substantial growth. Over the past five years the average growth innew installations has been 27.6 percent each year. In the forecast to 2013the expected average annual growth rate is 15.7 percent. [55][56] More than200 GW of new wind power capacity could come on line before the end of 2013. Wind power market penetration is expected to reach 3.35 percent by2013 and 8 percent by 2018

Wind energy in many jurisdictions receives financial or other support toencourage its development. Wind energy benefits from subsidies in many

jurisdictions, either to increase its attractiveness, or to compensate for subsidies received by other forms of production which have significantnegative externalities.

In the US, wind power receives a tax credit for each kWh produced; at 1.9cents per kWh in 2006, the credit has a yearly inflationary adjustment.

Another tax benefit is accelerated depreciation. Many American states alsoprovide incentives, such as exemption from property tax, mandatedpurchases, and additional markets for "green credits". Countries such asCanada and Germany also provide incentives for wind turbine construction,such as tax credits or minimum purchase prices for wind generation, withassured grid access (sometimes referred to as feed-in tariffs). These feed-in tariffs are typically set well above average electricity prices. The Energy


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Improvement and Extension Act of 2008 contains extensions of credits for wind, including microturbines.

Secondary market forces also provide incentives for businesses to usewind-generated power, even if there is a premium price for the electricity.For example, socially responsible manufacturers pay utility companies apremium that goes to subsidize and build new wind power infrastructure.Companies use wind-generated power, and in return they can claim thatthey are making a powerful "green" effort. In the US the organizationGreen-e monitors business compliance with these renewable energycredits. [75]

Full costs and lobbying

A House of Lords Select Committee report (2008) on renewable energy inthe UK reported a "concern over the prospective role of wind generatedand other intermittent sources of electricity in the UK, in the absence of abreak-through in electricity storage technology or the integration of the UKgrid with that of continental Europe". [76]

Commenting on the EU's 2020 renewable energy target, Helm is critical of how the costs of wind power are cited by lobbyists. [77] Helm also says thatwind's problem of intermittent supply will probably lead to another dash-for-gas or dash-for-coal in Europe, possibly with a negative impact on energy

security.[77]

In the US, the wind power industry has recently increased its lobbyingefforts considerably, spending about $5 million in 2009 after years of relative obscurity in Washington. [78]

Environmental effectsM ain article: Environmental impact of wind power


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A passing bus near Canoa Quebrada, Brazil, demonstrates the size of modern wind turbines.

Livestock ignore wind turbines, [79] and continue to graze as they did beforewind turbines were installed.

Compared to the environmental effects of traditional energy sources, theenvironmental effects of wind power are relatively minor. Wind power consumes no fuel, and emits no air pollution, unlike fossil fuel power sources. The energy consumed to manufacture and transport the materialsused to build a wind power plant is equal to the new energy produced bythe plant within a few months of operation. [80][81] Garrett Gross, a scientistfrom UMKC in Kansas City, Missouri states, "The impact made on theenvironment is very little when compared to what is gained." The initialcarbon dioxide emission from energy used in the installation is "paid back"within about 2.5 years of operation for offshore turbines. [82]

Danger to birds and bats has been a concern in some locations. AmericanBird Conservancy cites studies that indicate that about 10,000 - 40,000birds die each year from collisions with wind turbines in the U.S. and saythat number may rise substantially as wind capacity increases in theabsence of mandatory guidelines. [83] However, studies show that thenumber of birds killed by wind turbines is very low compared to the number of those that die as a result of certain other ways of generating electricityand especially of the environmental impacts of using non-clean power sources. Fossil fuel generation kills around twenty times as many birds per unit of energy produced than wind-farms. [84] Bat species appear to be atrisk during key movement periods. Almost nothing is known about currentpopulations of these species and the impact on bat numbers as a result of mortality at windpower locations. Offshore wind sites 10 km or more fromshore do not interact with bat populations. While a wind farm may cover alarge area of land, many land uses such as agriculture are compatible, with


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only small areas of turbine foundations and infrastructure made unavailablefor use.

Aesthetics have also been an issue. In the US, the Massachusetts CapeWind project was delayed for years mainly because of aesthetic concerns.In the UK, repeated opinion surveys have shown that more than 70% of people either like, or do not mind, the visual impact. According to a towncouncillor in Ardrossan, Scotland, the overwhelming majority of localsbelieve that the Ardrossan Wind Farm has enhanced the area, saying thatthe turbines are impressive looking and bring a calming effect to thetown. [85]

Noise has also been an issue. In the US, law suits and complaints havebeen filed in several states, citing noise, vibrations and resulting lost

property values in homes and businesses located close to industrial windturbines. [86]

In turn, environmental changes can affect wind power generation; a declineof wind speeds would reduce energy yield. [87] A model reported in theNovember 2010 issue of the J ournal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy suggests that average wind speed over China could decline and cause a14% loss of energy production by the latter part of the 21st century. Windspeeds may be declining due to climate change, increased forest growth,or the shadowing effect of wind farms themselves.

India is the world's fifth largest wind power producer, with an annual power production of 8,896 MW. [9] Shown here is a wind farm in Kayathar, TamilNadu.

The worldwide installed capacity of wind power reached 157,899 MW bythe end of 2009. USA (35,159 MW), Germany (25,777 MW), Spain (19,149MW) and China (25,104 MW) are ahead of India in fifth position. [10] The


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short gestation periods for installing wind turbines, and the increasingreliability and performance of wind energy machines has made wind power a favored choice for capacity addition in India. [11]

Suzlon, as Indian-owned company, emerged on the global scene in thepast decade, and by 2006 had captured almost 7.7 percent of market sharein global wind turbine sales. Suzlon is currently the leading manufacturer of wind turbines for the Indian market, holding some 52 percent of marketshare in India. Suzlons success has made India the developing countryleader in advanced wind turbine technology. [12]

A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location used toproduce electric power. A large wind farm may consist of several hundredindividual wind turbines, and cover an extended area of hundreds of square

miles, but the land between the turbines may be used for agricultural or other purposes. A wind farm may also be located offshore.

Many of the largest operational onshore wind farms are located in the USA. As of November 2010, the Roscoe Wind Farm is the largest onshore windfarm in the world, producing 781.5 MW of power, followed by the HorseHollow Wind Energy Center (735.5 MW). As of November 2010, the ThanetOffshore Wind Project in United Kingdom is the largest offshore wind farmin the world at 300 MW, followed by Horns Rev II (209 MW) in Denmark.

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