BoundlessWriting

BoundlessWriting1. IntroductiontoCollege-LevelWriting

1. IntroductiontoCollege-LevelWriting1. BasicPrinciplesofAcademicWriting2. DevelopingYourVoiceasaWriter3. GettingHelpMeetingCollegeWritingExpectations4. DiscussingWritinginClass5. Attributions

2.WritinganEffectivePaper

1. OverviewoftheProcessofWritingaPaper1. IntroductiontotheWritingProcess2. IntroductiontotheThesisStatement3. Attributions

2. StepsofWritingaPaper1. Step1:PrewritingandChoosingaTopic2. Step2:Researching3. Step3:Outlining4. Step4:Drafting5. Step5:Revising6. Step6:EditingandProofreading7. Step7:CompletingaFinalReview8. Attributions

3. PrewritingTechniques1. Brainstorming2. Freewriting3. ClusteringandConceptMapping4. Attributions

4. BuildingYourPaper1. ModesofPersuasion:Ethos,Pathos,andLogos2. ApproachestoYourIntroductoryParagraph3. ApproachestoYourBodyParagraphs4. ApproachestoYourConcludingParagraph5. Attributions

5. QuotingandParaphrasing

1. TheBasicsofQuotations2. IntroducingandFormattingQuotations3. Paraphrasing4. Attributions

6. IncorporatingObjectionsandOpposingViews1. TheImportanceofAddressingOpposingViews2. TechniquesforAcknowledgingOpposingViews3. RefutingYourOpposition4. Attributions

3. TheResearchProcess

1. UnderstandingtheAcademicContextofYourTopic1. UnderstandingtheAcademicContextofYourTopic2. Attributions

2. OrganizingYourResearchPlan1. OrganizingYourResearchPlan2. Attributions

3. FindingYourSources1. TheImportanceofReliability2. ScholarlySources3. ChoosingSearchTermsforSources4. Attributions

4. UnderstandingYourSources1. UnderstandingYourSources2. Attributions

5. UsingYourSources1. TakingUsefulNotesonYourSources2. MaintaininganAnnotatedBibliography3. WritingWhileYouResearch4. IncorporatingYourSourcesIntoYourPaper5. Attributions

6. CitingYourSources1. TheImportanceofCitingYourSources2. Attributions

4.OverviewofEnglishGrammar:PartsofSpeech

1. IntroductiontoEnglishGrammarandMechanics1. ComponentsofaSentence2. StructureofaSentence

3. IntroductiontoInflection4. Attributions

2. Nouns1. NounsasSubjectsandObjects2. Attributions

3. Pronouns1. IntroductiontoPronouns2. PronounsasSubjectsandObjects3. Attributions

4. Verbs1. IntroductiontoVerbs:Tense,Aspect,andMood2. VerbTense:Past,Present,andFuture3. VerbalAspect:Simple,Progressive,Perfect,andPerfect

Progressive4. VerbMood:Indicative,Subjunctive,andImperative5. Attributions

5. Modifiers:AdjectivesandAdverbs1. IntroductiontoAdjectivesandAdverbs2. Adjectives3. Adverbs4. MisplacedandDanglingModifiers5. Attributions

6. Conjunctions1. Conjunctions:Coordination,Correlation,Conjunction,and

Subordination2. Attributions

7. AgreementandParallelism1. Subject-VerbAgreement2. Pronoun-AntecedentAgreement3. StructuralParallelismWithinaSentence4. Attributions

5.OverviewofEnglishGrammar:PunctuationandMechanics

1. Commas1. IntroductiontoCommas2. CommonCommaMistakes3. Attributions

2. ColonsandSemicolons1. Colons

2. Semicolons3. Attributions

3. ApostrophesandQuotationMarks1. Apostrophes2. QuotationMarks3. Attributions

4. HyphensandDashes1. Hyphens2. EmDashesandEnDashes3. Attributions

5. OtherPunctuation1. Parentheses2. EndingPunctuation3. Attributions

6. GeneralMechanics1. CommonSpellingErrors2. CapitalLetters3. AbbreviationsandAcronyms4. Numbers5. Italics6. Attributions

6.WritingEffectiveSentences

1. TheImportanceofWording1. TheImportanceofWording2. Attributions

2. WordChoice1. Precision2. UsingtheDictionaryandThesaurusEffectively3. Attributions

3. Tone1. AppropriateLanguage2. Attributions

4. Diction1. Gender-NeutralLanguage2. ActiveVoicevs.PassiveVoice3. Concision4. Attributions

7.WritingEffectiveParagraphs

1. OrganizingYourIdeas1. TopicSentences2. Attributions

2. ConnectingYourIdeas1. Transitions,SignalPhrases,andPointingWords2. Attributions

3. KeepingYourWritingEngaging1. VaryingYourSentenceStructureandVocabulary2. Attributions

8.RhetoricalModes

1. IntroductiontoRhetoricalModes1. IntroductiontoRhetoricalModes2. Attributions

2. TypesofRhetoricalModes1. ArgumentationandPersuasion2. Classification3. CauseandEffect4. ComparisonandContrast5. Definition6. Description7. IllustrationandExemplification8. Narration9. ProcessAnalysis10. Attributions

9.WritingAcrossDisciplines

1. IntroductiontoWritingAcrossDisciplines1. WritinginDifferentAcademicDisciplines2. Attributions

2. WritingintheHumanities1. IntroductiontoWritingintheHumanities2. Attributions

3. WritingintheNaturalandSocialSciences:TheResearchPaperandtheIMRADModel1. PrinciplesofWritingintheSciences2. OverviewoftheIMRADModel3. Abstract4. IntroductionandThesis

5. Methods6. Results7. DiscussionandConclusion8. Attributions

4. WritinginBusiness1. IntroductiontoWritinginBusiness2. Attributions

10.WritingaPaperinMLAStyle(Humanities)

1. IntroductiontoMLAStyle1. WhentoUseMLAStyle2. Attributions

2. MLA:QuotationsandCitations1. MLA:BlockQuotations2. MLA:In-TextCitationsandParentheticals3. MLA:TheWorksCitedSection4. Attributions

11.WritingaPaperinAPAStyle(SocialSciences)

1. IntroductiontoAPAStyle1. WhentoUseAPAStyle2. OverallStructureandFormattingofanAPAPaper3. Attributions

2. APA:StructureandFormattingofSpecificElements1. APA:TitlePageandRunningHead2. APA:Abstract3. APA:Headings4. APA:SeriesandLists5. APA:BlockQuotations6. Attributions

3. APA:EmpiricalResearchPapers1. APA:ReportingStatistics2. APA:TablesandFigures3. Attributions

4. APA:CitationsandReferences1. APA:TheReferencesSection2. APA:HowtoReferenceDifferentTypesofSources3. APA:In-TextCitationsandParentheticals4. Attributions

12.WritingaPaperinChicago/TurabianStyle(History)

1. IntroductiontoChicago/TurabianStyle1. WhentoUseChicago/TurabianStyle2. OverallStructureandFormattingofaChicago/TurabianPaper3. Attributions

2. Chicago/Turabian:StructureandFormattingofSpecificElements1. Chicago/Turabian:TitlePage2. Chicago/Turabian:Headings3. Chicago/Turabian:BlockQuotations4. Chicago/Turabian:TablesandFigures5. Attributions

3. Chicago/Turabian:CitationsandReferences–NotesandBibliography(NB)System1. Chicago/Turabian(NB):TheBibliographySection2. Chicago/Turabian(NB):HowtoReferenceDifferentTypesof

Sources3. Chicago/Turabian(NB):FootnotesandEndnotes4. HowtoReferenceDifferentTypesofSourcesinFootnotes5. Attributions

4. Chicago/Turabian:CitationsandReferences–Author–Date(AD)System1. Chicago/Turabian(Author–Date):TheReferencesSection2. Chicago/Turabian(Author–Date):HowtoReferenceDifferent

TypesofSources3. Chicago/Turabian(Author–Date):In-TextReferencesand

Parentheticals4. Attributions

1:IntroductiontoCollege-LevelWriting

1.1:IntroductiontoCollege-LevelWriting1.1.1:BasicPrinciplesofAcademicWriting

Academicwritingpresentsthoroughlyinvestigatedideastoaninformedaudience.

LearningObjective

Contrastacademicandpopularwriting

KeyPoints

Academicwritingmakesaclaimoranargument,andusesacombinationofevidence(detailsandfacts)andclearexplanationsoflogicalreasoningtosupportthatclaiminordertopersuadethereader.Goodacademicwritingisconcise;ratherthanusingflowerylanguageandoverlycomplexsentencestructures,whichcandistractfromanargument,writersshouldusethesimplestlanguagepossibletolettheirideasshinethrough.Academicwritingusuallyusesobjectivelanguage,whichallowswriterstoconvincethereaderthattheirargumentistrue,ratherthanjustsubjectiveopinions.Agoodacademicwriterisabletoseebothsidesoftheargument,orclaim,andcounteritwithsupportingevidence.

KeyTerms

genre

Acategoryortypeofwriting,usuallyinreferencetodifferentacademicdisciplines.

claim

Anassertion,usedasthebasisforanacademicpieceofwriting,thatmustbeprovenwithevidence.

counter-arguments

Ideasandevidencewhichrefuteoropposetheoriginalclaim.

analysis

Acriticalexaminationbythewriterwhichdrawsconnections(ornotesdisconnections)betweenpointsofevidence.

academicwriting

Writingthatispublishedorpresentedtoaspecializedaudienceinordertoinform,persuade,demonstrate,explore,orachievesomeotherspecificpurpose.

“Academicwriting”isabroadtermthatcoversawidevarietyofgenresacrossdisciplines.Whileitsfeatureswillvary,academic(orscholarly)writingingeneraltriestomaintainaprofessionaltonewhiledefendingaspecificpositionoridea.

Therearemanydifferentapproachestoacademicresearch,sinceeachdisciplinehasitsownconventionsthatdictatewhatkindsoftextsandevidencearepermissible.Scholarlywritingtypicallytakesanobjectivetone,eventhoughitarguesinfavorofaspecificpositionorstance.Academicwritingcanreachabroaderaudiencethroughmoreinformalvenues,suchasjournalismandpublicspeaking.

OverarchingPrinciplesofAcademicWritingAcademicwritingcomesinmanyformsandcancoverawiderangeofsubjectmatter;however,successfulwritingwilldemonstratecertainconventions,nomatterwhatisbeingwrittenabout.

TheThesisStatement:MakingandSupportingaClaim

Strongacademicwritingtakesastanceonthetopicitiscovering—ittriestoconvincethereaderofacertainperspectiveorclaim.Thisclaimisknownasthe“thesisstatement.”Themajorityofanacademicpaperwillbespentusingfactsanddetailsto“prove”tothereaderthattheclaimistrue.Howthisisdonedependsonthediscipline:inthesciences,aresearchpaperwillpresentanoriginalexperimentanddatatosupporttheclaim;inaliteratureclass,an

essaywillcitequotationsfromatextthatweaveintothelargerargument.Regardlessofdiscipline,theoverarchinggoalofmostacademicwritingistopersuadethereadertoagreewiththeclaim.

Concision

Concisionistheartofusingthefewestwordspossibletoconveyanidea.Somestudentsmistakenlythinkthatlongerwordsandmorecomplicatedsentencestructuresmaketheirwriting“better”ormoresophisticated.Inreality,thelongerandmorecomplicatedasentencegets,theharderitisforareadertointerpretthatsentenceandstayengagedwithyourargument.Forexample,ifyoufindyourselfusingaphraselike“duetothefactthat,”youcansimplifyyourwordingandmakeyoursentencemorepowerfulbysaying“because”instead.Similarly,say“now”or“currently”ratherthan“atthispointintime.”Unnecessarilycomplicatedwordingdistractsyourreaderfromyourargument;simplersentencestructuresletyourideasshinethrough.

Objectivity

Mostacademicwritingusesobjectivelanguage.Thatis,ratherthanpresentingtheargumentasthewriter’sopinion(“Ibelievethat…”,“Ithinkthismeans…”),ittriestoconvincethereaderthattheargumentisnecessarilytruebasedonthesupportingfacts:“thisevidencerevealsthat…”

BreakingtheRulesTherearecountlessexamplesofrespectedscholarlypiecesthatbendtheseprinciples—forinstance,the“readerresponse”schoolofliterarycriticismabandonstheobjectivestancealtogether.However,youhavetoknowtherulesbeforeyoucanbreakthemsuccessfully.

Thinkofachefputtingchilipowderinhotchocolate,adeliciousbutunexpectedbendingofarule:typically,dessertsarenotspicy.Inordertosuccessfullybreakthatrule,thecheffirsthadtounderstandalltheflavorsatworkinbothingredients,andmakethechoiceknowingthatitwouldimprovetherecipe.It’sonlyagoodideatobreaktheserulesandprinciplesifthereisaspecific,goodreasontodoso.Therefore,ifyouplantodispensewithoneoftheconventionsofacademicwriting,itisagoodideatomakesureyourinstructorapprovesofyourstylisticchoice.

BuildingAcademicWritingSkillsAcademicworkisanexcellentwaytodevelopstrongresearchandwritingskills.Trytouseyourundergraduateassignmentstobuildyourreadingcomprehension,criticalandcreativethinking,researchandanalyticalskills.Havingaspecific,“real”audiencewillhelpyouengagemoredirectlywiththereaderandadapttotheconventionsofwritinginanygivengenre.

TheoriginalDallasPublicLibrary

Acrossmanyacademicdisciplines,researchisoftenrequiredforwritingassignments.

1.1.2:DevelopingYourVoiceasaWriter

Developandshowcaseyouruniquevoicewhileadheringtotherulesofwritingcontentandstyle.

LearningObjective

Differentiatebetweenvoiceandstyle

KeyPoints

Whileacademicwritingstressesformalconventions,opportunitiesexisttoexperimentwithawiderangeofstylesandvoices.Amorecasualwritingstylemightincludecontractions,humor,exclamations,and/orfamiliarvocabulary.Otherswritingsmayinclude

clause-heavysentences,esotericterminology,andformallanguage.Stillothersfavoranalogies,idioms,metaphors,andcolorfulimagery.“Authorialvoice”isacharacteristicofawriter’sdistinctivestyle.Itisanimportantelementofacademicwriting,fiction,andnonfiction.Voiceisdevelopedovertimeandthroughexperience.

KeyTerms

format

Thearrangementofimages,titles,headers,content,andotherformalelementsofwritingwithinawork.

style

Anauthor’suniquemethodofputtingtogetherwords,phrases,sentences,analogies,metaphors,idioms,andexpressions.

voice

Thedistinctpersonalitythatcomesthroughinawriter’sworkwhichmayconveytheauthor’sattitudeandcharacter.Itmayrepresentthecharacteristicspeechandthoughtpatternsofthewriter.

You’veprobablyheardthatonequalityfoundingoodwritingisvoice.“Voice”referstoelementsoftheauthor’stone,phrasing,andstylethatarerecognizablyuniquetoherorhim.Adistinctive,persuasivevoicewillsuccessfullyengageyouraudience—withoutit,yourwritingriskslosingyourreaderdespiteyourtopnotchresearchorhowwellyouadheredtosoundwritingpractices.Yes,academicwritinghasrulesaboutformat,style,andobjectivitythatyoumustfollow,butthesewillnotrescueboring,impersonalprose.Whateveryouchoosetowriteabout,becertaintodevelopanauthorialvoice!

Havinga“uniquevoice”doesnottranslateintohavingaradicallydifferentstylefromothers.Inacademicwriting,voiceboilsdowntoseeminglyinsignificantsmallhabitsandpersonalpreferences.Buttheymatter!Ifeachstudentinyourclasswastoldtoexplainacomplexconcept,notonewoulddoitinthesameway.Eachwouldusedifferentlanguageandsyntaxtosaythesamebasicthing.Overtime,eachstudentwouldcontinuetomakesimilarchoicesinlanguageandsyntax,andreaderswouldeventuallyassociatethosechoiceswithparticularwriters—eachstudentwouldhavedevelopedanauthorialvoice.

Keepinmindthatvoiceisnotsomethingyoucanautomaticallycreate.Itmaybetemptingtouseunusualsyntaxorfancyvocabularyhopingtomakeyour

writingstandout.Beforewarned-thatwouldnotbeyourgenuinestyle.Thereisnoquickwaytocreatearecognizablevoice,asitcanonlybedevelopedovertime.Thekeytodevelopingyourvoiceistokeepwritingandtothinkaboutwhatspecifictypesofwritingexciteyou.Payattentiontohowyousaythings—whatwordsyouuse,whatsortsofphrasesandsentencestructuresyoufavor,evenwhatkindofpunctuationappearsinyourworkfrequently.Thesearethechoicesthatwilleventuallybecomemarkersofyourauthorialvoice.

IndividualstyleattheOhioRenaissanceFestival

Muchlikethepeopleshownabovedressedindifferentcostumes,everywriterhasadistinctstyle.Youshouldmaintainthedistinctiveelementsofyourvoiceandstyleintheacademiccontext.Evenwhenyou’reoutsideyourcomfortable,everydayenvironment,youcanstillfindwaystoexpressyouruniquestyle.

1.1.3:GettingHelpMeetingCollegeWritingExpectations

Youruniversitycanprovideseveralresourcestohelpyouthroughtheprocessofplanninganddraftinganacademicpaper.

LearningObjective

Giveexamplesofplacestofindcampusresourcesforwriting

KeyPoints

Theconventionsofacademicwritingcanbeconfusingatfirst,butthereisnoneedtostrugglealone.Collegesprovidestudentswithavarietyofresourcesandadviserstohelpstudentsadjusttowritingatthecollegiatelevel.Takeadvantageofwhateverresourcesyourcollegeoffers.Takingadvantageoftheseresourceshastheaddedbenefitofpushingyoutobegintheprocessearlysoyouwillhaveenoughtimetowriteandreviseseveraldrafts.Somecollegespublishoutstandingstudentwork,whichcanprovidevaluableexamplesforyouasyougetusedtoacademicwriting.

KeyTerms

workshop

Agatheringofstudentswhosharebrainstorming,research,drafting,revision,andeditingtipsbyreadingandrespondingtoeachother’spapers.

writingcenter

Aspace(oftenbothphysicalandonline)thatprovidesstudentswithfreeassistanceonpapers,projects,reports,multimodaldocuments,webpages,etc.frominstructorandpeerconsultants.

drafting

Theprocessofbeginningtowriteandreviseapaper,withtheunderstandingthatnooneelsewillseeit.

Thetypicalstudententerscollegewithawealthofexperiencewritingfive-paragraphessays,bookreports,andlabreports.Eventhebeststudents,however,needtomakebigadjustmentstolearntheconventionsofacademicwriting.College-levelwritingobeysdifferentrules,andlearningthemwillhelpyouhoneyourwritingskills.Thinkofitasascendinganotherstepupthewritingladder.

Manystudentsfeelintimidatedaskingforhelpwithacademicwriting;afterall,it’ssomethingyou’vebeendoingyourentirelifeinschool.However,there’snoneedtofeellikeit’sasignofyourlackofability;onthecontrary,manyofthestrongeststudentwritersregularlygethelpandsupportwiththeirwriting(that’swhythey’resostrong).Collegeinstructorsareveryfamiliarwiththeupsanddownsofwriting,andmostuniversitieshavesupport

systemsinplacetohelpstudentslearnhowtowriteforanacademicaudience.Thefollowingsectionsdiscusscommonon-campuswritingservices,whattoexpectfromthem,andhowtheycanhelpyou.

KingsCollege,Cambridge

Collegewritingcanseemdauntingatfirst,buttherearemethodstohelpyoumasterit.

WritingMentorsLearningtowriteforanacademicaudienceischallenging,butuniversitiesoffervariousresourcestoguidestudentsthroughtheprocess.Mostinstructorswillbehappytomeetwithyouduringofficehourstodiscussguidelinesforwritingabouttheirparticulardiscipline.Ifyouhaveanydoubtsaboutresearchmethods,paperstructure,writingstyle,etc.,addresstheseuncertaintieswiththeinstructorbeforeyouhandinyourpaper,ratherthan

waitingtoseethecritiquestheywriteinthemarginsafterward.Youarenotbotheringyourinstructorbyshowingupforofficehours;they’llbegladtoseeyou.

WritingCentersMostcollegeshavewritingcentersthataredesignedtohelpstudentsmeetcollege-levelexpectations.Thesecentersusuallyofferone-on-oneadvisorymeetingsorgroupsessionsthatcovertopicsrangingfromconductingresearchtoconqueringprocrastination.Manywritingcentersemploystudentmentorsfromawiderangeofdisciplines,sotrytoworkwithonewhodeeplyunderstandsthefieldyou’rewritingin.

LearningbyExampleManystudentsliketolearnbyexample,andfinditveryhelpfultoreadotherstudents’academicwriting.Someuniversitiespublishoutstandingstudentessays.Someprofessorskeepcopiesofstudentpapers,andtheymaybewillingtoshowyouexamplesofwritingthatmeetstheirexpectations.Genuinestudentpapersareuniversallybettermodelstofollowthananyofthe“sampleessays”ontheInternet.

Student-LedWorkshopsSomecoursesencouragestudentstosharetheirresearchandwritingwitheachother,andevenofferworkshopswherestudentscanpresenttheirownwritingandofferconstructivecommentstotheirclassmates.Independentpaper-writingworkshopsprovideaspaceforpeerswithvaryinginterests,workstyles,andareasofexpertisetobrainstorm.Ifyouwanttoimproveyourwriting,organizingaworkshopsessionwithyourclassmatesisagreatstrategy.Youcanalsoaskyourwritingcentertohelpyouorganizeaworkshopforaspecificclassorsubject.Inhighschool,studentssubmittheirworkinmultiplestages,fromthethesisstatementtotheoutlinetoadraftofthepaper;finally,afterreceivingfeedbackoneachpreliminarypiece,theysubmitacompletedproject.Thisformatteachesstudentshowtodividewritingassignmentsintosmallertasksandschedulethesetasksoveranextendedperiodoftime,insteadofscramblingthroughtheentireprocess

rightbeforethedeadline.Somecollegecoursesbuildthiskindofwritingscheduleintomajorassignments.Evenifyourcoursedoesnot,youcanmastertheskillofbreakinglargeassignmentsdownintosmallerprojectsinsteadofleavinganunmanageableamountofworkuntilthelastminute.Academicwritingcan,attimes,feeloverwhelming.Youcanwasteagreatdealoftimestaringatablankscreenoratroublesomeparagraph,whenitwouldbemoreproductivetomoveontodraftingotherpartsofyourpaper.Whenyoureturntotheproblemsectionafewhourslater(or,evenbetter,thenextday),thesolutionmaybeobvious.

Writingindraftsmakesacademicworkmoremanageable.Draftinggetsyourideasontopaper,whichgivesyoumoretoworkwiththantheperfectionist’sdauntingblankscreen.Youcanalwaysreturnlatertofixtheproblemsthatbotheryou.

SchedulingtheStagesofYourWritingProcessTimemanagement,nottalent,hasbeenthesecrettoalotofgreatwritingthroughtheages.Notevena“great”writercanproduceamasterpiecethenightbeforeit’sdue.Breakingalargewritingtaskintosmallerpieceswillnotonlysaveyoursanity,butwillalsoresultinamorethoughtful,polishedfinaldraft.

Sampleschedule:

Monday:Visityourinstructor’sofficehourstodiscussideas,sources,andstructurefortheessay.Tuesday:Doresearchatthelibraryfrom5:00to9:00,takingdetailednotesandplanninghoweachpieceofresearchwillfitintoyourpaper.Wednesday:Doresearchatthelibraryfrom2:00to6:00,takedetailednotes,andgiveyourselfpermissiontowriteanimperfectdraft.Thursday:Beginafirstdraftoftheessay.Friday:Continueexpanding/editingthefirstdraft.Saturday:Lookagainatthedraftandcontinuetomakechanges/additions/deletions.Sunday:Writeafinaldraft.Printoutyourpaperforproofreading(it’sworthit).Monday:Don’tlookattheessay.However,ifthereareanyremainingquestions,gotoyourinstructor’sofficehours.

Tuesday:Revise,editandproofreadtheessayonemoretime.Relaxwhileeveryoneelseinyourclassispanicking.Wednesdaymorning:Givetheessayafinalreadandproofread,andprintitout.Wednesdayafternoon:Turninyouressay.

EmailingYourInstructorExampleEmail

Subject:ExpositoryWriting101:OfficehoursonTuesday

Dear/HelloProfessor[Lastname],

IhaveafewquestionsaboutthenextessayassignmentforExpositoryWriting101.WoulditbeconvenienttodiscussthemduringyourofficehoursonTuesday?LetmeknowifthereisaspecifictimewhenIshouldstopby.Thankyouforyourhelpwiththeseassignments.

Manythanks,

[Firstname][Lastname]

ExpositoryWriting101;T,Th,10:00

TipsforEmailingYourInstructor

Bepolite:Addressyourprofessorformally,usingthetitle“Professor”withtheirlastname.Dependingonhowformalyourprofessorseems,usethesalutation“Dear,”oramoreinformal“Hello”or“Hi.”Don’tdropthesalutationaltogether,though.Beconcise.Instructorsarebusypeople,andalthoughtheyaretypicallymorethanhappytohelpyou,dothemthefavorofgettingtoyourpointquickly.Signoffwithyourfirstandlastname,thecoursenumber,andtheclasstime.Thiswillmakeiteasyforyourprofessortoidentifyyou.Donoteverask,“Whenwillyoureturnourpapers?”IfyouMUSTask,makeitspecificandrealistic(e.g.,“Willwegetourpapersbackbytheendofnextweek?”).

1.1.4:DiscussingWritinginClass

Classdiscussionisanessentialpartofthefeedbackandrevisionprocess,

sinceitprovidesaspaceforstudentstocommunicatedifferingviews.

LearningObjective

Identifytechniquesfordiscussingwritinginclasseffectively

KeyPoints

Thegoalofclassroomdiscussionisnotonlytopromotecomprehensionofasharedtext,butalsotoencouragestudentstolistento,understand,andexchangetheirassessmentsofatext.Asalearningmethod,classroomdiscussionsaregenerallymorefunandinteractivethansimplylisteningtoateacherlectureortakingawrittentest.Classdiscussionsencouragelearningthroughactiveparticipation,comprehension,andlistening.Theyhelpstudentstothink,solveproblems,listentoothers,andanalyzetheideasofotherstudents,allwhilebackinguptheirownthoughtswithevidencefrompastclassteachings.Incorporatingperspectivesandideasfromclassdiscussionintoyourpaperallowsyoutostrengthenconnectionsbetweencourseconceptsanddemonstrateyourengagementinwhatothershavetosay.In-classworkshopscanprovideyouwithvaluablefeedbackfromyourpeersabouthowtoimproveyourpaper,andalsoteachyoutobeamorecarefulandcriticalreaderofyourownandothers’work.

KeyTerm

workshop

Adiscussioninwhichpeoplecangiveoneanotherfeedbackoneachother’swriting.

ClassroomDiscussionsClassroomdiscussionisn’tsimplyawayofgainingpoints;it’sanessentialpartoflearning,comprehending,andsharingknowledge.Classdiscussionisoftenusedtogetherwithotherformsofassessmenttocalculateyourgrade,eveniftherearenopointsexpresslyawarded.Togetherwithlecturesandindividualstudy,discussingcoursereadingsandmaterialswithyourpeersand

theinstructorcanopenupnewinsightsthatareimpossibletoachieveonyourown.Inordertogetthemostoutofclassdiscussion,theinstructorandallstudentsshouldengageinanactualconversation,notsimplyquestion-and-answer.

Classroomdiscussion

Thisclassdiscussionisengaging.

Asalearningmethod,classroomdiscussionsaregenerallymorefunandinteractivethansimplylisteningtoateacherlectureordoingwrittenwork.Whenpresentingaquestiontoaclassofstudents,teachersopenuptheclassroomdiscussiontodifferentideas,opinions,andquestions,andcanmediatewhilestudentscomeupwiththeirownconclusions.Classdiscussionsencouragelearningthroughactiveparticipation,comprehension,andlistening.Theyhelpstudentstothink,solveproblems,listentoothers,andanalyzetheideasofotherstudents,allwhilebackinguptheirownthoughtswithevidencefrompastclassteachings.Discussionsalsoencouragethepracticeofinformaloralcommunication,whichisamuch-neededskilllaterinlife.

Whenparticipatinginaclassdiscussion,thefollowingstrategiesareeffective:

Trytostayontopic.Outsidereferencesareoftengoodforcontext,butrememberthatthefocushereisonlearning.Trytouserelevantvocabularyfromthelessontoconfirmyourunderstandingofnewconceptsanddemonstrateyourauthority.Trytobuildupontheideasofothers;listenandrespondasmuchasyouspeak.Alwaysberespectfultoothers,especiallyifsomeoneinthediscussionoffersanopinionthatdiffersfromyourown.

Trytoprovideconstructivecriticismtoothersregardingtheirthoughts,comments,orwork:“Ithinkyou’reontherighttrackhere,butthispointdoesn’tseemtobesupportedwithdirectevidence.”Don’tgettooworkedupifyoudisagreewiththeinstructororanotherstudent.Astrongemotionalresponseisgood,sinceitindicatesyou’reengagedwiththetopic,butalwayskeepacalmdemeanortoshowyourclassmatesyourabilitytoworkinthissettingwithoutgettingangryorflustered.

WritingWorkshopsAworkshopisaspecialkindofclassroomdiscussioninwhichstudentsdiscusseachother’swork.Theadvicegivenaboveonclassdiscussionsalsoapplieswhenyouandyourpeersaregiventimeinclass(orinagroupstudysession,inthewritingcenter,etc.)toworkshopdraftsofeachother’spapers.Awritingworkshopisanexcellentwaytogetsuggestionsfrompeersthathelpyouimproveyourpaper,sincefellowstudentsmaybeabletoofferaperspectiveyourinstructorcannot.Constructive,focusedworkshopcritiquingalsoallowsyoutobecomeamorecriticalreaderandwriter.Herearesomequestionsthatmightbehelpfulforclassdiscussionsaboutstudentwriting:

Whatistheauthorsayinginthistext?Usethreewordstodescribethetoneandstyletheauthorusesinhis/herargument.Isthisthebesttoneandstyletoachievetheauthor’spurpose?Wheredoestheauthorpresentrhetoricthatisbasedonemotion?Onfacts?Whichoftheseseemtobemostprevalentintheargument?Whydoestheauthorthinkthisargumentmatters?Havetheyconvincedyouthatitmatters?Howmightthe“sowhat”factorberaised?Whatspecialterminologydoes(orshould)theauthoruse?Howdoesthistextrelatetootherthingsthathavebeenreadinthisclass?Givetheauthortwopositivecomments,andthreesuggestionsforimprovementinthenextdraft.

Attributions

BasicPrinciplesofAcademicWriting

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“Concision.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concision.Wikipedia

CCBY-SA3.0.

“Academicwriting.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_writing.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“TheNostalgicGlass|DallasLibrary.”http://nostalgicglass.org/background.php?pn=19.TheNostalgicGlassCCBY-SA.

DevelopingYourVoiceasaWriter

“Style(visualarts).”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Style_(visual_arts).WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“voice.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/voice.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“TwoFops|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/frted/4003842153/.FlickrCCBY-SA.

GettingHelpMeetingCollegeWritingExpectations

“TheCainProjectinEngineeringandProfessionalCommunication,ManualforWritingMentors.September17,2013.”http://cnx.org/content/m15909/latest/.OpenStaxCNXCCBY3.0.

“Writingcenter.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing%20center.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“schedule.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/schedule.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“Academicwriting.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_writing.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“KingsCollege|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/riklowe/552649138/.FlickrCCBY.

DiscussingWritinginClass

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“StudySkills.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Study_Skills%23Having_Discussions.WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“comprehension.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/comprehension.

WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“Peopleinworkshopclasspublicdomainimagepicture.”http://www.public-domain-image.com/people-public-domain-images-pictures/crowd-public-domain-images-pictures/people-in-workshop-class.jpg.html.PublicDomainImagesCCBY.

ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/30168/30168-h/30168-h.htm.Publicdomain.

2:WritinganEffectivePaper

2.1:OverviewoftheProcessofWritingaPaper2.1.1:IntroductiontotheWritingProcess

Learningtowriteislikefollowingarecipe;thereisroomforcreativity,butyouneedtoknowthebasics.

LearningObjective

Outlinethestepsofthewritingandrevisionprocess

KeyPoints

Eachstepofthewritingprocesshelpstobuildastrongpaper.Thestepsofthewritingprocessareprewriting/choosingatopic,researching,outlining,drafting,revising,editing/proofreading,andthefinalreview.Asyoubecomefamiliarwiththe“recipe”ofwritinganditscomponents,youwillfeelincreasinglycomfortableandcreativeinthewritingprocess.

KeyTerms

expositorywriting

Derivedfromtheword“expose,”expositorywritingseekstoexpose,explain,describe,define,orinform.

recursive

Pertainingtoaprocedurethatcanbeusedrepeatedly.Incomposition,awritermayreturntothetasksofapreviousstageonceinformedbytheactivitiesofacurrentstage.

writingprocess

Aseriesofoverlappingstepswritersuseincomposing.Theprocessmaydifferbasedonthepurposeandformofthecomposition.

TheWritingProcessInhighschool,studentsusuallysubmittheirworkinmultiplestages—fromthethesisstatementtotheoutlinetoadraftofthepaper,andfinally,afterreceivingfeedbackoneachpreliminarypiece,acompletedproject.Thisformatteachesstudentshowtodividewritingassignmentsintosmallertasksandschedulethesetasksoveranextendedperiodoftime.Incollege,itisyourresponsibilitytobreaklargeassignmentsdownintosmallerprojectssoyoudonothaveanunmanageableamountofworkatthelastminute.

Weshouldfirstaddressthecommonresistancetoform.Beginningwritersoftenprotestthatimposingformalrulesonwritingcontradictsthenotionofwritingasacreativeart.Sometimes,however,workingwithinaformactuallyenhancescreativity.Approachingtheprocessofwritingthesamewayeachtimebuildsfacilityandeaseintoyourwriting.Youbecomefamiliarwiththeprogressionoftheproject,knowingthateachstagehasaspecificpurposeinthecreationofastrongfinalproduct.

ARecipeforGoodWritingTheseasonedbakernolongerpullsoutthecookbookeverytimeshewantstobakeacake.Infact,shemightchargeintothepantrylookingfornewandinterestingingredients,likechilipowderforthechocolateicing.Buttherewasatimewhenshefollowedtherecipestepbystepandbydoingsolearnedexactlywhathappenswhenyouleaveoutoneingredientoroverdoanother.Thinkofthefollowingchaptersasyourcookbookforwritingasuccessfulpaperandlookforwardtothedaywhenyoucanfocusmoreonbeingcreativewithspicesthanonlearningtherecipe.

Here,then,arethestepsofthewritingprocess:our“recipe”forgoodexpositorywriting.Asyoureadthem,considerwhatmightbeentailedineachstep.Imaginewhatyou’llbedoingandwhyitcouldbeusefulincreatingasuccessfulfinalpaper.

Step1:PrewritingandChoosingaTopicStep2:ResearchingStep3:OutliningStep4:DraftingStep5:RevisingStep6:EditingandProofreading

Step7:CompletingaFinalReview

Canyoufigureoutwhyyoumightneedeachstep?Startthinkingofsomequestionstoaskasyoumoveforward.Yourquestionmightbe“WhyintheworldwouldIwanttospendprecioustimeoutlining?”Youmightask,“Whydoesthereneedtobeastepforrevisingandthenaseparatestepforeditingandproofreading?”Youmightwonderhowtoapproachthedraftingphasewithoutfeelingoverwhelmed,oryoumightbecuriousaboutthebrainstormingmethodswerecommend.

It’simportanttorecognizethatwritingisarecursiveprocess.Justasyoutastewhenyoucook,thengobackandaddmoreofsomethingtoenhancethedish’sflavor,whileyouarewritingyou’reregularlygoingbacktoearlierstagesorjumpingforwardintheprocessasneeded.Thoughtherearereasonsforusingtheparticularstepsabove,theyarepartofaflexibleprocessthat’stheretoserveyou,thewriter.

TechniquesinDepthOncewe’veexploredeachofthesesteps,we’lldelvedeeperintosomeofthemorenuancedtechniquesinvolvedincreatingastrongargument.

Section3examinestheprocessofdevelopingathesisfromthebrainstormingstagethroughtothefinalstatement.Everythinginapaperisorganizedaroundthethesisstatement.Howdoyouknowwhenyouhaveonethatisstrongenoughtoholdapapertogether?

Section4guidesyouthroughbuildinganarrativethatmakessenseforyourtopicandpurpose.Thenarrativeiswherethewritercreatesakindofmagicwiththepowerofpersuasion.Whatarethepracticaltoolsbehindthismysteriousprocess?

Section5looksatthesupportiveuseofquotationsandparaphrasing,answeringquestionsaboutformatting,appropriateuseofquotes,andotherissues.Isthereskillbehindthechoiceofwhentouseaquoteandwhentoparaphrase,orisitarandomselection?

Section6addressesthestrategyofincorporatingintoyourpaperpossibleobjectionstoyourargument.Butisitwisetomakeyouropponents’argumentforthem,andifso,shouldyouweakentheirargumentsinordertostrengthenyourown?

Trylookingateachstageofthewritingprocessasanecessaryingredientforacake,andyou’llbegintorespecteachstepforwhatitoffersyourfinal

product.Noonewouldwanttoeatflourbyitself,butleavingitoutofthemixingprocesswouldspelldisasterfordessert(unlessyouaremakingflourlesscake).Similarly,whileyoumayfindtheideaofresearchingorproofreadingdistastefulinisolation,you’lllearntoappreciateandevenenjoyeachstepoftheprocessforwhatitcontributestothewhole.

2.1.2:IntroductiontotheThesisStatement

Astrongthesisstatementisspecific,focused,andholdstensionbetweenideas.

LearningObjective

Distinguishbetweenadefensiblethesisstatementandafact

KeyPoints

Oneofthekeyelementsofagoodthesisstatementistensionbetweentwoideas.Thefocusofyourthesisshouldbenarrowenoughforyoutobeabletocoverthetopicthoroughly.Yourthesisshouldbespecific,inordertograbthereader’sattention.Onceyouhaveathesisstatement,you’llwanttogatherevidencebothforandagainstthestatement.Creatingathesisandresearchinggotogether.Oneprocessinformstheother,andyouwilloftenneedtogobackandforthseveraltimestocreateasolidthesisthatcanbebackedbyresearch.

KeyTerms

thesis

Aclaimthatawritermustuseevidencetodefend.

defensible

Capableofbeingdefendedorjustified.

Imagineyou’rehavingdinnerwithafewfriends.Overdessertandcoffee,onefriendsays,“ProfessorEllisismyfavorite.”Hisstatementmightelicitafewnodsandacommentortwo.Anotherfriendtakesitupanotch:“IthinkDr.Ellisisthebestprofessorattheschool.”Withthisstatement,yourfriendhastakenastand,whichcaninspiresomeinterestanddebate.Inresponse,

anotherfriendsays,“Youguysseemtothinkthatbeingagoodprofessorisallabouthowavailableandniceheorsheistothestudents,butIthinkithasalotmoretodowiththeprofessor’scommitmenttoscholarship.Infact,IthinkthatwhileDr.Ellismightbethemostpopularprofessor,Dr.Cassidyis,objectivelyspeaking,actuallythebest.”Isthislaststatementalittlemoreprovocative?Mightyourguestspourasecondcupofcoffeeandstayalittlelonger?Why?

MakingaClaimStrongacademicwritingtakesadefinitivestanceonthetopicitiscovering.Ratherthansimplyreportingdetails,academicwritingusesdetailstotrytoproveapoint.Thispointisoftencalledyour“thesisstatement,”asentencethatexpressesyourpointofviewonthetopic,whichyouwillsupportwithevidenceandresearch.Thekeyelementofathesisstatementisthatitisnotafact:itisaclaim,somethingthatyouhavetouseevidencetoprove.Yourthesisisthebackboneofyourpaper,andeveryfactandideayouaddtoyourpaperwillsupportit.

Atthedinnerparty,yourfriendwillgivereasonafterreasonwhycrotchetyDr.Cassidyisactuallythesuperiorprofessor,supportingeachreason,wehope,withfactshecanbackup.Bytheendoftheevening,youmaygohomewithanewrespectforDr.Cassidy’sbodyofscientificresearch,hisabilitytomakestudentsstrivemuchharderthantheydoinDr.Ellis’sclasses,andhisconsistentgradingpolicies.Ifso,yourfriendwillhavechangedyourmind.Anditallbeganwithhisprovocativestatement:histhesis.

ElementsofaStrongThesisStatementFocus

You’regoingtoneedtomakeyourcasewithinthescopeofonepaper,sothefocusshouldbenarrowenoughforyoutobeabletocoverthetopicthoroughly.Ifyou’rewritingathree-pagehistorypaperabouttheVietnamWar,don’tsetouttoproveanenormousclaimabouttheentireconflict.Pickasub-sub-topicyouareinterestedin,likeguerrillawarfareintropicalclimatesortheuseofmilitaryhelicoptersinrescuemissions,andfocusyourthesis

statementonwhatyoucanproveaboutthatsmallerchunk.

Specificity

Youwantthereadertobedrawninimmediatelytotheheartoftheargument.Thatmeansnamingnames—forexample,not“OnethemeinHamlet,isvengeance…,”but“InHamlet,Fortinbras,Laertes,andHamletallseektoavengetheirfathers…”

The“SoWhat?”Factor

Goodwritingmakesreaderscareaboutthetopic.Whenyousetouttowriteandproveyourthesisstatement,don’tsimplyhavethegoalofsaying,“Thisismyclaimandhere’sevidencetosupportit.”You’llwantyourwritingtoboildownto,“Thisismyclaim,here’swhyitmatters,andhere’sevidencetosupportit.”

CraftingYourThesisThereismorethanonewaytowriteathesisstatementforanacademicpaper.Themostimportantelementisthatyouaremakinganoriginalclaimandthenusingfactsandevidencetosupportit.However,therearemanywaystoexpressyourclaim.Allofthesewaysengagewiththecurrentlyexistingbodyofacademicwriting,butaddsomethingnew:yourideas,framedasaclaimbasedonevidence.

Tension

Onetechniqueforwritingathesisstatementisarguingagainstanexistingview.Thinkoftheconstructionas,“While____,actually____.”Yourguidingthreadthroughthepaperwillbetoconvincethosewhothinkthefirstthingthatthesecondthingisactuallytrue.

Herearetwoexamplesofthesisstatementswithembeddedtension:

WhileorganizationsliketheAmericanNaziPartyandtheKuKluxKlanmayposearealdangertoindividualsandthefabricofanintegratedsociety,thetenetsofdemocracydemandthattheirrighttofreespeechbeprotectedbytheAmericanCivilLibertiesUnion.

WhiletheAmericanCivilLibertiesUnionhasaresponsibilitytoprotectfree

speech,thisresponsibilityisbasedonpreservingdemocracyandshouldthereforenotbeextendedtohategroupsliketheAmericanNaziPartyandtheKuKluxKlan,groupswhichhaveastheiraimthesegregationanddivisionofsociety.

Whicheversideoftheissueistaken,youcanseethatthereisinherenttensionbecauseofthe“While___,actually___”construction.

Refining

Anotherwaytointroduceadefensiblethesisstatementistorefineanalreadyexistingidea:takeagenerallyacceptedconclusionandstretchitfurther.Thereareasmanyopinionsastherearepeopleintheworld,anditcanbeusefultousesomeoneelse’sideaasafoundationforyourown.However,rememberthatgoodthesesarebasedonoriginalopinions.Avoidparrotingsomeoneelse’s;rather,referenceandbuilduponit.

Analyzing

Thesisstatementscanbeusedtoprovideyourownoriginalanalysisofsomething,whetheritisahistoricalevent,apieceofliterature,orascientificphenomenon.Athesisstatementcanbeahypothesis,whichyousetouttoprovethroughevidence.Itcanbeaconnectionthatnobodyhaseverthoughtofbefore.Thekeyelementhereisthatyouarelookingatalreadyexistingfactsandopinions,andthenputtingthemtogethertoproveyouridea.

AddressingCounter-ArgumentsOnceyouhaveathesisstatement,you’llwanttogatherevidencebothforandagainstthestatement.Youmightevenwanttocreate,aswasdoneabove,athesisstatementthatistheoppositeofyoursandlookforresearchprovingbothofthem.(Thisisadebatingtechniquethatallowsthedebatertoskillfullyparryanycounter-argument.)Includingcounter-argumentsinyourpaperisatechniquewe’lldiscussinthedraftingsection.Fornow,besuretocollectinformationonbothsidesofyourthesis.

Makealistofthestrongestargumentsforandagainstyourthesisstatement.You’renotthinkingsomuchintermsofnumbersherebutratherstrength.Ifyoucan’tmakeseveralstrongpoints,youmaywanttore-workthethesis.

Creatingathesisandresearchinggotogether.Oneprocessinformstheother,

andyouwilloftenneedtogobackandforthseveraltimestocreateasolidthesisthatcanbebackedbyresearch.Justkeepfollowingyourinterests,yourcuriosity,andtheprocesswillstayenjoyable.

Attributions

IntroductiontotheWritingProcessIntroductiontotheThesisStatement

“defensible.”https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/defensible.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“Step2:Researching.”https://www.boundless.com/writing/textbooks/boundless-writing-textbook/writing-an-effective-paper-235/steps-of-writing-a-paper-237/step-2-researching-243-16871/.BoundlessCCBY-SA4.0.

2.2:StepsofWritingaPaper2.2.1:Step1:PrewritingandChoosingaTopic

Prewritingcanhelpyoutakeageneraltopicandmakeitmorespecific.

LearningObjective

Explainthedifferenttypesofprewritingexercises

KeyPoints

Duringprewritingexercises,itisimportanttorecordeverythingthatcomestomindwithouteditingasyouwrite.Youcanusethevarioustechniquestogenerateanumberofdifferentideastochoosefromtoformulateyourtopic.Brainstormingcanhelpyoufindwhereyourtrueinterestslieandwhatpartofatopicyoumightwanttodelveintofurther.Freewritingcanhelpyougeneratenewideasaboutatopicbywritingnonstop,withoutediting,forasetamountoftime.Clustering,orconceptmapping,canhelpyourefineyourthoughtsandnarrowthescopeofatopicbymakingamapordiagramofdifferentideasyouassociatewithacentraltopic.

KeyTerms

brainstorming

Aprewritingtechniqueintendedtogeneratecreativeideasquicklyandwithoutediting,throughwordorideaassociation.

freewriting

Aprewritingtechniqueinwhichthewriterwritescontinuouslyforasetperiodoftimewithoutregardtospelling,grammar,ortopic.

conceptmap

Adiagramthatshowstherelationshipsbetweenconcepts.Conceptsarewrittenincirclesorrectangularboxes,whichareconnectedbyarrowsthatarelabeledwithphrasessuchas“isa,”“givesriseto,”“resultsin,”

“isrequiredby,”or“contributesto”thatdenotetherelationshipsbetweenconcepts.

Outlining

Aprewritingactivitythatallowsyoutoorganizetoyourideasbyplacingthemintoanorderedsequenceofprimaryandsecondaryideas,whichshowstherelationshipofthepartstothewhole.

clustering

Aprewritingtechniqueconsistingofwritingacentralideainacircleonasheetofpaper,addingrelatedideasaroundthecircle,andconnectingthemwithlinestoshowhowtheyrelatedtoeachother.

Writingoftenfeelsdemandinganddifficultbecauseyouaredoingtwoseeminglycontradictorythingsatthesametime:creatingandcontaining.Youwantyourideastoflowlikeariver,swiftandstrong,butifyoupouroutyourideasindiscriminately,theriverwilloverflowitsbanks.Youhavetobejudiciousabouttheamountofinformationyouincludeandselectivewithyourwordchoices.Bothfreedomandstructurearenecessarytocontainanddirecttheflow.

Whenyouhavenoideawhattowriteabout,prewritingcanhelpgetideasflowing.Prewritingreferstowhatyoudobeforeyoubeginwriting,whetherthat’sbrainstorming,makingaconceptmap,ormakinganoutline.Byprewriting,youcangiveorganizationandlogicalcoherencetoyourideas.Youmightbetemptedtosavetimebyskippingtheprewritingstage,but,ultimately,puttingalittleextraworkinatthebeginningcansaveyoutime—andstress—especiallywhenyou’rewritingapaperclosetoyourdeadline.Thetoolsusedintheprewritingstagecanbeusedatanypointinthewritingprocesstohelpyouclarifyyourideas,tohelpyoudecidewhatdirectiontotake,andtonurturecreativitywhenyou’refeelingstuck.

Brainstorming,freewriting,andclusteringarethreeformsofprewritingthathelpsparkideasandcanmoveyouclosertotheheartofwhatyouthinkandfeelaboutatopic.And,yes,eveninanexpositorycomposition,heartmatters!You’remuchmorelikelytowriteaninterestingpaperifyoucareaboutthetopic.Let’sexplorehowthesethreeprimarymethodswork.

BrainstormingYoumighthaveheardthephrase,“Therearenobadideasinbrainstorming.”Thisisanotherwayofsayingthatitcanbehelpfultogatherallofyourideas

aboutatopic(eventhebadones)justtogetstarted.Thisprocessiscalledbrainstorming.Youdothiswithanotherpersonorinagroup,andeachpersoncontributesthoughtsaboutthesubjectinarapid-fireway.Afterwards,youcanpickthebestideasandcompilealist.Often,intheprocessofbrainstorming,youwilldiscoverthatmanyofyourideasarealreadyconnectedtooneanother.Havingtheseconnectedideasalreadylaidoutwillhelpyoutoformanoutlinemoreeasily.

Notebooks

Freewritingcanbeagreatwaytogetideasmoving.

FreewritingFreewritingcancomeinhandyifyouhaveageneraltopicbutarenotsurewhatyouwanttosayaboutit.Thepurposeoffreewritingistohelpyoudevelopideasspontaneouslyandnaturally.Setyourselfatimelimit,andthenstartwritingaboutyourtopic,recordingthoughtsinfullsentencesastheycomeintoyourmind.Donoteditasyougoorevenlookbackatwhatyouhavewritten,andtrytoavoidanydistractions.Justkeepwritingasthoughtsoccurtoyou.

Clustering

Thegoalofclustering,orconceptmapping,istogeneratelotsofideasaboutaverybroadtopic,muchlikefreewriting.Youbeginbywritingdownakeywordinthemiddleofablankpage.Youcontinuewithoutpausingtojotdownthewordsyouassociatewiththekeyword,circlingthem,anddrawingalinetoconnectthemwiththekeyword.Aseachwordtriggersnewideas,youwritethosedown,circlethem,andconnectthemwiththewordthatinspiredthem,radiatingouttocreateaconceptmap.Youcanthenchoosetheideasyouthinkarebestsuitedforyourassignmentandusetheorganizationoftheconceptmaptoguideyourwriting.

OutliningAftercollectingyourideas,butbeforeturningthemintoanessay,manypeoplefindithelpfultoproduceanoutline.Outliningshowshowparticularideasfit—ordon’tfit—intoacohesivewhole.Youdesignateyourprimaryideasandgroupsubordinateorsupportingideasunderneaththem.Thisisthefirststageinstructuringtheessayitself.

2.2.2:Step2:Researching

Researchingyoursubjectisanimportantstepinwritingbecauseithelpsyounarrowyourfocus.

LearningObjective

Identifyusefultechniquesfortheresearchprocess.

KeyPoints

Researchisdonetobackupclaimsandverifyspecificdata.Researchisdonetoinformyourownopinion,nottoechoothers’thoughts.Continuallyaskingincreasinglyspecificquestionsaboutyourtopicwillhelpkeepyourresearchfocusedandundercontrol.Stayingopentoalternativeideasduringtheresearchphasewillmakeforabetter-informedopinionandastrongerpaper.Keepingrecordsofresourcesasyoudoyourresearchwillmakethewritingprocesslessdaunting.Astrongthesisstatementisspecific,focused,andholdstensionbetweenideas.Usingprewritingtechniquesduringtheresearchphasecanhelprefine

andreorientthedirectionofresearch.

Theprimarythingtokeepinmindduringtheresearchphaseisthatyou’reseekingprimarilytoinformyourownthinkingonthetopic.You’renotlookingatwhatothershavewritteninordertoprovideyouwithanopinion.Thepointofwritingthepaperistoexploreyourownthoughtsaboutatopic.Researchalsohelpsyouverifyspecificdataandbackupanyclaimsyoumaymakeinyourpaper.

It’susefultobeginwithafewquestionsrelatedtoyourtopic.Theseshouldbeaspectsofthetopicthathavemadeyoucurious.Ifyouhaven’tfoundsuchquestions,dosomemoreprewritingexercisestogetyourcreativejuicesandintellectualpassionsflowing.

Theattitudewithwhichtobeginsearchingis,“Iwanttoknowwhatotherpeoplehavediscoveredwhenexaminingthesamequestion.”Atthispointyou’renotlookingforevidencetoproveaposition.Yourmindisopentoallthepossibilities.Thinkofitasgatheringallthebestthinkersonthistopicinoneroomtohaveadiscussion.You’rethemoderatorofthediscussion,andyouwanttohearfromeveryonebeforeyoumakeupyourmind.Ifyoukeepthismindsetduringtheresearchphase,you’remorelikelytowriteanengagingfinalpaper.

NarrowingtheScopeOfcourse,withthevastamountofinformationavailableatourfingertipstoday,it’sunlikelyyou’llbeabletoreadeverythingeverwrittenonatopic.It’suseful,therefore,tocreatesomeguidelinesforyoursearchthatwillnarrowthepool.

Askyourself,forexample,whetheryourtopichasatimelessqualityorisbestinformedbyrecentopinion.ApaperexploringwhetherHamlet’sgoalofrevengewasachievedcoulddrawonsourcesfromallages,whereasthethemeofrevengeinrecentpoliticaleventswouldrequirecurrentsources.

Whenyouwriteexpositoryessays,youhearalotaboutprimaryandsecondaryresearch.Aprimarysourceisauthoredbythepersonwhoconductedthestudy,orwhocreatedtheparticulartheoryorlineofthoughtbeingdiscussed.Secondarysourcesmayquoteprimarysourcestosupportapointordrawconclusionsfromexaminingmanyprimarysources.Mostofthetime,it’susefultoinitiallyconsultsecondarysourcesbecausetheycanpointyoutowardtheprimarysourcesthatmostinterestyou.

Forthepurposeofyourpaper,you’llwanttoquotethestudyorthethinker(theprimarysource)directly—first,becauseyouwanttobesureyoureallyunderstandwhattheauthorisconcluding(secondarysourcescanmisrepresenttheprimarysource),andsecond,becausebyreadingtheprimarysource,you’llgetthewholepicture,ratherthanjustthepartselectedbythesecondarysource’sauthor.Remember,you’reassemblingthebestthinkers,andyouwanttounderstandalloftheirarguments.

DivingInSo,howdoesonebegin?WithallthecautionsaboutnotusingtheInternetforresearch,ifwekeepinmindthatwe’reafterprimarysources,weneedn’tbeafraidofusingasearchenginetobeginourinvestigation.WhileWikipediaisn’tacceptableasasourceitself,itcancertainlygiveusastartingpoint.Puttingyourquestionrightintoyoursearchenginecanstartyouonatreasurehunt.Evenjustscanningthelist,youcanjotdownsomeideasthathelpbetterdefinewhatyou’reinterestedinfindingout.Asyouclick,youcanbegintofollow“clues”towhatleadingthinkersorresearchers(dependingonmytopic)haveconcluded.

Here’showastudentmightwinnowaresearchtopicaboutthewomen’smovementinthe1970s.Shebeginswiththequestion,“Howhasthewomen’smovementofthe1970saffectedtoday’swomen?”Puttingthatquestionintoasearchengineyieldsmanyarticles,someveryrecent.Readingafewofthese(andtakingnotesasshegoesonexactlywhereshegotherinformation)leadshertomakethestatement,“Largelyduetotheradicalfeministfactionofthe1970swomen’smovement,girlsborninthetwenty-firstcenturyhaveopportunitiesandexpectationswellbeyondwhatwaspossibleforthoseborninthemiddleofthetwentiethcentury.”Thoughthiswillnotbeherfinalthesisstatement(findoutwhy,below),itisnarrowenoughforhertostartfindingmorespecificinformation.

BeReadytoChangeCourseAsyounarrowthescopeofyourresearch,you’llbefindingoutthingsyoudidn’tknowandencounteringperspectivesyouhadn’tconsidered.Resistthetemptationtoignorethatwhichcontradictstheconclusionyouwereheadingtoward.Youmightactuallychangeyourmindinthecourseofyourresearch,andthatjustshowshowflexibleyourthinkingis.Youcanalsokeepanopen

mindabouthowyou’regoingtopresentyourpaper.Thestudentabove,forexample,mayfindsomanycomparisonsinherreadingtothewomen’ssuffragemovementthatshebecomesintriguedandwritesanessaycontrastingtheERAcampaignwiththecampaignforwomen’ssuffrage.

BacktotheDrawingBoardAtanytimeduringtheresearchprocess,youcanclarifyyourthinkingbyusingoneoftheprewritingexercises.Sometimes,aconceptmapcanbeofuseduringthisphase,helpingyouseehowthingsarerelated.Youmightfindthatwhatyouthoughtwasthecentralquestionisactuallyoneofyourarguments,andmostofyourlinescomeoffadifferentbubble,whichyoucandecidetomakeyourthesis.

HowResearchingCanGoWrong

TooManySources

Continuallymakingyoursearchmorespecificwillhelpyouavoidgettingoverwhelmedbyresearch.

Thereasonsomepeopledreadresearchisthattheyfeeloverwhelmed.It’seasytodoifyoucontinuallylookatalltheinformationavailableonatopic.It’ssimplyimpossibletoreadanddigestallthatinformation!Thesolutionistorecognizethatyou’reincontroloftheprocess.Youhaveaquestion,youfindinformationthatinformsyou,andyoumakeyourquestionmorespecific.Youkeepatit(amorespecificquestion,findingavarietyofwell-thought-outanswerstothequestion,whichleadtoastill-more-specificquestion)untilyou

feelconfidentcreatingastatementyoucanstandbehind.

Anotherthingthatcantripusupisneglectingtokeeptrackofwherewefindwhat.Thereareusefulsoftwareprogramsdesignedtohelporganizequotesandpointswiththeirsourcematerial,butallthat’snecessaryispenandpaperoracomputerdocument.Asyouread,ifyoufindsomethingrelevant,immediatelymakeanoteofthereferencematerialforthatsource(book,article,website)andthenunderneath,entertherelevantresearch.Therearemorecomplicatedmethodsforlongerpapers,butgenerallythisworksfineforessays.Justbesureyouknowinadvancewhatformyourreferenceswillneedtotake,soyougatheralltheinformationyou’llneed.Youdon’twanttohavetoseekouteverysourceagainwhenyou’rewritingyourreferencepage.Ideally,you’llcodeeachpieceoftextyouputintoyourpapersothatyoualwaysknowwhichreferenceit’sattachedto,evenifyoumoveitaroundinthepaper.

2.2.3:Step3:Outlining

Afteryouchooseyourtopicandassembleyourresearch,organizeyourideasbeforeyoustartdrafting.

LearningObjective

Recognizethedifferentusesforanoutlineasatool

KeyPoints

Outliningthestructureandorganizationofyourpaperbeforeyoustartwritingwillsaveyoutimeandhelpyouformastrongerargument.Theorderinwhichyoulayoutyourevidencecandeterminehowconvincingyourargumentistoyourreaders.Assemblinganargumentisathree-stepprocess:(1)drawingconclusionsbasedonevidence;(2)clearlyexplaininghowyoudrewthoseconclusions;and(3)structuringyourargumentformaximumimpact.

ThePurposeoftheOutlineNowthatyouhavechosenyourthesisstatementandresearchedevidencetosupportyourvariousclaims,youneedtoorganizeitallintoacoherent,logicalstructure.

Anoutlineisagreatwaytotroubleshootandfirmupyourargumentbeforeyoucommittoitinadraft.It’slikeplanningoutaroutebeforeyoutakeyourtrip:itwillsaveyouagreatdealoftimeandwillhelpyouforeseeroadblocksbeforeyougettothem.You’llbeabletoseewhetheryouhaveenoughevidencetosupportagivenclaim,whetheryourclaimssupportyourlargerthesis,howtolinkyourargumentsandcounter-arguments,andwhatorderofpresentedevidencefeelsmostpowerful.

Puttingthepiecestogether

Onceyouhavetheelementsofyourargument,youneedtoconnectthemtogetherinanoutline,formingtheskeletonofanargumentthatmakessense.

GettingStarted1. Writeyourfirstclaim/pointonanindexcard,andthenwriteeachpiece

ofsupportingevidenceonhalfanindexcard.(Youcanuseshorthandfortheresearch—aslongasyouknowwhatitis.)Putallofyourideasonthesecards,soyoucangetthefullpicture.

Forexample:

Claim:Public-servicecampaignsdesignedtochangeconsumerhabitsregardingelectricaluse,whilesuccessful,havehadonlyminimalimpactonfactorscontributingtoclimatechange.Evidence:Study1:Householdelectricalusefallsby__%afterconsolidatedadcampaignbyenvironmentallobby.Evidence:Study2:Scientistsreportthatmuchmoremustbedoneto

stemclimatechange.Loweredpowerusagebyconsumersisnotsufficient.Evidence:Study3:Piegraphshowingreasonsforclimatechange.Backing:Mentionrecentweatherdisasters?

2.Dothesamewiththeotherclaimsandpiecesofevidence.

3.Nowyoucanrearrangethepiecesofevidenceasnecessarytogowiththemostappropriateclaim.Forexample,thethirdpieceofevidence,above,mightnotbenecessaryforthatparticularclaim,becausetheotherevidenceisstrongenough.Thepiegraphmightmakemoreofanimpactifyouwaitandincludeitwiththeclaimabouttheagriculturalenvironmentalfootprint.Youmightalsodecidethattheadditionalbackingaboutrecentweatherdisastersmakesyourargumentweaker,ratherthanstronger,becauseitisn’tevidence-basedandhaslittletodowiththeclaim.

4.Onceyou’refairlysureofyourorder,puttapeonthebackoftheindexcardsandtapethem,inoutlineform,ontoapieceofposterboardwiththethesiswrittenatthetop.Leavethissomewhereprominentinyourworkspace,soyoucanmakechangesastheycometoyou.

QuestionstoAskYourselfThereisnoeasy-to-followformulaforcreatingtheperfectargumentstructure.Thewayyouorganizeyourpaperwillvarydependingonwhatyourgoalisandwhatelementsoftheargumentyouwanttoemphasize.Ingeneral,askyourselfthefollowingquestions:

Doesthethesisintroduceandgivecontextforthediscussionthatfollows?Doanyideaslackafoundationthatneedstobeaddressedearlierinthepaper?Doeseveryclaimhavetheevidencenecessarytosupportit?Haveyouweededoutextraneousevidence?Doyouwanttoleadwithyourstrongestclaim,ordoyouwanttosaveitfortheendofyourpapersoyoucanfinishonastrongnote?Wheredoyouneedtomakeclaimsexplicit,andwherewillyouraudienceunderstandthemeveniftheyareonlyimplied?Wheredoyouwanttoaddressyouropposition?Doesitmakemoresensetodoitearlyontopreemptaudienceobjections,orwouldyoubebetteroffbuildingupyourargumentbeforeaddressinganycounter-arguments?

Theoutlinestageallowsyoutoexperimentwithdifferentwaysoforganizing.Youcan(andprobablywill)changethestructureofyourargumentwhenyoudraftyourpaper,andperhapsagainwhenyourevise.Ifyouplanyourstructurebutrealizethatitisn’tworkingonceyousitdownandwrite,feelfreetomoveelementsaround.

UsingtheOutlineasaToolHerearesomewaystousetheoutlinetomakeabetterargument.

Readyourthesis,claims,andevidenceoutloudtoafriend.Askyourfriendiftheargumentmakessenseandwhatheorshewouldchangetomakeitstronger.Askwhatwasthestrongestpartoftheargumentandwhy(soyoucandecidebothwheretoputthestrongestpunchandhowtoshoreuptheotherclaims).Leaveenoughtimeaftercreatingyouroutlinetogetatleastanight’ssleepbeforewritingyourfirstdraft.Often,sometimeawaywillallowyourmindtorevealproblemswiththeargumentandmayevenprovidethesolutions!Ifyoufindthatyourargumentdoesn’tfeelverystrong,don’thesitatetogobacktotheresearchphasetofindadditionalevidence.Mostsuccessfulwritersgobackandforthfromstagetostageoftenastheywrite.Asyoulearnmoreaboutboththetopicandtheargumentyouwanttomake,you’llhaveaclearerideaofthekindsofstudiestolookfor.Asyoufindadditionalevidence,youmaydecidetocreateanewclaimoreventotweakyourthesis.Playdevil’sadvocate.Lookingatyouroutlineboard,comeupwithcounter-argumentsandquestionsforeachclaim.Youcanevenputtheseontheboardondifferentcolorindexcards.Makeityourgoaltoaddressthesequestionsandcounter-argumentssufficientlyinyouressay.Thinkabouttransitions.Doesonetopicleadnaturallytoanother?Howisthesubjectofeachparagraphrelatedtothesubjectofthenextparagraph?Aftereachclaim,ask,“Whatdoesthereaderneedtoknownext?”Youmayneedtorearrangetheorderbasedontheeaseoftransitionfromonetopictothenext.Foreachindexcard(eachclaim,pieceofevidence,eachbackingconcept),askyourself,“Howisthisimportanttothethesis?”Ifyoucan’tanswer,considerthatyoumaybeusingevidencesimplybecauseyoucollectedit,notbecauseitsupportstheoverallideaoftheessay.

2.2.4:Step4:Drafting

Thedraftingphasecreatesacoherentpathforthereadertofollowfromthesistoconclusion.

LearningObjective

Describethedifferenttypesofparagraphsinanessay

KeyPoints

Thedraftingphaseisaboutleadingthereaderdownthepathofevidencetoreachtheconclusionyousetoutinyourthesisstatement.Theintroductionneedstobebothinterestingtothereaderandacoherentguidetothepaper.Eachbodyparagraphcontainsonepointandtheevidencetosupportthepoint.Evidenceshouldnotbeusedtosupportmorethanonepoint.Anticipatoryquestionsshouldguidebodyconstruction.Theconclusionsynthesizes,ratherthanrestates,theargument.

Yourthesiswillcondenseaseriesofclaimsintooneortwosentences.Toproveyourthesis,youwillneedtoarticulatetheseclaimsandconvincethereaderthattheyaretrue.Consequently,themajorityofyourpaperwillbededicatedtopresentingandanalyzingevidencethatsupportsyourclaims.

Bythetimeyoustartwriting,youshouldalreadyhaveconductedresearchandassembledyourevidence.Youshouldalsoknowfromyouroutlinewhichpiecesofevidenceyouwanttousetobackupeachclaim.Whatyouhaveprobablynotfinishedworkingoutishowyouwanttopresentthosepiecesofevidenceandtiealltheclaimstogether.Thefirstdraftisthetimetofocusondoingthat.

DraftingBestPracticesWritingdraftsmakestheworkmoremanageable.Italsobuildsinthetimenecessaryforyourbraintointegratetheinformationandcomeupwithnewwaystopresentit.Withthatinmind,herearesomewaystomaximizethebenefitsofdrafting:

Writewithoutediting:Draftinggetsyourideasontopaper,whichgivesyou

moretoworkwiththantheperfectionist’sdauntingblankscreen.Youcanalwaysreturnlatertofixthemistakesthatdroveyoucrazy.Ifyougetstuck,justjumptothenextparagraph.Atthisstage,yourgoalistokeepwriting.

Allowtimebetweendrafts:Oneofthegreatbenefitsofwritingaseriesofdraftsisthatitallowsyourbraintosiftthroughtheinformationlayerbylayer.Whenyouwriteandthentakeabreak,especiallyifthebreakincludesagoodnight’ssleep,thenexttimeyouapproachyourpaperyou’llhavenewideas,andproblemswillbesolved.

Recognizethatyoumayneedtonarrowthescopeofthepaper:Ifyou’refeelingoverwhelmedandtryingtomanagemoundsofevidence,itmaybethatthescopeofthepaperissimplytoolarge.Thedraftingstageisaboutseeingwhatworksandwhatdoesn’t,sodon’thesitatetotrim,discard,andshiftasnecessary.

Revisitpriorstagesoftheprocessasneededtomoveforward:Ifyou’refeelingstuckorunsure,goplaywithyouroutline.Ifyouhaven’talreadyputyourpointsonindexcards,dothatnowsoyoucanmovethemaround.Ifyou’refindingthatyourevidenceseemsscanty,gobacktotheresearchphase.Andifyouneedcreativeinspiration,doodleaconceptmaparoundyourparagraph’sclaimorchataboutitwithafriend.Trynottoresistthesesteps“back”—writingisnotlinear,it’siterative.Enjoythebenefitsofthat.

EvidenceThefirstthingyoushouldassembleisevidence.Youcannotmakeagoodargumentunlessyouhavestrongevidenceinsufficientamounts.Itisthefoundationoftherestofyourpaper—everyclaimyoumakeandconclusionyoudrawmustbebackedupbytheevidenceyoupresent.

Evidencecancomeinmanyforms:data,writtenreportsorarticles,graphsorvisualrepresentations,evenanecdotesandinterviews.Choosewhateverformsworkbestforyourargument.Whileitisimportanttoprovideenoughevidencetosupportyourargument,beselectiveaboutwhatyouuse.Itisbettertochooseseveralveryconvincingpiecesofevidencethantohavemanydifferentpiecesthatareonlyvaguelyconvincing.Alsobecarefulabouthowreliableyourevidenceis.Faultyevidencecandamagethecredibilityofyourentirepaper,somakesurethateverythingyouuseisaccurateandcomesfromatrustworthysource.

Next,youwanttobeclearonwhatconclusionsyouaredrawing.Makesurethateveryconclusioncorrespondstosomepieceofevidence.Alsohavean

ideaofhowyouwanttoorganizeyourconclusions,particularlytheorderinwhichyouwillpresentthem.Conclusionsshouldbuildoneachother.Figureouthowtheyfittogetherbeforeyoustartwriting,andyourpaper’sstructurewillbenefitfromit.

Warrantsarethewayinwhichyoulinkevidencetoconclusions.Broadlyspeaking,“warrant”referstotheexplanationofyourreasoning.Eventhoughyouwillnotstateeverywarrantopenly,youneedtomakesurethattheyallholdupunderquestioning.Ifrequired,youneedtobeabletoarticulatetotheaudiencewhyevidencesupportsclaimsandconclusions.Youshouldalsohaveanideaofwhatpartsofyourargumentarecomplexorimportantenoughthatyourwarrantswillneedtobestatedexplicitly.

ParagraphTypesYouhaveyourthesisandallofthepointsofargumentandcounter-argumentmappedout,alongwiththeirsupportingevidence.Thethesisoftenappearsintheopeningparagraphofthepaper,althoughyoumaychoosetoconstructadifferentformforyourpaper.Eachpointofargumentorcounter-argumentwillhaveaparagraphofitsown.You’llwanttoconcludethepaperbybringingthepointstogetherandgivingthereaderasenseofclosure.

Introduction

Yourpaper’sopeningletsthereaderknowwhatthetopicisand,usually,leadshimorhertoyourthesisstatement.

Guidelinesforconstruction:

Considerwritingtheintroductoryparagraph(s)last,ratherthanfirst:It’seasiertointroducesomethingyouknowthoroughly.Also,it’svitaltobecreativeinthisfirstparagraph,andafteryou’vewrittenyourpaper,you’llfeelfreertoplaywithwordsandideas.Youcangobacktotheprewritingexercisestosparkideasfortheapproachyou’lltake.

Letyourtopicandstyleofargumentguideyourmethodofintroduction:Acontroversialtopicthatincludesstrongparrieswithcounter-argumentsmightbestbeintroducedbyaprovocativestatement.Astoryabouthowthetopicgarneredyourinterestmightbeaninvitingintroductiontoapaperthatincludespersonalanecdotes.Youmightdecidetobeginwiththequestionorconundrumthatleadstoyourtopicsentence.Ananalogyormetaphorcouldbeawaytointroduceasubjectthat’sdifficulttounderstandoriswell-worn

andneedsanewperspective.Sometopicsarebestdescribedwithimagery.Don’tlimityourselftopedanticfactsthatplodtowardthethesisstatement.

Makeitinterestingforthereader:Agoodwriteralwayskeepsinmindthatthere’spotentialforpublicationineverypieceofwriting.Evenifonthefirstroundtherewillbeonlyonereader,writeasifyouhaveabroadaudience.Youneedastrongstartifyouwantthereadertoreadmorethanthefirstfewsentences.Youmakeitinterestingbymakingstrongstatements.Ifitdoesn’tcaptivateyou,itwon’tinterestyouraudience.Takeariskandbebold.WhyshouldanyonecareaboutthistopicShowus!

Alsomakeitacoherentguidetothepaper:Atthesametimeasyou’remakingyourintroductionintriguingandcaptivating,youwanttomakeitlogical.Youneedn’tgiveawaythesecretsofyourargumentintheintroduction(e.g.,“IwillshowthatthisthesisistruebyprovingX,Y,andZ”),butyouwillneedtocreateaclearpathtothethesisandgiveusanideaoftheterrainwe’llbecrossing.

Example:

He’seighteenyearsold,thissoldier,justoutofpublicschool.Theclicheaboutnotbeingabletogrowafullbeardactuallyapplies,andhe’scuthimselfshavingenoughtohavetinyscarshealingonhisthinface.Hesitsonthegroundafewfeetfromtherubble,open-mouthedandbarelybreathing.Thebombmust’vebeenintheengine.Thejeep’sdoorisayardbehindhimandhisbuddies,well,hecan’tseeallthebodies,butthere’snoquestionthatthey’redead.Andsomethinginsidehimisdyingtoo.

Thisstoryisn’tasrareaswecivilianswouldliketothink.EstimatesfromtheVeteransAdministrationputthepercentageofmilitarypersonnelwithpost-traumaticstressdisorder(PTSD)between11and20%,andU.S.veteransuicidesaverageoneperday.Althoughthegovernmentisupto$2billiondollarsspentontreatmentforPTSD,thereisacaponwhatisofferedtoanindividual.Askingforadditionalassistancecansimplybetoostressfulforanalreadyvulnerableveteran.Clearly,moreofthemilitary’sfinancialresourcesmustbedirectedtowardrehabilitatingmenandwomenwho’veexperiencedmilitarycombat.Itisourresponsibilityascivilianstoensuretheirtreatmentandrecovery.

Whattechniquedidthewriterusetocaptureyourattention?Diditwork?Whatotherelementsofagoodintroductiondidyounoticehere?Whatelementsaremissing?Canyoufindthethesis?Whatdoyouthinkabouttheuseofstatisticsinthesecondparagraph?Whatwouldyoudodifferentlyifyouwereintroducingthisthesis?

BodyParagraphs

Whenanalyzingyourevidence,beasthoroughandclearaspossible.Youmaybefamiliarwiththerhetoricalstrategyoflogos,orstep-by-steprationalargument.Itwillprobablybehelpfultoadoptthatasamodelandconductyouranalysisthroughprogressivepoints,eachoneofwhichbuildsoffthepreviousone.Evenifitseemslikeyouareoversimplifyingthings,itisbettertogiveyouraudiencetoomuchanalysisthantoolittle.Makesureeverystepisincluded,andthatthedescriptionofyourevidence’spurposeisclear.Youdonotwantanypartofyourprocesstobeambiguousforyourreaders,ortheymaystopunderstandingoragreeingwithyourargument.

Revisitingyouroutline,you’llseeyourstrategyforbuildingyourargument.Whetheryoustartoffwithyourstrongestpointoracounter-argument,oryoureelyourreaderinslowly,yourbodyparagraphswilleachhavethefollowingelements:

Eachparagraphaddressesone(andonlyone)ideainsupportofthethesis:Thinkofeachparagraphasapointtobemade,andthengathertheresourcesaroundit.Youcanhaveseveralpiecesofevidenceinaparagraph,buteachpieceshouldbesupportingthatonepoint.Inturn,ofcourse,eachparagraph(eachpoint)supportsthethesis.Keepinmindthatwitheachparagraph,you’rewantingthereadertobecomelessskepticalaboutyourthesis.You’recreatinganahamomentforthereaderwitheachparagraph’sconcludingsentence.

Eliminateredundancy:Ifyoucanmakeonlythreestrongargumentsinsupportofyourthesis,don’ttrytoaddmore.You’llweakenyourcasebymuddlingthereader.Don’tre-useevidencetosupportmorethanonepoint,either—itactivatessuspicioninthereader.Anddon’tmakethecommonmistakeofrestatingyourthesis.Eachparagraphneedsitsownfocus.Youwantthereaderdrawingtheconclusionthatthispointsupportsthethesis.

Paragraphsthatarticulateacounter-argumentneedtorefuteit:Perhapsitgoeswithoutsaying,butifyou’regoingtobringupacounter-argument(andthisisanexcellentstrategy),youneedtoacknowledgeitandthengivethereasonsitdoesnotleadtotheconclusionitsproponentsespouse.Youaren’ttryingtomaketheirargument,you’rebringingitupbecauseyouknowit’sprobablyinyourreader’smindandyoumustaddressittoarguesuccessfully.

Anticipatingreaders’questionsmakesyourargumentflow:Lookatyourargumentcritically,askingyourselfthesamequestionsthatyouwouldofascholarlyarticle.Scholarlyarticlesshouldbeevaluatedbasedoncriteriasuchasthoroughness,credibility,andaccuracy.Takethesameapproachwithyour

paper.Thinkaboutthesub-claimsyouwillneedtomaketoclarifyandsupportyourmainargument.Ifyoumakeaclaim,whatotherthingswillyouneedtoproveinordertobackthatup?Whatassumptionshaveyoumadethatneedtobearticulatedtoyourreader?Anticipatingreaders’questionsandprotestationswillhelpguidetheflowofthepaperandmaketransitionssmoother,asyou’llintuitwhatneedstocomenext.

Thereisasubtlearttotransitions:Yougetabettersenseofthisartasyoureadandwritemore.Youdon’twantthereaderthinkingaboutform—youwantthereaderfocusedonyourargument.Therefore,youlinkyourparagraphswithtransitionsentencesthatmakethepathclear:

“So,we’vefoundthatsolarpowerandwindpowerareeconomicallyviableinCostaRica,butcangeothermalpower,withitshighinitialcosts,proveaworthwhileinvestmentovertime?”

Youcanguessthatthisbodyparagraphfollowsothersthatdiscusswindandsolarpower,andthethesisisabouttheuseofalternativeenergysources.Thisparagraphwilllikelyshowthatgeothermalpowerisalsoviable.Asareader,youhaveyettobeconvinced,butyourmindisopen:you’rereadytohearwhetherornotit’sviable.You’renotwonderingwherethepaperisgoing,andyou’renotconfusedaboutthewriter’sstance.Ifyoufinditdifficulttocreateatransition,itmaybethatyouneedtomovetheparagraphsaroundsothatanaturaltransitionarises.

Conclusion

It’ssadlyraretoreadaninterestingconcludingparagraph,butit’snotadifficultchallengeifyoukeepinmindthatyou’renotrestatingyourthesis,you’reretracingyourargumentinanewway.Justbecauseyou’renotpresentingnewinformationdoesn’tmeantheconclusionmustbestale.Youhavepermissiontogetcreative.Here’swhattheconclusionmustdo:

Showhowtheideasinthepaperworktogethertosupportthethesis:Youhaven’tmadeyourargumentuntilyoutieitalltogether.You’veledthereaderdowntheyellowbrickroad,butnoheelshavebeenclickeduntilthey’vereadtheconclusion.Whileyoudon’twanttointroducenewpointsorevidencehere,youcancertainlyusenewtechniques,likeimageryorstory.Youmighttaketheperspectiveofaskepticandexperiencetheargumentthroughhiseyes,oryoumightshowusavisionofabrighterfuturenowthatyourthesishasbeenimplemented.Thewatchwordissynthesis,ratherthanrepetition.

Tieinthemorecompellingelementsfromtheintroductionandbodyparagraphstoprovideasenseofcohesion:Ifyouusedanimageinyour

introduction(thinkofthesoldierfromtheexampleabove),considerrecallingitintheconclusion.Thisoffersthereaderasenseofsymmetryandcompletionifitisn’toversimplified.Similarly,youcanrecallimagesorstoriesusedinotherpartsofthepaper.Theseactasanchorsforthereader’smemory,andwhenmemoryistriggered,ourmindstendtobemoreopen.Thinkofthecrescendoinapieceofmusic,wherethethemeiswoventogetherwithotherelementsofthepiece,andthelistenerismovedtotears.Revisitingandweaving,makingsomethingnewintheprocess,iswhatmakesaconclusioneffective.

Readoveryourpaper.Whatstandsouttoyou?Whatgivesyouchills?Thesamewillprobablybetrueforyourreader.Thesearethepointstorecallinyourconclusion.Justasalawyerlaysouthiscasetothejurymostpowerfullyinclosingarguments,thisisyourchancetomakeyourcaseclearlyandconcisely.

2.2.5:Step5:Revising

Revisinghappensonmanydifferentlevelsofyourpaper,fromindividualwordsandsentencestolargerissuesoforganizationandcoherence.

LearningObjective

Distinguishbetweenrevisingandediting

KeyPoints

Sincethemostsignificantchangeswillbemadeatthefoundationallevel,itisbesttostartthere.Youreviseforpurposeandorganization.Makesurethatyouendupfulfillingyourstatedpurposeandthatyouremainon-topicforyourentirepaper.Alsoseeifyoumaintainthesamevoicethroughoutthepaperorifyouendedupmakingunplannedshiftsintoneorvocabulary.Takingbreaksbefore,during,andaftertherevisionprocesswillmakeiteasier.Lettinggoofwhatdoesn’tworkinthepaperisaskilltobeembracedandvaluedasawriter.

KeyTerms

purpose

Anobjecttobereached;atarget;anaim;agoal.

organization

Thewayinwhichsomethingisorganized,suchasabookoranarticle.

consistency

Inlogic,aconsistenttheoryisonethatdoesnotcontainacontradiction.Thelackofcontradictioncanbedefinedineithersemanticorsyntacticterms.

Goodwritingisessentiallyrewriting.Iampositiveofthis.—RoaldDahl

Oneofthebesttoolsinawriter’stoolkitistheabilitytorevise.Aswiththepriorstagesofwriting,it’sactuallynotadistinctphasethathappensonlyonce,butpartofarecursiveprocess.Draftingandrevisingisadialoguebetweentheinnerartistandtheinnercritic.Theartistshouldnotbebotheredbythecriticwhileinthecreativezone,andthecriticshouldbeletlooseunfetteredduringtherevisionprocess.

Writingandrewritingareaconstantsearchforwhatitisoneissaying.—JohnUpdike

Revisionisalmostuniversallyreviledinitially,butthemoreexperiencedawriterbecomes,themoreheorsheappreciatesthispruningprocess.Revisingtightenstheargument,strengthensthevoice,andsmoothesthesyntaxsoyou’releftwithonlythebestbits.

Intheprewritingstage,weasktheinnercritictotakeanicelongnapallthewaythroughthefirstdraftingphase,butnowweawakenitandputittowork.

Revision

Revisingideassothattheyarepersuasive,cogent,andformasolidargumentistherealworkofwriting.

WhenShouldIReviseMyPaper?Revisionbeginsafteryou’vefinishedyourfirstdraftandisrepeatedasoftenasnecessaryfromthatstageforward.It’suseful,though,totakeatleastadayandanightawayfromthedraft,ratherthanjumpingintorevisingimmediately.Thebreakwillgiveyouthenecessarydistancefromwhatyouhavewrittentolookatitwithacriticaleyeandwillgiveyouthepsychologicalspacetoshiftfromartisttocritic.

Reviewing

Re-readingcompletedworkisessentialformorethanjustcatchingtypos.

HowShouldIGetStarted?Wefirstneedtodistinguishrevisingfromediting.You’regoingtohaveaseparateroundofgoingthroughyourpapertofixgrammarmistakes,adjustvocabulary,andmakesureyouhavenotrepeatedtheword“very”toomanytimes.There’snoneedtothinkaboutthatstagenow.Whatwe’redoinghereislookingathowyourargumentisconstructed.

Thekindsofchangesyoumakewhenrevisingrelatetohowwellyou’re

makingyourcase.Youmayhavetoalterhowyourargumentworksorhowit’sorganized.Changesatthislevelarethebiggestonesyouwillmake,whichiswhythere’snopointinplayingaroundwithwordchoiceorpunctuationwhenyoumightberewriting,orevendeleting,theentireparagraph.

Thefirstthingtolookforwhenrevisingispurpose.Nowthatyou’vewrittenthewholepaper,lookbackatyourthesisstatement.Isitstillwhatthepaperisabout?Andifso,doeseverythinginyourpaperrelatebacktothatargument?Readthroughthepapernowandcheckforpurpose.

Thenextstepistoensurethatyourargumentmakessenseandhaspower.Allofyourclaimsmayrelatetoyourthesis,yes,butareyouconvinced?Remember,you’rewearingyourcritichatnow.Pretendyoudidn’twritethepaperandarebeingpaidasacritic.Makeyourselfveryhardtoplease.Thengothroughthepaperandmakenotesontheseaspectsandanyothersthatstrikeyouasyouread.

Thefollowingarespecificcategoriesofthingstowatchfor.

Argumentation

Isthethesissetupinawaythatmakesyoucareaboutit?Aretheclaimsrelatedpreciselytothethesis,ordotheybecometangentialatanypoint?Aretheyinteresting?Doestheevidenceprovewhatitisintendedtoprove?Aretherewell-placedexamples?Aretheyentirelyrelevant?Bytheendofthepaper,mightsomeonewhobelieveddifferentlyfromthethesisbeswayedbytheargument?Ifnot,whynot?What’smissing?Andifso,whatwerethestrongestpoints?Arethereextraneousparagraphsorsentencesthatseemlessimportanttothepoint?Whereistheclimaxofthispaper,whereyoumostfeeltheauthor’smastery?

Organization

Isthestructureofthepaperaseffectiveasitcanbe?Doestheorderoftheparagraphsmakesense?Doeseachparagraphbuildoffofwhatwasdevelopedinthepreviousone?Doestheendofthepaperrelatebacktothebeginning?Arethedifferentstepsoftheargumentlinkedinalogicalmanner?

Iseverystepadequatelyexplained,orarethereleapsorholesinlogic?Dosomeideasseemtocomeoutofnowhere,ordoyoufeellikeyou’vebeenpreparedforeachnewconcept?

VoiceandConsistency

Doesthetopiccaptureyourinterestbecauseofthewayit’spresented?Canyoutellfromthetonethattheauthorcaresaboutthetopic?Istheauthor’stonemaintainedthroughoutthepaper?Doeseverythinginthispaperworktowardsarticulatingorprovingthethesis?

WhattoDoWithYourCritiqueAnotherreasonstudentsavoidrevisingisbecausetheyjumptooquicklyfromthecritiquepartofrevisiontotherewrite,askingthebraintodoacreativeactivitywhenit’sstillinthecriticalmindset.

So,ifyouhavethetime,itwouldbewisetotakeabreakfromthepaperagainatthispoint,atleastforalittlewhile.Onceyou’veheardfromthecritic,takingarestwillgiveyourbraintimetorelaxandcomeupwithideasforrevisions,movingnaturallybackintoinspired,creativemode.

Whenyou’vetakenthattime,theprocessmayflowquitenaturally.Ifnot,though,recognizethatyou’rerepeatingthestepsyouusedindrafting.

AddressFoundationalIssuesFirst,youshoreupthethesisstatement(orrewriteitentirely),thenaddresstheclaims—rewritingthemforclarityordeletingthemifthey’renotstrong.Youcanevengobacktoyouroutlineandmovethingsaroundagain,reevaluatingtheorderoftheargument.Thesis,claims,order:thesearethebonesofthepaper—thefoundation.Onlyafteryou’resatisfiedwiththesedoyoumovetorevisingparagraphs.

BreakingDowntheBigPicture:RevisingattheParagraphLevel

Foreachparagraphandsection,askyourselftwothings:

Whatdoyouwanteachparagraphtodo?Howwelldoeseachparagraphcompletethattask?

Webeginwiththebodyofthepaper,leavingtheintroductionandconclusionforlater.Thebodyisthemeatonthebones.Itneedstobeevenlydistributedandformapowerfulwhole.Foreachone,askthefollowingquestions,butaskthemingentlerartistmode,ratherthaninruthlesscriticmode:

Isthisparagraphnecessarytotheargument?Iseverysentencerelevanttotheclaimmadeintheparagraph?Isthereanythingmissingfromthefirstsentencetotheclaim—apieceofevidenceoranargumentthatwouldmakeitmoreconvincing?Istheargumentfullyexplained?Doesitflowwell?Howdoeseachsentencemakeyoufeel?Whatisthetrajectoryofyourfeelingfromsentencetosentencetoclaim?Doestheinformationinthisparagraphlogicallyleadtothenextone?Isthetransitiontothenextparagraphsmoothandeasytofollow?

Fixthesethingsnow.

Theintroductionandconclusionbringinmoreoftheartisticaspectsofwriting,andsoyou’llwanttorelaxthecriticabithereandlookattheseparagraphsfromaninterestedreader’sperspective.Again,notabadideatotakeabreakbeforeaddressingthesetwoparagraphs.

Askthesequestionsfortheintroduction:

Dothefirstfewsentencesintrigueme?Doesthesubjectseemcompelling?Doesmyattentionlapseatanypoint?Doesthenarrativeleadmetoanunderstandingofthetopic?HowdoIfeelafterreadingit?Energized?Eagerformore?

Taketimetorevisetheintroductionnow,butconsiderbeginningtherevisionwithaprewritingexercisetogetthecreativejuicesflowingagain.

Askthefollowingquestionsaboutyourconcludingparagraph:

Istheargumentwoventogetherhereorsimplyrestated?Doesthisparagraphintroducenewevidenceorclaims?DoIfeelasenseofcompletionandsatisfactionwhenIfinish,oramI

leftwithunansweredquestionsandunmetexpectations?Isthereasenseofartistry,ofmastery,tothislastparagraphorsetofparagraphs?

Ifyoucanleavetherevisionoftheconclusionforafewhoursafteransweringthesequestions,yourbrainmaysolveanyquestionofhowtoskillfullyweaveyourargumenttogether.Allowyourselfsomequiettimetoletimagesandstoriestoarise.Re-readtherevisedintroductionasasourceofinspiration.

LettingGoRevisingcanbeametaphoricaljourneyinlettinggo.It’seasytogetattachedtowhatwe’vewritten,anddeletingsomethingyou’vespenthoursoncanfeelpainful.Yes,youknowitwillmakeforabetterpaperinthelongrun,butyoumaybemoanallthelosttimeandeffort.

Ifyoucanreframeitforyourself,though,andrecognizethatrevisingisnotseparatefromwritingbutanintegralandvitalpartoftheprocess,you’llseethatthenextparagraphyouwriteisbuiltontheoneyoujusthadtodelete.Yourfinalpaperwillbesuccessfulbecauseyoutrustedtheprocess—trustedyourcreativemindtocomeupwithnewmaterialevenbetterthantheold.

That’sthemagicofrevisions—everycutisnecessaryandeverycuthurts,butsomethingnewalwaysgrows.—KellyBarnhill

2.2.6:Step6:EditingandProofreading

Editingandproofreadingensureclarity,improvestyle,andeliminateerrors.

LearningObjective

Recognizelanguagethatisunclearorimprecise

KeyPoints

Editingandproofreadingareconcernedwiththestyleofyourwriting,notthesubstanceofyourargument.Editingfocusesontheclarityofyourwriting,particularlywordchoice,sentenceconstruction,andtransitions.Proofreadingfocusesonmechanics,suchasgrammar,spelling,andpunctuation.

Unlikerevisingforpurpose,editingandproofreadingfocusonthesentencelevelofyourwork.Whenediting,youlookathowclearlyyouhavewritten.Thegoalistomakesurethatyoursentencesareeasilyunderstoodandtightlywritten.Whileeditingfocusesonimprovingyourwriting,proofreadingismorelikefact-checkingit.Thegoalofproofreadingistofindandcorrectmechanicalerrors.Itcanbehelpfultodoapeerreview:askoneofyourpeerstoeditandproofreadyourpaper.Sincetheyareseeingyourworkforthefirsttime,theywillprobablybeabletospotproblemsthatyouhavemissed.Readingaprintedpageoftextbackwardsisagoodwaytocatcherrors.

KeyTerms

editing

Theprocessofselectingandpreparingwritten,visual,audio,andfilmmediausedtoconveyinformationthroughtheprocessesofcorrection,condensation,organization,andothermodificationsperformedwithanintentionofproducingacorrect,consistent,accurate,andcompletework.

proofreading

Thereadingoftexttodetectandcorrectproductionerrors.Proofreadersareexpectedtobeconsistentlyaccuratebydefaultbecausetheyoccupythelaststageofproductionbeforepublication.

peerreview

Assessment,beforepublication,byanauthorityorauthoritiesinthepertinentfieldofstudy,ofthewrittenformofanidea,hypothesis,theory,and/orwrittendiscussionofsuch.

hyperbole

Exaggeratedstatementsorclaimsnotmeanttobetakenliterally.

Afterrevisingforpurpose,youstillhavetwolevelsofrevisionleft:editingandproofreading.Whenyoumoveontoediting,theemphasisisclarity.Then,onceyoursentencestructureandlanguagehavebeencleanedup,youmoveontoproofreading,whereyouchecktheaccuracyofyourspellingandgrammar.

EditingEditing,likerevising,issomethingthatyouwilldothroughoutthewritingprocess.Mostoftheeditorialprocesswilltakeplaceafteryouhaveworkedoutyourfinalargumentandorganizationalstructure.Editinglooksatyourworkonasentence-by-sentencelevel,consideringwaystomakeeverythingyousayasclearandpreciseaspossible.

Duringtheeditingprocessyou’llmainlywanttoconsiderlanguage,construction,andstyle.

EditingforLanguage

Withlanguage,theoverallquestioniswhetheryouareusingthemostaccuratelanguagepossibletodescribeyourideas.Yourreaderwillhaveaneasiertimeunderstandingwhatyouwanttosayifyou’reprecise.Besuretocheckforthefollowing.

Pronounclarity:Makesureit’sclearwhateach“it,”“he,”and“she”refersto.Precisevocabulary:Makesureeverywordmeanswhatyouintendittomean.Alwaysuseadictionarytoconfirmthemeaningofanywordaboutwhichyouareunsure.Althoughthebuilt-indictionarythatcomeswithyourwordprocessorisagreattime-saver,itfallsfarshortofcollege-editiondictionaries,ortheOxfordEnglishDictionary(OED).Ifspell-checksuggestsbizarrecorrectionsforoneofyourwords,itcouldbethatyouknowaworditdoesnot.Whenindoubt,alwayscheckadictionarytobesure.Definedterms:Whenusingtermsspecifictoyourtopic,makesureyoudefinethemforyourreaderswhomaynotbefamiliarwiththem.Ifthatmakestheparagraphtoocumbersome,considerusingadifferentterm.Properlyplacedmodifiers:Makesureyourreadercanclearlydiscernwhateachadjectiveandadverbrefersto.Hyperbole:Seeifyoucaneradicatewordslike“amazing”and“gigantic”infavorofmoreprecisedescriptions.Alsoexamineeachuseoftheword“very”andseeifyoucanfindamoreprecisewordorphrase.

Finally,payattentiontowordiness.Writingthatisclean,precise,andsimplewillalwayssoundbest.

EditingforSentenceConstruction

Ifyouwanttomakeeverythingeasyforyouraudiencetoreadandunderstand,startbysimplifyingyoursentences.Ifyouthinkasentenceistoocomplicated,rephraseitsothatitiseasiertoread,orbreakitintotwosentences.Cleardoesn’tmeanboring,bytheway.Complicatedisnotasynonymforartistic!

Considerhowbalancedyoursentencesarewithinaparagraph.Youdon’twanteverysentencetohaveidenticallengthandstructureortobeginthesameway.Instead,varyyourprose.

Thisisalsothetimetoaddtransitionsbetweenclausesandsentencesthataren’tconnectedsmoothlytoeachother.Youdon’tneedtointroduceeverysentencewith“then,”“however,”or“because.”Usingthesewordsjudiciously,though,willhelpyourreaderseelogicalconnectionsbetweenthedifferentstepsofyourargument.

EditingforStyle

Editingforstyleismoredifficult,becauseaswritersgainpracticetheyusuallydeveloptheirownuniquestylisticquirks.That’sagoodthing.Insteadofthinkingthatyoushouldwriteacertainway,whatfollowsisgeneraladviceforthekindsofwritingthatcanhelporhurtyourwork.

Thinkabouthowyouuseactiveandpassiveverbs.Often,rewritingasentencetotakeitfrompassivetoactivewillmakeitsimplerandeasiertoread.Considerthefollowingsentences:

ManyofthosewhohaveheldtheofficeofgovernorofIllinoisinthepasttwentyyearshavebeenmetwithchargesofcorruptionduetopoliticalmisdealings.Overthepasttwentyyears,manyIllinoisgovernorshavefacedpoliticalcorruptioncharges.

Thesecondisshorter,lesswordy,andclearer.Inthiscase,changingfrompassivetoactivemadeamajorimprovement.Pleasenote,thisdoesn’tmeanthatyoushouldneverusepassiveverbs.Somesentencesdoreadbetterwiththem.It’suptoyoutodecidewhichworksbetterforyourscenario.

Ingeneral,wheneveryoucanreplacean“is”ora“was”withanactionverb,yourwritingwillfeelmorevibrant.“Thehorsewasshakingwithfear,”isslightlylesspowerfulthan“Thehorseshookwithfear.”Betteryet,ifthe

contexttellsusthehorseisfrightened,wecansay,“Thehorsetrembled.”“Trembled”isamorespecificformof“shook,”whichisitselfanimprovementover“wasshaking.”Thisstepenlivensresearchpapersperhapsmorethananyother.

Anotherthingtolookatwithyourverbuseisparallelism—usingthesamepatternofwordstoprovidebalanceinasentence.Ifyouarelistingthings,trytomakethemallthesamepartofspeech.Lookattheseexamples:

Unbalanced:“Johnlikesreading,hisstudies,andtalking.”Parallel:“Johnlikesreading,studying,andtalking.”

Botharegrammaticallycorrect,buttheparallelsentencehasabetterrhythm.

ProofreadingProofreadingisthefinalstageofrevision.It’sokaytocorrecttyposorgrammaticalerrorsifyoucatchtheminearlydrafts,butyoushouldsavethoroughproofreadingforyourfinaldraft.Waittobeginthisstepwhenyouaresurethatyouwillnotbechanginganythingelseinyourpaper.

Herearesomeofthethingsyoushoulddoeverytimeyouproofread:

Checkspelling.Bealertfortypos.Checkpunctuation.Makesurethatyouareusingthecorrectformattingandcitationstyle.Checkthatyourverbtensesremainconsistent.Lookatsubject/verbandpronoun/antecedentagreement.

Tryreadingeachpagebackward.Thisdoesn’tworksowellforediting,butitcanreallyhelpwithproofreading.You’llcatchmanyoftheaboveproblemsthisway.

TipsforEditingandProofreadingKnowyourerrors.Asyougetusedtorevising,youwillprobablyrealizethattherearesomeerrorsyoumakemorefrequentlythanothers.Maybeyouhaveatendencytowardwordiness.Maybethere’saparticularruleofgrammarthatalwaysgivesyoutrouble.Whateveryourparticularweaknessis,youcanpayspecialattentiontoitwhenrevising.

Secondly,takethetimetodomultiplere-readings.Startbygoingthroughforoneparticularkindoferror,andonlypayattentiontothat.Thenchooseanotherthingtofocuson,andreadyourpaperagain.Keepgoinguntilyou’resatisfiedthatyourpaperisasgoodasitcanbe.Prioritizetheissuesyouknowyou’remostlikelytofind.

Beforeconcludinganywrittenassignment,youcanuseyourwordprocessor’sspell-checkfeatureinordertoidentifyanyoverlookedspellingmistakesinyourwork.However,it’simportanttolookforerrorsyourselfaswell.Peoplearemorecapableofunderstandingwordsincontextthanwordprocessors.Forexample,spell-checksoftwarecan’talwaystellwhether“their,”“there”or“they’re”fitsinaspecificsentence,butapersonalwayscan.Therefore,it’sagoodideatousebothcomputerspell-checking,andgoodold-fashionedhumaneditingwitharedpenandpapercopy!

Spellingerror

Theaimofproofreadingistocatchsurfacemistakesinspelling,punctuation,formatting,etc.—suchasontherestaurantsignabove,wherethewritermisspelled“omelette”as“omelate.”

2.2.7:Step7:CompletingaFinalReview

Whenyou’redonewithallthestepsofrevision—revisingforpurpose,editing,andproofreading—makeonefinalreviewofyourpaper.

LearningObjective

Listquestionsyoucanusetoself-evaluateyourpaper

KeyPoints

Lookonemoretimetomakesurethatyoumeetthecriteriaoftheassignmentandthatyouhavetakencareofallthechangesyouwantedtomake.Askyourselfifyouthinkthepaperisnowfinished,orifyoustillhavethingsyouwanttoimproveupon.Afinalreviewafterrevisionswillhelpyoudetermineifyourpaperisreadytobeturnedin.

KeyTerm

criteria

Standardsforjudgementorevaluation.

Afterspendingsolonglookingatyourpaperonthelevelofindividualwordsandsentences,itcanbehelpfultoreturntothebigpicture.Beforeyouturnyourpaperin,readitoveronemoretime.Youdonothavetolookforspecificproblems.Justtrytogetageneralsenseofwhatyourpaperhasturnedinto.

Itcanbehelpfultoimaginethatyouarereadingsomebodyelse’spaperduringthisfinalread-through.Whatwouldyousaytoapeerifthiswerehisorherpaperinsteadofyourown?Doesithaveaclearthesis?Doestheargumentmakesense?Youcanalsotryreadingyourpaperoutloudtoseehowitsounds.

Directions

Reviewingworkthroughoutthewritingprocesshelpsmakesureit’smovingintherightdirection.

Thepurposeofafinalreviewisnottopromptmajorchanges,asyoualreadyaddressedthosewhenyourevisedforpurpose.Instead,doingafinalreviewwillhelpyouseehowallthechangesyoumadeworktogetherasawhole.

Thisisalsoyourlastchancetomakesureyoumeetthecriteriaoftheassignment.Areyoustillsayingwhatyouintendedtosay?Didyoucompletethetaskyousetforyourselfintheintroduction?Lookathowyourargumenthasdevelopedandwhetheryouarehappywithit.Ifyou’renot,youcangobackintorevisionmode.Ifyouare,thencongratulations—youcanfinallysaythatyourpaperiscomplete.

EvaluatingYourProcessAtthispoint,youcanmakeafinalassessmentofyourprocess.Thelearningcomesnotonlyfromyourresearchandwriting,butalsofromreflectionabouttheprocessyouwentthrough.Afteryoureadyourpaper,askyourselfthefollowingquestions:

Howcreativeisthepaper?Ifitfeelsalittleblandtoyou,youmightconsiderspendingadditionaltimeusingtheprewritingactivitiesthenexttimeyouwriteapaper.Youmightalsoconsiderreadingmoreofthetypeofwritingyou’redoingtogetafeelforthestyleandtosparkyourownimagination.Doesitfeellikeyourbesteffort?Doyoufeelsomedisappointmentwhenyoureadyourpaper,asifyouknowyoucouldhavedonebetter?Timeisoftenafactorhere.Budgetingintimeforreflectionisn’toftentaught,butit’sacrucialaspectofthecreativeprocess.Wheredidyougettrippedup?Lookingbackovertheexperienceofwriting,whichpartsoftheprocessdidyouavoid?Whichpartsweredifficulttowrapupandmoveonfrom?Whichpartsdidyouenjoymost?Canyouseealloftheanswersreflectedinyourwriting?Isthewritinggoodbuttheresearchscanty,orisitheavilycitedbutdisorganized?Howmightyouaddressbalanceintheprocessnexttimearound?Whatdidyouenjoy?Dwellforatleastamomentortwoonthepartsoftheprocessyoumostenjoyed.Didyouhaveagreatconversationwithafriendduringthebrainstormingsession?Didyouwriteanespeciallystrongparagraphforoneofyourclaims?Didyouletyourselfsleeponaproblemandwakeupwiththeanswer?Didyoufeellikeyoufoundyourvoicewhenwritingtheintroduction?Nowgiveyourselfamomenttoconsiderhowtoexpandthosegoodfeelingsintotherestoftheprocessnexttimeyouwrite.

Writingisanart.It’snotsomethingwe’reborndoing,yetit’ssomethingwe’reaskedtodoalotinprofessionalwork.Makingtheprocessenjoyableforyourselfisbothusefulandimportant.Youhavethepowertomakeyournextwritingexperienceevenbetter.Keepworkingatthepartsofwritingthataremoredifficultforyouwhileexpandingonthephasesthatdelightyou,andyournextpaperisboundtobemoreenjoyable,moreinspired,and,ultimately,better.

Attributions

Step1:PrewritingandChoosingaTopic

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“conceptmap.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/concept_map.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“clustering.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/clustering.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“freewriting.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/freewriting.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/PlanningandPrewriting.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Planning_and_Prewriting%23What_are_Some_Other_Ways_to_Get_Ideas.3FWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“SMLNotebooks/20090903.10D.52443/SML|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/3882941631/.FlickrCCBY-SA.

Step2:Researching

“Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits_(3).jpg.”https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits_(3).jpgWikimediaCommonsCCBY2.5.

Step3:Outlining

“five-paragraphessay.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/five-paragraph%20essay.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“TheCainProjectinEngineeringandProfessionalCommunication,ThreeModulesonClearWritingStyle:AnIntroductiontoTheCraftofArgument,byJosephM.WilliamsandGregoryColomb.September17,2013.”http://cnx.org/content/m17224/latest/?collection=col10551/latest.OpenStaxCNXCCBY3.0.

http://nopsa.hiit.fi/pmg/viewer/photo.php?id=1235441.http://nopsa.hiit.fi/pmg/viewer/photo.php?id=1235441.CCBY.

Step4:Drafting

“SupportingYourThesis.”https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/paper-execution-2/drafting-your-paper-12/supporting-your-thesis-65-1333/.BoundlessLicense:Other.

“GettingHelpMeetingCollegeWritingExpectations.”https://www.boundless.com/writing/textbooks/boundless-writing-textbook/introduction-to-college-level-writing-233/introduction-to-college-level-writing-234/getting-help-meeting-college-writing-expectations-83-8682/.BoundlessLicense:Other.

““SoWhat?”.”https://www.boundless.com/users/364813/textbooks/professional-writing-ae312174-61d8-432f-9276-655b5a888adc/week-5-boundless-presentation-641/so-what-659/so-what-662-943/.BoundlessLicense:Other.

“AssemblingYourArgument.”https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/paper-execution-2/planning-your-argument-10/assembling-your-argument-48-8497/.BoundlessLicense:Other.

“GeneratingFurtherQuestions.”https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/paper-execution-2/drafting-your-paper-12/generating-further-questions-66-1672/.BoundlessLicense:Other.

Step5:Revising

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“consistency.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/consistency.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“organization.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/organization.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“purpose.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/purpose.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/Revising.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Revising%23A_Change_for_the_BetterWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“Revisioninprocess|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/juliejordanscott/5613078605/.FlickrCCBY.

“Lina,proofreadingmyessay.hot.|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/bmh4you/54929599/.FlickrCCBY.

Step6:EditingandProofreading

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“peerreview.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/peer_review.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“editing.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/editing.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“proofreading.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/proofreading.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“UsingtheDictionaryandThesaurus.”https://www.boundless.com/writing/textbooks/boundless-writing-textbook/writing-effective-sentences-252/word-choice-30/using-the-dictionary-and-thesaurus-effectively-137-1341/.BoundlessLicense:Other.

“RhetoricandComposition/Editing.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Editing.WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/Revising.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Revising%23Differences_Between_Revising.2C_Editing.2C_and_ProofreadingWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“Allsizes|Omelate|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/smudie/44633735/sizes/z/in/photostream/FlickrCCBY-SA.

Step7:CompletingaFinalReview

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/Reviewing.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Reviewing.

WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“Freedomofchoice-Image&PhotobyKrzysztofPoltorakfromDetails-Photography(22077920)|fotocommunity.”http://www.fotocommunity.com/pc/pc/display/22077920.FotoCommunityCCBY.

2.3:PrewritingTechniques2.3.1:Brainstorming

Brainstormingisaprewritingtechniqueusedtohelpgeneratelotsofpotentialideasaboutatopic.

LearningObjective

Describetheprocessofbrainstorming

KeyPoints

Brainstormingislistingallofyourideasaboutatopic—eventhebadones—withoutcensoringorediting,inordertogetyourideasflowing.Brainstormingisatitsmosteffectivewhendrawingonthepowerofinteraction.Casual,free-formnote-takingwhilereadingorengaginginconversationcanbeaformofbrainstorming.Groupbrainstormingcanbeagreatwaytoengagewithpartnersorteammembersonaprojectandmakesureeveryone’sideasareheard.

KeyTerm

brainstorming

Listingideasaboutatopic,eventhebadones,untilyoufindoneyoulike.

Atitsmostbasic,brainstormingislistingideas.Ifyou’rehavingtroublecomingupwithagoodtopicforapaper,sometimesithelpstowritedowneveryideathatoccurstoyou,eventhebadones,untilyouhaveastronglistgoing.

Brainstormingisusefulforfiguringoutwhatyou’reinterestedin.Thetechniquecantakemanyforms,butperhapstheofthemmosteffectiveisthatitdrawsonthepowerofinteraction.We’veallhadthosegreatconversationsinwhichsomeonesayssomethingthatsparksanideaormemoryinsomeoneelse,whichthensparksafurtheridea,andbeforeyouknowit,everyoneisfeelingenergized.

Youcancreateoneofthoseconversationsaboutthetopicofyourpaper.Juststartachatwithafriendoragroupaboutthetopicandhaveyourpenandnotebookhandy.Jotdownnotesastheconversationprogressesandyouhearideasthatsparkyourinterest.Foranessayonthewomen’smovementofthe1970s,youmightgeneratethefollowinglistbytalkingwithfriendsorcallingyourmother:

equalpaychoiceofcareerfreedompurposeinsocietyvaluingthe“feminine”—stillanissue?messagesgirlsgetnoweffectsofthemovementonmensuccessfulornot?

Anotherwaytobrainstormistoreadanarticleorabookchapteronthetopicandwritedownwhateveroccurstoyouasyouread,evenifithasnothingtodowiththetext.You’reinteractingwiththetextlikeyoumightinteractwithaperson,lettingtheauthor’sideassparknewthoughtsinyou.

Youcanalsobrainstorminagroupifyou’reworkingonawritingprojectwithapartnerorateam.Findawhiteboard,picksomeonetowrite,andrecordideas,topics,andnotesastheycomeup.Inadditiontobeinghelpfulinfindingatopic,thisprocesscanbefunandhelpbreaktheicewithyourfellowstudentssothateveryonefeelsasthoughtheycanshareinthediscussion.

Onceyou’vegeneratedalotofideasthroughbrainstorming,youcanchooseafewofthemtodofurtherprewritingexerciseswithtoeventuallycreateyourthesisstatement.Perhapsthemostimportantthingtorememberaboutthisprocessisthat“therearenobadideasinbrainstorming.”Whilethissayingisnotstrictlytrue—forexample,itwouldbeabadideatotackleanassignedessayaboutfeminisminthe70sbywritingaboutthelifecycleofthelunarmoth—itisvaluablebecauseithelpsyourememberthatbrainstormingisn’taboutcomingupwithaperfectsolution.It’saboutconsideringyourtopiconmanylevelsuntilyoufindanapproachyou’reexcitedabout.

Nobadideas

Sometimes,ithelpstostopcensoringyourselfandwritedowneveryideayouhave—eventhebadones.Youcandecideonthebestonelater!

2.3.2:Freewriting

Freewriting,aprewritingtechnique,canhelpyoubreakoutofwriter’sblockbylettingyourideasflownaturally.

LearningObjective

Describetheprocessoffreewriting

KeyPoints

Freewritingiswritingwithouteditinginordertogetyourideasflowing.Freewritingcanbeausefulprewritingtechniquetohelpthinkofdifferentdirectionsyourpapercantake.Tofreewrite,getapenandpaper(oropenupablankcomputerdocument)andsetyourselfatimelimit.Thenstartwritingaboutyourgeneraltopic,recordinganythoughtsastheycomeintoyourmind.Noeditingallowed!

KeyTerm

freewriting

Theprocessofwritingloosely,withoutself-censorship,inordertodevelopideasspontaneouslyandnaturally.

WhatIsFreewriting?Haveyoueverexperiencedwriter’sblock,thatfrustratingfeelingofknowingwhatyouwanttosaybutnothowtosayit?Freewritingisagreatwaytogetawayfromthat.It’ssimple:Youjustwrite,anddon’tworryaboutwhetherornotwhatyou’rewritingisgoodornot—you’rejusttryingtogetyourselfintoanaturalflow.

Freewritingisagreatprewritingtechnique.Itwillcomeinhandyifyouhaveageneraltopicbutarenotsurewhatyouwanttosayaboutit.Getapenandpaper(oropenupablankcomputerdocument)andsetyourselfatimelimit.Startwritingaboutyourgeneraltopic,recordingthoughtsastheycomeintoyourmind.Donoteditasyougo,orevenlookbackatwhatyouhavewritten.Justkeepmovingonasthoughtsoccurtoyou.Thepurposeoffreewritingistodevelopideasspontaneouslyandnaturally.

Example1:HamletConsiderthisexample,atwo-minutefreewriteonthetopicofrevengeinHamlet:

PeoplesayHamletisaplayaboutrevenge,butisrevengesuccessfulifhediesattheend?IskillingClaudiusenoughtomakeHamlethappy?Didhesucceedatanything,ordidhejustdestabilizeDenmarkfurther?Fortinbrasseemslikeabetterking—atleastheisinterestedingovernment.Butheisn’ttherightfulruler,whichispartofwhyHamletwasupsetwithhisuncleinthefirstplace.Orwashe?Ishemoreupsetaboutthemurderortheusurpation?Doeshewanttoruleorjusttogetrevenge?Ishisquestforvengeancetheactofajustice-seekingprinceorarerevengeandrulershipatcross-purposes?

Thereareafewgoodthingstonoticeaboutthisfreewrite.First,theparagraphhasmanymorequestionsthanobservationsoranswers.Thisisperfectlyfine.Freewritingisnotaplacetoworkoutanswerstoquestions,butrathertofigureoutexactlywhatquestionyouwanttoask.

Theotherthingtonoticeisthegeneraltrajectoryoftheparagraph.Thedifferentquestionsareconnectedtoeachother,albeitveryloosely.Again,thisisfine.Freewritingdoesnotneedtoberigidlyorganizedaslongasitstaysrelativelyclosetoitsgeneraltopic.Often,freewriteswillendupproducingaunifiedlineofthoughtevenwithoutyoutryingtoconnecteverything.Thereisasignificantdifferencebetweenthestartingpointof“IsHamlet’srevenge

successful?”andthefinalquestionsof“DoesHamletwanttogetrevengeorbecomearuler?,”and“Canyouseekrevengeandbearuler?”Allthreearedifferentapproachestothesamebroaderquestion,though.Infact,thosesecondquestionscanberefinedintomorespecificanswerstothefirstone.

Atopicfromthefirstquestionmightbe“Hamletdoesnotsuccessfullyachievehisgoalofvengeance.”Atopicfromthelastquestionsmightbe“HamletfillshisstatedgoalofkillingClaudius,butsinceheleavesDenmarkwithoutakingheultimatelyfailsatcorrectingthewronghewantedtocorrect.”Bothideasarefarmorefocusedthanwhatyoustartedwith.

Example2:LolitaNowthatyou’veseenanexampleoffreewritingandtheresearchtopicsitcanpointyoutoward,tryitwiththisexample:

HumbertHumbertisacreepydudewhobasicallyruinsLolita’slife.Butherecognizesthathe’sbeingjudgedbytheworldforhisactionsandhesayshe’sfullorremorse.Ishesincereorjustplayingitupforthe“jury”?Hesoundssincere,thoughflowery.Dohiselaborateprofessionsofguiltworktoabsolvehimormakehimseempurelytheatrical?WhatabouthowhetalksaboutLolita?Hedoesn’tevencallherbyherrealname,whichisDolores.Inalotofways,she’smoreofanobjectofhisfantasythanarealperson.Doesthatmakehisbehaviorlesscondemnablebecausehe’sclearlynuts?Ormorecondemnablebecausehe’sunempathetictotheextreme?

Whatresearchdirectioncouldthisfreewritingexamplebringyoutoward?

2.3.3:ClusteringandConceptMapping

Creatingaconceptmapisaneasywaytovisuallyrepresenttherelationshipsamongyourideas.

LearningObjective

Describetheprocessofcreatingaconceptmap

KeyPoints

Clusteringistheprocessofwritingdownabroadtopic,thencreatingaconceptmapwheredifferentclustersofrelatedsubtopicsarerepresented

visually.Clusteringisaneffectivewaytonarrowyourfocusifyourtopicistoobroad:youcanpickonebranchofyourconceptmaptofocuson,ratherthanthelargecentraltopic.Tomakeaconceptmap,writedownyourmaintopicinthecenterofapage,thenmakebranchesandsub-brancheswithrelatedsubtopicsasyouthinkofthem.

KeyTerms

clustering

Aprocessinwhichyoustartwithamaintopic,thenexploreclustersofrelatedsubtopics.

conceptmap

Adiagramofrelatedideas.

Ifyouarehavingtroublebreakingabigtopicdownintosmallerones,youmightwanttotryclustering.Thisisatacticinwhichyouwritedownaverybroadtopicorideaandthenmakeaconceptmap,inwhichyoudiagramsmallerideasorcategories(clusters)thatrelatetothecentraltopic.

Sayyouarewritingapaperthatteachesyourclassmateshowtoperformatask.Youhaveonepagetoprovidedetailedinstructionsaboutanactivity.Ifyouhavechosen“gardening”asthatactivity,youwillnotbeabletogiveanadequatedescriptioninthespaceprovided.There’ssimplytoomuchinformation.Youhavetochooseasmallertaskassociatedwithgardening.Thequestionis,whichone?

Allthethingsyoulinkedto“gardening”aresmallertasksyoucoulddescribe.Youcanevenbreakthemdownintofurtherlevelsofdetail.Forexample,thesubcategoryof“researchingandpurchasingplantsandseeds”canbebrokendownintoseparatebubblesforresearchandpurchasing.Thepurchasingbubblecouldbebrokendownintoa)wheretopurchaseplants,b)whentopurchaseplants,c)howmuchtopayfordifferentplants,andsoon,untilyoureachtherightlevelofspecificity.Inthisway,youcanbreakyourgeneraltopicdownfrom“explaininggardening”tosomethinglike“explaininghowtopurchaseasunflowerplant.”

Thegoalofclustering,muchlikefreewriting,istocomeupwithlotsofdifferentpossibilities.Thenyoucanchoosewhichonesyouthinkarebestsuitedforyourassignment.Makesurethatyoudon’tcensoryourselfwhenyou’remakingaconceptmap:addanythingyoufeelisrelatedtoyourtopic

andletitflow!

Attributions

Brainstorming

“Step1:PrewritingandChoosingaTopic.”https://www.boundless.com/writing/textbooks/boundless-writing-textbook/writing-an-effective-paper-235/steps-of-writing-a-paper-237/step-1-prewriting-and-choosing-a-topic-47-7910/.BoundlessCCBY-SA4.0.

“128239619_1eb47bcb3f_b.jpg.”https://www.flickr.com/photos/jurvetson/128239619.FlickrCCBY2.0.

FreewritingClusteringandConceptMapping

“Step1:PrewritingandChoosingaTopic.”https://www.boundless.com/writing/textbooks/boundless-writing-textbook/writing-an-effective-paper-235/steps-of-writing-a-paper-237/step-1-prewriting-and-choosing-a-topic-47-7910/.BoundlessCCBY-SA4.0.

2.4:BuildingYourPaper2.4.1:ModesofPersuasion:Ethos,Pathos,andLogos

Carefulrhetoric,ortheartofcraftingargumentsthroughtoneandpresentationofevidence,canmakeyourargumentmoreconvincing.

LearningObjective

Identifyappealstologos,pathos,andethos

KeyPoints

Rhetoricinvolvesthe“how”ofmakingarguments—itasksyoutothinkaboutwhatkindofwritingwillmakeyourargumentmostconvincingtothereader.Inclassicalrhetoric,therearethreemainstrategiestoappealtothereader:logos,pathos,andethos.Ethos,logos,andpathoseachaffectthereaderdifferently.Whenchoosingastrategy,thinkaboutwhatkindofargumentyouwanttomakeandwheneachstrategymightbemostuseful.Keepingreaders’potentialobjectionsinmindwillhelpyouselectthemostappropriatestrategies.Whilepersuasivestrategiesmakeagoodpapermoreconvincing,themostcredibleargumentsarethosewhichhonestlyexaminetheissuefromallsidesusingthemostreliablesourcesofinformation.Audienceanalysis,developingathoroughunderstandingofanaudience(education,values,beliefs,etc.),iscrucialinmakingchoicesrelatingtotheuseoflogos,ethosandpathos.

KeyTerms

logos

Atechniquethatreliesonreasonedargument.

pathos

Acommunicationtechniquethatmakesanappealtotheaudience’s

emotions;usedmostofteninrhetoricandinliterature,film,andothernarrativearts.

ethos

AGreekwordmeaning“character,”usedtodescribetheguidingbeliefsoridealsthatcharacterizeacommunity,nation,orideology.Inrhetoric,thetermisoftenusedinreferencetothecredibilityofanauthorbasedonhisorherexpertiseand/orpersonalcharacter.

UsingRhetoricalandAudienceAnalysisArhetoricalanalysiscallsuponreaderstocloselyreadatextanddetermineseveralcharacteristicsaboutit,includingauthor,context,purpose,andemotionalappealand/oreffects.Inotherwords,readersmusttakealookatAristotle’sthreepersuasiveappealstotheaudience:logos,pathos,andethos.Aswriters,you’llusethesetoolstobuildaconvincingargument.

Choosingpersuasiveappealsdependsonthepurposeoftheargument,butitalsostemsfromaudienceanalysis.Knowingasmuchaspossibleabouttheaudienceyouaretryingtoreachcanhelpyoutodeterminewhichappealsaremostlikelytobeeffective.Thingstoconsiderincludetheaudience’scorevalues,beliefs,andthelevelofknowledgetheyalreadyhaveaboutthesubjectyouareaddressing.Someargumentsemployallthreeoftheseappeals,whileothersrelyonastrategicapplicationofjustacoupleofthem.

Logos

Logosreliesontherigoroususeoflogicandreason.Argumentsbasedonlogosusuallyemploydeductiveand/orinductivereasoning.Deductive,ortop-down,reasoningappliesageneralruletodrawaconclusionaboutaspecificcaseorcases:“Allmenaremortal.Arturoisaman.Therefore,Arturoismortal.”Inductive,orbottom-up,reasoningconstructsapremiseorrulebygeneralizingandextrapolatingfromaspecificcaseorcases:“EverypersonIhaveeverknownofhaseventuallydied.Ihaveneverheardareportofanypersonlivingforever.Therefore,peoplearemortal.”

Pathos

Incontrasttologos,pathosreliesonevokinganemotionalreactionfromtheaudience.Theevidenceinapathosargumentismorelikelytobepersonaloranecdotal.Moreover,thesuccessoftheargumentdependsontheauthorunderstandingtheaudience’svaluesandbeliefs,andmanipulatingthem.

Ethos

Ethosworksbygivingtheauthorcredibility.Bybuildingcredibilitywiththeaudience,thespeakerorwriteralsobuildstrustwithhisorheraudience.Ethoscanbeusedtostressthepersonalcredentialsandreputationofthespeaker/writer,orcitereliableauthorsorsources.Writersandspeakerswhoemployethostostrengthentheirargumentshouldavoidattackingorinsultinganopponentoranopposingviewpoint.Themosteffectiveethosdevelopsfromwhatisstated,whetheritisinspokenorwrittenform.

Writerscanpullelementsfromanyofthesestrategiesasneededtomakeapersuasiveargument.

WhenandHowtoUsePathosGenerally,pathosismosteffectivewhenusedintheintroductionandconclusion.You’retryingtograbreaders’attentioninthebeginningandtoleavethemwithconvictionattheend,andemotionisausefultoolforthosepurposes.Describingtheplightofpeopleaffectedbytheissueathandmightopenthepaper,forexample,andthenberevisitedintheconclusion.

Therearesubtlewaystousepathosthroughoutthepaperaswell,andyoucandothatprimarilythroughwordchoice.Yourreaderisgoingtobelookingforholesinyourargumentandwilllikelybristleatanyhintofbeingmanipulatedwithemotioninthebodyparagraphs,preferringthatyousticktothefacts.Butbychoosingyourwordscarefully,youcanmakesuggestionsthathaveasubconsciouseffectonthereader.Here’sanexample:

Thoughthecandidateisolderthanmostwho’veheldtheoffice,heisknowntobeenergeticandactive.Thoughthecandidateisolderthanmostwho’veheldtheoffice,heisknowntobespry.

Whenyoureadthefirstsentence,whatimageformedinyourmind?Maybeanolderguysmilingandjoggingorshakinghandswithsupporters?Andthesecondsentence?Theword“spry”isgenerallyusedonlyforelderlypeople,

soyoulikelyimaginedsomeoneslightlydifferent,perhapsalittleolderandalittlelessenergetic.Sincewe’retalkingaboutapolitician,theword“spry,”whileostensiblymeanttomean“activeandenergetic,”isputtingasuggestioninthereader’sheadthatthepoliticianmightbealittleoldforthejob.Alittlesneaky?Well,youmightthinkofitthatway,butyoucanalsohavealotoffunbuildinganeffectiveargumentusingwordsthataffectthereaderinveryparticularways.

Therearecountlesswordsandphrasesthatholdacommonmeaningforyouraudienceotherthantheirdefinedmeaning.Canyouimaginewhenyoumightchoosetheword“backpack”over“bag,”or“uzi”over“gun,”or“guardian”over“parent,”or“paperback”over“book,”or“liberal”over“unrestricted”?Whataretheconnotationsofthechosenwordsversustheirsynonyms?

Whilethemoreobvioususesofpathos—inwhichyoumakeadirectemotionalappeal—maycometoyouearlyinthewritingprocess,thesesubtlechoicesofsuggestivewordsmightemergeasyourevise.Usethistoolsparingly,though,sothesubconscioussuggestiondoesn’tbecomeobvioustoyourreaderandthereforehavetheoppositeeffect.

WhenandHowtoUseLogosGenerallyspeaking,logosiswhatpeopleexpectinanargumentthesedays.Weareasocietyorientedtowardlogicalreasoningandscientificproof,soyou’reprobablygoingtoneedtodrawonlogosatsomepointinyourpaperandwilllikelyuseitineverybodyparagraph.Agoodargumentwillusuallyincludebothfactsandreasoningandmaybebolsteredbyexamples.

Considerthisexamplefrom“HealthEffectsofCigaretteSmoking,”publishedbytheCentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention:

Smokersaremorelikelythannonsmokerstodevelopheartdisease,stroke,andlungcancer.

1.Smokingisestimatedtoincreasetherisk—

Forcoronaryheartdiseaseby2to4timesForstrokeby2to4timesOfmendevelopinglungcancerby25timesOfwomendevelopinglungcancerby25.7time

2.Smokingcausesdiminishedoverallhealth,increasedabsenteeismfromwork,andincreasedhealthcareutilizationandcost.

Perhapsyoudidn’tneedconvincingthatsmokingisbadforyourhealth,butifyoudid,you’dhaveadifficulttimearguingwiththesestatistics,allfootnotedontheCDCwebsite,allbasedonreputablestudies.

Ifwewereincludingthisevidenceinapaperaboutthedangersofsmoking,wecoulddecidethatsuchweightyevidencecanstandonitsown:excessivereasoningmightactuallyweakentheargument.Butifwearewritingapaperaboutwhycigarettesshouldbemadeillegal,orsomeother,moreradicalidea(andamoreinterestingpaper),wemightneedtomakeourreasoningclear:

Weknow,then,thatcigarettesareextraordinarilydangerous—manytimesmoredangerousthancaraccidents—andhighlycostly.Yet,whilewe’veincreasedsafetystandardsforcarssteadilysincethe1970s,requireddriversandpassengerstowearsafetybelts,andareevenconsideringtechnologicalinnovationsthatwillmechanizehighwaystoeliminatedrivererror,wehaveasyetdonelittletoregulatetheuseofcigarettes.Discouragedthroughtaxation,yes,officialwarnings,yes,butdirectregulation,no.

Thereasoningintheaboveparagraphtakesoneofthestatisticsandexplainsitsrelevancetotheargument.You’llneedtodothisinalmosteverycasesothatthelinkyou’remakingbetweentheevidenceandtheclaimisclear.

Itcanbeusefultothinkoflogosasbuildingacase,whereyourthesisstatementisthethingyou’retryingtoprovebeyondashadowofadoubt.You’rethedefenseattorney.Whatwouldmakethisanair-tightcase?Whatmightbeinthejury’smindthatyouneedtoaddresssothattheywon’tgointodeliberationwithquestionsordoubts?Whatkindsofevidencemightconvincethem?Planningoutthebodyofyourpaperislikeplanningtopresentyourevidenceinthecourtroom,stepbystep.Toomuchinformationwillgetboringandmuddlethejury,soyou’llwanttostickwithyourmostsalientexamplesandmostconvincingevidence.

TheArtofEthosInAristotle’sday,ethosusuallyappliedtothetechniqueaspeakerusedtoestablishcredibilityforhimself,the“whyyoushouldlistentome”portionofthespeech.Now,weestablishourreliabilitymostlybydemonstratingathoroughknowledgeofthetopicandbycitingcrediblesources.Weneedtoletourreadersknowthatthestudieswe’recitingarefrompeer-reviewedjournals,forexample,andtheopinionswe’requotingarefrompeoplewhoknowwhatthey’retalkingabout.

Whileacupuncturewasoncerelegatedtotherealmof“quacks”and“snake

oil,”itisnowconsideredbymainstreammedicalsciencetobeaneffectivetreatmentforpain.TheNationalInstitutesofHealth(NIH)websitestatesthat,“Resultsfromanumberofstudiessuggestthatacupuncturemayhelpeasetypesofpainthatareoftenchronicsuchaslow-backpain,neckpain,andosteoarthritis/kneepain.Italsomayhelpreducethefrequencyoftensionheadachesandpreventmigraineheadaches.Therefore,acupunctureappearstobeareasonableoptionforpeoplewithchronicpaintoconsider”(NIH,2014).Doctorsthemselvesseemgladtohavefoundapossibleremedyforchronicpain.Infact,athirdofacupuncturistsnowpracticingintheUnitedStatesarealsomedicaldoctors(NCCAM,para.2).Thisonce-suspectartisincreasinglyembracedbyphysicianslookingforadditionaloptionsfortheirmostchallengingpatients.

Here,we’rebolsteringourclaimthatacupunctureisacceptedasaneffectivetoolforpainreliefbyquotingthegovernmentalagencyNIH,whichiswidelyrecognizedandrespected,andbytalkingaboutdoctors—alsowell-respected—embracingthepracticethemselvesinordertobetterservetheirpatients.

Yoursourcesneedtobecredibletoyourskeptics.Mostoftheobjectionstoourclaim,above,willlikelycomefrompeoplewhotrustconventionalmedicalpracticesandarewaryoftryingpracticestheyhaven’tencountered.Thisparticularaudience,then,wouldbemorelikelytoconsidertheNIHandagroupofmedicaldoctorscrediblethantheywould,say,theAmericanAcademyofMedicalAcupunctureoragroupofChinesepractitioners.Partoftheethosofyourargument,then,isfindingresourcesyouraudiencewouldfindcredible.Byextension,youearnreaders’respectforquotingsourcestheyconsidertrustworthy.

Don’tdiscountyourownknowledgeandexperience,though,whenconsideringtheethosaspectofyourargument.Theintroductionandconclusion,again,mightbethebestspotstotellyouraudiencehowyou’reconnectedtothetopic.Ifyou’rewritingaboutschoolvouchersandyouattendedbothpublicandprivateschools,thatdetailmightgiveyousomeinsightintobothsidesofthedilemmaand,therefore,credibilitywithyourreaders.Ifyou’reanartistandfeelyouwouldhavedroppedoutofhighschoolwereitnotforyourartclasses,youwoulddowelltoincludeyourexperienceinapaperaboutfundingfortheartsineducation.

Yourreaderiscountingonyourabilitytobeobjective,aswellasknowledgeable.You’lldemonstrateyourobjectivitybyusingsourcesthatarewidelyrespectedandbygatheringinformationfrombothormanysidesoftheissue.Realrhetoricisabouthonestlyseekinganswers,andwhilethereissomepersuasivetechniqueinvolved,themostsatisfyingargumentisonethatisthoroughlyexplored.Intheend,then,yourcredibilitylieswithyour

diligenceandyourwillingnesstopresentyourfindingswithtransparency.

Capturetheattentionofyouraudiencewithrhetoric

Usingappropriaterhetoricaltoolsandawell-thought-outargumentativestructureisawayofensuringthestrengthofyourwriting.Inaddition,rhetoricgivesyouwaysofcapturingtheattentionofyouraudienceandleadingthemtotheconclusionsofyourargument.

2.4.2:ApproachestoYourIntroductoryParagraph

Theeffectiveintroductoryparagraphintroducesthetopicinawaythatmakesthereaderinterestedandcurious.

LearningObjective

Ordertheelementsofanintroductoryparagraphthatusesconcept-funnelstructure

KeyPoints

Aneffectivetechniqueforintroductionsistoopenwithasentenceortwothatgrabsthereader’sattention.Therearecommonwaystointroduceatopicthatareoverusedandthereforenotrecommended.Theconcept-funnelstructureleadsthereaderfromabroadconceptofthetopictothethesisstatement.Themirrorconstructionhitseachclaimofthepaperinthesameorderthey’representedinthebodyofthepaper.Stylistically,itisadvisabletoleaveoutovertreferencestotheconstructionofthepaper.Leavingtheintroductionuntiltheendofthedraftingprocessmakesiteasiertowrite.

GrabbingtheReader’sAttentionTherearemanywaystobeginapaper,somestraightforward,othersmorecreative.Papersgenerallyneedtoaimforanobjectivevoiceandstayclosetothefacts.However,youhaveabitmorefreedomintheintroduction,andyoucantakeadvantageofthatfreedombyfindingasurprising,high-impactwaytohighlightyourissue’simportance.Herearesomeeffectivestrategiesforopeningapaper:

MakeaprovocativeorcontroversialstatementStateasurprisingorlittle-knownfactMakeacaseforyourtopic’srelevancetothereaderOpenwithaquote,abriefanecdote,orimagerythatillustratestheissueTakeastandagainstsomethingStakeapositionforyourselfwithinanongoingdebateIntroduceachallengingproblemorparadox

Afteryougrabthereader’sattentionwiththeopening,makeacasefortheimportanceofyourtopic.Herearesomequestionsthatmayhelpatthisstage:Whydidyouchoosethistopic?Shouldthegeneralpublicoryouracademicdisciplinebemoreawareofthisissue,andwhy?Areyoucallingattentiontoanunder-appreciatedissue,orevaluatingawidelyacknowledgedissueinanewlight?Howdoestheissueaffectyou,ifatall?

Concept-FunnelStructure

Apopularintroductionstructureistheconcept-funnel.Inthisstructure,youbeginwithgeneralinformationaboutyourtopic,narrowthefocusandprovidecontext,andendbydistillingyourpaper’sspecificapproach.Asyoumovefromgeneralbackgroundinformationtothespecificsofyourproject,trytocreatearoadmapforyourpaper.Mirrorthestructureofthepaperitself,explaininghoweachpiecefitsintothebiggerpicture.Itisusuallybesttowritetheintroductionafteryouhavemadesignificantprogresswithyourpaper,soyoucanaccuratelymirroritsstructure.

AStrongBeginning

Acommoninterpretationofthefunnelstructureistostartverybroadandsiftdowntothethesis,butifyoustarttoobroad,youwillloseyouraudienceinthefirstline.Resistthetemptationtobeginyourintroductionwithphraseslikethese:

Fromthedawnoftime…Throughouthumanhistory…Intoday’sworld…Fromearliestmemory…Webster’sdefines[topic]as…

Theseopeningshavebeenusedsooften,theynolongergrabourattentionbuttriggerusintoanticipatingsomethingdullandpredictable.Instead,thinkofthattopopeningofthefunnelaspiquingthereader’sinterestaboutthetopicyou’rewritingabout.Youcandothiswithimagery(“Asix-year-oldgirlinatatteredbluedressstandsonthestreetcornerat11p.m.,hereyessearchingeverycar…”),withaprovocativestatement(“TheU.S.governmentisnolonger‘of’or‘bythepeople’butiscontrolledbybillionaires”),withcontext(“Onanygiveneveningon65thStreetbetweenBroadwayandAmsterdaminthecitythatneversleeps,therearecrowdsgatheringinfrontofLincolnCenter”),orevenwithaconcessiontoanopposingargument(“AmandaWilcox’s19-year-olddaughterwasmurderedwhilehomeonwinterbreak.AmandaandherhusbandNickwerecompletelydevastatedandbesetbybothgriefandanger”).

MirroringtheConstructionofYourPaper

Aftergrabbingreaders’attentionwithaninterestingopening,you’llwanttolayoutyourbasicargument.Thisprovidesyourreaderswithstructure,appealingtothelogicalmind,aftergrabbingthemthroughtheiremotionsor

theirimagination.Leadingthemfromyourclaimstoyourthesis,whichisgenerallyatthebottomofthe“funnel,”isalsoasubtleactofpersuasion,whispering,“OnceI’veprovenallofthesepoints,you’llseethat[mythesis]mustbetrue.”Youcouldactuallysaythat,butgenerallyit’sbettertoletthereaderdrawthatconclusionbyreadingthesolid,well-substantiatedargumentthatisyourpaper.Whatyouwanttodohereissimplydrawalinefromyouropeningtoyourthesisstatement,usingyourclaims.

Whileyou’reappealingtologicandreasoninthispartoftheintroduction,youneedn’tleaveartistrybehindentirely.Thinkofthispartasweavingtogethereachclaimwiththeemotionyoubroughtupinthebeginning,bringingthestrandsinonebyone.Together,theycreatethethesis.

Thebasicstructureisthis:

1. Introducethegeneraltopicinaninterestingway2. Claim13. Claim24. Claim35. Anyotherclaims6. Thesisstatement

Trytoleaveoutovertreferencestothefactthatthisisanessay(e.g.,“Inthisessay,Iwillprovethat…”).Theformistheretoprovidethestructure,givingyouthefreedomtobeartisticwithinit.

AmandaWilcox’s19-year-olddaughterwasmurderedwhilehomeonwinterbreak.AmandaandherhusbandNickwerecompletelydevastatedandbesetbybothgriefandanger.Theculpritwascaught,andfriendsofthecouplewouldoffercomfortbytellingthecouplethatthemanwouldpayforwhathedid,hopefullywithhislife.AmandaandNickcouldseehowpeoplewouldthinkthesewordswouldhelp.Revengeseemssatisfyingonthesurface:atleastthereissomethingthatcanbedoneto“rightthewrong.”Butneitherofthesebroken-heartedparentscouldfindsolaceinvengeance.Theyrecognizedthatputtinghermurderertodeathwouldnotbringbacktheirdaughter,evenifitmightfeeljustified.Theywerealsoawarethatevenwhenthecaseagainstafelonseemsair-tight,DNAevidencehascleared263convictssincetheyear2000.Thefamiliesofmurdervictimsaroundthecountryhavereasontofeelanger,hurt,andevenutterhatredforthepersonwhotookawaytheirlovedone.Butthedeathpenaltyisasolutionbasedonpassionandemotion,notaviablepunishmentforanycrimeinacivilizedsociety.

Inthisparagraph,theexampleintheopeningtakesusthroughtheclaims,gettingusclosertothethesis.Thisisawayofweavingtheparagraph

together.Thereaderisusheredintothetopicandthroughtheclaimswithoutbeingconsciousofreadinganessay.

WritetheIntroductionLastSavingyourintroductoryparagraphuntiltheendofyourdraftingprocesswillputthepowerofyourpaper’sargumentbehindyouasyoucreate.Askyourselfthesequestionsbeforeyoubegin:

Whyisthistopicinteresting?What’sthemostfascinatingorshockingthingIfoundinmyresearch?WhatkindsofthingssurprisedmeasIreadandwrote?HowwouldItellafriendaboutwhatIfound?IfIweretopickupabooktoreadaboutthistopic,whatwouldcapturemyimagination?

Allowyourselftoenjoytheprocessofwritingyourintroduction.Letyourcreativityrunfreehere,withinthegeneralstructure.Takesomerisks!Thisistheplacewhereyourpersonalitycanshowthrough,tothedelightofthereader,whoisundoubtedlyreadyandwaitingtobesurprised.

2.4.3:ApproachestoYourBodyParagraphs

Apowerfulargumentdependsonsolidlyandappropriatelyconstructedbodyparagraphs.

LearningObjective

Ordertheelementsofabodyparagraph

KeyPoints

Thestructureofeachbodyparagraphincludesatopicsentence,evidencesupportingthetopicsentence,aconclusion,andatransition.Thetopicsentenceisanarguablestatementrelatedtothethesis,introducingthemainideaoftheparagraph.Partofcreatinganeffectiveargumentischoosingthemostappropriateandpowerfulfromthevariousformsofevidenceandwaystopresentthem.Transitionsentencesleadreaderstothenextclaimintheargument.

KeyTerm

topicsentence

Anarguablestatementsummarizingaclaimthatsupportsthethesis.

ConstructingaParagraphThebodyofthepaperpresentsyourargumentpointbypointtorevealthewisdomofyourthesis.Youdecidedontheorderofthesepointsduringtheoutlinephase,butasyouwriteyoumaychoosetoreorderthemformaximumimpact.Youmayalsodecidetoscrappointsthatdon’thavetheimpactyouexpectedthemtohave.Flexibilityisausefulqualityduringthedraftingphase.

Eachbodyparagraphwillbeorganizedaroundaclaim,whichyou’llformintoatopicsentence.You’llgenerallybegineachparagraphwithitstopicsentence,thenyou’llmovetotheevidencethatledyoutothisclaimbeforeendingwithaconcludingsentencethatweavesclaimandevidencetogether.You’llalsohavetransitionsentencesthatlinktheparagraphstogether,andtheycanappearattheendorbeginningofeachparagraph.

SampleBodyParagraphStructure

Topicsentence(announcingtheclaim)Evidence1Evidence2Evidence3Concludingsentence

TheTopicSentenceLikeyourthesis,eachtopicsentenceisanarguablestatement,notafact.Thefactscomeintheformofevidencethatyou’llpresentinthenextsentences.Itneedstobeclearhowthetopicsentencerelatestoyourthesisanditshouldaddressonlyonepoint.

Ifyou’rehavingdifficultyformulatingatopicsentence,youcanwritethefollowingstem:“OnereasonIbelievemythesisstatementistrueisthis:”andthencompletethesentence.

OnereasonIbelievemythesisstatementistrueisthis:Theimageryintheopeninglinesof[Frost’spoem]“HomeBurial”immediatelyevokesthetensionbetweenhusbandandwife.

Thenyoucanleaveoffthestemandsimplybegintheparagraphwithwhatyoubelieve.Checktoseewhetherthestatementsumsuponeofyourclaims.Ifitdoesn’t,youmayneedtorevisityourclaimsandreworkthemsotheyfityourargumentatthisstageofthewritingprocess.It’scommonforyouropinionstobecomeclearerandmoresophisticatedasyouspendmoretimewithyourtopic,sodon’tbeafraidtomakesomechanges.

Check,too,toseewhetherthetopicsentenceisarguableandclear.Occasionally,itmaytaketwoorthreesentencestoexpresstheclaim,andthatcanwork,butbeingabletoencapsulateitintoonesentencemeansyouunderstandwhatyou’recommunicatingthoroughlyenoughtowriteconcisely.

PresentingEvidenceAsyouapproachthestructureofanindividualparagraph,you’llwanttoconsiderhowthisparticularclaimwouldbebestpresented.Youprobablyfounddifferenttypesofevidenceinyouresearch:quotesfrompeoplewho’vestudiedyourtopicextensively,storiesoranalysesfrompeoplewho’vehaddirectexperiencewithit,andstudiesthatofferconclusions.Recognizethatusingaseriesofanyoneofthesetypesofevidencecouldbecomerepetitiveandeitherboreoroverwhelmyourreader.Poundingstatisticafterstatisticintoaparagraphmayseemconvincingasyou’rewriting,butitmighthavetheoppositeeffectandmakethereaderdisengage.

Instead,writeyourtopicsentenceandlookovertheevidenceyou’vegatheredforthatclaim.Isthereafirst-handaccountthatmightbestillustratethispoint?Perhapsaquotefromawell-knownauthoritywouldcaptureyourreader’srespectrightaway.Itcouldbethatarecentstudyfoundexactlywhatyourtopicsentenceclaims,andyouwanttoleadwiththat.

Justaswiththeintroductoryparagraph,you’llneedtoconsiderthatratherthansimplyofferingproofofyouropinion,you’realsocourtingyourreader.Varietyofpresentationwillkeepareaderinterestedinyourargument,aswillthestrengthandreliabilityoftheevidence.Ifyou’rehesitatingtorelateastoryortociteastudybecauseyou’renotsurewhetherit’sconvincing,leaveitout.Yourreaderwillfeeldisrespectedbyanyattempttoslipinaweakerpoint.Thereisnoadvantagetobulkoverstrength.

Therearesomeorganizationaltoolsthatcangiveyoudirectionwhenformingyourparagraphs.Justsomeofthewaystopresentevidenceareasfollows.

Cause-Effect

Thistypeofparagraphexplainswhysomethinghappened.Often,you’llwantyourreadertounderstandtherelationshipbetweenyourclaimandyourthesis,andthistechniquecanlinkthem.

Example:Whilepeoplemaycitevariousreasonsforgettingmarried,underneatheveryoneoftheseclaimsistheneedforsecurity.

Problem-Solution

Here,thewriterpresentsaquestionorissueandthenshowshowtosolveit.Thistypeofparagraphcanshowthereaderwhyyou’reproposingyourthesis.Theevidencecanbothprovetheproblemstatementandbegintorevealthethesis-relatedsolution.

Example:Oneproblemwiththeincreasingemphasisoncollegesportsprogramsistheinevitabledecreaseinacademicfocus.

Compare-Contrast

Thismethodexposesthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweentwothings.Thistechniquecanprovidegreaterclarityastohowyourthesismakesmoresensethananalternativeidea.

Example:Whilethemethanegassesproducedbydammingmaybesomewhatproblematic,ourprimaryconcernshouldbethefargreateramountofmethaneproducedbythebeef-productionindustry.

SequentialExposition

Thissimplytellswhathappenedinwhatorder.Itcanbeusedtoexplaintoareaderhoweventsledtowhatthethesisproposesortheproblemitseekstorectify.

Example:Often,whenacompanyisinfinancialtrouble,managementbeginslayoffs,whichleadtoloweredcompanycosts,whichleadstogreaterinvestorconfidence,whichleadstoincreasedstockprices,whichincreaseshareholderwealthand,often,managementcompensation.

Description

Offersdetailsaboutthephenomenonoreventbeingdiscussed.Thisisparticularlyusefulwhenyouwantthereadertogetthesamepictureoftheissuethatyouhave.

Example:Hisprisoncellconsistedofatoiletandametalbedframewithathin,stainedmattressandasmallplasticpillow.Theairwasstagnantandclose,withfansonlyinthemaineatingarea.

ConcludingYourParagraphandTransitioningYourconcludingsentencewilloftenhaveanechoofthetopicsentenceinitwhilemovingthereaderforwardtothenexttopic.

Wesee,then,thattreesactuallydohaveachemicalsystemofcommunication,stunningasthatmayseem,butwhatmightthatmeanforthehuman-forestrelationship?

Thefirstpartofthesentence,inthisexample,sumsuptheevidencejustpresented,andthesecondpartintroducesthenexttopic.Likely,thetopicsentenceofthenextparagraphwillsuggestashiftinthewaypeopleapproachforestmanagement.

Ofcourse,youwon’twanttomakeeveryconcludingsentenceaquestion.Youmightdecidetohaveaconcludingsentenceandthenatransitionsentence.

Thefactthattoxicsewageisstillbeingdumpedintoourwaterwaysisdishearteninginitself.Evenmorestartling,however,istheknowledgethatthegovernment’sregulatoryagencieshaveallbutendorsedthebehavior.

Inthiscase,wecanpresumetheparagraphgaveevidencethattoxinsarepollutingstreams,rivers,lakes,andoceans.Fromthetransitionsentence,weanticipatethatthenextparagraphwillcontainevidencethatgovernmentagenciesnotonlyknewaboutitbutsomehowsupportedthepractice.

TheCollectedParagraphsWhenyou’vewritteneachbodyparagraph,lookthemovertocheckfor

varietyinyourpresentationstyles,strengthofargument,logicalparagraphpositioning,andoverallreadability.Whileagoodmixofstylesmakesthepapermuchmoreinteresting,themostimportantthingisthateachclaimispresentedatitsmostpowerful.Yourconclusionwillservethepurposeofweavingyourclaimstogether,butbeforeyoumovetothatstage,takeonelastlookatthebodyandmakethechangesnecessarytostrengthenyourargumentasmuchaspossible.

2.4.4:ApproachestoYourConcludingParagraph

Theconclusion,whilenotaddingnewinformationtotheargument,caninspirereaderstobelievethepaper’sthesis.

LearningObjective

Ordertheelementsofasuccessfulconcludingparagraph

KeyPoints

Theconcludingparagraphsummarizesthepaper’sargumentandrestatesthethesis.Reversingtheconcept-funnelformatoftheintroductoryparagraphcanbeausefulformfortheconclusion.Recommendations,projections,orchallengescanfollowtheargumentsummary.Revisitinganyimages,quotes,orquestionsofferedintheintroductioncanbesatisfyingtothereaderandaddpowertotheargument.

Theconcludingparagraph(or,rarely,paragraphs)summarizestheargument,showinghowitsupportsthethesis.Itspurposeistoleavereaderswithastrongsenseoftheargument,therebyencouragingthemtoadoptthethesisastheirown.

Theconcept-funnelapproachoftenusedforintroductionscanbereversedhere,movingthefocusfromnarrowtobroad.Alongtheway,youcanincluderecommendationsforfuturebehavior,ifbehaviorchangeisapplicabletoyouressay.Hereyouhaveacommonformatforconcludingparagraphs:

ThesisstatementrevisitedClaimsrepeated,wovenwithtransitionsRecommendations,projections,orchallengesIntroductoryopeningrevisited

Onewaytothinkoftheconclusionisas“TheTaleoftheConqueringHero.”Theherorecountshisadventurebyfirsttellingyouhisaccomplishment,thenrecountingthestepsthatledtoit,andfinallyputtingitintoabroadercontext.

ThesisStatementItcanbeeffectivetobegintheconclusionwiththethesisstatement,afteratransitionstem,suchas,“It’snowquiteclearthat…,”or“Aswehaveseen,thepreponderanceofevidenceshowsusthat…”Youneedn’tnecessarilyrepeatthethesisstatementwordforword,butitsessenceshouldbethesameasitwaswrittenintheintroduction.

Restatingthethesissignalstothereaderthatyou’renolongergoingtointroducenewevidenceandarewrappingupyourargument.Thereadermakesanemotionalshiftwiththissign,andsomakingyourpurposeknownimmediatelyhelpskeepthereaderinterested.

RevisitingtheArgumentNext,you’llrestateyourclaims,butyou’llwanttodothisinawaythatflows.Yourreaderwillcheckoutquicklyifyou’resimplymarchinghimorherthroughtheparagraphs.Thistime,you’reconsideringeachclaimasadropinthebucketofyourargument.You’renolongertryingtoprovetheclaim.Yourreaderhasalreadyseentheevidencesupportingthetopicsentence.Thinkoftheconclusionasthephilosophyphaseofthepaper,whereyoutakeabroaderlookattheissueandconsiderthepointsoftheargumenttogether.

Asyou’reweavingyourclaimstogether,youcangetcreative.Snatchesofevidence,suchasaquoteorastatistic,canbeincludedforemphasisifusedsparingly.Youmaydecidetochangetheorder,ifyouwanttheclaimstoflowalittledifferentlyherethantheydidinthebodyofthepaper.Yourpointhereistoshowthereaderhowtheseclaimsinformoneanothertosupportthethesis,andtoemphasizethesignificanceofeachclaimtotheargument.

“Wefoundthat[claim1],whichonitsownwouldhavedemandedasignificantshiftinpolicy,butwhenwealsoconsider[claim2],itisnolongeraquestionofneed,butofurgencyinthehighestdegree.”

Sometimes,theprocessofwritingtheconclusionwillrevealaholeintheargument,andyoucanusethisdraftasaprompttogobacktotheresearchphasetofillthegapinknowledge.Keepinmind,though,thatanynewclaims

orevidencemustbeintegratedintothebodyparagraphsofthepaper.Thereshouldbenonewevidenceorclaimspresentedintheconclusion.

Optional:RecommendationsandChallengesInthisstageoftheconclusion,you’vewrappedupyourargumentandarenowaskingpeopletothinkmorebroadly.Youcanofferrecommendationsforreaderstochangetheirbehaviorbasedonwhatthey’velearnedfromtheessay.Youcanpaintapictureofthefuture—eitheronewherethecurrentstatecontinuesoronewherethechangesyouconsiderinthepaperareimplemented.Oryoucanmakeasocietalchallengeofsomekind.

“So,ifgriefisnatural,andwehaveseenthatitis,wemustdiscontinueourpracticeofavoidingthediscomfortofdeathandthesadnessofthebereaved.Wemustbegintoembracethelowsoflifeaswellasthehighs.”

“Wehaveseenthatpolyamoryisaviablesocialalternativetomarriageandcanresultinrelationshipsevenmorecommittedandreliable,butwhatdoesthatmeanforyou?Willyoucontinuetoclingtotraditionandspurnthosewholiveinnon-traditionalways?Willyoubeoneoftheforcesslammingthedoorshutonsocialacceptanceof‘differentothers’?Orwillyouopenyourmindandyourheartandrecognizethatthereareotherwaysofbeingthatworkaswellasyourown?”

“Armednowwiththeknowledgeofhowdirethesituationis,wemustact.Thethreemostimportantareasforustoimplementpersonalchangesare…”

Thisportionoftheconclusionwon’tapplytoalltopics,andit’scertainlynotarequirement.Youmaychoosetoleavethereadertoconsidertheimplicationsoftheargument,ratherthancreatingakindofcalltoaction.Youmaywanttotrybothversionsandseewhichoneyouprefer.

Optional:IntroductoryOpeningRevisitedWhilethisoptionmayfeelunnecessary,afterallthathasgoneintoyourconclusion,atleastconsiderrevisitingtheopeningtoyourintroduction.Itcanbeverysatisfyingtoareadertohavetheclosurethatevenjustafewsuch

sentencescanprovide.

Say,forexample,thatyourintroductionbeganwithadescriptionofapre-teengirlinadrug-riddledcitybeingforcedtowalkthestreetstoearnmoneyforherparents’drughabit.Ifit’sapowerfulimage,itwilllingerinthereader’smind.Bringingthereaderbacktothatimageintheconclusioncanclosetheemotionalloopforthereader,showinghimorherhowindividualaction,orachangeinpolicy,canchangethesituationforthisgirl.Thepowerofthatemotioncansignificantlyaddtothepowerofyourargument,soyouwouldn’twanttowastetheopportunity.

Youmayhavebegunyourpaperwithaquotation,ratherthananimage,orwithaquestion.Revisitingthosewordsnowoffersasparkofrecognitioninthereaderandsubconsciouslymakestheargumentseemsolidandwellthought-out.

Whileyouneedn’tgetoverlyemotionalwithyourending,youdowanttomaketheconclusionpowerful.Therefore,avoidweakeningyourargumentinanywayhere,by,forexample,makingconcessions,belittlingyourselfasinexpert,oradmittingtonotdoingenoughresearch.Makeyourcaseandstickbyit,endingstrongandwithintegrity.

Attributions

ModesofPersuasion:Ethos,Pathos,andLogos

““AudienceAnalysis”.”http://www.comm.pitt.edu/oral-comm-lab/audience-analysis.UniversityofPittsburgh-DepartmentofCommunicationCCBY-SA3.0.

“Rhetoric.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetoric.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Logos.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logos.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“ethos.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ethos.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/RhetoricalAnalysis.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Rhetorical_Analysis%23Critical_ReadingWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/Analyzingassignments.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Analyzing_assignments%23Rhetorical_AnalysisWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“pathos.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pathos.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“HealthEffectsofCigaretteSmoking.”http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/health_effects/effects_cig_smoking/CentersforDiseaseControlPublicdomain.

“Acupuncture:WhatYouNeedtoKnow.”https://nccih.nih.gov/health/acupuncture/introduction.NationalInstitutesofHealthPublicdomain.

“Allsizes|[PortraitofJuneChristy,1947or1948](LOC)|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/library_of_congress/5354175531/sizes/l/in/photostream/FlickrPublicdomain.

ApproachestoYourIntroductoryParagraph

““IntroductionandThesis.”.”https://www.boundless.com/writing/textbooks/boundless-writing-textbook/writing-across-disciplines-254/writing-in-the-natural-and-social-sciences-the-research-paper-and-the-imrad-model-275/introduction-and-thesis-80-10363/.BoundlessLicense:Other.

ApproachestoYourBodyParagraphsApproachestoYourConcludingParagraph

2.5:QuotingandParaphrasing2.5.1:TheBasicsofQuotations

Whenyou’rewritingapaper,itisimportanttoavoidvaguegeneralizations,especiallywhenitcomestoparaphrasingotherauthors.

LearningObjective

Identifyproblematicgeneralizations

KeyPoints

Vaguetermslike“criticssay”or“iswidelyregardedas”thatattempttotaketheplaceofparticularexamplesweakenevidencebynotcitingspecificsources.Quotingandparaphrasingtheideasandknowledgeothershavesetforthisawaytoshowyourreaderhowyouarrivedatyourconclusions.Youmustalwaysciteideas,aswellasanyotherinformationotherthancommonlyknownandacceptedfacts.Quotationsaremostappropriatewhentheauthorisparticularlywell-known,whenyouwanttoaddanairofauthoritytotheinformation,andwhentheexactwordsareparticularlyeloquent.Paraphrasinggivesyoumoreflexibilitywithsentencestructureandallowsthereadertohearyouruniquevoiceandreasoninginthepaper.

KeyTerms

quote

Torepeattheexactwordsofanotherwiththeacknowledgementofthesource.

quotation

Afragmentofahumanexpressionthatisbeingreferredtobysomebodyelse.

paraphrase

Torestateanother’sthoughtsorideasindifferentwords.

AvoidingGeneralitiesWhenwritingapaper,itisimportanttoavoidvaguegeneralizations,especiallywhenitcomestocharacterizingthethoughtsofothers,whethertheyholdsimilarorcontrarypositionstoyourown.Catch-allphrasessuchas“criticssay”or“iswidelyregardedas”arevagueandunconvincingbecausetheyhavenobasisforverification.Thesetypesofphrasesmightseemusefultocondenseresearchwhereyou’vediscoveredubiquitousagreementonaparticularposition,butinthosecases,itwouldbebettertociteaseriesofauthorsorquoteaparticularinstanceratherthanmakeasweepinggeneralization.Aproperlyplacedquotationcanarticulateyourpositionandprovidesubstantiationatthesametime.Mostoftenaquotationistakenfromtheliterature,butalsosentencesfromaspeech,scenesfromamovie,elementsofapainting,etc.maybequotediftheyfurthertheargumentyou’retryingtomake.

Diditdriveyoucrazyasakidwhenanadultinyourlifetoldyouyouhadtodosomething“BecauseIsaidso!,”andofferednootherjustification?Thinkofthatwhenyou’reabouttowrite,“Theysaythat…,”or“Mostpeopleagree…”You’renotgivingthereaderanyreasontobelieveyou.They’regoingtofurrowtheirbrowsjustasyoudidasachild,andyourtrustwithyourreaderwillbecompromised.

CollectingQuotationsWhileyou’reresearchingyourtopic,whenabrilliantlywordedsentencecatchesyoureye,saveit.Whenyoufindastatementsummarizingevidenceyouplantouseorevidenceyouthinkyoumightuse,saveit.Lookforstatementsthatconcurwithyourargument,butalsoforassertionsthatcontradictyourclaims,asyou’llusetheseforrefutationpurposes.

YoucanuseprogramslikeZoteroorEndNote,orsimplydragthequotationintoadocument.Justmakesureyou’realsosavingthecompletesourcematerial(forbothin-textcitationsandthereferencepage),soyouwon’thavetogosearchingforitlater.Ifyoucanorganizeyourquotationsbytopic,somuchthebetter.They’llbemucheasiertofindwhenyouneedthem.

WhentoQuote,Paraphrase,and

CiteIt’simportantfirsttorecognizewhencitationsarerequired.IntheU.S.,ideasarealwaysattributedtothethinkerorwriter,asareanyfactsdiscoveredthroughresearch.Ifyoufindinformationataparticularsource,you’llusuallyneedtocitethatsource,thoughcommonlyknownandacceptedfacts(suchastheundisputeddatesofaparticularwar,forexample,orthepoundequivalentof32ounces)neednotbecited.

Therearetimeswhenaquotationwillgiveyoumaximumimpactandtimeswhenparaphrasingismoreeffective.Lookatthefollowingalternativesinapaperabouttransformingculturalmores.

“Theweakcanneverforgive.Forgivenessistheattributeofthestrong,”(Gandhi,1931).Infact,asGandhisaidin1931,offeringforgivenessisnotadisplayofweakness,butindeed,itsopposite.

Inthiscase,whilethesecondsentenceisn’tabadsummaryoftheidea,boththesyntaxofthedirectquoteandthereputationofthespeakermakethequotationfarmorepowerfulthantheparaphrasedreference.Quotationsareusefulwhentheauthorisparticularlywell-known,whenyouwanttoaddanairofauthoritytotheinformation,andwhentheexactwordsareparticularlyeloquentorhistoricallysignificant.Thisonemeetsallthecriteria.

Here’sonefromanessayabouttheuseofalternativemedicine:

OnebrightspotintheongoingcampaignagainsthumantraffickinghasbeentheUnitedNations,foundedaftertheWorldWarII.

Inthiscase,there’snoneedtoquoteorparaphrase.Thefirstpartofthesentenceisyouropinion,andthesecondpartisgeneralandundisputedknowledge.WidelyacceptedfactslikewhentheUNwasfoundedneedn’tbeparaphrasedorcited.IfyouweretothengoontotelluswhatexactlytheUNhasdonetocombathumantrafficking,you’dneedtociteyoursources.

Here’sanexampleofparaphrasing:

Thereareactually69,436,660registeredCatholicsintheUnitedStates(22%oftheU.S.population)accordingtotheAmericanbishops’countintheirOfficialCatholicDirectory2013.

Youwouldn’tneedtoquotethedirectory,becausethere’snomorepowerin

thequotethaninyoursummaryofit.Butsinceitisaprecisenumberthatisn’tcommonknowledge,youdoneedtociteit.Noticethattheword“actually”iscoloringthephrase.It’stheauthor’swayofdisputingapossibleperceptionthatthereligionisindecline.Thisishowusingyourownwordsgivestheoptionofcontextualizing.Paraphrasinggivesyoumoreflexibilitywithsentencestructureandallowsthereadertohearyouruniquevoiceandreasoninginthepaper.

Thecatchwithparaphrasingisthatyouneedtobesurethatallthewordsyou’reusingareactuallyyourown,otherthanconventionaltermsanddesignations(like“registeredCatholics”).Ifthereareparticularphraseswithinaworkyou’reparaphrasingthatyou’dliketoquotedirectly,you’llwanttoputquotesaroundthosephrases,likethis:

InDemocracyMatters,forexample,WestadvocatesrevisitingthefoundationoftheU.S.Constitutiontorecognizeandcounter“freemarketfundamentalism”whichhebelieves,amongotherpolicies,hasundercutthedocument’sintention(West,2004).

Here,thephrase“freemarketfundamentalism”isclearlyaphraseuniquetoWest’sworkandmustberecognizedassuchbyusingthequotationmarks.

ToQuoteortoParaphrase?Considerwhetheryoushouldquote,paraphrase,orsimplystatethefollowingexamples:

1. Onlife:“90percentofitishalfmental.”2. About68percent[ofpeopleoverage25intheU.S.]donothavea

bachelor’sdegree.3. FewerhomeswerelosttofiresinSanDiegoCountylastyearthanthis

year.4. Bitterherbcombinationshavebeenusedforcenturiestostimulatethe

digestivesystem.5. “[Thedisappearanceofhoneybees]isthebiggestgeneralthreattoour

foodsupply.”

Thefirstsentenceisagoodexampleofsomethingyoushouldquote.Knowingwhosaidit(YogiBerra)isimportant,becauseit’sanoriginalthought,andbecauseknowingthespeakerisonereasonwhyit’sfunny.Youwouldn’twanttoparaphraseitbecausetheexactwordsareimportanttothehumorandthewordingisuniquetothespeaker.

Number2couldbeparaphrasedorquoted,butparaphrasingmightbethebetterchoicebecauseyoucouldleaveoutthebracketsandputthestatisticincontextofwhateveryou’rewritingabout—forexample,“Infact,despitetheassumptionsofmanymiddleclassparents,onlyabout32percentofpeoplelivingintheUnitedStateshavecompletedabachelor’sdegree,”(2015,Politifact.com).

Number3isabitofagrayareaasfarascitationisconcerned.Youmightassumethatit’sacommonfactthatcouldbefoundanywhere,andsoyouwouldn’tneedtociteit.Thatsaid,itmaydependonthecontextofthequote,andwhetherit’sadisputedidea.Ifyourreaderquestionsit,you’regoingtolosecredibilitywithoutacitationthatheorshecanfollowupon.Ifitisdisputed,you’llwanttoparaphraseandcitethesource.It’snotlikelythatquotingdirectlywouldprovidemorecredibility,soitisthereforeunnecessary.

Number4wouldgenerallynotneedtobecited,thoughyou’lllikelybefollowingitupwithmorespecificinformationthatwill.Youmightconsiderthataquotefromanherbalistordoctorofferingthesameinformationmightgivetheskepticalreaderafeelingofbeingonmoresolidground.

Number5isoneyou’llwanttoquotedirectly,asthepersonwhosaidit(KevinHackett,oftheUSDA)isakeypersoninthedebateabouthoneybeecolonycollapseandwhattodoaboutit.You’llnotethatthere’snoquestionaboutwhetherornottocitethesource,becauseit’sanoriginalthought,notacommonfact.

Yousee,then,thatwhiletheissueofcitationisrelativelystraightforward—whenindoubt,cite—thequestionofquotationversusparaphraseissubtler.It’sadecisionbasedbothontheneedsoftheargumentandartisticsensibility.

Therevisionprocesswillbehelpfulinthisregard.You’llnoticeifyourpaperplodsfromonequotetoanother,overwhelmingthereaderwithotherpeople’swords.You’llalsonoticewhetheritseemslessthanauthoritativeandneedsthebackingofdirectquotes.Thecitations,throughout,areafoundationalelement,showingthereaderhowyourargumentdevelopedandwhyyouthinkasyoudoaboutthesubject.Letthosewhoseshouldersyou’restandingonsupportyou,butdon’tletthemtakeover.It’syourpaper,afterall.

2.5.2:IntroducingandFormattingQuotations

Toquoteanauthor,copytheauthor’sexactlanguageandusequotationmarkstoshowyouarereproducinglanguagefromanothersource.

LearningObjective

Applyformattingrulesforusingquotations

KeyPoints

Usequotationmarksaroundastatementtogivetheoriginalwriterorspeakercredit.Whenyouintroduceaquote,paycloseattentiontotheproperuseofquotationmarksandrelatedpunctuation.Toparaphraseistorestateanotherauthor’spointinyourownwords.Whenyouparaphrase,youdon’tneedtousequotationmarks,butyoustillneedtogivecredittotheauthorandprovideacitation.Otherwise,youarecommittingplagiarism.

KeyTerms

quotation

Afragmentofahumanexpressionthatisbeingreferredtobysomebodyelse.

paraphrase

Arestatementofatextindifferentwords,oftentoclarifymeaning.

quotationmarks

Symbolsusedtodenoteaquotationinwriting,writtenatthebeginningandendofthequotation.

QuotingversusParaphrasingParaphrasingisusingaparticularideathatyoutookfromanotherauthorandputtingitinyourownwords.Quotingisusingtheexactwordsofanotherauthor.Bothmethodshelpyouintroduceanotherauthor’sworkasameansofstrategicallyimprovingthepersuasivenessofyourpaper.Generally,youwillchooseaquotationratherthanparaphrasingwhenyouwanttoaddanairofauthoritytotheinformationyou’representing,whenthewordsyou’reusingareofferedbyasourceimportanttoyourparticulartopic,orwhentheexactwordshavehistoricalrelevanceorareparticularlyeloquent.

Toquoteanauthor,youshouldcopytheauthor’sexactlanguageandframe

thewordswithquotationmarks,whichsignalsthatyouarereproducingexactlanguagefromanothersource.Quotationmarksgivefullcredittotheoriginalauthor,soyou’llneedtomakeitclearwhosewordstheyare.

IntroducingaQuotationAnintroductorytagisonewaytoeffectivelyintroducequotations.Thisisalsoknownasa“signalphrase.”Anintroductorytagisaphrasethatintroducesaquotebyprovidingtheauthority’snameandastrongverb.Forexample:

DesmondTutucounters,“Racism,xenophobiaandunfairdiscriminationhavespawnedslavery,whenhumanbeingshaveboughtandsoldandownedandbrandedfellowhumanbeingsasiftheyweresomanybeastsofburden.”

Thisisonlyonewaytointroduceaquotation,however,andifit’stheonlymethodyouuse,yourpapercouldbegintosoundstilted.Considerincorporatingthequoteintoasentenceinotherways,aswell.Youmay,forexample,explainthequotebeforeofferingit:

Thousandsofyearsago,GautamaBuddhawasofferingteachingsonhownottoholdontohostilities,saying:“Youwillnotbepunishedforyouranger,youwillbepunishedbyyouranger.”Thisisbynomeansanewproblem.

FormattingandPunctuatingQuotationsQuotationscallforspecialrulesregardingpunctuation:

Ifaquotationisintroducedformally,useacolon.

Theauthorexplicitlystates:“SocrateswasonlyafigmentofPlato’simagination.”

Ifaquotationissetoffwith“hesaid”or“shesaid”(ortheimplicationofit),useacommaprecedingthequotation.

Useanellipsis(…)toindicatethatthereismoretothequotethanyouofferhere.

Hebroughtlistenerstotearswhenheendedhislastbroadcastwithhis

familiar,“Andthat’sthewayitis…”

Ifyourquotationhasaquotationwithinit,theinnerquotationneedsapairofsinglequotationmarksandtheouterneedsapairofdoublequotationmarks.

Thisisthepivotalpartofthestory:“Thedoormancriedout,‘Youforgotyourcoat!’asheranafterthecab.”

Ifyouchoosetobreakupasingle-sentencequotationwithyourownwords,usecommastooffsetthequotationfromyourexplanation.

“Inthemiddleofthenovel,”thecriticclaims,“themaincharacter’sreflectionsarerestrictedbyhissenseofimpendingchange.”

Periodsandcommasshouldbeplacedinsidethequotationmarks.Colons,semicolons,anddashesshouldbeplacedoutsidethequotationmarks.Questionmarksandexclamationpointsshouldbeplacedinsidethequotationmarks,unlessthepunctuationappliestothewholesentence(notjustthequote).

Whentheteam’sbestplayersaid,“We’reinforabadseason,”itbecameclearthattheteam’smoralewasflagging.WasAmericareallylisteningwhenPresidentKennedysaid,“Askwhatyoucandoforyourcountry”?

WhentoUseBracketsWithinQuotationsWhenusingquotations,youneedtobeverycarefultocopythewordsastheyappearinthesourcetext.However,youmayfindthataquotationdoesnotgrammaticallyalignwiththewayyouwanttouseit,orthattherelevanceofthequotationmaynotbereadilyapparenttoareader.Whenthathappens,youmightwanttochangeitslightlyinordertomakeitfityouressay.Insuchcases,squarebracketsshouldbeusedaroundwordsnotcontainedintheoriginalquote.

Bracketscanbeusedtodothefollowing:

Clarifymeaning:

“[Fiestas]arethelifebloodofthisregion.Weneedtohonorour

traditionseven,andespecially,aftertragedy.”Sr.Gomeztoldreporters.(Theoriginalquotationusedthepronoun“They,”inanswertoareporter’squestionaboutafiesta.)

Encloseachangeinverbtensetobetterflowwithyoursentence:

Silvenmaintainedtheassertionthroughouthislife:“Itseemsunlikelythatthispairing[was]duetoahumanneedforcompanionship.”

Encloseanexplanatoryphraseifawordisn’tclear:

RenownedfamilytherapistVirginiaSatironcemused,“Ihaveoftenthoughthadtherebeensomebodylikemearound,somethingmighthavebeenabletobedone[aboutherowndivorce].”

BlockQuotationsIfyouareusingalongquotation(fourormoretypedlines),insteadofquotationmarks,youshouldindenttheentirequotationfivespaces.Ifthequoteistwoormoreparagraphs,indentthefirstlineofeachparagraphsanadditionalfivespaces(maintainingtheindentoftherestofthequote).Whenusingthisformat,youdonotneedtousequotationmarks.

Quotationonarock

AquoteonthewallofThierryEhrmann’s“AbodeofChaos.”Thisgraffiti-stylequotationcitesitssourcetextandpagenumber.

2.5.3:Paraphrasing

Appropriatelyparaphrasingtheideasofresearchersandauthorscanaddstrengthtoyourargument.

LearningObjective

Distinguishbetweenparaphrasingandsummarizing

KeyPoints

Whenusingyourownwordstodiscusssomeoneelse’swork,youareparaphrasing;whenyouusethewordsofsomeoneelse,youarequoting.Bothmethodshelpyoutointroduceanotherauthor’sworkasameansofstrategicallyimprovingthepersuasivenessofyourpaper,byprovidinganexampleorevidencerelevanttoaclaimthatyouhavemade.Argumentsaremorepowerfulwhensourcematerialiswoventhroughthepaperwithparaphrasing,savingquotationsformomentsofimpact,authority,andeloquence.Ifaquotationneedstobesubstantiallychanged,itmaybebettertosimplyparaphrasetheauthor’sideasinyourownwords.Fullyunderstandingthecontextofthewordsyou’reparaphrasing,andcitingthesourcecompletely,givesanauthenticrepresentationofthesourceandstrengthensyourargument.

KeyTerms

context

Thesurroundings,circumstances,environment,orbackgroundthatdetermine,specify,orclarifythemeaningofapieceofwriting.

quotation

Afragmentofahumanexpressionthatisbeingreferredtobysomebodyelse.

citation

Aparaphraseofapassagefromabook,orfromanotherperson,forthepurposesofascholarlypaper.

Asyou’rewritingyourpaper,you’llwanttobringinevidencetosupportyourclaims.You’llgenerallydothisthroughparaphrasingandquotingwhatyou’vediscoveredintheresearchphaseofyourwritingprocess.Here,we’llfocusonparaphrasing,notingitsappropriateuseanddifferentiatingitfrom

otherformsofcitations.

ParaphrasingIsDifferentfromSummarizingWhenyousummarizeanarticleorbook,you’reprovidinganoverviewofthework,highlightingitsmajorfindingsorthemes.Asummaryislikelookingatadistantsourcethroughatelescope:thegeneralshapeandideasareclear,butthedetailsarefuzzy.Youmayneedtoofferasummaryifyourtopicisabookorastudypotentiallyunknowntoyourreader,sothatheorshehasabasisforunderstandingtheargumenttocome,butwhenofferingevidence,you’llusuallybechoosingtoparaphraseratherthansummarize.

Youwanttoleadyourreader,inyourpaper,alongthepaththatbroughtyoutoyourintellectualconclusion:thethesisstatementyousetoutintheintroduction.Thatmeansyou’llbepresentingthereaderwiththeresearchthatconvincedyouofthisstatement,includingstatisticsthatimpressedyou,others’argumentsfororagainstaparticularposition,factsyouencounteredthatshiftedyourperspective,andevenstoriesorexamplesthattouchedyouemotionally.Theseallcamefromsomewhere,andyou’llwanttosharetheiroriginswithyourreaders.Thereareacouplereasonsforthis:

Readersliketobeabletocheckthingsoutforthemselves.Youmaytellthemthat39.4%ofadultsintheU.S.areobese,buttheymayfindthathardtobelieve.Whentheycheckoutthesource(theCentersforDiseaseControl),however,they’lllikelybeconvincedandmorewillingtoacceptthepremiseyou’rebuildingon.Citingsourcesmakesyoucrediblewithbothyouraudienceandwiththoseyou’reparaphrasing.Itshowsyou’renotpretendingthattheinformationyou’vegatheredissolelyfromyourownmind,butyou’rebuildingonwhatothershavesaid,observed,andexperienced.That’swhatresearchisallabout.

Paraphrasingwillbethemostcommonwaytosharewithyourreaderswhatyou’vefound.Whenyouparaphrase,you’remaintainingthesamelevelofdetailastheoriginalsource(unlikesummarizing),butyou’resynthesizingwhatyou’vereadtocreateaseamlessargument.

WhyNotJustUseQuotations?

Imaginehowchoppyapaperwouldbe,jumpingfromoneperson’swordstoanother,toanother,andanotherwithonlytransitionsentencesinbetween.Itwouldbeverydifficulttofollow,andyourownvoicewouldbedrownedoutbyallthe“experts.”Expositorywritingisn’taboutgivingusotherpeople’sopinions—it’saboutgivingusyourown.Thoseothervoicesaretheretosupportyouandyourargument.

Whatyou’llbedoing,then,iswritingwhatyouthinkandweavinginevidencetosupportyourthinking.Forexample,lookatthefollowingparagraph:

“Anethicalapproach,whilebothadmirableandarguablyanimprovementintoday’seducationalsystem,doesnotgofarenoughasamethodoftrulyconnectinghumanbeingstooneanotherandtotheirtruenature.InherbookCaring:AFeminineApproachtoEthicsandMoralEducation,NelNoddingsoffersamorefeminineapproachtoeducation—onebasedonreceptivity—thatprioritizescaringoverjustice.”

YouseeherethatthewriterhasafirmgraspofboththetopicandtheapproachNelNoddingsdescribes.Eventhoughheiscitingevidenceandevenaspecificsource,thevoiceisstillhis,weavingDr.Noddings’sthoughtsintohisown.Thiskindofweavingistheprimaryreasontouseparaphrasing.

Anotherreasonistosavedirectquotationsforimpact.Ifyouquoteonlywhenthesourcewillofferanairofauthoritytoyourargument,whentheexactwordsareeitherhistoricallyimportantorparticularlyeloquent,orwhenthesourceisofprimaryimportancetoyourtopic,thequoteswillcarrymuchmoreweight.Inallotherinstances,paraphrasingwillmovethenarrativealongmuchmoresmoothly,tyingittoyourownstylealongtheway.

Evenwhenyouwanttouseaquote,itsometimesneedstobechangedsosubstantiallytofityournarrativethatitmaybebettertosimplycitetheauthor’sideasinyourownwords.

AuthenticityinParaphrasingAswithanyinstanceofappealingtoanotherauthor’sworkwithinyourown,whetheryouuseparaphrasingorquotation,theprimarycriterionforuseshouldalwaysbeitsrelevancetoyourthesisandclaims.However,you’llneedtobesurethatyou’renottwistingormanipulatinganotherauthor’swordstomatchyourownpurposes.

Makenotesduringtheresearchphaseonthecontextofeachpieceofevidenceyoufind,anddouble-checkthatcontextforrelevancetoyourownclaim.This

willensurethatyouhavenotmisusedanotherauthor’sworkforyourownpurposes.

Ifyoufindanarticlethatquotesabook,aninterview,oranotherarticle,doyourbesttotrackdowntheoriginalsourcesoyoucanbesureofitscontext.Forexample,peoplesometimesquoteRobertFrostassaying,“Goodfencesmakegoodneighbors.”Ifyoureadthepoem,however,you’llfindthatthesentenceisironic:it’sasadquipofferedbytheneighborofthenarratorinthepoem,notamaximforhowtolivewell.

FormsofCitationAnotherpartofauthenticity,ofcourse,iscitingyoursourcescorrectlyandcompletely.Theformofcitationwithinthetextwillvarybasedonthestyleyou’reaskedtouse,butyouwillneed,ataminimum,thetitleoftheworkandthenameofthecollection(ifany)itisin,thepublicationdate,theauthor’sorauthors’name(s),theeditor’sname,ifany,andthepagenumber(s)ofthematerialyou’reparaphrasing.Allofthishelpsyourreaderfindthesourcematerial.

Interlockingarchitecturalcomponents

Paraphrasinglinksyourownthinkingwiththeideasandresearchofothers,creatingastrongandengagingargument.

Attributions

TheBasicsofQuotations

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“CatholicChurchintheUnitedStates.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_the_United_StatesWikipediaCCBY-SA.

“SandalwoodOil.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandalwood_oil%23cite_note-1.WikipediaCCBY-SA.

“IntroducingandFormattingQuotations.”https://www.boundless.com/writing/textbooks/boundless-writing-textbook/writing-an-effective-paper-235/quoting-and-paraphrasing-240/introducing-and-formatting-quotations-91-1349/.BoundlessLicense:Other.

“QuotingRelevantPassages.”https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/academic-writing-3/quoting-19/quoting-relevant-passages-90-535/.BoundlessLicense:Other.

“WritingBetterUniversityEssays/Mainpart.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Writing_Better_University_Essays/Main_part%23Weasel_TermsWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“quotation.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quotation.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

IntroducingandFormattingQuotations

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“quotationmarks.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quotation_marks.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“paraphrase.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/paraphrase.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“Paraphrasing.”https://www.boundless.com/writing/textbooks/boundless-writing-textbook/writing-an-effective-paper-235/quoting-and-paraphrasing-240/paraphrasing-93-1348/.BoundlessLicense:Other.

“IntroducingQuotations.”https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/academic-writing-3/quoting-19/introducing-quotations-92-8169/.BoundlessLicense:Other.

“RhetoricandComposition/QuotationMarks.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Quotation_MarksWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“quotation.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quotation.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“QuoteonRock.jpg.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/home_of_chaos/3081512135/in/photostream/“Ecrire,voilàl’acteterroristeabsolu…_DDC3707.JPG|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”CCBY2.0.

Paraphrasing

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“NelNoddings.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nel_Noddings.WikipediaPublicdomain.

“citation.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/citation.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“WritingBetterUniversityEssays/Referencing.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Writing_Better_University_Essays/Referencing%23Citations_and_QuotationsWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“quotation.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quotation.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“Interlocked|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/mpcevat/7214860714/.FlickrCCBY2.0.

2.6:IncorporatingObjectionsandOpposingViews2.6.1:TheImportanceofAddressingOpposingViews

Whenyouconsiderandcounteractopposingarguments,youstrengthenyourownargument.

LearningObjective

Matchanargumenttoacorrespondingcounterargument

KeyPoints

Anargumentisawrittenorspokenformofdefense.Anargumentshouldtakeastanceaboutaparticularpointofview,thesis,orclaim.Trytoanticipatewhatobjectionsyourreadersmighthavetoyourargument,andtrytounderstandwhytheymightobject.Anacademicargumentsupportsitsclaimwithsoundreasoning,research,andevidencesuchasfacts,statistics,andquotedopinionsfromauthoritiesonbothsidesoftheargument.Askepticalreaderhasadoubtful,questioningattitude,andexpectsathoroughpresentationoflogicalreasoningandevidence.Thiscanbeahelpfulaudiencetokeepinmindwhenwritingyourpaper.Intheresearchphase,gatheringevidenceagainstyourargumentwillhelpyourefutecounterargumentsinthewritingstage.

KeyTerms

counterargument

Anargumentthatisopposedtoanotherargument.

argument

Anattempttopersuadesomeoneofsomething,bygivingreasonsorevidenceforacceptingaparticularconclusion.

refute

Toprovesomething(astatement,theory,claim,argument)orsomeonewrong.

Anargumentmust,bydefinition,takeastanceonanissueandprovideevidenceforaparticularconclusion.However,writersmayneglectthenextstep,whichisjustasimportant:discussingopposingviewpointsandprovidingcounterarguments.

SincereExplorationofCounterargumentsJustasacriminaltrialisostensiblyaboutfindingoutthetruthofwhathappenedduringthecrime,considerthattheaimofyourpaperistogettothetruthoftheissueyou’readdressing.Thereisfarlesssatisfactioninmakingaconvincingargumentifobjectionsareleftunansweredandevidenceissweptundertherug.Youwouldn’twantyourverdicttobeoverturnedonappeal!

ResearchBothSidesThebestwaytocounteractanopposingviewpointistoanticipatewhatanopponentmightsay.Whenresearchingthetopic,then,don’tlimityourselftosympatheticsources;findsourcesthatdisagreewithyourargument.Takenoteoftheirrationaleanduseofevidence.Thatway,youwillbefamiliarenoughwiththeseopposingviewpointstoargueagainstthem.Whenyouencounterdissentingopinions,trytofigureoutwhysmartandrationalpeoplewouldholdthosepositions.Whatevidencedotheylookat?Howdotheyinterpretthatevidence?Whymighttheydisagreewithyourpointofview?

Whenwe’repassionateaboutatopic,emotionscansometimescloudourrationality.Wetendtohavedisdainforopposingargumentsandaren’topentoevenhearingwhatthoseontheothersidehavetosay.Tomoveyourselfoutofthisemotionalrealmandbackintotherealmofthewell-reasonedargument,trytakingastrategyfromdebatetournaments.Debaterspreparefortournamentsbygatheringinformationonbothsidesofatopic.Theyactuallydon’tknowwhichsidethey’llbearguinguntilthedebatebegins,andsotheymustbejustaspreparedtoarguethesidetheydon’tagreewithastheonetheybelievein.Asyou’reresearching,then,takethedebater’sapproachto

gatheringinformationsoyou’llbeverywell-informedabouttheopposingviews.

Debatetournament

Atadebatetournament,youdon’tknowwhatsideoftheargumentyou’llbeassignedto,soyouhavetoresearchbothsides!

UnderstandtheOtherPointofViewWhenyouencounterthesedissentingopinions,getcurious.Trytofigureoutwhysmartandrationalpeoplewouldholdthosepositions.Whatevidencedotheylookat?Howdotheyinterpretthatevidence?Whatlifeexperiencesmightleadthemtodisagreewithyourpointofview?

Forexample,apersonwhohasgrownuphuntinginacommunitythathasneverexperiencedgunviolencemighthaveaverydifferentperspectiveonguncontrolthansomeonewhosechildwasthevictimofashooting.Duringtheresearchphase,you’llwanttohavearespectfulvisionofboththesepeopleinyourmindtobuildanargumentthatmighthelpincreasetheunderstandingofwheretheotheriscomingfrom.

Then,whenyoubeginstructuringyourargument,imaginehowyourskepticalreadermightreacttoyourthesisstatementandeachofyourclaims.Imaginethatthisreaderissmart,informed,hasthoughtcarefullyabouttheissue,andhasreachedatotallydifferentconclusion.Trytopersuadethisreader;workhardtodemonstratewhyyourpositionismoreconvincingthanthealternatives.

Forexample,tobegindiscussingthelegalizationofphysicianaid-in-dyingwithanaudiencethatmaybeinitiallyaversetotheidea,youmightbeginwith

somethinglikethis:“Theimpendingdeathofalovedone,particularlyapersonwhocannolongercommunicateforherself,canposeintenseethicalandemotionalquestionsforthosedesignatedtomakemedicaldecisionsforthepatient.Hasteningdeathcanseemantitheticaltothegoalsofmedicine,andtheartificialextensionoflifethroughinvasiveand/orriskymedicalproceduresoftendoesnotprovideaneasieralternative.So,howmightonegoaboutmakingsuchfundamentaldecisions?”

ProveYourPointIntroducingopposingviewpointsisnecessary,butdonotstopthere.Theburdenofproofisonyou,astheauthoroftheargument.Ifyoufailtoneutralizeacommonobjection,readerswillhaveanexcusetorejectyourargument.Justasyoubuiltyourownargument,torefuteopposingviews,you’llneedtoincludeevidencefromresearchstudies,statistics,andquotedopinionsfromexperts.

Thestrongestargumentsarethosewhichcarefullyconsiderallperspectivesinanattempttofindthemostreasonableviewoftheissue.Yourreaderswilldeeplyappreciateyoureffortsbecausetheyshowrespectforboththeseriousnessofyourmissionandforthereadersthemselves.Enjoytheprocess!

Rugby

Anticipatingyouropponents’objectionscanhelpyoustructureyourargumentsmoresoundly.

2.6.2:TechniquesforAcknowledgingOpposingViews

Youcanboostyourcredibilitybyacknowledgingspecificsourceswhodisagreewithyourposition,theneffectivelyrefutingtheirarguments.

LearningObjective

Modifylanguagetobeneutralintonewhenpresentingacounterargument

KeyPoints

Iftheopposingviewthatyouareconsideringandcounteractingcomesfromanotherauthor,besuretointroducetheauthorandthepointofviewinaneutralway.Neutrallanguageisnotemotionallycharged,biased,orpolemical.Useneutrallanguagewhenyoupresentopposingviewpoints.Examplesofneutralwordsare“contends,”“argues,”“suggests,”“admits,”“claims,”and“believes.”Youcanintroducecounterargumentswithdirectquotationsfromanopposingexpertbyparaphrasing,byofferingarhetoricalexample,orbyofferingaconditionalstatement.Satirecanbeusedinlessformalessaystoinjecthumorandrelaxthereader’sdefenses.Usingstraw-mancounterargumentsandweakenedoppositionalstatements,whilesomewhattempting,willnotservetostrengthenyourownargumentbutwillseverelyweakenitbycausingthereadertoloserespectforit.

KeyTerms

strawman

Aninsubstantialconcept,idea,endeavor,orargument,particularlyonedeliberatelysetuptobeweaklysupported,sothatitcanbeeasilyknockeddown;especiallytoimpugnthestrengthofanyrelatedthingoridea.

concession

Aliterarydeviceinwhichoneacknowledgesthemeritsofanopposingargument.

neutral

Favoringneitherthesupportingnortheopposingviewpointofatopicofdebate;unbiased.

credibility

Reputationimpactingone’sabilitytobebelieved.

opposition

Anoppositeorcontrastingposition.

Makingastrongargumentincludesansweringanyofthepotentialobjectionsthatmayforminareader’smind.Yourjobduringtheresearchphaseistofindcounterargumentsandmaterialtorefutethem,andinthedraftingphasetoconstructyourargumentinawaythatincorporatestheseobjectionsandcounterarguments.We’llexaminebothphaseshere.

FindingCredibleSourcesforCounterargumentsYoucanboostyourcredibilitybyacknowledgingspecificsourceswhodisagreewithyourposition.Ifyousummarizeopposingviewswithoutattachingthemtoactualwriters,itmayappearasthoughyouhaven’tdoneyourresearch.However,ifyoucitecounterargumentsfromexpertsinthefield,andthenworktorefutethoseargumentseffectively,youcanlendauthoritytoyourownargument.

Asyou’reresearching,spendsometimeputtinginsearchtermsasifyouwerearguingfortheopposition.Ifyouconsistentlycomefromyoursideoftheissue,youmaymissarticlesbysomeofthestrongeropponents.Forexample,ifyou’rearguingforhate-crimelegislationandyoursearchtermsuseonlylanguagerelatedtothat,youmayfindcounterargumentsbasedonfreespeech,butyoumayexcludethosethatopposelegislationonreligiousgrounds.Beginningyoursearchcanbeassimpleasputtingthequestionintoasearchengine:“Whywouldanyoneopposehate-crimelegislation?”

Ofcourse,youdon’twanttostopthere.Justaswithyourownargument,you’llwanttofindthebestthinkersontheopposingsideoftheargument.Followthepathofeachobjectiontodiscoveritsroots.Gatherquotessummarizingtheirviewpointsandthengodiggingtofindstatisticsandotherresearchthatbothbackandcountertheirclaims.

Ifyourmindischangedintheprocess,sobeit!Youcanchangeyourthesisandclaimsandarguefortheothersideoftheissue.Eitherway,you’llbegatheringthebestinformationfrombothsidesoftheargumenttopresenttoyouraudience.

PresentingCounterargumentsinYourPaperThereareseveralwaystointroducetoyourreaderthecounterargumentsyou’veuncovered:quotingasourceforthecounterargument,paraphrasingasource,orusingyourownwordstoofferarhetoricalexampleorconditionalstatement.Whicheverwayyouchoosetobringthecounterargumentintothediscussion,however,you’llwanttouseneutrallanguage.

UsingNeutralLanguage

Makeitclearthatyouarepresentingsomeoneelse’sviewpoint,butdon’tuseemotionallycharged,biased,orpolemicallanguagetosummarizeit.Don’tdismissyouroppositionfromtheoutsetwithlanguagelikethis:“JohnSmithnaivelyargues…”Instead,youcouldsay,“JohnSmithcontends,”andthensummarizeJohnSmith’sview.YoucangoontoexplainexactlywhySmith’sopinionisnaive—butmakesureyougiveitafairshotfirst.Herearesomeexamplesofneutralverbsyoucanusetointroduceanotherauthor’sopposingview:“contends,”“argues,”“suggests,”“admits,”“claims,”“believes.”

Therearemanyvalidwaystointroduceanopposingview,butdotrytopresentitinaneutralmannerbeforeyoushootitdown.Themoreyourreadersbelievethatyouarebeingfairtoyouropponents,themorelikelytheyaretobeopentoyourrefutation.

Quotations

Youcanquoteanexpertinthefieldwhohaspubliclyobjectedtotheyourthesis.Oryoucanquoteapoliticianoranotherpublicfigurewhohasrecentlybroughtuptheissue(keepinginmindthatthislatteroptiondatesyourpaper),aslongasyoudoitrespectfully.Forexample:

“RaymondRodriguez,arguingin‘TheSocialContract’(Summer,1992)forclosingtheMexicanbordertoimmigration,suggeststhat‘Regulatingimmigrationisasimportantasenactingagreementstocontroltradeandpollutionoftheenvironment—andformanyofthesamereasons.Theviolationofanation’sterritorialintegrity,itssafetyandwell-being,cannotbetolerated.’Let’slookateachoftheseconcernsinturn.”

You’llnoticefirstthattheauthorhasanHispanicsurname,whichlendsethos

tohisperspective.You’llalsonoticethatthepublicationanddateisincluded,soareadercanquicklyandeasilyfindtheoriginalsourcematerial.Areadermightwanttoverifywhatyouquotehereandalsoseeifyou’vemanipulatedthecontextinanyway.(Areadermightbewondering,“Didhereallyjustcompareimmigrantstopollution?)You’vepresentedhiswordsrespectfully,however,allowingthemtospeakforthemselves.Andthelastsentencetellsthereaderyouwilldealwitheachoftheconcerns—violationofterritorialintegrity,safety,andwell-being—inyourrefutation.

Anadvantageofusingquotationsisthatyouareallowingtheoppositiontospeakforitself.Yourreadercan’tscoffthatyou’reofferinganinaccuratesummaryoftheargument,becauseyouareusingtheopposingexpert’swords.

Paraphrasing

Paraphrasingisasimilarapproachbutallowsyoutocontextualizethecomment.Youwillwanttoresistthetemptationtoskewthecomment’smeaningortoeditorialize!

“JonescontendsthatTheseusservesasacounterpointtoOberonandTitania,actingasajustandrighteousmonarchinsteadoffallingswaytowhimsandpersonaldesires.”

TheauthorofthispaperhasalreadyintroducedthereferencedexpertandishereintroducinganewportionofJones’scounterargument.It’spresentedreasonablyandrespectfully.

“Ofcourse,thereisapointtobemadethatnuclearenergycreateslesspollutionthanusingcoaloroil.”

Thisiscalledaconcession.Youareconcedingthattheopposingargumentisnotcompletelyfalse.Ofcourse,youwillgoontoexplainwhythiscounterargumentisnotconclusive,butasyouintroduceit,youshowthatyouunderstandthelogicalandrationalbasisfortheargument.

UsingaRhetoricalExampleorConditionalStatement

Anotherwaytopresentacounterargumentistointroduceitinyourownwordsintheformofanexample.Indoingthis,you’reactingasaproxyforyourreaders,voicingtheirpotentialobjections,hopefullyatjustthemomentthoseobjectionsariseintheirminds.

“Allthistalkabouttoleranceandthepossibilityofrehabilitationisnicein

theory,butwhatifitwasyourownparentorchildwhowaskilled?Wouldn’tthemeaningofajustsocietydepend,then,onthecourtactingonyourbehalf?”

Inthisexample,thewriterisputtinghimselfinhisreader’splace,voicingoneofthemostcommonandunderstandableobjectionstohisthesis.Hehasplacedthisobjectionjustafterhisclaimthatallpeopleshouldbegiventheopportunityforredemption,becauseheknowsthatthat’stheclaimthatismostlikelytoignitethiscounterargumentinthereader’smind.It’sarhetoricalexample(someonekillingalovedone)intheformofaseriesofquestions.

Aconditionalstatement(ifx,theny)givesthereader’sobjectionsavoiceinthecontextofthewriter’sargument

“Ifallpeoplesuddenlybecameveganinordertosavetheplanet,wouldthatcreateanoverpopulationoflivestockthatwouldthendoevenmoredamagetotheplanet?”

Here,thewriterapproachesconcessionbyacknowledgingthatitmakessensetoatleastconsiderthiscounterargument.Ifthisistrue,thenthatmaybetrue.

Whilealloftheaboveexamplesuseaseriousandrespectfultonetointroducecounterarguments,thereisanotheroptionthatcanbeeffective,dependingonyouraudienceandyourintentions.

UsingSatireasaRefutationStrategySatireisahumoroustonethatcanbedeployedinsummarizingapositioninordertonotonlydrawoutitsshortcomings,butalsotocorrectorchangetheshortcomingsoftheposition.Itislesslikelytobeusedinacademicwriting.

Forexample,inapopular(asopposedtoacademicorprofessional)essayadvocatingforstrictlyenforcedleashlawsincities,youmightwritesomethinglikethis:

“Whileitmayseemlikeanactofpet-friendlybeneficenceandtrusttoallowyourmutttoroamfreeinthestreets,exercisinghisrighttosniffandbitewhomeverhepleases,unrestrainedanimalsinpublicplacesultimatelyposeapotentialthreattothesafetyofpedestrians.”

Well-donesatirecanmakethereadersmile,perhapsevenifheorsheisone

ofthepet-friendlyownersreferencedintheparagraph.It’sgoodforustolaughatourselves,andwhenwedoso,wecanrelaxourdefensesandopenuptotheopposingargument.

Thetrickistousethistechniquewithoutalienatingreaders,andthatisnotaneasybalance.Ifyourreaderfeelsmocked,you’velosthim.Andevenifyourreaderagreeswithyourthesis,shemaybeturnedoffcompletelybythelackofrespectforotherreaders.

Youcanpokefunandberespectfulatthesametime.You’lljustneedtousethistechniquewithcautionandcare.

TheTemptationtoWeakentheOpposingArgumentYoumaybetemptedtoweakenanobjectiontoyourargumentbyturningitintoastrawman,oraflimsyversionoftheoriginalpoint.Astraw-manargumentcanmakeapointoverlysimplistic,describeanincompleteconceptortakeapointoutofcontext.Youmayhaveheardtalk-radiohostsandopinioncolumnistsemploythisstrategy.Thistactic,however,resultsintheunfairlabelingofothers’argumentsasuninformed,feeble,orotherwiseunworthyofaconsiderateresponse.Intruth,thestrawmanisawell-knowntactic,andreaderscandetectitquiteeasily.Ifyoushortchangetheopposingviewpoint,yourreaderswillsuspectthatyouaretryingtocompensateforshortcomingsinyourownargument.

Yourargumentwillbemuchstrongerifyoupresentopposingviewpointsinasympatheticlight.Comparethefollowingexamples:

“Studentsclaimthattheycheatontestsbecausetheyaretoobusytostudy.Inreality,studentscanfindthetimetostudyiftheylearntime-managementskills.”

“Studentsfacemanytimeconstraints:betweenworkandfamilyobligations,socialresponsibilities,sports,clubs,andtheexpectationsofprofessors,whoallthinktheirclassshouldbethetoppriority,studentscanhavetroublefindingtimetostudyforalloftheirtests.Somestudentsadmitthattheyseecheatingastheonlywaytoreconciletheirconflictingobligations.However,studentscanfindthetimetostudyiftheyworkontheirtime-managementskills.”

Thesecondexamplepresentstheargumentmoresympatheticallyandrealistically.Itacknowledgesthatstudentsmayfacelegitimatedifficultiesas

theytrytofindtimetostudyforalloftheirclasses.Clearly,inthesecondexample,thewriterhasconsideredthisissuefromthestudents’perspective,andhasattemptedtofindasolutionthattakestheirconcernsintoaccount.

You’llwanttopresentcounterargumentstoyourthesisinwaysthatrespectthosewhodisagree.Thatincludesresearchingtofindthethoughtleadersontheopposingsideofyourtopic,presentingtheirargumentsinanhonestlight,andthenmovingintorespectfulrefutation.

2.6.3:RefutingYourOpposition

Afteryoupresentthelikelyobjectionstoyourargument,youcanshowyourreaderswhytheyshouldbewillingtotakeyourside.

LearningObjective

Outlinetheprocessforrefutinganargument

KeyPoints

Considerandcounteropposingviewpointsinordertostrengthenyourownargument.Countertheseobjectionsbyshowingyourreaderthatyourpositionismorereasonablethantheopposingposition.Itisimportanttoclearly,completely,andrespectfullystatetheopposingview.Therearevariouswaystorefutecounterargumentsinyourpaper,andselectingonewilldependonyourtopic,youraudience,andspace/timelimitations.Ineachrefutationparagraph,you’llwanttostateyouropponent’sargument,clearlystateyourobjectiontothatargument,supportyourobjectionwithevidenceandsupportivestatements,andthenconcludewithacomparisonoftheideas.Duringtherevisionprocess,you’llneedtolookforredundancyofinformationinclaimandrefutationparagraphsandcheckthestructureforflow.

KeyTerm

viewpoint

Thepositionfromwhichsomethingisobservedorconsidered;anangle,

outlook,orpointofview.

Nowthatyou’vebuiltastrongfoundationofcredibilitybypresentingthelikelyobjectionsandreasonedoppositiontoyourargument(respectfully,ofcourse!),youcanshowyourreaderstheflawsinthesecounterarguments.Remember,skepticalreadersneedtobeconvincedthatyourpositionismorereasonablethantheirown,andsoyourrefutationwillneedtobebothaccurateandthorough.Intheprocess,you’llwinsupportfrombothsidesoftheargumentforyourreasonableapproach.

WheretoAddressCounterargumentsDependingonyourwritingstyleandmaterial,yourargumentcouldfollowvariousstructuralformats:

Presentyourownargumentfirst,andthenpresentandcounteracttheopposingviewpoints.

Thisstructurehastheadvantageofputtingyourargumentinpeople’smindsfirst,soitcanbeusefulwhenyouarespace-limitedoryouraudienceistime-limited.

Presenttheopposition’sviewsfirst,andthenprovethatyourargumentismorereasonablethantheopposingviews.

Thisstrategygetsobjectionsoutintheopenrightaway,whichcanbeespeciallyusefulforradicalorunexpectedthesisstatements.Theapproachhereis,“Iknowwhatyou’rethinking,buthanginthere,andyou’llseewhereI’mcomingfrom.”

Alternatebackandforthbetweenyourargumentandopposingpoints.

Here,youacknowledgeeachobjectionasit’slikelytoariseinthereader’smind.Youareanticipatingwhateachclaimmightbringupforthereaderandhandlingitimmediately,soheorshehasnoopportunitytogethungupontheobjection.

StructuringYourRefutation

Therearefourbasicpartstoarefutationofanopposingargument:youintroducethecounterargument,stateyourobjectiontoit,offerevidencetosupportyourview,anddrawaclearconclusionbycomparingtheviewpointsheadtohead.

Introduction

“Theoppositionsays…”

Presenttheviewaccuratelyandfairly,andpossiblyconcedethatthereisreasonormerittothisperspective.Forexample:“OpponentsoftheAnimalWelfareActclaimedthattheuseofanimalsubjectsindrugtestingwasabsolutelynecessarytosavehumanlives.”

Objection

“However…”

Here,youstateyourobjectiontotheview—thereasonthereadershouldnotaccepttheopposition’sviewpoint.Itmaybeintheformofaquestionorstatement.Forexample:“Isitaccurate,however,tosaythatintelligentpeoplearenotsusceptibletobrainwashing?”Noticetheuseoftheword“accurate.”Whilethecounterargumentmightmakesomerationalsense,haveresearchandexperiencevalidatedtheassumption?Youcouldphraseitasastatement,asopposedtoaquestion.Howaretheydifferent?Wouldthestatementbemoredirect?

SupportforObjection

“Because…”

Supportyourobjectionwithhigh-qualityevidence,expertopinion,andsolidreasoning:“TheBureauofJusticeStatisticsfoundthatin2005,punitivedamageswereawardedtoonly5percentofplaintiffsinciviltrials.”Here,thewriterusesbothawidelyrespectedsourceandstatisticsthatrefutethecounterclaim.Colorfullanguage,appealstoemotion,andrhetoricaldevicesholdlittleweightagainstaclearlyfleshed-outpositionsupportedbyappropriateexamplesandsolidevidenceofferedbyreputablesources.

Conclusion

“Therefore…”

Inthisfourthstep,theconflictmustberesolved.You’veintroducedtwovalidviewpoints.Whyisyoursthestrongerone?“Whilejobcreationprogramsmayindeedincreasethenation’sshort-termfinancialburden,thestrategyofputtingpeoplebacktoworkhasconsistentlybeenproventocreateastrongereconomicandsocialfabricinthelongrun.”Concludingstatementsarenotsimplyrestatementsoftheclaimbutactualcomparisonsofthetwoapproacheswithaconclusionastowhyoneargumentissuperior.

RevisingCounterargumentsandRefutationsIntherevisionstage,you’llwanttolookatthebalanceofthepaper.Ratherthanaddressingeverypossibleobjectiontoyourthesis,youmaydecideatthispointtoeliminatethelesserobjections,soasnottooverloadthepaperwithcounterarguments.

You’llalsoneedtolookforredundancy.Makesureyourclaimsandyourrefutationsarenotrepetitive.Ifyouhavearefutationthatsimplyrepeatsoneofyourclaims,seeifyoucanfindadifferentwaytorefutetheopposingargument.Yourreaderwillloseinteresttheminuteyougetrepetitive.

Finally,ensurethatifyourintroductionandconclusionincludecounterargumentscenarios(images,quotes,stories),they’reconsistentwithwhatyou’vefoundintheresearch.

Objection!

Tobeanacearguer,you’llneedtoclearlystateyourobjectionstoyour

opponent’sargumentsandsupportyourobjectionswithevidence.

Attributions

TheImportanceofAddressingOpposingViews

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“Meta-discussion.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-discussion.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“argument.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/argument.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“AssemblingYourArgument.”https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/paper-execution-2/planning-your-argument-10/assembling-your-argument-48-8497/.BoundlessLicense:Other.

“AnticipatingPotentialObjections.”https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/academic-writing-3/summarizing-18/anticipating-potential-objections-86-534/.BoundlessLicense:Other.

“counterargument.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/counterargument.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/Argument.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Argument%23Dealing_With_the_OppositionWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“Student_Union_Debate.jpg.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Student_Union_Debate.jpg.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Rugby-Pioneers:3Rugbytradecards.”http://rugby-pioneers.blogs.com/rugby/3_rugby_trade_cards/.blogs.comCCBY-SA.

TechniquesforAcknowledgingOpposingViews

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“credibility.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/credibility.WikipediaCC

BY-SA3.0.

“neutral.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/neutral.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“opposition.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/opposition.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“RepresentingObjectionsFairly.”https://www.boundless.com/users/364813/textbooks/professional-writing-ae312174-61d8-432f-9276-655b5a888adc/week-3-boundless-presentation-620/responding-to-objections-624/representing-objections-fairly-629-942/.BoundlessLicense:Other.

“UsingSatiretoSummarize.”https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/academic-writing-3/summarizing-18/using-satire-to-summarize-88-1172/.BoundlessLicense:Other.

“RhetoricandComposition/Argument.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Argument%23Dealing_With_the_OppositionWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

RefutingYourOpposition

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/AnalyzingAssignments.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Analyzing_Assignments%23Summary.2FResponse_PaperWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“viewpoint.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/viewpoint.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“AddressingOpposingViewpoints.”https://www.boundless.com/users/364813/textbooks/professional-writing-ae312174-61d8-432f-9276-655b5a888adc/week-3-boundless-presentation-620/responding-to-objections-624/addressing-opposing-viewpoints-632-70/.BoundlessLicense:Other.

“RhetoricandComposition/Argument.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Argument.WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“PunitiveDamageAwardsinStateCourts,2005.”http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/pdasc05.pdf.U.S.Department

ofJusticeLicense:Other.

“Objection.jpg.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ace_Attorney%23/media/File:WonderCon_2015_-_Phoenix_Wright_(17049616945).jpg.“WonderCon2015-PhoenixWright(17049616945)”byWilliamTungfromUSA-WonderCon2015-PhoenixWright[2].LicensedunderCCBY-SA2.0viaCommons-https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:WonderCon_2015_-_Phoenix_Wright_(17049616945).jpg#/media/File:WonderCon_2015_-_Phoenix_Wright_(17049616945).jpgCCBY-SA2.0.

3:TheResearchProcess

3.1:UnderstandingtheAcademicContextofYourTopic3.1.1:UnderstandingtheAcademicContextofYourTopic

Goodargumentsconvinceareadertoreconsiderpreviouslyacceptedknowledgeoropinionsaboutatopic,alsoknownasthestatusquo.

LearningObjective

Explaintheimportanceofincludingadiscussionofthestatusquoinapaper

KeyPoints

Inwriting,“statusquo”referstohowearlierscholarshaveapproachedanissue.Intheearlierpartofapaper,thewritermustexplaintothereaderthestatusquoaboutasubjectinorderforthereadertounderstandthestakesofchangingtheargument.Thestatusquoisalsocommongroundbetweenawriterandareader.

KeyTerm

statusquo

ALatintermmeaningthecurrentorexistingstateofaffairs;literally,“thestateinwhich.”

WhatIstheStatusQuo?“Statusquo”referstotheexistingandacceptedbodyofacademicresearchanddiscourseonagiventopic.Conductingtheappropriateresearchonthisdiscourseisanimportantpreliminarysteptoacademicessaywriting.Academicpapersrelyonthestatusquotoinformandsupportthewriter’sargument.Oneofthemainprinciplesofacademicwritingisactiveand

creativeinterpretationofresearchandargumentsthathavecomebefore.

FindingtheStatusQuoWithinthecontextofacademicwriting,“statusquo”refersprimarilytoscholarlyfindings—thatis,whatotheracademicexpertshavepublishedaroundaparticularsubject.Priortowritinganacademicpaper,thewritermustinvestigateandstudyscholars’argumentsthoroughlyandcritically.Thishelpsthewriterunderstandhowscholars’argumentsfitintothewidercontextofthepaper,anditappliesevenincaseswherethemajorityofresearchwillbeusedforknowledgeratherthancitationpurposes.

Examiningthestatusquo

Beforeyoubeginwritingonanytopic,itisimportanttounderstandthedominantconversation,orthestatusquo,associatedwiththetopic.Examiningthestatusquoisagoodwayoffiguringoutwheretosituateyourspecificinsightonatopic.

Asthewritercontinuesherresearch,shewilleventuallyfindsourcestoincorporateintothepaper.Duringthewritingprocess,itcanbehelpfulto

formquestionsfocusedonaspecificworkorideatohelpsetupthepaper’shypothesis.Becausethestatusquoiscrucialtothewriter’sargument,itisusuallyincludedinthepaper’sintroduction.

WhyDoestheStatusQuoMatter?Identifyingthestatusquointheintroductionservesseveralpurposes.First,ithelpsreadersimmediatelyunderstandthecontextoftheargument.Whenreadersareinformedaboutthesourcesusedtosupporttheargument,theycangainabetterunderstandingofit.Second,identifyingthestatusquoalsotellsreaderswhythewriter’sangleisuniquecomparedtopastresearch.

Accuratelysummarizingthestatusquoalsodemonstratesthatthewriterhasenoughknowledgeandexpertisewithinthefieldtoconfidentlymakeanargument.Audienceshaveadifficulttimetrustingawriterwhofailstodescribeorprovethatheorsheisfamiliarwiththestatusquo.

ContributingtotheStatusQuoThestatusquoisnotfixedandisconstantlyevolvingandgrowingbecausenewwritingaddstoandchangesit.Wheneverawriterputsforthanewargument,drawsanewconclusion,ormakesnewconnections,thestatusquochanges,evenifonlyslightly.Asaresearcherandwriter,youalsohavethepotentialtochangethestatusquothroughyourresearchandargument.

Attributions

UnderstandingtheAcademicContextofYourTopic

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“TheCainProjectinEngineeringandProfessionalCommunication,ThreeModulesonClearWritingStyle:AnIntroductiontoTheCraftofArgument,byJosephM.WilliamsandGregoryColomb.September17,2013.”http://cnx.org/content/m17223/latest/?collection=col10551/latest.OpenStaxCNXCCBY3.0.

“statusquo.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/status_quo.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“Boystrainedinthefundamentalsofnavigationmaybecome

techniciansinthearmedservice,LosAngeles,Calif.ThomasGraham,amemberoftheVictoryCorpsatPolytechnicHighSchool,islearningtouseasextanttodeterminelongitudeandlatitude(LOC|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/library_of_congress/2179076051/lightbox/FlickrPublicdomain.

3.2:OrganizingYourResearchPlan3.2.1:OrganizingYourResearchPlan

Tosavetimeandeffort,decideonaresearchplanbeforeyoubegin.

LearningObjective

Outlinethestepsoftheresearchprocess

KeyPoints

Yourresearchplanwillspecifythekindsofsourcesyouwanttogather.Thesemayincludescholarlypublications,journalarticles,primarysources,textbooks,encyclopedias,andmore.Mostsearchengineswillletyoufiltersearchresultsbytypeofsource.Youcanlimityoursourcesbydateandtimeperiodwhenplanningyourresearch.Youcanusesearchenginestofindonlyarticleswrittenwithinaspecifictimeframetoensureyourfindingsarerelevant.Youcanapplyfilterssuchas“writteninthepast10years”tonarrowyoursearchresults.

KeyTerm

research

Pursuitofinformation,suchasfacts,principles,theories,applications,etc.

Aresearchpaperisanexpandedessaythatreliesonexistingdiscoursetoanalyzeaperspectiveorconstructanargument.Becausearesearchpaperincludesanextensiveinformation-gatheringprocessinadditiontothewritingprocess,itisimportanttodeveloparesearchplantoensureyourfinalpaperwillaccomplishitsgoals.Asaresearcher,youhavecountlessresourcesatyourdisposal,anditcanbedifficulttosiftthrougheachsourcewhilelookingforspecificinformation.Ifyoubeginresearchingwithoutaplan,youcouldfindyourselfwastinghoursreadingsourcesthatwillbeoflittleornohelptoyourpaper.Tosavetimeandeffort,decideonaresearchplanbeforeyoubegin.

Books,books,books…

Donotstartresearchhaphazardly—comeupwithaplanfirst.

CreatingaResearchPlanAresearchplanshouldbeginafteryoucanclearlyidentifythefocusofyourargument.Narrowthescopeofyourargumentbyidentifyingthespecificsubtopicyouwillresearch.Abroadsearchwillyieldthousandsofsources,whichmakesitverydifficulttoformafocused,coherentargument.Itissimplynotpossibletoincludeeverytopicinyourresearch.Ifyounarrowyourfocus,however,youcanfindtargetedresourcesthatcanbesynthesizedintoanewargument.

Afternarrowingyourfocus,thinkaboutkeysearchtermsthatwillapplyonlytoyoursubtopic.Developspecificquestionsthatcanbeansweredthroughyourresearchprocess,butbecarefulnottochooseafocusthatisoverlynarrow.Youshouldaimforaquestionthatwilllimitsearchresultstosourcesthatrelatetoyourtopic,butwillstillresultinavariedpoolofsourcestoexplore.

IfyouarestudyingtheBattleofGettysburg,forexample,youmightdecidetolookintoanynumberoftopicsrelatedtothebattle:medicalpracticesonthefield,socialdifferencesbetweensoldiers,ormilitarymaneuvers.Ifyourtopicismedicalpracticesinbattle,ansearchfor“BattleofGettysburg”wouldreturnfartoomanygeneralresults.Youwouldalsonotwanttosearchforasingleinstanceofsurgery,becauseyoumightnotbeabletofindenoughinformationonit.Findahappymediumbetweenverybroadandtoospecific.

Anotherpartofyourresearchplanshouldincludethetypeofsourcesyouwanttogather.Thepossibilitiesincludearticles,scholarlyjournals,primary

sources,textbooks,encyclopedias,andmore.Mostsearchengineswillletyoulimitsearchresultsbytypeofsource.Ifyouknowthatyouareonlylookingforarticles,youcanexcludethingslikeinterviewsorabstractsfromyoursearch.Ifyouarelookingforspecifickindsofdata,likeimagesorgraphs,youmightwanttofindadatabasededicatedtothatsortofsource.

Youcanalsolimitthetimeperiodfromwhichyouwilldrawresources.Doyouonlywantarticleswritteninthepasttenortwentyyears?Doyouwantthemfromaspecificspanoftime?Again,mostsearchengineswillallowyoutolimitresultstoanythingwrittenwithintheyearsyouspecify,andthechoicetolimitthetimeperiodwilldependonyourtopic.Determiningthesefactorswillhelpyouformaspecificresearchplantoguideyourprocess.

ExampleofaResearchProcessAgoodresearchprocessshouldgothroughthesesteps:

1. Decideonthetopic.2. Narrowthetopicinordertonarrowsearchparameters.3. Createaquestionthatyourresearchwilladdress.4. Generatesub-questionsfromyourmainquestion.5. Determinewhatkindofsourcesarebestforyourargument.6. Createabibliographyasyougatherandreferencesources.

Forexample,instepone,youmightdecidethatyourtopicwillbe19th-centuryliterature.Theninsteptwoyoumaynarrowitdownto19th-centuryBritishsciencefiction,andthennarrowitdownevenfurthertoMaryShelley’sFrankenstein.

Then,instepthree,youwouldcomeupwitharesearchquestion.Agoodresearchquestionforthisexamplemightbe,“Howdoesthenovel’svisionofgenerativeliferelatetothescientifictheoriesoflifethatweredevelopedinthe19thcentury?”Posingahistoricalquestionopensupresearchtomorereferencepossibilities.

Next,instepfour,yougeneratesub-questionsfromyourmainquestion.Forinstance,“Duringthe19thcentury,whatweresomeofthecompetingtheoriesabouthowlifeiscreated?,”and“DidanyofMaryShelley’sotherworksrelatetothecreationoflife?”Afteryouknowwhatsub-questionsyouwanttopursue,you’llbeabletomovetostepfive—determinewhatkindofsourcesarebestforyourargument.Ourexamplewouldleadustopossiblylookatnewspapersormagazinesprintedinthelate18thorearly19thcentury.In

addition,booksoressaysonthetopic,bothcontemporaryandolder,couldbesources.Itislikelythatsomeonehasresearchedyourtopicbefore,andevenpossiblyaquestionsimilartoyours.Bookswrittensinceyourtimeperiodonyourspecifictopiccouldbeagreatsourceforfurtherreferences.Whenyoufindabookthatiswrittenaboutyourtopic,checkthebibliographyforreferencesthatyoucantrytofindyourself.

Asyouaccumulatesources,makesureyoucreateabibliography,oralistofsourcesthatyou’veusedinyourresearchandwritingprocess.Andfinally,havefundoingtheresearch!

Attributions

OrganizingYourResearchPlan

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“research.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/research.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“JenniferStidham,FLIPItwithWeb2.0-FreeOnlineToolstoEnhancetheStudentResearchProcess.September17,2013.”http://cnx.org/content/col11175/latest/.OpenStaxCNXCCBY3.0.

“StillLifewithPlato|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/chefranden/2048731275/.FlickrCCBY.

3.3:FindingYourSources3.3.1:TheImportanceofReliability

Usingreliablesourcesinresearchpapersstrengthensyourownvoiceandargument.

LearningObjective

Recognizesourcesthatmaybebiased

KeyPoints

Whileresearchingforsourcesrelevanttoyourtopic,youneedtocriticallyreadasourcetoidentifypossiblepoliticalorotherformsofbias,toconsidertheeffectsofhistoricalcontext,andtodiscoverpossiblebiasonthepartoftheauthor.Theageofasourceisanotherfactortoconsider,theimportanceofwhichwilldifferdependingonthetopic.Considerthepossiblebiasesoftheauthor.Websites,unlikebooks,donotnecessarilyhavepublishers.Therefore,youshouldbeattentivetowhoisbehindthewebsitesyoufind.

KeyTerms

research

Diligentinquiryorexaminationtoseekorrevisefacts,principles,theories,applications,etcetera;laboriousorcontinuedsearchaftertruth.

source

Theperson,placeorthingfromwhichsomething(information,goods,etc.)comesorisacquired.

Example

Ifyou’reworkingonanessayaboutcurrentdevelopmentsinend-of-lifecareforterminallyillpatients,anoutdatedsource,suchasa1997DetroitFreePressarticleaboutJackKevorkian,willlikelynotberelevantfor

yourdiscussion,exceptaspartofahistoricaloverviewofthepoliticsofphysicianaid-in-dying.NorwouldtheWikipediaentryfor“euthanasia”beanappropriateplacetolookforinformation,since,whileitcanbeusefulforcollectingcolloquialinformation,Wikipediaiscertainlynotascholarlysource.Variousreligiousorothernon-medicalinterest-groupsourcescouldlikelycropupinyoursearch,butinthosecasesyou’dneedtotakespecialcaretoidentifypotentialbiasesandconsidertheirimpactontheinformationyoufind.

Usingsourcesinresearchpapersstrengthensyourownvoiceandargument,buttodosoeffectivelyyoumustunderstandyoursourcesandvettheirreliability.

Whenresearching,itisimportanttodeterminethepositionandthereliabilityofeverysource/author.Thiswillensurethatyoursourceisbothcredibleandrelevant,andthatthesourcewillenhanceyourpaperratherthanundermineit.Thefollowingareafewrecommendationstoapproachsourcesinwhateverformtheytake.

HowOldIstheSource?Theguidelinesforassessingtheusabilityofprintsourcesanddigitalsources(i.e.,sourcesaccessedthroughtheInternet)aresimilar.Onepointtokeepinmindforbothdigitalandprintsourcesisage:Howoldisthesource?Examiningthesource’sagehelpsyoudeterminewhethertheinformationisrelevanttoyourpapertopic.Dependingonyourtopic,differentdegreesofagewillbeappropriate.Forexample,ifyouarewritingon17th-centuryBritishpoetry,itisnotenoughtosimplyfindsourcesfromtheera,norisadequatetoreferenceonlyearly20th-centuryscholarlysources.Instead,itwillbehelpfultocombinetheolder,primarysourceswithmorerecent,secondaryscholarship.Doingsowillmakeaconvincingcaseforyourparticularargument.Ifyouareresearchingpublic-healththeories,however,yourargumentwilldependonmoremodernscholarlysources.Olderarticlesmayincludebeliefsorfactsthatareoutdatedorhavebeenprovenwrongbymorecontemporaryresearch.

Withdigitalsources,bewaryofsiteswithold,outdatedinformation.Thepointistoavoidpresentinginaccurateoroutdatedinformationthatwillnegativelyimpactyourpaper.

AuthorBiasesAuthorbiasisanotherconsiderationinchoosingasource.“Authorbias”meansthattheauthorfeelsstronglyaboutthetopiconewayoranother,whichpreventstheauthorfromtakinganeutralapproachtopresentingfindings.Forprintsources,youcanassessbiasbyconsideringthepublisherofthebook.Bookspublishedbyauniversitypressundergosignificanteditingandreviewtoincreasetheirvalidityandaccuracy.Becautiousaboutself-publishedbooksorbookspublishedbyspecificorganizationslikecorporationsornonprofitgroups.Unlikeuniversitypresses,thesesourcesmayhavedifferentguidelinesandcouldbeputtingoutinformationthatisintentionallymisleadingoruninformed.Similarly,periodicalslikescholarlyjournalsormagazinesmayalsohavebias.However,scholarlyjournalstendtobepeer-reviewedandcontaincitationsofsources,whereasamagazinearticlemaycontaininformationwithoutprovidinganysourcestosubstantiatepurportedclaims.

Whileyouwanttosupportyourargumentwithyourresearch,youdon’twanttodosoattheexpenseofaccuracyorvalidity.

OnlineResourcesWebsites,unlikebooks,donotnecessarilyhavepublishers.Instead,youshouldconsiderwhoisbehindthewebsitesyoufind.Toavoidusinginformationthatcomesfromanunreliablesource,sticktoscholarlydatabases.Whileyoucanfindsomearticleswithgeneralsearchengines,asearchenginewillonlyfindnon-scholarlyarticles.IfyouusebroaderInternetsearches,lookcloselyatdomainnames.Domainnamescantellyouwhosponsorsthesiteandthepurposeofthatsponsorship.Someexamplesincludeeducational(.edu),commercial(.com),nonprofit(.org),military(.mil),ornetwork(.net).

Dependingonyourtopic,youmaywanttoavoiddot-comwebsitesbecausetheirprimarypurposetendstobecommerce,whichcansignificantlyaffectthecontentthattheypublish.Additionally,considerthepurposethatthewebsiteserves.Isanycontactinformationprovidedforthewebsite’sauthor?Doesthewebsiteprovidereferencestosupporttheclaimsthatitmakes?Iftheanswerstothesetypesofquestionsarenotreadilyavailable,itmaybebesttolookinotherplacesforareliablesource.

Thereareincreasingnumbersofnon-scholarlysitesthatpertaintoparticulartopics,butarenotscholarlysources.Blogs,forexample,maycatertoa

particulartopicorniche,buttheyaretypicallycreatedandmanagedbyanindividualorpartywithaninterestinpromotingthecontentoftheblog.Someblogwritersmayhavevalidcredentials,butbecausetheirwritingisnotpeer-reviewedorheldtoanacademicstandard,sitessuchasthesearetypicallyunreliablesources.

Remember,whenresearching,thegoalisnotonlytogathersources,buttogatherreliableresources.Todothis,youshouldbeabletonotonlytracktheclaimscontainedwithinasource,butalsoconsiderthestakesthatmaybeinvolvedfortheauthormakingthoseclaims.Whilepersonalmotivationmaynotalwaysbeaccessibleinadocument,insomecasestherecanbecontextualclues,likethetypeofpublisherorsponsor.Thesemayleadyoutodecidethatonesourceismorereliablethananother.

Moneyandmagnifyingglass

Whenyouevaluatescholarlysources,lookoutforpotentialconflictsofinterestandhiddenagendas.Forexample,thesourcesoffundingforresearchareveryimportant,astheymayinfluencethewriters’interpretationofresults.

3.3.2:ScholarlySources

Inacademicwriting,thesourcesyouusemustbereliable;therefore,youshouldrelymainlyonscholarlysourcesasthefoundationforyourresearch.

LearningObjective

Listthedifferenttypesofscholarlysourcesavailabletoresearchers

KeyPoints

Notallsourcesareequal.OnewaytofindreputablescholarlysourcesistoavoidusinggeneralsearchenginessuchasGoogleorWikipedia.UseacademicsearchdatabaseslikeJStor,EBSCO,orAcademicSearchPremier.Primarysourcesgivetheresearcheraglimpseintothetimeperiodunderreviewandprovideopportunitiesfornewanalysis.Inaddition,donothesitatetovisityourlibraryinordertoaskyourlibrarianaboutaccessingthesedatabases,andalsoinordertosearchforprintmaterials.

KeyTerms

secondarysource

Anydocumentthatdrawsononeormoreprimarysourcesandinterpretsoranalysesthem;also,sourcessuchasnewspapers,whoseaccuracyisopentoquestion.

primarysource

Ahistoricaldocumentthatwascreatedatornearthetimeoftheeventsstudied,byaknownperson,foraknownpurpose.

database

Acollectionof(usually)organizedinformationinaregularstructure,usuallybutnotnecessarilyinamachine-readableformataccessiblebyacomputer.

ReliabilityResearchisthefoundationofastrongargument,theory,oranalysis.Whenconstructingyourresearchpaper,itisimportanttoincludereliablesourcesinyourresearch.Withoutreliablesources,readersmayquestionthevalidityof

yourargumentandyourpaperwillnotachieveitspurpose.

Academicresearchpapersaretypicallybasedonscholarlysourcesandprimarysources.Scholarlysourcesincludearangeofdocuments,sourcetypes,andformats,buttheyshareanimportantquality:credibility.Morethananyothersourceyouarelikelytoencounterduringyourresearch,ascholarlysourceismostlikelytobereliableandaccurate.Primarysourcesaredocumentsthatwerewrittenorcreatedduringthetimeperiodunderstudy.Theyincludeletters,newspaperarticles,photographs,andotherartifactsthatcomedirectlyfromaparticulartimeperiod.

ScholarlySourcesAscholarlysourcecanbeanarticleorbookthatwaswrittenbyanexpertintheacademicfield.Mostarebyprofessorsordoctoralstudentsforpublicationinpeer-reviewedacademicjournals.Sincethelevelofexpertiseandscrutinyissohighforthesearticles,theyareconsideredtobeamongthebestandmosttrustworthysources.Mostofthesearticleswilllistanauthor’scredentials,suchasrelevantdegrees,otherpublications,oremploymentatauniversityorresearchinstitution.Ifanarticledoesnot,trysearchingfortheauthoronlinetoseehowmuchexpertiseheorshehasinthefield.

Youmaydecidetousesourcesthatarenotscholarlyarticles,suchasinterviewsornewspaperarticles.Thesesourcesshouldalsobewrittenbyanexpertinthefieldandpublishedbyareputablesource.AninvestigativeessayintheNewYorkerwouldbefine;aninvestigativeessayintheNationalEnquirerwouldnot.

Othertypesofscholarlysourcesincludenon-printmediasuchasvideos,documentaries,andradiobroadcasts.Othersourcesmayincludetangibleitemssuchasartifacts,art,orarchitecture.It’slikelythatyouwillfindsecondarysourcesthatprovideanalysisofthesesources,butyoushouldalsoexaminethemtoconductyourownanalysis.

PrimaryandSecondarySourcesAprimarysourceisanoriginaldocument.Primarysourcescancomeinmanydifferentforms.InanEnglishpaper,aprimarysourcemightbethepoem,play,ornovelyouarestudying.Inahistorypaper,itmaybeahistoricaldocumentsuchasaletter,ajournal,amap,thetranscriptionofanewsbroadcast,ortheoriginalresultsofastudyconductedduringthetimeperiod

underreview.Ifyouconductyourownfieldresearch,suchassurveys,interviews,orexperiments,yourresultswouldalsobeconsideredaprimarysource.Primarysourcesarevaluablebecausetheyprovidetheresearcherwiththeinformationclosesttothetimeperiodortopicathand.Theyalsoallowthewritertoconductanoriginalanalysisofthesourceandtodrawnewconclusions.

Secondarysources,bycontrast,arebooksandarticlesthatanalyzeprimarysources.Theyarevaluablebecausetheyprovideotherscholars’perspectivesonprimarysources.Youcanalsoanalyzethemtoseeifyouagreewiththeirconclusionsornot.

Mostessayswilluseacombinationofprimaryandsecondarysources.

WheretoFindScholarlySourcesThefirststepinfindinggoodresourcesistolookintherightplace.Ifyouwantreliablesources,avoidgeneralsearchengines.SiteslikeGoogle,Yahoo,andWikipediamaybegoodforgeneralsearches,butifyouwantsomethingyoucanciteinascholarlypaper,youneedtofinditfromascholarlydatabase.

PopularscholarlydatabasesincludeJStor,ProjectMuse,theMLAInternationalBibliography,AcademicSearchPremier,andProQuest.Thesedatabasesdochargeafeetoviewarticles,butmostuniversitieswillpayforstudentstoviewthearticlesfreeofcharge.Askalibrarianatyourcollegeaboutthedatabasestowhichtheyofferaccess.

Mostjournalswillallowyoutoaccesselectroniccopiesofarticlesifyoufindthemthroughadatabase.Thiswillnotalwaysbethecase,however.Ifanarticleislistedinadatabasebutcan’tbedownloadedtoyourcomputer,writedownthecitationanyway.Manylibrarieswillhavehardcopiesofjournals,soifyouknowtheauthor,dateofpublication,andpagenumbers,youcanprobablyfindaprinteditionofthesource.

Atthecollegeoruniversitylevel,youhaveanotherincredibleresourceatyourfingertips:yourcollege’slibrarians!Forhelplocatingresources,youwillfindthatlibrariansareextremelyknowledgeableandmayhelpyouuncoversourcesyouwouldneverhavefoundonyourown—maybeyourschoolhasamicrofilmcollection,anextensivegenealogydatabase,oraccesstoanotherlibrary’scatalog.Youwillnotknowunlessyouutilizethevaluableskillsavailabletoyou,sobesuretofindouthowtogetintouchwitharesearchlibrarianforsupport!

ExamplesofScholarlySourcesTheexactcombinationorsourcesyouuseinyourpaperwilldependonthedisciplineinwhichyouareconductingresearchandthetopicofyouressay.Herearesomeexamplesofthetypesofsourcesyoumightincludeinavarietyofacademicfields.

Politics/Law:YoucouldincludetextfromtheConstitutionoraSupremeCourtdecisionasaprimarysource,andyoumayincludeascholarlyarticlethatdiscussesthatdecisionasasecondarysource.Science:Youmayincludefindingsfromascientificresearchstudyasaprimarysource,andyoumayincludeanarticlefromamedicaljournalasasecondarysource.Arts/humanities:Youmayincludeapieceofartworkorwritingasaprimarysource,andyoumayincludeascholar’scriticalanalysisofthatworkasasecondarysource.History:Youmayincludecorrespondencebetweenhistoricalfiguresasaprimarysource,andyoumayincludeinformationfromatextbookasasecondarysource.

Theselistofexamplesismeanttoillustratetherangeofapproachesyoumaytakewhendeterminingwhatsourcestoincludeinyourpaper,butitisnotanexhaustivelistofthepossibilitiesavailabletoyou!Theresearcher’sabilitytodrawconnectionsbetweenavarietyofsourcesispartoftheartofresearch-paperwriting,soyoumustdecideonthebestcombinationofscholarlysourcesforyouressay.

Research

Lookslikehe’sfoundagoodprintsource—thoughitmaybetoooldforustousetoday.

3.3.3:ChoosingSearchTermsforSources

Conductingsearchesrelatedtothekeywordsorsubheadingsofyourtopicwillhelpsystematizeyourresearch.

LearningObjective

Identifyusefulsearchtermsgivenaresearchtopic

KeyPoints

Inthecourseofyourresearch,yourinitialkeywordsmayrevealotheravenuesthatcouldhelpfurtheryourresearch,especiallyinsituationswherethekeywordsarestillvague.Youcansearchbothonlinedatabasesandactuallibrarycatalogsforsources.Catalogsanddatabasesallowyoutoorganizesearchesbysubjectheadingsand/orkeyterms.Thetwooptionsfornarrowingyoursearcharetousekeytermsorsubjectheadings.Keytermsarewordsthatwillappearfrequentlyinthe

article.Subjectheadingsarecategoriesofarticlesgroupedbytheme.

KeyTerms

librarycatalog

Aregisterofallbibliographicitemsfoundinalibraryorgroupoflibraries,suchasanetworkoflibrariesatseverallocations.

database

Acollectionof(typically)organizedinformationinaregularstructure,usuallybutnotnecessarilyinamachine-readableformataccessiblebyacomputer.

Example

Ifyou’restudying19th-centurytheoriesoflife,inthecourseofreadingyoumightfind“spontaneousgeneration,”whichwasapopular19th-centurytheoryofhowlifewasformed.Thiscouldhelpopennewavenuesforsearchingfurthersources.Ifthetopicofyourpaperis19th-centuryscientifictheoriesoflifeandMaryShelley’sFrankenstein,somekeywordsthatmightberelevantforyoursearchwouldinclude“science,”“Frankenstein,”and“life”.

Beforeyoustartconductingyourresearch,youshouldhavecreatedaresearchplanwithaspecificresearchquestion.Inadditiontothisplan,youshouldbeginyoursearchwithanobjectiveinmind.Whatexactlyareyoulookingfor?Doyouwantfacts,opinions,statistics,quotations?Isthepurposeofyourresearchtofindanewidea,findfactualinformationtosupportaposition,orsomethingelse?Onceyoudecidewhatyouarelookingfor,itismucheasiertolookforsourcesinthecorrectplacesandwiththecorrectwordsandphrases.

Onceyouhaveyourresearchtopicandyouknowwhichdatabasesyouwanttosearchforarticles,youneedtodeterminethebestwaytogoaboutsearching.Forstarters,youcan’tjusttypeinaquestionlike,“WhatweremedicalpracticeslikeduringtheBattleofGettysburg?”Instead,youshouldsearchoneoftwoways.Thefirstoptionistousekeyterms,orwordsthatwillappearfrequentlyinthearticle.Thesecondistousesubjectheadings—categoriesofarticlesgroupedbytheme.

Tosearchkeyterms,thinkaboutimportantwordsthatwilloccurinsourcesyoucoulduse.Then,typeoneortwoofthosetermsintothesearchbar.Most

searchengineswillgenerateresultsbasedonhowfrequentlythosewordsappearinarticlesandtheirabstracts.

Let’suseourtopicfromtheprevioussection,medicalpracticesattheBattleofGettysburg,asanexample.Youmightchoosekeywordslike“amputation,”“fieldmedicine,”and“Gettysburg.”ThisshouldyieldarticlesthatdiscussamputationsonthefieldduringtheBattleofGettysburg.Youcouldalsosearchsomethinglike“anesthesia”and“CivilWar,”whichwouldleadyoutoarticlesaboutanestheticsduringthewar.

Whilesearchingwithkeyterms,youmayneedtogetcreative.Somearticleswillusedifferentlanguagethanyoumightexpect,sotryavarietyofrelatedtermstomakesureyou’regettingbackallthepossibleresults.

Alotofoptions

Phraseyoursearchtermsasspecificallyaspossible,sothatyouonlyfindrelevantsources.

Attributions

TheImportanceofReliability

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“source.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/source.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“research.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/research.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/Researching.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/ResearchingWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“MoneyandMagnifyingGlass|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/59937401@N07/5858011914/.FlickrCCBY2.0.

ScholarlySources

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“database.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/database.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“secondarysource.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/secondary_source.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“primarysource.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/primary_source.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/Researching.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Researching%23Finding_Scholarly_SourcesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

cehwiedel.http://www.cehwiedel.com/booklists/2006/01/Booklist.20060120.htmCCBY-SA.

ChoosingSearchTermsforSources

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“database.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/database.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“librarycatalog.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/library%20catalog.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“JenniferStidham,FLIPItwithWeb2.0-FreeOnlineToolstoEnhancetheStudentResearchProcess.September17,2013.”http://cnx.org/content/m33413/latest/?collection=col11175/latest.OpenStaxCNXCCBY3.0.

“PublicDomainImageshomepublic.”http://www.public-domain-image.com/cache/objects-public-domain-images-pictures/books-public-domain-images-pictures/books-writing-ms-dos-device-drivers-assembly-language_w725_h544.jpg.PublicDomainImagesPublicdomain.

3.4:UnderstandingYourSources3.4.1:UnderstandingYourSources

Whenresearching,readthroughyoursourcestwice:oncetounderstandtheauthor’spurposeandargument,andasecondtimetoevaluatetheargument.

LearningObjective

Outlinetheprocessforreadinganacademicsource

KeyPoints

Typically,youwillneedtoreadsourcestwicetogetacompletepictureofwhattheysayandhowyoucanusethem.Yourfirstreadingshouldfocusonunderstandingthesource’sargument.Startbylookingforthetopicandthethesis,thenconsidertheauthor’sstatedpurposeandtheevidenceheorsheusestosupporttheargument.Yoursecondreadingshouldfocusonwhetheryouagreeordisagreewiththesource,andwhetheryouhaveanycommentarythatyouwouldliketomakeabouttheauthor’sargument.Readingscientificarticlesrequiresadifferentstrategythanreadinganewspaperarticleortextbook:youshouldskimthetext,comparethehypothesistotheconclusion,identifykeytermsandvisualaids,andthenreadthearticlecloselyforcontent.Takenotesasyoureadtounderstandyoursourcesandthequestionstheyraise.Whilereadingcritically,askyourselfquestionstobetterunderstandthecontent,theauthor’sposition,andthevalueofthesource.

KeyTerms

thesis

Astatementsupportedbyarguments.

audience

Thereadershipofabookorotherwrittenpublication.

purpose

Anobjecttobereached;atarget;anaim;agoal.

ReadingYourSourcesOnceyou’vefoundsourcestohelpyourresearch,youmustreadeachsourcecarefully.Todevelopasufficientunderstandingofthesource,youwilltypicallyneedtoreadittwicebeforeincludingitinyouressay.Thefirsttimeshouldbedevotedtounderstandingtheargumentthesourceismaking.Thesecondreadingshouldfocusonhowtheargumentismade.Atthisstage,youshouldalsodeterminewhetheryouagreeordisagreewiththeargumentthatthesourceismaking,andwhetheritwouldsupporttheargumentyouwillmakeinyourpaper.

TheFirstReading

Startbylookingforthetopicandthethesis.Whatistheauthor’sstatedpurpose?Whatkindofevidencedoesheorsheusetosupporttheargument?Whatistheauthorsaying?Whatisherpurpose?Theauthorcouldbetryingtoexplain,inform,anger,persuade,amuse,motivate,sadden,ridicule,attack,ordefend.Onceyouunderstandtheargumentandpurpose,youcanbegintoevaluatetheargument.

TheSecondReading

Thisisthetimetothinkaboutwhetheryouagreeordisagreewiththesource,andwhetheryouhaveanycommentarythatyouwouldliketomakeabouttheauthor’sargument.Duringyoursecondreadingyoushouldconsiderthewriter’sreputationandtheirintendedaudience.Determinewhetheryoufindtheauthorcredibleornot.Ifyoudo,andiftheauthor’spurposeandargumentsupportyourown,youcanbeginincorporatingthesourceintoyourownwriting.Ifyoufindtheauthorcrediblebutdisagreewithhispurpose,itcanstillbevaluabletoconsiderthesourceinyourownwritingsothatyoucananticipateandacknowledgecounterargumentslaterinyouressay.

Finally,remembertopayattentiontoquotationmarksasyouread.It’simportanttonotewhethertheauthorofatextiswriting,oriftheyarequotingsomeoneelse.Quotationmarksareahelpfultoolthatauthorsusetohelpreadersindistinguishingtheirvoicefromthoseofothers.Bypayingattentiontoquotationsandothercitedmaterial,youmayalsogainleadsonothersourcesandauthorsyoucanincorporateinyourpaper.

ReadingScientificArticlesDonotreadascientificarticleasthoughyou’rereadingatextbook.Unlikeacademicarticles,sciencetextbooksorganizeinformationinchronologicalorderandhighlightimportantterms,definitions,andconclusionswithboldtextandgraphics.Academicarticlesrequireamoreproactivereadingstrategy.

Followthesefourstepsforreadingscientificarticles:

1.Beforeyoureadtheentirearticle,skimitquicklyforanoverviewofitsstructure.

2.Returntothebeginningforaselectivereading.Readtheabstract,whichwillsummarizethearticle.Readthebeginningandendoftheintroduction,whichwillpresentthemainpointsandexplaintheirimportance.Skimtheconclusiontoseehowtheresultscorrespondtothehypothesis.Asyouread,lookforkeywordsthatsignalimportantinformation,suchasthefollowing:surprising,unexpected,incontrastwithpreviouswork,wehypothesizethat,wepropose,weintroduce,wedevelop,thedatasuggest.

3.Skimtheentirearticleforcommonkeywordsandalsovisualaids(suchasdiagramsandcharts),whicharegoodindicatorsofimportantinformation.

4.Atthispoint,youcanreadthearticleclosely,attemptingtodrawinferencesbeyondwhatitstatesexplicitly.Asyouread,takenotesinaseparatenotebook,orinacomputerdocument.

QuestionsforGuidedReading

Ifyouwanttomakesureyoucatchthemostimportantfeaturesofthearticle,askpointedquestionswhileyouread.Thefollowingquestionsareessentialtoathoroughsummaryofascientificarticle:

1. Whatisthetopicofthearticle?2. Howistheproblem,question,orissuedefined?3. Whatisthepurposeoftheresearch?Whatquestion,problem,orissue

didthearticleaddressinrelationtothetopic?4. Areanyassumptionsunusualorquestionable?5. Whyisthequestion,problem,orissueimportant?Whatsituationexists

thatmotivatedtheresearch?6. Whatexperimentaldesignisused?Whatmethodsareused?7. Whataretheresults?Howweretheyinterpreted?Whatdidthe

researcherconclude?8. Whyisthearticlevaluableornoteworthy?Doesitanswerapreviously

unansweredquestion,orcontradictearlierresearch?Doesitintroducesanewmethodortechnique?Doesittestanoldconclusioninanewway?Doesitproveanoldassumptionfalse?

TakingNotesNomatterwhatyouarereading,thefollowingstrategiesareeffective:

Highlightimportantpassages.Drawlinesbetweenthehighlightedpartsandbrieflydescribetheirconnection.Maptherelationshipsbetweenkeyconcepts.Makealistofkeywords.Lookforwordsthatsignalanimportantpieceofinformation.Lookforfamiliarconceptsappliedtonewpopulationsorsituations.Trytofindevidencethatmightcontradictsomethingthatwasestablishedinyourclass.

Thinkaboutit…

Onceyouhavescannedasourcetoknowwhatitisabout,rereaditwhilethinkingcriticallyaboutitsargument.

Attributions

UnderstandingYourSources

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“thesis.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/thesis.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“purpose.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/purpose.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“audience.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/audience.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/RhetoricalAnalysis.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Rhetorical_AnalysisWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“Allsizes|BeardedPhilosopher|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/ian-w-scott/4870567608/sizes/l/in/photostream/.FlickrCCBY-SA.

3.5:UsingYourSources3.5.1:TakingUsefulNotesonYourSources

Takingorganizednotesonyoursourcesasyoudoresearchwillbehelpfulwhenyoubeginwriting.

LearningObjective

Describeusefulnote-takingstrategies

KeyPoints

Notesshouldnotonlyincludebibliographicinformation,butalsorelevantarguments,quotes,andpagenumbers.Systematizingyournote-takingwhiledoingresearchwillreducetheneedtoaimlesslysearchthroughallyoursourceswhenyoutransitionintowriting.Takingnotesnow,eventhoughitmayfeelfrustrating,isinyourbestinterestinthelongrun.Usethefullcitationasyourheadingforeachsegmentofnotesyoutake.Thatway,youcanbesuretohavethecitationreadywhenyoustartwritingyourpaper.

KeyTerm

citation

Aparaphraseofapassagefromabook,orfromanotherperson,forthepurposesofascholarlypaper.

Example

Considerthefollowingsource:Aldiss,BrianW.“OntheOriginofSpecies:MaryShelley.”SpeculationsonSpeculation:TheoriesofScienceFiction.Eds.JamesGunnandMatthewCandelaria.Lanham,Maryland:Scarecrow,2005.Notesforthissourcemightlooklikethis:“AldissdiscussestherelationshipbetweenErasmusDarwin,CharlesDarwin’sgrandfather,andthetextofFrankenstein.SeeespeciallypagefivewhereAldisspointsoutthattheintroductionincludesreferencesto

galvanismandelectricity.”

WhyTakeNotesWhileResearching?Whilemostofyourresearchwilltakeplacebeforeyoubeginwriting,youwillstillrefertoyourresourcesthroughoutthewritingprocess.Thiswillbemucheasierifyoutakethoroughnoteswhilereadingthroughyoursourcesduringtheinitialresearchphase.

Thegoalofnote-takingistokeeparecordofwhateverinformationyoumightwanttouselater.Yournotesshouldbeasthoroughastheyneedtobe,butnottoolongthattheyarenolongerusefultoyou.Ifyousummarizeinformation,makesureyouincludewhateveryoumightwanttoincorporateinyourpaper.Ifyouthinkaquotewillbeuseful,writeitdowninfull.Avoidcopyingwholeparagraphsorpages,though;instead,decideexactlywhatisusefultoyouonthatpageandwriteonlythatdown.Youwanttobeabletolookthroughyournoteslateronandeasilyseewhatinformationyoufounduseful.

OrganizingYourNotesOrganizingyournotesisjustasimportantastakingqualitynotes.Youwillneedtotrackexactlywhichsourceeachnotecamefromsothatyoucanproperlyciteyoursourcesthroughoutyourwriting.Thus,thefirstthingyoushoulddowhentakingnotesistowritedownthefullcitationforthesourceonwhichyouaretakingnotes.Thiswillhelpyoufindthesourcelateronifyouneedto,andwillensurethatyoustillhavethecompletecitationevenifyoulosethesourceorhavetoreturnittothelibrary.Organizingnotesbysourcealsoensuresthatyouwillneverlosetrackofhowyouneedtocitetheminyourpaper,sobeginningwithcitationinformationprovidesausefulheading.

Inadditiontolabelingeachsource,alwaysbesuretowritedownthepagenumberswhereyoufoundwhateverinformationyou’vewrittendown.Youwillneedtoknowthepagenumberwhenyoucitethatinformationinyourpaper.

Thereareseveralmethodsfororganizingyournoteswhileresearching,suchasthefollowing:

Indexcards:Youmaywanttocreateanindexcardorsetofcardsforeachsourceyouuse.Youcanthenstorethecardsinorderandcaneasilysortthroughthemtofindthenotesyouneed.OnlinesourcessuchasMicrosoftOneNote:OneNoteisadigitalnotebookthatallowsyoutocreatenewpages,tabs,andnotebooksforyournotes.Youcanquicklynavigatebetweenpages,andyouwillhavetheadvantageofalreadyhavingimportantquotationsandcitationinformationintypedform.Thismakesiteasytoincorporatenotesintoyourpaperduringthewritingprocess.Organizebysubtopic:Somesourcesmayprovideinformationonseveralsubtopicsthatrelatetoyourargument.Youcanchoosetoorganizeyournotesforeachsourcebysubtopicsothatwhenyougettothattopicinyouressay,youcaneasilyfindthenotesonit.Youcandothisbycreatingheadingsorsubheadingswithinyournotes.

Takingnotes

Somepeopleuseindexcardstoorganizetheirnoteswhileresearching.

3.5.2:MaintaininganAnnotatedBibliography

Anannotatedbibliographyisalistofallyoursources,includingfullcitationinformationandnotesonhowyouwillusethesources.

LearningObjective

Listtheelementsofanannotatedbibliography

KeyPoints

Ifyoukeepanannotatedbibliographywhileyouresearch,itwillfunctionasausefulguide.Itwillbeeasierforyoutorevisitsourceslaterbecauseyouwillalreadyhavenotesexplaininghowyouwanttousethem.Ifyoufindanannotatedbibliographyattachedtooneofthesourcesyouareusing,youcanlookatittofindotherpossibleresources.Itisimportantthatyouusetheproperformatwhencitingsources.Consultthestylemanualforwhicheverformatyourprofessorasksthatyouuse.Whenyoumakenotesonyoursources,includeasummaryofthesource,anevaluationofitsreliabilityandpotentialbias,andareflectiononhowthesourcecouldbeusedintheessay.

KeyTerms

bibliography

Alistofbooksordocumentsrelevanttoaparticularsubjectorauthor.

annotation

Anotethatismadewhilereadinganyformoftextthatmaybeassimpleasunderliningorhighlightingpassages.

citation

Aparaphraseofapassagefromabook,orfromanotherperson,forthepurposesofascholarlypaper.

ThePurposeoftheAnnotatedBibliographyAnannotatedbibliographyisalistofallthesourcesyouhaveresearched,

includingboththeirfullbibliographiccitationsandsomenotesonhowyoumightwanttouseeachresourceinyourwork.

Annotatedbibliographiesareusefulforseveralreasons.Ifyoukeeponewhileyouresearch,theannotatedbibliographywillfunctionasausefulguide.Itwillbeeasierforyoutorevisitsourceslaterbecauseyouwillalreadyhavenotesexplaininghowyouwanttouseeachsource.Ifyoufindanannotatedbibliographyattachedtooneofthesourcesyouareusing,youcanlookatittofindotherpossibleresources.

Understandyournotes

Annotatedbibliographiesincludenotesthatexplainwhatyoufoundusefulineachsource,makingiteasierforyoutoreferbacktoappropriatesourceslater.

ConstructingYourCitations

Thefirstpartofeachentryinanannotatedbibliographyisthesource’sfullcitation.Adescriptionofcommoncitationpracticescanbefoundinthesectionentitled“CitingSourcesFully,Accurately,andAppropriately,”anddetailedinstructionscanbefoundinthestylemanualforwhateverformatyourprofessorwantsyoutouse.

WhattoIncludeinEachAnnotationAgoodannotationhasthreeparts,inadditiontothecompletebibliographicinformationforthesource:

1. abriefsummaryofthesource2. acritiqueandevaluationofcredibility,and3. anexplanationofhowyouwillusethesourceinyouressay

Startbystatingthemainideaofthesource.Ifyouhavespace,notethespecificinformationthatyouwanttousefromthesource,suchasquotations,chapters,orpagenumbers.Thenexplainifthesourceiscredible,andnoteanypotentialbiasyouobserve.Finally,explainhowthatinformationisusefultoyourownwork.

Youmayalsoconsiderincluding:shouldalsoincludesomeorallofthefollowing:

Anexplanationabouttheauthorityand/orqualificationsoftheauthorThescopeormainpurposeoftheworkAnydetectablebiasorinterpretivestanceTheintendedaudienceandlevelofreading

ExampleAnnotationSource:Farley,John.“TheSpontaneous-GenerationControversy(1700–1860):TheOriginofParasiticWorms.”JournaloftheHistoryofBiology,5(Spring1972),95–125.

Notes:ThisessaydiscussestheconversationaboutspontaneousgenerationthatwastakingplacearoundthetimethatFrankensteinwaswritten.Inaddition,itintroducesadistinctionbetweenabiogenesisandheterogenesis.Theauthorarguesthattheaccountsofspontaneousgenerationfromthistimeperiodwereoftenbasedonincorrect

assumptions:thatthediscussionwasfocusedprimarilyonmicro-organisms,andthatspontaneous-generationtheoriesweredisprovedbyexperiments.Theauthortakesascientificapproachtoevaluatingtheoriesofspontaneousgeneration,andthepresentationofhisargumentissupportedwithsources.Itisareliableandcrediblesource.Theessaywillbehelpfulinformingapictureoftheearly19th-centuryconversationabouthowlifeisformed,aswellasexplainingthecriticalperceptionofspontaneous-generationtheoriesduringthe19thcentury.

3.5.3:WritingWhileYouResearch

Onceyouhaveenoughnotes,youshouldstartwriting,evenifyouintendtokeepresearching.

LearningObjective

Explaintheuseofbeginningtowriteyourpaperduringtheresearchprocess

KeyPoints

Asyouresearch,letyourselfdosomepreliminarywriting.Provideyourselfwithaspacetothinkthroughideasandconsiderhowyourideasarerelatedtoeachother.Thiscanbeaveryhelpfulpracticeasyoumoveintothewritingphase.Writingasyoureadisawaytoavoidgettingboggeddowninresearching,whichcanfeelendlessasyoutrytodeterminewhatisandisnotarelevantsource.Bycausingyoutothinkthroughyourresearchmaterials,preliminarywritingisagoodwaytobuildthespecificsofyourargument.Takenotesasyoureadyoursources,sincerelyingonmemorywillleadtolosinginformation.Similarly,startcomingupwiththeorganizationalstructureandargumentofyourpaperasyougatherresearch.

KeyTerms

drafting

Thepreliminarystageofawritingprojectinwhichtheauthorbeginstodevelopamorecohesiveproduct.

note

Amark,orsign,madetocallattentiontosomething.

idea

Theconceptionofsomeoneorsomethingasrepresentingaperfectexample;anideal.

Weoftenthinkofthewritingprocessasaseriesofdiscretesteps.Wefirstresearch,thentakenotes,thenoutline,thenwrite.However,inpractice,thedifferentphasesofwritingapaperoftenoverlap.Asyouresearch,youbegintakingnotes.Asyoutakenotes,youbegintoseehowyouwanttoputyourargumenttogetherandmayevenstartdevelopinganin-depthanalysisofsomeofyoursources.Evenifyouarenotofficiallyatthedraftingstageofyourpaper,that’sokay.Theresearchyoudowilloftenprovideyouwithinsightsthatyou’llwanttoincludeinyourargument.

Ifyouhaveanideaforyouressaywhiletakingnotes,don’twaittowriteitdown—startdevelopingit!Whiletheideaisstillfreshandclear,takeabreakfromresearchandstartworkingonyourpaper’sstructureorargument.Writingaboutissuesyoudiscoverinyourresearchthatyoufindinterestingwilltakethetediumoutofresearchingandoutliningandwillhelpyoubetterunderstandtheformatyouressaywilltake.

Onceyouhaveenoughnotes,youshouldstartwriting,evenifyouintendtokeepresearching.Itcanbetemptingtogetboggeddownintheresearchprocessandavoidmovingontoactuallywritingafirstdraft.Avoidthisimpulsebystartingtowritewhilestillresearching.Atthisearlystage,itwillstillbeeasytoincludenewresearchasyoufindit.

Youmayonlybeabletowriteonesectionatatime,oryoumaystartwritingasectionandrealizethatyouneedmoresupportfromyoursources.Beginningtoconstructyourpaperduringtheresearchprocesshelpsyouidentifyholesinyourargument,weaknessesinyourevidenceorsupport,andmayrevealaneedtochangethestructureorformatofyouressay.Itisofteneasiertoaddresstheseissuesinanongoingmannerthanitistowaituntiltheendofeithertheresearchorwritingprocess.

Activeresearch

Don’tjustreadpassively—takenotesthroughouttheresearchprocess.

3.5.4:IncorporatingYourSourcesIntoYourPaper

Thereareseveralwaystoproperlyincorporateandgivecredittothesourcesyoucitewithinyourpaper.

LearningObjective

Namethewaysofincorporatingoutsidesourcesintoyourpaper

KeyPoints

Therearethreemethodsforreferencingasourceinthetextofyourpaper:quoting,summarizing,andparaphrasing.Directquotationsarewordsandphrasesthataretakendirectlyfromanothersource,andthenusedword-for-wordinyourpaper.Asummaryistypicallyashortdescriptionthatoutlinesthemostimportantpointsandgeneralpositionofthesource.Aparaphraseiswhenyouputanothersourceorpartofasource(suchasachapter,paragraph,orpage)intoyourownwords.Youshouldfollowquoteswithadescription,inyourownterms,ofwhatthequotesaysandwhyitisrelevanttothepurposeofyourpaper.Followthestyleguideyouareusingtoproperlyformatandciteyourquotationsandborrowedinformation.

KeyTerms

quotation

Afragmentofahumanexpressionthatisbeingreferredtobysomebodyelse.

paraphrase

Arewordingofsomethingwrittenorspokenbysomeoneelse.

summary

Ashortdescriptionthatoutlinesthemostimportantpointsandgeneralpositionofthesource.

HowtoUseYourSourcesinYourPaperWithinthepagesofyourpaper,itisimportanttoproperlyreferenceandciteyoursourcestoavoidplagiarismandtogivecreditfororiginalideas.Dependingonwhichstyleguideyouareusing(e.g.,APA,MLA),youwillfollowdifferentmethodstoformatyourtexttorefertoothers’work.

Therearethreemethodsforreferencingasourceinthetextofyourpaper:quoting,summarizing,andparaphrasing.

Quoting

Directquotationsarewordsandphrasesthataretakendirectlyfromanothersource,andthenusedword-for-wordinyourpaper.Ifyouincorporateadirectquotationfromanotherauthor’stext,youmustputthatquotationorphraseinquotationmarkstoindicatethatitisnotyourlanguage.Whenwritingdirectquotations,youcanusethesourceauthor’snameinthesamesentenceasthequotationtointroducethequotedtextandtoindicatethesourceinwhichyoufoundthetext.Youshouldthenincludethepagenumberorotherrelevantinformationinparenthesesattheendofthephrase(theexactformatwilldependontheformattingstyleofyouressay).

Summarizing

Summarizinginvolvesdistillingthemainideaofasourceintoamuchshorteroverview.Asummaryoutlinesasource’smostimportantpointsandgeneralposition.Whensummarizingasource,itisstillnecessarytouseacitationtogivecredittotheoriginalauthor.Youmustreferencetheauthororsourceintheappropriateparentheticalcitationattheendofthesummary.

Paraphrasing

Whenparaphrasing,youmayputanypartofasource(suchasaphrase,sentence,paragraph,orchapter)intoyourownwords.Youmayfindthattheoriginalsourceuseslanguagethatismoreclear,concise,orspecificthanyourownlanguage,inwhichcaseyoushoulduseadirectquotation,puttingquotationmarksaroundthoseuniquewordsorphrasesyoudon’tchange.Itiscommontouseamixtureofparaphrasedtextandquotedwordsorphrases,as

longasthedirectquotationsareinsideofquotationmarks.

ProvidingContextforYourSourcesWhetheryouuseadirectquotation,asummary,oraparaphrase,itisimportanttodistinguishtheoriginalsourcefromyourideas,andtoexplainhowthecitedsourcefitsintoyourargument.Whiletheuseofquotationmarksorparentheticalcitationstellsyourreaderthatthesearenotyourownwordsorideas,youshouldfollowthequotewithadescription,inyourownterms,ofwhatthequotesaysandwhyitisrelevanttothepurposeofyourpaper.Youshouldnotletquotedorparaphrasedtextstandaloneinyourpaper,butrather,shouldintegratethesourcesintoyourargumentbyprovidingcontextandexplanationsabouthoweachsourcesupportsyourargument.

Thewritingprocess

Signalingwhoissayingwhatisanimportantpartofthewritingprocess.

Attributions

TakingUsefulNotesonYourSources

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“citation.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/citation.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“HowtoWriteaResearchPaperinHistory/Doingresearch.”

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/How_to_Write_a_Research_Paper_in_History/Doing_researchWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“Allsizes|IndexCardSystem|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/koalazymonkey/3331704619/sizes/l/in/photostream/FlickrCCBY.

MaintaininganAnnotatedBibliography

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“annotation.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/annotation.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“bibliography.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bibliography.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“Annotatedbibliography.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annotated_bibliography.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/AnnotatedBibliography.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Annotated_BibliographyWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“citation.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/citation.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“Allsizes|Bibliography|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/quinnanya/5124103273/sizes/l/in/photostream/FlickrCCBY-SA.

WritingWhileYouResearch

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“drafting.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/drafting.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“idea.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/idea.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“note.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/note.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“HowtoWriteaResearchPaperinHistory/Organizingyourwork.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/How_to_Write_a_Research_Paper_in_History/Organizing_your_workWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“MacBookwritingbyHåkanDahlströminWritingonFotopedia-ImagesforHumanity.”http://www.fotopedia.com/items/flickr-3022965984.FotopediaCCBY.

IncorporatingYourSourcesIntoYourPaper

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“TheCainProjectinEngineeringandProfessionalCommunication,WhatIsaThesis?WhatShouldBeinIt?.September17,2013.”http://cnx.org/content/m15923/latest/.OpenStaxCNXCCBY3.0.

“citation.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/citation.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“quotation.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quotation.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“MissAWritesaSong|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/mrsdkrebs/6812988187/.FlickrCCBY2.0.

3.6:CitingYourSources3.6.1:TheImportanceofCitingYourSources

Toavoidplagiarism,onemustprovideanaccuratecitationeverytimeinformationisusedfromanoutsidesource.

LearningObjective

Identifythedifferenttypesofcitationsandwheretheyshouldappearinapaper.

KeyPoints

Anaccuratecitationincludescompletereferenceinformationwritteninaregulatedformat.Thisshouldallowthereadertofindthecompleteresourcethatwascited.Typesofcitationsincludeparenthetical(in-text)citation,footnote,endnote,andfullcitationofallsources.Acompletereferencesection(oftentitled“References”or“WorksCited”dependingoncitationstyle)comesattheendofyourpaperandlistsallcitedsourcesinalphabeticalorder.Thereareseveraldifferentformatsforcitations,includingMLA,APA,andTurabianstyle(alsoknownasChicagostyleorCMS).Rulesforeachofthesestylesaregiveninstylemanuals;theyincludedetailedexplanationsandexamplesofhowtocitesourcescorrectly.Askyourteacherwhatspecificstyletheywantyoutofollowforyourcitations;typicallytheywillwantonestyleforallworksubmitted.

KeyTerms

plagiarism

Thecopyingofanotherperson’sideas,text,orothercreativework,andpresentingitasone’sown,especiallywithoutpermission.

in-textcitation

Referenceinformationforaparticularsourcepresentedwithinaparagraph,eitherasaparentheticalorintegratedintoasentence.

footnote

Ashortpieceoftext,oftennumbered,placedatthebottomofaprintedpage,thataddsacomment,citation,reference,etc.,toadesignatedpartofthemaintext.

WhatDoYouNeedtoCite?Anytimeyouusespecificmaterialfromanoutsideresource,youneedtoprovideacitationthatsaysexactlywhereyoufoundthatinformation.“Specificmaterial”referstoquotations,detailedparaphrases,summaries,andimagesorgraphs.Ifyouuseanyoftheabovesourceswithoutcitingthem,youarecommittingplagiarism.Ifyouareeverunsurewhethertociteasourceornot,youshouldcitethesource.Itisbesttoerronthesideofcautiontoavoidplagiarism.

Atthecollegelevel,plagiarismisanextremelyseriousoffense.Studentswhoplagiarize,whetherintentionallyorunintentionally,riskacademicconsequencesthatrangefromfailinganassignmentoraclasstoexpulsion.Learninghowtociteyoursourcesismorethanastylisticrequirement—itisamatterofacademicintegrity.

Youwillciteresourcesintwoplaces:abriefcitationinthetextofyourpaper(in-textcitation),andafullcitationinareferencepageattheendofyouressay.

In-TextCitationsIn-textcitationscomeintwoforms:theparenthetical,andthefootnote(orendnote).

Parentheticals

Parentheticalcitationsincludethenecessaryinformationinparenthesesafterasentence.Parentheticalcitationsshouldincludeonlyenoughinformationtodirectthereadertothespecificinformationyouareciting.Mostcitationswillrequireonlythelastnameoftheauthorandthepagenumberwheretheinformationcomesfrom,butthiswillvaryaccordingtothestylemanualyouaredirectedtousebyyourprofessor.Thefollowingisanexampleofaparentheticalcitation:

AldissclaimsErasmusDarwinwasaninfluenceontheRomanticpoetswhosurroundedMaryShelley,describinghisthoughtas“seminal”(Aldiss,13).

FootnotesandEndnotes

Footnotesincludeanumberattheendofthesentencethatdirectsthereadertotheappropriatenoteatthebottomofthepage.Endnotesareexactlylikefootnotes,exceptthenotesareattheendofthepaperratherthanatthebottomofthepage.Footnotesandendnotescanbeusedbothtociteasource,toprovideadditionalinformation,ortoprovidecontextforawordorconceptinyourtext.

Formoredetailedinstructions,aswellasinformationonwhattodoinexceptionalcircumstances,consultastylemanualforwhicheverformatisrequired.

ReferenceSectionSincein-textcitationsarekeptbrief,youwillneedtoprovidethefullbibliographicdetailsofyoursourcesoutsideofthetextofyourpaper.Thisisdoneinareferencesectionattheendofyourpaper.Thenameofthispagediffersdependingonthestyle(MLAcallsittheWorksCitedsection;APAcallsittheReferencessection).Thispageservesthesamepurposeforeachstyle:itcomesattheendofyourpaperandlistsallyourcitedsourcesinalphabeticalorder(typicallybytheauthor’slastname).

CitationStyleManualsWritingcitationsrequiresthatyoufollowdetailedformattingrules.Thereareseveraldifferentformats,includingMLA,APA,andTurabianstyle(alsoknownasChicagoManuscriptStyle).Rulesforeachofthesestylesareexplainedinstylemanuals,whichincludedetailedexplanationsandmanyspecificexamplesofhowtocitethingscorrectly.Moststyleguidesincludesectionsoncitingonlinesources;writersshouldpayextraattentiontotherulesforverifyingandcitingsourcesfromtheweb.Manypublicationsandprofessorsnowrequireauthorstoruntheirpapersthroughonlineplagiarismtoolstoensurewritingisoriginal.

Yourprofessorwillmostlikelyindicatethespecificstylethatyoushouldfollowdependingonthesubjectforwhichyouarewriting,sobesureto

followthecorrectstyleguide!Youshouldfindacopyofastylemanual,eitheronlineorinprint,andconsultitfrequently.Itmayseemtediousandfussy,butaccuratecitationsareanecessarycomponentofanyreputableessay.

Understandyournotes

Annotatedbibliographiesincludenotesthatexplainwhatyoufoundusefulinasource,makingiteasierforyoutoreferbacktoasourcelater.

Attributions

TheImportanceofCitingYourSources

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“Chicago-StyleCitationQuickGuide.”http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html.The

ChicagoManualofStyleOnlinePublicdomain.

“APAStyle.”https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/section/2/10/.PurdueOnlineWritingLabPublicdomain.

“MLAFormattingandStyleGuide.”https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/01/.PurdueOnlineWritingLabPublicdomain.

“in-textcitation.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/in-text%20citation.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“footnote.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/footnote.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“plagiarism.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/plagiarism.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/Citation.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Citation.WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“Allsizes|Bibliography|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/quinnanya/5124103273/sizes/l/in/photostream/FlickrCCBY-SA.

4:OverviewofEnglishGrammar:PartsofSpeech

4.1:IntroductiontoEnglishGrammarandMechanics4.1.1:ComponentsofaSentence

Englishfeaturesfourcoresentenceelements(subjects,predicates,objects,andmodifiers)thatmakeupphrasesandclauses,whichinturnmakeupsentences.

LearningObjective

Recognizeacompletesentencebyidentifyingitssubjectandpredicate

KeyPoints

Withinasentence,thesubjectisthenoun(orpronoun)thatperformstheaction.Withinasentence,thepredicateistheverborverbphrasethattellswhatactionisbeingperformedbythesubject.Withinasentence,thedirectobjectisthepersonorobjectuponwhichthesubjectisacting.Withinasentence,theindirectobjectanswersthequestion“towhom/what?”or“forwhom/what?”Amodifiergivesmoreinformationaboutasentenceelement.Aphraseisagroupofwordsthatdoesnotcontainbothasubjectandaverb.Sentencesaremadeupofclauses.Aclausecontainsatleastasubjectandafiniteverb.

KeyTerms

complement

Aword,phrase,orclausethatisnecessarytocompletethemeaningofagivenexpression.

phrase

Agroupofwordsthatcannotstandonitsownbecauseitdoesnothave

bothasubjectandaverb.

fragment

Anincompletesentence,lackingasubjectorapredicate.

subject

Inaclause,thewordorwordgroup(usuallyanounphrase)thatrepresentsaperson,placeorthing.Inactiveclauseswithverbsdenotinganaction,thesubjectandtheactorareusuallythesame.

predicate

Thepartofthesentence(orclause)thatstatessomethingaboutthesubjectortheobjectofthesentence.

sentencefragment

Anincompletesentence;aphraseorclausethatispunctuatedandcapitalizedasasentencebutdoesnotconstituteacompletegrammaticalsentence.Itisusuallycausedeitherbythefailuretoincludeasubjectandaverbinasentenceorbybeginningasentencewithasubordinateconjunctionorrelativepronoun.

simplepredicate

Theverborverbphraseofasentence.

object

Thenounorpronounwhichisbeingactedupon,oratwhichtheactionisdirected.Therearetwotypes:directandindirect.

modifier

Aword,phrase,orclausethatlimitsorqualifiesthesenseofanotherwordorphrase.

clause

Typicallycontainsatleastasubjectnounphraseandafiniteverb.Thetwomaincategoriesareindependentandsubordinate(ordependent).

CompleteSentencesInordertosuccessfullycraftsentences,onemustfirstunderstandthecoreelementsofcompleteEnglishsentences:subjects,objects,predicates,andmodifiers.Themostimportantofthesearesubjectsandpredicates:inorder

forasentencetobe“complete,”itmustcontainanactionandsomeone(orsomething)doingit.Theactionisthepredicate,andtheperson(orthing)doingitisthesubject.

Anincompletesentenceiscalledafragment.Compareandcontrastthesentencesbelow:

1. Ilikepizza.Becauseittastesdelicious.2. Ilikepizzabecauseittastesdelicious.

Ofthetwoexamplesabove,thefirstcontainsafragment:“Becauseittastesdelicious”isafragment,oranincompletethought.Ithasan“action”(tastingdelicious)butnosubject.

Thesecondexampleiscorrect;ithasallthenecessarycomponentsofafullsentence—asubjectandapredicate.

ItisimportanttounderstandthattherearemanygrayareasofdefinitionandusagewhenitcomestoEnglish-languagesentenceconstruction.Forthepurposesofunderstanding,wewillstartwithbasicideasandsimpleexamples.Whenyouhaveastronggraspofthese,youwillfeelmoreabletohandlethegrayareas.

SubjectsThesubjectofasentenceisanounorpronoun(anditsarticle,ifithasone).Inactive-voicesentences,itisthenounorpronounperformingtheactioninthesentence.Seetheitalicizedsubjectsintheexamplesbelow:

1. Theboycrossedthestreet.2. Sheworksinthecity.3. Markisagoodathlete.

Inexample1,thesubject,“theboy,”isbothanounanditsarticle.Inexample2,thesubjectisapronoun.Inexample3,thesubjectisanoun(noarticle).

PredicatesThepredicateexplainstheactionofthesentence.Thesimplepredicatereferstojusttheverborverbphrase,linkedtothesubject,whichtellswhatactionisbeingperformedbythatsubject.Intheexamplesabove,“crossed,”“works,”

and“is”areallsimplepredicates.

Therearemorecomplexdefinitionsof“predicate.”Sometimes“predicate”cansimplymean“everythingexceptthesubject.”Butjustremember:thesimplepredicateistheaction(verborverbphrase)ofasentence.

Intheexamplesbelow,thepredicatesareitalicized:

Thehouseisgreen.Sheseemsangry.Theburdenbecameexcessive.

ObjectsTheobjectofasentenceisthenounorpronounwhichisbeingactedupon,oratwhichtheactionisdirected.Therearetwotypesofobjects:directobjectsandindirectobjects.

DirectObject

Thedirectobjectistheobjectwhichisbeingacteduponinthesentence.Seetheitalicizeddirectobjectsintheexamplesbelow:

Johnnythrowstheball.Jillcutsthecake.Billridesthebike.

IndirectObject

Theindirectobjectanswersthequestions“towhom/what?”or“forwhom/what?”inasentence.Itisnotactedupon.Seetheitalicizedindirectobjectsintheexamplesbelow:

Johnnythrowstheballtome.Jillcutsthecakeforherfriends.Billridesthebiketoschool.

NoObject

Somesentencesdonotneedanobjectandconsistofonlyasubjectandaverb

predicate.Forexample:

Marysmiled.Fredsneezed.

Thiscanhappenbecausesomeverbs(liketheonesabove)don’trequireanobject.Whenaverbdoesn’tneedanobject,itiscalledanintransitiveverb.(We’lltalkmoreaboutthislater.)

ModifiersAmodifierisaphraseinasentencethatprovidesadditionalinformationaboutanelementwithinthatsentence.Therearethreebasickindsofmodifyingconstructions:

Single-wordmodifiers(adjectivesandadverbs):Itwasanicehouse.Modifyingphrases(e.g.,prepositional,participial,infinitive,andappositivephrases):BarryGoldwater,thejuniorsenatorfromArizona,receivedtheRepublicannominationin1964.(appositivephrase)Modifyingclauses(aclauseisanygroupofwordswithitsownsubjectandpredicate):TheonlyoneofthesevendwarfswhodoesnothaveabeardisDopey.(adjectiveclause)

CompoundElementsInagivensentence,theremaybemorethanoneofanyofthefourcoresentenceelements.Compoundelementscaninclude:

Compoundsubject:MaryandTomwenttothedance.Compoundpredicate:Herantothehouseandknockedonthedoor.Compoundmodifier:Herodeasmallwhitepony.

PhrasesAphraseisacollectionofwordsthatmayhavenounsorverbals,butitdoesnothaveasubjectdoingaverb.Thefollowingareexamplesofphrases:

leavingbehindthedog

smashingintoafencebeforethefirsttestafterthedevastationbetweenignoranceandintelligencebrokenintothousandsofpiecesbecauseofherglitteringsmile

Intheseexamples,youwillfindnouns(dog,fence,test,devastation,ignorance,intelligence,thousands,pieces).Youalsohavesomeverbals(leaving,smashing),butinnocaseisthenounfunctioningasasubjectdoingapredicateverb.Theyareallphrases.

ClausesAclauseisacollectionofwordsthathasasubjectthatisactivelydoingaverb.Thefollowingareexamplesofclauses:

sinceshelaughsatmenIdespiseindividualsoflowcharacterwhenthesaintsgomarchinginbecauseshesmiledathim

Notethatintheexamplesabove,wefindeitheranounorapronounthatisasubject(italicized)attachedtoaverbphrase(alsoitalicized).

IndependentandDependentClauses

Iftheclausecouldstandbyitself—thatis,formacompletesentencewithpunctuation—wecallitanindependentclause.Thefollowingareindependentclauses:

IdespiseindividualsoflowcharacterHelenlovesCanadiangeese

Wecouldeasilyturnindependentclausesintocompletesentencesbyaddingappropriatepunctuationmarks.Wemightsay,“Idespiseindividualsoflowcharacter.”Orwemightwrite,“HelenlovesCanadiangeese!”Wecallthemindependentbecausethesetypesofclausescanstandbythemselves,withoutanyextrawordsattached,andbecompletesentences.

Bycontrast,dependent(alsocalledsubordinating)clausescannotstandon

theirown.Thefollowingaredependentclauses:

whenthesaintsgomarchinginbecauseshesmiledathim

Sentencediagram1

Thisdiagramshowssomeofthecomponentpartsofasentence,anddemonstrateshowtheyrelatetoeachother.

4.1.2:StructureofaSentence

Differenttypesofsentencesareusedfordifferentpurposesandindifferentpartsofapaper,butthefoundationofallgoodsentencesisastrongsubjectandverb.

LearningObjective

Classifysentencesbasedonsentencestructureandpurpose

KeyPoints

Tocreateastrongsentence,beginwithaspecificsubjectandastrongverb.Sentencescanbeclassifiedbytheirstructureorbytheirpurpose.Structuralclassificationsforsentencesinclude:simplesentences,compoundsentences,complexsentences,andcompound-complexsentences.Particularconnectorsareusedtoimpartparticularmeaningsincompoundandcomplexsentences.Classificationcategoriesforsentencesbypurposeincludedeclarations,interrogatives,exclamations,andimperatives.Intherevisionstageofwriting,it’susefultogooverthepaperwithaneyetowardtheappropriatenessandvarietyofsentenceconstruction.

KeyTerms

imperativesentence

Astatementthattellsthereader,intheformofarequest,suggestion,ordemand,todosomething.

exclamatorysentence

Anemphaticformofstatementthatexpressesemotion.

declarativesentence

Astatementordeclarationaboutsomething.

compound-complexsentence

Multipleindependentclauses,atleastoneofwhichhasatleastonesubordinateclause.

complexsentence

Atleastoneindependentclauseandonesubordinateclause.

simplesentences

Asingleindependentclausewithnosubordinateclauses.

compoundsentence

Multipleindependentclauseswithnosubordinateclauses.

interrogativesentence

Alsocalledaquestion,itiscommonlyusedtorequestinformation.

Likeanarchitectcancreatewalls,bridges,arches,androadswiththesamebricks,youcancreatesentencesthatservevaryingfunctionsusingthebuildingblocksofwords.Justasanarchitectplansdifferentfeaturesinanedificetocreateastrongandbeautifulbuilding,awritermustuseavarietyofsentencestructurestocapturereaders’interest.Andlikeabuildermustbeginwithasolidfoundation,yoursentencesneedtobeginwithclear,strongwords.Themorepracticeyouhaveputtingsentencestogether,themoreinterestingyourwritingwillbecome.

First,let’sworkonclaritythroughspecificity.“Lebonmot,”or“therightword,”iskey,anditbeginswithnounsandverbs.

SubjectsandVerbs

Despitecontrarytrendsinthepopularpress,formalwritingstillrequiresofasentencebothasubjectandaverb.Gettingthosetwothingsrightwillputyouwellonthewaytowritingwell.

Jesuswept.Theschoonercapsized.Shedied.Theywon.Parisseduces.Itis.Theseareallsentences.

Youalreadyknowthatyouneedasubjectandaverbtocreateasentence.Whatyoumaynotknowisthatthesearethetwomostimportantpartsofasentencetogetright.Themorespecificthenoun,themoreyourreaderwillbeabletopicturewhatitisyou’retalkingabout(“schooner”ismorespecificthan“boat,”“Paris”morespecificthan“France”).Pronounsworkwellwhentheantecedentisclear.Whilerepeatinganouncangetponderous,unidentifiablepronounsconfusethereader.

Verbs,too,captivatewhenthey’reexact.Adjectivesandadverbs,it’ssaid,wereinventedforthosewhodon’tknowenoughverbs.Takethesentence“Parisseduces,”forexample.Youcouldjustaseasilysay,“Parisisseductive,”buttheuseoftheverb“tobe”makesthesentencelessactiveandalive.

Fromthissolidbase,youcanbeginaddingyourobjectsandclausestocreatemorecomplexsentences.

ClassifyingSentencesbyStructureSentencescanbeclassifiedbytheirstructureorbytheirpurpose.You’llwanttokeepbothinmindasyouwrite.

Structuralclassificationsforsentencesincludesimplesentences,compoundsentences,complexsentences,andcompound-complexsentences.

You’llwanttohaveamixofsentencetypesinalmostanythingyouwrite,asvaryinglengthandcomplexitykeepsthereader’sattention.Thesing-songnatureofsame-lengthsentencesseemstotriggeralullabyresponseinourbrains,andoureyescan’thelpbutdroop.Inadditiontotherhythmofit,though,you’llcommunicatemoresubstancewithvaryingsentencelengths.

SimpleSentences

Asimplesentenceconsistsofasingleindependentclausewithnosubordinateclauses.Forexample:

Ilovechocolatecakewithrainbowsprinkles.“Withoutlove,lifewouldbeempty.”Thissentencecontainsasubject(life),averb(wouldbe)andtwotypesofmodifiers(withoutloveandempty).

Simplesentencesareoftenusedtointroduceatopicorpresentanewthoughtinanargument—forexample,“Juriesarechargedwithrenderingimpartialverdicts,”or“IncometaxesarehighinScandinaviancountries.”Youmaynoticethatwithboththeseexamples,thereaderislikelytostartformulatingobjectionsoropinionsaboutthetopicrightaway.Asawriter,youcanusesimplesentencesinthisway.Writingasimplesentencetobeginaparagraphcanhavethereadermakingyourargumentforyoubeforeyou’veevenbeguntostateyourpoint.

CompoundSentences

Acompoundsentenceconsistsofmultipleindependentclauseswithnosubordinateclauses.Theseclausesarejoinedtogetherusingconjunctions,punctuation,orboth.Forexample:

Ilovechocolatecakewithrainbowsprinkles,andIeatitallthetimeforbreakfast.Togetherwestand;unitedwefall.

Youcanfeelthepowerofthatsecondexample.Usingasemicolonwithoutaconjunctionaddsdramatoacompoundsentence,especiallywhenyou’recomparingtwoconceptsandtheindependentclausesareofapproximatelyequallength.

Compoundsentencesconnectedwith“and”makeconnectionsbetweenideas.Thesentence,“It’sclearthatwedohavethemeanstoendpovertyworldwide,andeverymomentwehesitatemeansonemorechilddiesofhunger,”exposestheconnectionbetweenhavingthemeanstoendpovertyandtheconsequencesofnotemployingthosemeans.

Using“but”takesexceptionwiththefirstclause:“Eileentreatsherboyfriendlikeaservant,butheisn’tgoingtostandforthatforlong.”

Youcanuseasemicolontoshowarelationshipbetweenclauses:“Batsarenocturnal;theyareactiveonlyatnight.”

“However,”“nonetheless,”and“still”areoftenusedasqualifiersbetweenindependentclauses.Forexample,“Therewerenoluxurieslikepillowsintheconvent;however,someresidentsdidfindwaystocreatecomfort.”

Youcanshowcausationusing“therefore”and“thus,”—forexample,“Thecountriesthatareleastcommittedtoreducingfossilfuelusearethelargest;therefore,weareunlikelytostavethecrisis.

Youcanshowemphasisusingconnectorslike,“moreover,”and“furthermore.”“Hildahasnotdoneherchoresinaweek;moreover,shehasbeeneatingtwicehershareatdinner.”

ComplexSentences

Acomplexsentenceconsistsofatleastoneindependentclauseandonesubordinateclause.Forexample:

“WhileIlovehimdearly,Iwillgetridofmypterodactylforthesakeofthecommunity.”“Thosewhoeatchocolatecakewillbehappy.”Inthiscase,thesubordinateclause,“whoeatchocolatecake”isinthemiddleofthesentence.“If-then”sentencesarecomplexsentences:“IfAmericansdon’tchangetheirdietaryhabits,themedicalsystemwillsoonbebankrupt.”(Noticethatthe“then”isimplied.)

Otherconnectorsforcomplexsentencesinclude“because,”“although,”“sothat,”“since.”

“IhavehadstrongconvictionssinceIwasoldenoughtoreason.”

Compound-ComplexSentences

Acompound-complexsentence(orcomplex-compoundsentence)consistsofmultipleindependentclauses,atleastoneofwhichhasatleastonesubordinateclause.Forexample:

“Ilovemypetpterodactyl,butsincehe’sbeeneatingneighborhoodcats,Iwilldonatehimtothecityzoo.”Here,thesubordinateclauseis,“sincehe’sbeeneatingneighborhoodcats.”

“Tellmewhatyoueat,andIwilltellyouwhatyouare.”Thissentencecontainstwoindependentclauses(onebeforeandoneafterthecomma),andeachindependentclausecontainsasubordinateclause(“whatyoueat”and“whatyouare”).

Therearecountlessvariationsofcompound-complexsentences,andwhiletheycanbecomplicated,theyareoftennecessaryinordertomakecompleteconnectionsbetweenideas.Don’tmakethemistake,though,ofusingthemunnecessarily.Breakthoughtsintonewsentenceswhenyoucan.Whenyoudouseone,trytoinsertasimplesentenceafterit.Yourreadermayneedarest.

SelectingSentenceConstructionNorthAmericanseatalotoffastfood.Theyalsohaveahighrateofdisease.NorthAmericanseatalotoffastfood,andtheyhaveahighrateofdisease.IfNorthAmericanscontinuetoeatalotoffastfood,theywillcontinuetohaveahighrateofdisease.IfNorthAmericans,whoeatalotoffastfood,continuetodoso,theywilllikelycontinuetohaveahighrateofdisease,aspropernutritionisvitaltoimmunefunction.

Inlookingatthevarioussentenceformsabove,youcanseethateachsentencegivesyouadifferentfeel.Canyouseehoweachmightbeappropriateindifferentcontexts?Thesimplesentencesmightworkinanintroductiontobegintodrawtheparallel.Thecompoundsentencemakestheconnectionclear.Thecomplexsentencesoundsmorelikealessoninits“if-then”format,andthecompound-complexsentencepacksalltheinformationintooneconclusivesentence.Whichofthesesoundsmostconvincingasanargument?Whichallowsyoutodrawyourownconclusion?

ClassifyingSentencesbyPurposeEnglishsentencescanalsobeclassifiedbasedontheirpurpose:declarations,interrogatives,exclamations,andimperatives.Whenyou’recomposingapaper,you’llwanttoclarifythepurposeofyoursentencestobesureyou’reselectingtheappropriateform.

Declarations

Adeclarativesentence,ordeclaration,isthemostcommontypeofsentence.Itmakesastatement.Forexample:

“MostAmericansmustworktosurvive.”“Ilovewatchingtheparrotsmigrate.”

Becauseyou’llberelyingonstatementsmostofthetime,you’llwanttovarythestructureofyourdeclarativesentences,usingtheformsabove,tobesureyourparagraphsdon’tfeelplodding.Onedeclarationafterthenextcanlullthereaderintocomplacency(or,worse,sleep).

Interrogatives

Aninterrogativesentence,orquestion,iscommonlyusedtorequestinformation.Forexample:

“Doyouknowwhatit’sliketohavetogotoworktobeabletoeat?”“Whyhastheskysuddenlyturnedgreen?”

Whileyoudon’twanttooverusetheinterrogativeinanessay,itdoesservetowakethereaderupabit.You’reaskingthereadertofindtheanswerwithinhim-orherself,ratherthansimplydigestingfactafterfact.Helpingthereaderformulatequestionsaboutthetopicearlycanengagereadersbyaccessingtheircuriosity.

Exclamations

Anexclamatorysentence,orexclamation,isamoreemphaticformofstatementthatexpressesemotion.Forexample:

Ihavetogotowork!Getawayfromme!

“Showsomerestraint!”isthegeneralguidelineforusingexclamationsinapaper.Andyet,therearetimeswhenitwon’tseemamateurishoroverlyhard-hitting.Whenyou’reexposingacontradictioninyouropposition’sviews,forexample,oraninconsistencybetweenviewsandbehaviors,youcansignaltheimportanceofthisdiversionwithanexclamation.Recognize,though,thatusingexclamationsonlysparinglywillbolsteryourcredibility.Liketheboy

whocriedwolf,ifyougetareputationforyellingallthetime,peoplewillbegintoignoreyou,evenwhenitreallymatters.

Imperatives

Animperativesentencetellssomeonetodosomething(andmaybeconsideredbothimperativeandexclamatory).Thismaybeintheformofarequest,asuggestion,orademand,andtheintendedaudienceisthereader.

Gotowork.Trustme!

Imperativescanbeeffectiveinmakinganargument.Youcanintroduceevidencewithanimperative(e.g.,“ConsiderthecurrentimmigrantcrisisinEurope”).Youcanuseanimperativetotransitionfromacounter-argument:“Don’tbefooledbythisfaultylogic.”Youmightincludeanimperativeinyourconclusion,ifyou’reincludingacalltoaction:“Actnowtoendhumantrafficking.”

CheckingforAppropriateSentenceStructureandPurposeIntherevisionstageofwriting,makesuretomakeapassoverthepaperwithaneyetowardsentenceconstruction.Aretheretoomanyinterrogativesorexclamations?DoestheprosesoundconvolutedbecauseIusetoomanycompound-complexsentences?DoIsoundcondescendingbecauseI’musingtoomanysimplesentences?DotheconnectorsI’musingfitwiththisparticularsentence?

Enjoyconstructingyourargumentusingtheformssentencescantake.Designingapaperusingyourskillwithsentencestructurecanfeelthoroughlysatisfying.

4.1.3:IntroductiontoInflection

Inthecontextofgrammar,inflectionisalteringawordtochangeitsform,usuallybyaddingletters.

LearningObjective

Definegrammaticalinflection

KeyPoints

InEnglishgrammar,“inflection”referstochangingawordtosuititsgrammaticalcontext(e.g.,makinganounpluralwhenyou’retalkingaboutmorethanone,makingaverbpasttensewhenyou’retalkingaboutsomethingthathasalreadyhappened).InEnglish,therearemanyrulesthattellyouhowtochangewordstosuitcontext,buttherearealsoquiteafewexceptionsthatyou’lljusthavetomemorize.Pronounsandnounschangeformdependingonwhethertheyarethesubject(i.e.,theactor)orthedirectorindirectobject(i.e.,thethingbeingactedupon)ofasentence.

KeyTerms

conjugation

Thecreationofderivedformsofaverbfromitsprincipalpartsbyinflection.

declension

Theinflectionofnouns,pronouns,articles,andadjectives.

inflection

Inthegrammaticalsense,modifyingaword,usuallybyaddingletters,tocreateadifferentformofthatword.

InEnglishgrammar,“inflection”isthebroadumbrellatermforchangingawordtosuititsgrammaticalcontext.You’veprobablyneverheardthiswordbefore,butyouactuallydoitallthetimewithouteventhinkingaboutit.Forexample,youknowtosay“Callmetomorrow”insteadof“CallItomorrow”;you’vechangedthenoun“I”tofitthecontext(i.e.,soitcanbeusedasadirectobjectinsteadofasubject).

Awordyoumighthaveheardbefore,especiallyifyou’vetakenaforeignlanguagelikeSpanish,is“conjugation.”Conjugationisthespecifictypeofinflectionthathastodowithverbs.Forexample,youchangeaverbbasedonwhoisperformingtheverb:youwouldsay“Youcallme,”but“Shecallsme.”Again,youknowtodothisautomatically.

NounsandPronounsWeoftenneedtochangenounsbasedongrammaticalcontext.Forexample,ifyouchangefromsingulartoplural(e.g.,from“cat”to“cats,”orfrom“syllabus”to“syllabi”),you’re“inflecting”thenoun.Similarly,ifyou’rechangingthepronoun“I”to“me,”or“she”to“her,”thepersonyou’rereferringtoisn’tchanging,butthewordyouusedoes,becauseofcontext.“ShecallsI”isincorrect,asis“Hercallsme”;youknowtoinsteadsay“Shecallsme.”

VerbsTorecap,“conjugation”referstochangingaverbtosuititsgrammaticalcontext.Thiscanmeanchangingtheverbbasedonwhoisperformingtheverb(e.g.,“youread,”but“shereads”)orbasedonthetimetheactionisoccurring,alsoknownastheverb’s“tense”(e.g.,“youwalk”forthepresent,and“youwalked”forthepast).

AdjectivesYoualsomightneedtochangesomeadjectivesbasedonthegrammaticalcontextoftherestofyoursentence.Forexample,ifyou’retryingtocomparehowsunnytoday’sweatheristoyesterday’sweather,youwouldchangetheadjective“sunny”to“sunnier”:“Todayissunnierthanyesterday.”

AdverbsInflectingadverbsisverysimilartohowyouchangeadjectives.Forexample,ifyouwanttocomparehowquicklytwostudentsarelearningmath,youwouldchangetheadverb“easily”to“moreeasily”:“HuckislearninghisfractionsmuchmoreeasilythanTomis.”

Attributions

ComponentsofaSentence

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCC

BY-SA3.0.

“Appositive.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appositive.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Grammaticalmodifier.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_modifier.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Verbphrase.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb_phrase.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“subject.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/subject.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“sentencefragment.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sentence_fragment.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“predicate.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/predicate.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“modifier.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/modifier.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“Adjectivalclause.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjectival_clause%23Adjective_clause.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/PartsoftheSentence.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Parts_of_the_SentenceWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“Thedifferencebetweenaclauseandaphrase.”http://english.stackexchange.com/questions/133853/the-difference-between-a-clause-and-a-phrase.EnglishLanguageCCBY-SA3.0.

“Sentencediagram.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_diagram.WikipediaCCBY.

StructureofaSentence

“UsingVariedSentenceLengthsandStyles..”https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/style-structure-grammar-5/sentence-style-29/using-varied-sentence-lengths-and-styles-128-8088/.BoundlessLicense:Other.

IntroductiontoInflection

“Declension.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declension.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Inflection.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflection.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“GrammaticalConjugation.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_conjugation.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

4.2:Nouns4.2.1:NounsasSubjectsandObjects

Nounscanbeeitherthesubjectorobjectofsentences.

LearningObjective

Identifywhetheranounfunctionsasasubjectorobject

KeyPoints

Thesubjectofasentencecompletestheactionofthesentence.Thedirectobjectofthesentencereceivestheactionofthesentence.Theindirectobjectofthesentenceanswersthequestion“towhom/what?”or“forwhom/what?”fortheactionofthesentence.Forsentencesinactivevoice,thesubjectcomesbeforetheverb.Forsentencesinpassivevoice,thesubjectcomesaftertheverb.

KeyTerms

subjectnoun

Completestheaction(s)inasentence.

objectnoun

Receivestheactioninasentenceoranswersthequestion“towhom/what?”or“forwhom/what?”

Nounscantakeontwodifferentrolesinasentence:theycanbesubjectsorobjects.Understandingsubjectsandobjectssimplymeansunderstandingwho(orwhat)performedanaction,andwho(orwhat)wasaffectedbythataction.

IdentifyingSubjectsInasentence,thesubjectcompletestheaction.Thesubjectsareitalicizedintheexamplesbelow:

Marydrewapictureforhermother.Lionseatmanyanimals,suchasrabbits.

Thesubjectdoesnothavetobeapersonoranimal—itcanalsobeaninanimateobject:

Thecoffeeletoffsteam.Thecupisonthetable.

Notethatthesubjectincludesnotjustthenoun,butalsothearticle(e.g.,the,a,an)thatgoesalongwithit.

IdentifyingObjectsAnobjectistherecipientofanaction.Therearetwotypesofobject:directandindirect.

DirectObjects

Inasentence,thedirectobjectreceivestheactionofthesubject.Seetheitalicizeddirectobjectsintheexamplesbelow:

Marydrewapicture.Thetigerchasedthebunny.

IndirectObjects

Inasentence,theindirectobjectanswersthequestion“towhomorwhat?”or“forwhomorwhat?”Seetheitalicizedindirectobjectsintheexamplesbelow.

Marydrewapictureforhermother.Billthrewtheballtohissister.

Sign

Inthissignsaying“Donotfeedthecoyotes”,arecoyotesthesubject,theobject,ortheindirectobject?(Answer:Theyarethedirectobject.)

IdentifyingIndirectObjectswithoutaPreposition

Sometimesdirectobjectandindirectobjectcannotbeidentifiedbywordorderalone—andthereisnotalwaysa“to”or“for”tomakeitclear:

Theboyfedthedogabone.

Tocorrectlyidentifytheindirectobject,askyourselfwhichpartofthesentencewouldanswerthequestion“to/forwhomorwhat?”

“Theboyfedabonetothedog.”

Phrasedthisway,itbecomesclearthatthedogistheindirectobjectandtheboneisthedirectobject.

IdentifyingSubjectandObjectintheActiveVoiceIfasentenceiswrittenintheactivevoice,itmeansthatthesubjectcomesbeforetheverb,andtheobjectfollowstheverb.Alloftheexamplesabovearewrittenintheactivevoice.

Asimplewaytoidentifywhetheranounisasubjectoranobjectinanactive-voicesentenceistonotewhereitisinthesentence.Ifthenounprecedestheverb,itisthesubject.Ifitfollowstheverb,itistheobject.Seetheexamplesbelow:

Thealienlandedthespaceship.(“Thealien”isthesubjectand“thespaceship”isthedirectobject.)Mathildaatethesandwich.(“Mathilda”isthesubjectand“thesandwich”isthedirectobject.)

IdentifyingSubjectandObjectinthePassiveVoiceInpassive-voicesentences,theusualrulesdonotapply.Rather,weneedtolookatwordordertofindthesubjectandobject.Inapassive-voicesentence,keepinmindthattheorderwillbesubject–verbphrase–object.Seethefollowingexamples.

ThesandwichwaseatenbyMathilda.(“Thesandwich”isthesubjectand“Mathilda”istheobject.)Thespaceshipwassteeredbythealien.(“Thespaceship”isthesubjectand“thealien”istheobject.)

Inthepassivevoice,anouncomingaftertheword“by”isanobject,whileanouncomingbeforeaformoftheverb“tobe”(e.g.,“was”)isthesubject.Notetheitalicizedwordsintheexamplesabove.

VerbTypesandObjectsNotallverbsrequireobjects.Averbthatrequiresanobjectiscalledatransitiveverb:

Shewantscake.

Withouttheobject“cake,”thesentenceisincompleteanddoesn’tmakesense.Whatdoesshewant?

Averbthatdoesnotrequireanobjectiscalledanintransitiveverb:

Islept.

Withanintransitiveverb,thesentenceiscompletewiththesubjectandverbalone.

Attributions

NounsasSubjectsandObjects

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“subjectpronoun.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/subject_pronoun.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“Objectpronoun.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/object%20pronoun.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“No_Feeding.jpg.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coyote%23/media/File:No_Feeding.jpgWikipediaCCBY2.0.

4.3:Pronouns4.3.1:IntroductiontoPronouns

Pronounsreplacenounstoreduceredundancyandlinkphrasestogethertoprovidemoreinformation.

LearningObjective

Identifypronounsbytype

KeyPoints

Pronounstaketheplaceofnounstoreduceredundancy.Thenounapronounreplacesisknownasthatpronoun’santecedent.Itiscrucialtoensurethateachpronounhasaclearantecedentsothereaderdoesnotgetconfused.Relativepronouns(“who,”“whom,”“whose,”“that,”“which”)areusedtolinksubordinateclausestothesubjecttheydescribe.Interrogativepronounsintroducequestionsofidentification(“who,”“whom,”“whose,”“what,”“which”).Demonstrativepronounsidentifyspecificpeople,places,things,orideas(e.g.,“this,”“that,”“these,”“those”).Indefinitepronounsrefertonon-specificpeopleorthings(e.g.,“anyone,”“most”).

KeyTerms

subordinateclause

Aclausethatcannotstandaloneasasentencebutthatfunctionsasanoun,adjective,oradverbinalargersentence.

relativeclause

Asubordinateclausethatmodifiesanoun.

antecedent

Thenounbeingreplacedbyapronoun.

PronounsandAntecedentsPronounscanbeveryusefulwhenstandinginforothernounsornounphrases.Theymakesentenceslessrepetitivebyeliminatingtheneedtorepeatthesamenounsoverandoveragain.However,theyareonlyusefulifthereaderalwaysknowswhatwordthepronounisreplacing—thepronoun’santecedent.Thiscanpartlybedonethroughwordorder.Don’tseparateapronountoofarfromitsantecedent,anddon’tuseapronoununlessitsantecedenthasalreadybeenestablished.

Thedifferenttypesofpronounsincludethefollowing:

personalpronounspossessivepronounsintensiveandreflexivepronounsrelativepronounsinterrogativepronounsdemonstrativepronounsindefinitepronouns

PersonalPronounsPersonalpronounsrefertoaspecificgrammaticalperson.“Grammaticalperson”meanseitherthefirst-person,second-person,orthird-person.Thefirst-personreferstoyourselfandthereforeusesthepronoun“I.”Thesecond-personpronounis“you,”andthethird-personpronounsare“he,”“she,”“it.”

Iamgoingtotheconcert.Youcancomewithme.Shedidnotgetaticketbeforetheysoldout.

PossessivePronounsPossessivepronounsshowownershipinrelationtothepronoun.Possessivepronounsare“my,”“your,”“his,”“hers,”“its,”“ours,”“your,”and“their.”Forexample:

Marvinwasnervousmeetingwiththeinterviewerbutshookherhandwhenintroduced.

Reflexive/IntensivePronounsReflexiveandintensivepronounstakethesameformbuthavedifferentuses.Theyinclude“myself,”“yourself,”“himself,”“herself,”“itself,”“ourselves,”“yourselves,”and“themselves.”Reflexivepronouns“reflect”backtothesubject.Youknowa“-self”pronounisreflexiveifthesentencewouldn’tmakesensewithoutit.Forexample:

(Reflexive)Themodelcouldseehimselfinthereflectionofthecameralens.

Incontrast,anintensivepronounsprovidesextraemphasis,butthesentencewouldstillmakesensewithoutit.Forexample:

Shefinishedthepaperherself.

RelativePronounsRelativepronounslinkdifferentphraseswithinasentencetogivemoreinformationaboutthepeopleorthingsinvolved.Theyallowyoutocombineconnectedideasinthesamesentenceratherthanbreakingthemdownintomultipleones.

Considerthedifferencebetweenthefollowingsentences:

Thatmanyelledatustogetoffhislawn.Hedidnotevenowntheproperty.Themanwhoyelledatustogetoffhislawndidnotevenowntheproperty.

Bothsentencescommunicatethesamething,buttheseconddoesabetterjobofconnectingthetwoevents.Similarly:

Ruthisthestoremanager.Sherangupmygroceries.Ruthisthestoremanagerwhorangupmygroceries.

Asyoucansee,relativeclausescanbeusefulinstreamliningyourwritingandimprovingyourflow.Becarefulnottousetoomanyofthematonce,though;sentencesthataretoolongmayconfuseyourreader.Besuretoaskyourselfwhethertheclauseactuallyclarifiesasentenceormakesittoolongandcomplicated.

TypesofRelativePronouns

Themainrelativepronounsdealingwithpeopleare“who”(usedtorelatetopeopleorcreaturesassubjects),“whom”(usedtorelatetopeopleorcreaturesassubjects),and“whose”(usedtorelatetoapossessionofapersonorcreature).

Person(subject):ThegirlwhoworeayellowdressPerson(object):ThegirlwhomIcomplimentedaboutheryellowdressCreature(subject):Thecatwholivednextdoor

Themainrelativepronounsdealingwiththingsare“that”and“which.”“That”isusedtorelatetothings(asbothsubjectsandobjects)whenthereismorethanonethingyoucouldbereferringto:

Thing(object):ThedeskthatmymotherboughtThing(subject):Thedeskthatfellapart

Thesesentencesimplythatthereareseveraldifferentdesks,andtheadditionalinformationyouprovide—thedeskthatyourmotherbought,thedeskthatfellapart—iscrucialtoidentifywhichofthoseseveraldesksyou’retalkingabout.

Similarly,“which”isalsousedtorelatetothings(asbothsubjectsandobjects)—butitscrucialdifferenceisthatitisusedwhenthereisonlyonethingyoucouldbereferringto.Thatistosay,thereaderalreadyknowsexactlywhichitemyou’rereferringto;you’rejusttellingthemmoredetailaboutthatitem:

Thing(object):Thedesk,whichmymotherboughtThing(subject):Thedesk,whichfellapart

Inthesephrases,therearenotseveraldesksthatthewritercouldbetalkingabout;thereisonlyonedesk,period.Thewriterisgivingthereadertheinformationthatthedeskwasboughtbyhermother,orthatitfellapart—butthatinformationisn’tnecessaryforidentifyingthethinginthefirstplace.

Itisimportanttonotethatinsentencesusing“which”asarelativepronoun,acommaisneededbeforetheword“which”forthephrasetobegrammaticallycorrect.

SubordinateClauses

Relativepronounsintroducewhatarecalledsubordinateclauses.Subordinateclausesarephraseswithinasentencethatmodifythesubjectofthesentence.Forexample,inthephrase“Thegirlwhoworeayellowdress,”thesubordinateclause“whoworeayellowdress”helpstomodifythesubjectof“thegirl.”Thatistosay,ithelpsanswerthequestion,“whichgirl?”Similarly,inthephrase“Thedeskthatfellapart,”thesubordinateclause“thatfellapart”helpstoidentifywhichdeskthewriteristalkingabout.

InterrogativePronounsInterrogativepronounsintroducequestions.Themainformsare“who/whom”(forpeopleandbeings),“whose”(forpossessivepronouns),“what”(tointroducegeneralquestions),and“which”(foridentificationandcomparison):

Personorbeing(assubject):Whowantstogotothemovieswithme?Personorbeing(asobject):Towhomwastheletteraddressed?Possessive:Whoseisthatbookonthetable?Generalquestion:Whattimeisit?Whatdoyouthinkoftheweathertoday?Identification:Whichdeskareyoutalkingabout?Comparison:Whichplaydoyouthinkisbetter,HamletorKingLear?

DemonstrativePronounsDemonstrativepronounspointoutspecificpeople,places,things,andideas.Themainformsare“this/that”(singular)and“these/those”(plural).Thesepronounscaneitherbeusedforcomparisonsorontheirown.Theyarealsocalleddeterminersandcanfunctionasadjectivesfortheirantecedents:

Comparison:Iwouldrathergotothatrestaurantthanthisone.Alone:Ithinkthisbookisreallygood.

IndefinitePronounsIndefinitepronounsrefertonon-specificpeopleorthings.Indefinitepronounsinclude:

allbothanyfeweveryoneeachnobodysomeseveralneither

Chooseyourindefinitepronounbasedonthenumberoramountofpeopleorthingsyou’retalkingabout.Asalways,remembertomakesurethattheantecedentisclear;avoidambiguoussentenceconstructionsinwhichpronounscouldrefertomultipledifferentwords.

4.3.2:PronounsasSubjectsandObjects

Pronounscanbethesubjectortheobjectofasentence.

LearningObjective

Identifywhetherapronounfunctionsasasubjectorobject

KeyPoints

Pronounstaketheplaceofanounandcanbepersonal,possessive,reflexive,orintensive.Pronounscanbethesubjectortheobjectofasentence.Usingthevarioustypesofpronounsappropriatelyinsentenceswillimproveyourwriting.

KeyTerms

possessivepronoun

Awordthatshowsownership.

intensivepronoun

Awordthatemphasizesthenoun.

objectpronoun

Awordthatistypicallyusedasthedirectorindirectobjectofaverb,ortheobjectofapreposition.

subjectpronoun

Awordthatisusedasthesubjectofaverb.

reflexivepronoun

Awordthatrefersbacktothesubject.

PronounsasSubjectsandObjectsInasentence,thesubjectcompletestheactionwhereastheobjectistherecipientofthataction.Pronounscanactasbothsubjectsandobjects.

Example:Janicehasayellowcar.Shedrivesiteveryday.Explanation:“She”isthesubjectpronounreferringtoJaniceand“it”istheobjectpronounreferringtothecar.

Aslongastheirantecedentsareclear,usingpronounsassubjectsandobjectsinyouracademicwritinggreatlysimplifiesyourwordingandcommunicatesyourideasmuchmorepowerfully.

PersonalPronounsPersonalSubjectPronouns

Personalsubjectpronounsrefertotheoneoronescompletinganaction.PersonalsubjectpronounsareI,he,she,it,we,you,they.Forexample:

Iamgoingtothemall.Youcangotothegame.

Both“I”and“you”arepronouns.Intheseexamplestheyaresubjectpronounsbecausetheyarecompletinganaction.

PersonalObjectPronouns

Personalobjectpronounsrefertooneoroneswhoreceivetheaction.Personalobjectpronounsareme,you,him,her,it,us,them.Forexample:

Janeiscomingwithme.I’mgivinghimthecartonight.

Intheseexamples,“me”and“him”arereceivingtheactionoftheverb.Therefore,theyareobjectpronouns.

PossessivesPossessivePronouns

Possessivepronounsshowownershipinrelationtothepronoun.Possessivepronounsaremine,yours,his,hers,it,ours,yours,andtheirs.Forexample:

Thehouseonthecornerishis.

PossessiveAdjectives

Possessiveadjectivesshowownership.Possessiveadjectivesaremy,your,his,her,its,our,andtheir.Forexample,whenpairedwiththenounschoolinasentence,hisbecomesapossessiveadjective.

Hisschoolisafewmilesaway.

Intensive/ReflexiveReflexivepronounsreferbackto,or“reflect”(hencethename),thesubject.Intensivepronounsemphasizethenoun.Intensiveandreflexivepronounsaremyself,yourself,himself,herself,itself,ourselves,yourselves,andthemselves.

Intensiveexample:Ididitmyself.

“Myself”emphasizes“I”andisthereforeanintensivepronoun.Also,if“myself”wereremoved,themeaningofthesentencewouldnotchange.

Janeboughtherselfacar.

“Herself”isthereflexivepronounbecauseit“reflects”backtothesubject:Jane.

Othercategoriesofpronounsdonothaveformsforeverysinglecategoryonthelistsabove.Theirformsaredeterminedprimarilybytheirgrammaticalfunctionorantecedentratherthanbyperson.Somedohaveformsthatdependonnumber.

Attributions

IntroductiontoPronouns

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“PersonalPronoun.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_pronoun%23Antecedents.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Pronoun.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pronoun.WikitionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“DemonstrativePronoun.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/demonstrative_pronoun.WikitionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“subordinateclause.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/subordinate_clause.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“Antecendent.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/antecedent.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“relativepronoun.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/relative_pronoun.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“relativeclause.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/relative_clause.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/Sentences.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Sentences.WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/PartsofSpeech.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Parts_of_Speech%23PronounsWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/PartsofSpeech.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Parts_of_Speech%23PronounsWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“ProjectGutenberg.”http://www.gutenberg.org/files/39235/39235-h/39235-h.htm.Publicdomain.

PronounsasSubjectsandObjects

“SubjectPronoun.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_pronoun.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Possessive.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Possessive.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“ReflexivePronouns.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflexive_pronoun.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“ObjectPronoun.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_pronoun.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“IntensivePronoun.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intensive_pronoun.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

4.4:Verbs4.4.1:IntroductiontoVerbs:Tense,Aspect,andMood

Verbsarecrucialtoexpressingasentence’smeaning,soitisimportanttousethemcorrectly.

LearningObjective

Identifytransitive,intransitive,andlinkingverbs

KeyPoints

Everysentenceneedsaverb.Verbsexpressaction,describeanevent,orestablishastateofbeing.Verbsareinfluencedbytense,aspect,andmood.“Verbtense”referstowhentheactionoccurred.Themostcommontensesarepast,present,orfuture.“Verbaspect”referstotheflowoftime.Aspectaddresseswhetherornottheactiontakesplaceinasingleblockoftimeoriftheactioniscontinuousorrepeated.“Verbmood”referstothe“attitude”oftheaction.Istheverbactuallyhappening,possiblyhappening,orbeingcommandedtohappen?

KeyTerms

verb

Awordthatexpressesanaction,describesanoccurrence,orestablishesastateofbeing.

directobject

Awordthatanswersthequestion,“Whatisbeingactedupon?”In“Danielleatefruit,”fruitisadirectobjectoftheverbate.

aspect

Describestheaction’sdegreeofprogressorcompletion.Thethreemainaspectsareindefinite,progressive,andperfect.

tense

Anyoftheformsofaverbthatdistinguishwhenanactionorstateofbeingoccursorexists.Thethreesimpletensesarepast,present,andfuture.

Averbisawordthatexpressesanaction,describesanoccurrence,orestablishesastateofbeing.Everysentenceneedsatleastoneverb,whichispairedwiththesubject.Allverbshavetense,aspect,andmood,ofwhichthereisawidevarietyofcombinations.Theseconceptsarepartofthefoundationofaccuratelyexpressingyourthoughtsinwriting.

VerbTenseTenseindicateswhentheactionexpressedbyaverbtakesplace.Thethreesimpletensesarepast,present,andfuture.

Differenttensestakedifferentverbforms,eitherbychangingtheworditselforbyaddinghelpingverbs.Thereisnosingleformulaforhowtochangeverbtenses.Hereareafewexamples:

PresentTense

Presenttenseexpressesunchangingactionsandstatesofbeing.Itisalsousedwithrecurringactionsandwithuniversalorwidespreadtruths.

IwalkSheruns

PastTense

Pasttenseisusedforactionsthatstartedandfinishedinthepast.

IwalkedSheran

FutureTense

Futuretenseexpressesanactionoreventthatwilltakeplaceinthefuture.

Iwillwalk

Shewillrun

VerbalAspect“Verbalaspect”referstothetimingoftheverb.Morespecifically,itaddresseswhethertheactionoccursinasingleblockoftime,continuously,orrepetitively.Allverbshavebothtenseandaspect.Verbalaspectconsistsofsimple,progressive,perfect,orperfectprogressive,whereeachreferstoadifferentfabricoftime.

Simple

Thesimpleaspectisusedtoexpressasingleaction,arepeatedaction,orapermanentstate.

Permanentstate:DavidlivesinRaleigh,NorthCarolina.Repeatedorhabitualaction:Herunseverymorning.Singleaction:HegraduatedfromtheUniversityofNorthCarolina.

Progressive

Theprogressiveaspectisusedtotalkaboutcontinuousevents.

Dr.Joneswaslecturingaboutgrammar.Janeisreadinganovel.

Perfect

Theperfectaspectisusedtodiscusscompletedactions.Itisoftenformedbytheverbhavecombinedwithapasttenseverb.

Myfamilyhadleftbeforethefloodingreachedourhome.Shehasvisitedtheirmountainhome.

PerfectProgressive

Theperfectprogressivecombinestheperfectandtheprogressivetorefertothecompletedportionofacontinuousaction.

Thenewscrewhadbeenworkingformorethantwelvehourstoprovidefullcoverageoftheevent.Iwillhavebeensleepingformanyhoursbythen.

VerbalMoodVerbmoodistothe“attitude”oftheverb.Morespecifically,“mood”referstothedegreeofnecessity,obligation,orprobability.Isitastatementoffact?Isitacommand?Moodcanbeexpressedinanyverbtense.ThethreemainmoodsusedinEnglishareindicative,subjunctive,imperative.

Indicative

Theindicativemoodisusedforfactualstatements.

Sallyisdrinkingcoffee.Sallydrinkscoffee.Sallydrankcoffee.

Subjunctive

Thesubjunctivemoodisforhypotheticalsituations,emotions,ormakingrequests.Itisoften(butnotalways)pairedwithaclausecontainingwould,should,orcould,oranif-thenstatement.

IfIwereapilot,Iwouldflythroughtheclouds.Thecarouselclosed.Iwishitwerestillinuse.

Imperative

Theimperativemoodisusedtogivecommands.

Gofinishyourhomework.Pleasehangyourcoat.Don’teatasnacknoworyou’llruinyoursupper.

SpecialTypesofVerbs

LinkingVerbs

Linkingverbsareusedtoconnectsubjectswiththeircomplements.Theymaybethemainverbinasentence,eveniftheyexpressadescriptionratherthananaction.Themostcommonlinkingverbistobe,whichtakesmanydifferentforms:

Thisteaishot.Therearemanybooksinhislibrary.

Othercommonlinkingverbsincludethefollowing:

appearbecomeseemtastecontinueremain

Linkingverbstakenodirectobjects.Consequently,ifasentence’smainverbisalinkingverb,itcannotbewritteninthepassivevoice.

TransitiveVerbs

Transitiveverbsdescribeactionsthataredonetoaspecificthing,calledtheverb’sdirectobject.

Shecutherhair.(Subject:She.Transitiveverb:cut.Directobject:herhair.)RomeokissedJuliet.(Subject:Romeo.Verb:kissed.Object:Juliet.)

Alloftheverbsareperformedbythesubject,tosomethingorsomeoneelse.

IntransitiveVerbs

Intransitiveverbsareactionsthatarecompleteontheirown,anddonotrequireanyobject:

Sallyranfast.Thebirdflew.

Mostverbscanbeclassifiedastransitiveorintransitive,dependingontheircontext.Justremember,ifyourverbhasanobject,makesureit’scleartothereader:Don’tsay“Sallykissedher”ifyoudon’tknowwho“her”is!

Hewalkedthewire

Theverbtenseinthetitlesignalsthatthisactiontookplaceinthepast.Itisnotonlyimportanttohavesubjectandverbagreement,butalsotoutilizethecorrectverbtensetoensurethatasentencecontainsitsintendedmeaning.

4.4.2:VerbTense:Past,Present,andFuture

Verbtenseindicateswhethertheactionofasentenceoccurredinthepast,present,orfuture.

LearningObjective

Identifythetenseofaverb

KeyPoints

InEnglish,thethreebasicverbtensesarepast,present,andfuture.Verbsinpasttenseexpresswhathappenedinthepast.Verbsinpresenttenseexpressactionsthatarecurrentlyhappening,oroccuroveraperiodoftimethatincludesthepresent.Verbsinfuturetenseexpressactionsthatwillhappeninthefuture.Allverbshavebothtenseandaspect.Becausetherearethreeverbtensesandfourverbaspects,therearetwelvepossiblecombinationsoftenseandaspect.

KeyTerms

tense

Anyoftheformsofaverbthatdistinguishwhenanactionorstateofbeingoccursorexists.Thethreesimpletensesarepast,present,andfuture.

verb

Awordthatindicatesanaction,event,orstate.

aspect

Agrammaticalcategorythatexpresseshowaverbrelatestotheflowoftime.

VerbTensesTheverbcontainstheactionofthesentence.Withoutverbs,wecouldn’ttalkaboutrunning,orjumping,oreating.Andwithoutverbtenses,wecouldn’ttalkaboutwhenwedidthosethings.Didweeatdinneryesterday?Willwegoforaruntomorrow?Weneedverbtensestotalkabouttime.

PresentTenses

Thepresenttensereferstocircumstancesthatexistnow,orthathaveoccurredoveraperiodoftimethatincludesthepresent.Presenttensecanalsobeusedtoexpressbasicfactsorcircumstancesthatarecontinuous.

SimplePresent

Thesimplepresentexpressescurrentevents,recurringevents,andgeneralfacts.

Thereisashadyparkdowntheblock.Ipaintaportraitofmycateveryweek.Maryhearsanoiseintheattic.

Theverbsis,paint,andhearsareinthesimplepresenttense.Theyrefertoactionsthatareoccurringinthepresent.

PresentProgressive

Thepresentprogressiveexpressescontinuousactions.

Iamreadingaletter.Thecarisrunningathighspeed.MichaelandAnnaarealwaysworkinginthelibrary.

Toshowthattheactioniscontinuoustheverbsreading,running,andworkingarepairedwiththeappropriateformoftheverbtobe(am,is,are).

PresentPerfect

Thepresentperfectexpressesacompletedeventthatisstillrelevanttothepresent.

IhavereadseveralofShaw’snovels.ShehasseenhimeverySaturdaythismonth.Jedhassampledsixicecreamflavorssofar.

Intheseexamples,haveandhasarepairedwithread,seen,andsampledtoshowreadersthattheseactionsbeganinthepastandarestilloccurringinthepresent.

PresentPerfectProgressive

Finally,thepresentperfectprogressiveexpressesacontinuousactionthatbeganinthepastandcontinuesintothepresent.

Ihavebeenstandingonthiscornerforsixhours.Shehasbeendreamingofbecominganactresssinceshewasten.Eventhoughit’sraining,thatGirlScouthasbeensellingcookiesallday.

Thepresentperfectprogressivetensecombineshave/haswithbeenandtheverbtoshowthattheactionbeganinthepastandisstilloccurringinthepresent.

PastTensesThepasttensereferstoeventsthathaveoccurredinthepastoraneventthatoccurredcontinuallyinthepast.Itcanalsobeusedwhendiscussinghypotheticalsituations.Thetypesofpasttensearesimplepast,pastprogressive,pastperfect,andthepastperfectprogressive.

SimplePast

First,thesimplepastexpressesapastevent:

Lastweek,IreadseveralofShaw’snovels.Themothertookhersontothebeacheverydaylastsummer.Thebooksatontheshelf,collectingdust.

Theverbsread,took,andsatareinthepasttensetoshowtheseactionshavealreadyoccurred.

PastProgressive

Thepastprogressiveexpressesacontinuousactioninthepast:

Shewasgivingapresentationwhenthemicrophonebroke.Thecomputerwasdownloadingthefilefor20minutes.Duringtheirfirstyear,thepuppiesweregrowingatanalarmingrate.

Inthepastprogressivetense,theprimaryactionverbs(inthiscasegiving,downloading,andgrowing)arepairedwiththepasttenseoftheverbtobe(was/were)toshowthattheactionoccurredcontinuallyinthepast.

PastPerfect

Thepastperfectexpressesacompletedactionfromthepast.

Ihadalreadyseenhimthatmorning.Assoonasmycarhadbeenrepaired,Icontinuedmytrip.Thepowerhadgoneoutbythen.

Thisverbtenseuseshad,pairedwithaverb,toshowthattheverbisacompletedaction.

PastPerfectProgressive

Thepastperfectprogressiveexpressesacontinuous,completedactionthathadtakenplaceinthepast.

Ihadbeenlisteningtotheradiowhenshedroppedin.Thecarhadbeenrunningsmoothlyuntiltheexhaustpipefelloff.Sherealizedshehadbeenstandingonhisfootwhenhegentlyshovedher.

Thepastperfectprogressivetensecombineshave/haswithbeenandthepasttenseoftheverb(listening,running,standing)toshowthattheactionoccurredcontinuallyinthepastuntiltheactionwascompleted.

FutureTensesThefuturetenseisusedtoexpresscircumstancesthatwilloccurinthefuture.Thefuturetenseisdifferentfromthepresentandpasttensesinthatthereisnotusuallyatypeofverbconjugationthatshowsthefuturetense.Instead,futureverbsareformedbycombiningthemwithwordslikewillorshall,orthephrasegoingto.Thedifferentfuturetensesaresimplefuture,futureprogressive,futureperfect,andfutureperfectprogressive.

SimpleFuture

Thesimplefutureexpressesanactionthatwilltakeplaceinthefuture.

Nextweek,herunclewillbeintown.Willyoucarrythisbagforme?

Toshowthattheseactionstakeplaceinthefuture,theverbsarepairedwithwill.

FutureProgressive

Thefutureprogressiveexpressesacontinuousactionwhichwilltakeplaceinthefuture.

Hewillbeconductingameetingbetweennoonandoneo’clockeverydaythisweek.Nextsummer,JakewillbetravelingthroughSouthAmerica.

Toshowthattheactioniscontinuousandinthefuture,theverbsarepairedwithwillbe,andtoshowthattheyareprogressive,themainverbendsin-ing.

FuturePerfect

Thefutureperfectexpressesacompletedactionthatwillhavetakenplaceinthefuture.

Wewillhavefinishedcookingbythetimeyouarrive.MargaretwillhavedroppedoffhernieceattheairportbeforemeetingJoe.

Intheseexamples,willandhavearepairedwiththemainverbtoshowreadersthattheseactionswilltakeplaceinthefuture,butwillhavealreadyoccurred.

FuturePerfectProgressive

Lastly,thefutureperfectprogressivetenseexpressesacontinuous,completedactionthatwillhavetakenplaceinthefuture.

Iwillhavebeenexercisingforhoursbythetimeyouwakeuptomorrow.Whentheyarrive,theywillhavebeentravelingfor12hoursstraight.

Theverbhaswilltoshowthatittakesplaceinthefuture,havebeentoshowthatitiscompleted,andan-ingverbtoshowthatitisprogressiveorcontinuous.

Verbtense

Thetableshowshowtocorrectlyformatverbsinagiventense.The“continuous”aspectisanothernamefortheprogressiveaspect.

4.4.3:VerbalAspect:Simple,Progressive,Perfect,andPerfectProgressive

“Aspect”referstowhetheraverbiscontinuous,completed,bothcontinuousandcompleted,orneithercontinuousnorcompleted.

LearningObjective

Identifytheaspectofaverb

KeyPoints

Aspectgivesusadditionalinformationaboutaverbbytellinguswhethertheactionwascompleted,continuous,neither,orboth.Thesimpleaspectisforactionsthatareneithercompletednorcontinuous.Theperfectaspectisforactionsthatarecompleted,butnotcontinuous.Theprogressiveaspectisforactionsthatarecontinuous,butnotcompleted.Theperfectprogressiveaspectisforactionsthatarebothcontinuousandcompleted.Allverbshavebothtenseandaspect.Becausetherearethreeverbtensesandfourverbaspects,therearetwelvepossiblecombinationsoftense

andaspect.

KeyTerms

tense

Aqualityofverbswhichindicateswhethertheverboccurredinthepast,present,orfuture.

aspect

Aqualityofverbswhichindicateswhethertheverbiscontinuous,completed,bothofthose,orneither.

VerbAspectWeneedtensetoknowifaneventtookplaceinthepast,present,orfuture,butthat’snotallweneedinordertoknowwhathappened.Aspectgivesusadditionalinformationaboutaverbbytellinguswhethertheactionwascompleted,continuous,neither,orboth.

“Aspect”referstotheflowoftime.Doestheactiontakeplaceinasingleblockoftime,doestheactionoccurcontinuously,oristheactionarepetitiveoccurrence?Therearefourmainaspects:simple,progressive,perfect,andperfectprogressive.

Sinceallverbshavebothtenseandaspect,allcombinationsoftensesandaspects,suchaspastprogressiveandfutureperfect,arepossible.Thinkaboutitthisway:tensetellsuswhenanactionbegan,andaspecttellsuswhetherthatactionwascontinuous,completed,orsomethingelse.

SimpleThesimpleaspectdescribesageneralaction,onethatisneithercontinuousnorcompleted.Itisusuallyusedtodescribeanactionthattakesplacehabitually.

SimplePast

Verbsinsimplepastdescribeanormalorhabitualactionthatbeganinthepast,andusedtohappenbutnolongerdoes.

Junerodeherbiketoworkeverydaythatyear.Youhadadogwhenyouwereyoung,right?

SimplePresent

Verbsinsimplepresentdescribeahabitualactionthatstilloccursinthepresent.

Mydadalwaysenjoysnovelsaboutbakeries.Grandmadropsmeoffatthebusstopeverymorning.

SimpleFuture

Verbsinsimplefuturedescribeanactionthatwillbegininthefuture,andoccurwithregularityorcertainty.Todescribeanactionthatwillhappeninthefuture,precedeyourmainverbwith“will,”“shall,”oranotherwordorphraseindicatingthattheactionoccursinthefuture.

Thesunwillriseat6:38AMtomorrow.Shewillcallyoubackafterdinner.

ProgressiveTheprogressiveformexpressescontinuousactionsthathappenoveraperiodoftime.Theyalmostalwaysinvolvesomecombinationoftheverb“tobe”pairedwiththemainverbendingin-ing.

PastProgressive

Pastprogressiveverbsexpressactionsthatbeganinthepastandwerecontinuous,butdidnotcontinueintothepresent.Inthepastprogressivetense,themainverbispairedwiththepasttenseoftheverb“tobe”(was/were)toshowthattheactionoccurredcontinuallyinthepast.

Shewasalwayssayingstufflikethat.Iwasrunninglateallmorning.

PresentProgressive

Presentprogressiveverbsexpressactionsthatarecontinuous,andarestillhappeningatthepresentmoment.Inpresentprogressive,themainverbispairedwiththepresenttenseoftheverb“tobe”(is/are)toshowthattheactionishappeningcurrently.

Philisrunningaroundtheblock.Areyouenjoyingyourtacos?

FutureProgressive

Futureprogressiveverbsexpressactionsthatwillbegininthefutureandbecontinuous.Infutureprogressive,themainverbispairedwiththefuturetenseoftheverb“tobe”(willbe)toshowthattheactionwillbegininthefuture.

Iwillbeheadinghomearoundnineo’clock.HewillbetravelingaroundtheYukonlaterthisyear.

PerfectTheperfectformreferstoeventsthathavebeencompleted,butarestillrelevanttothespeakerinthepresentmoment.Italmostalwaysinvolvessomeformoftheverb“have”combinedwithanotherverb.

PastPerfect

Verbsinpastperfectexpressanactionthatbothbeganandwascompletedinthepast.Use“had”pairedwiththemainverbinsimplepasttense.

Wehadleftbeforethestadiumgotcrowded.Don’tworry,Emmetthadalreadyruinedthesurprise.

PresentPerfect

Verbsinpresentperfectexpressactionsthatbeganinthepast,andhavejustnowbeencompleted.Use“has”or“have”pairedwiththemainverbinsimplepasttense.

Omarhasfinishedhisdinner.LauraandTomikahavearrangedthememorial.

FuturePerfect

Verbsinfutureperfectexpressactionsthatwillbecompletedinthefuture.Use“willhave”pairedwiththemainverbinsimplepasttense.

Ihopeyouwillhavecompletedyourreportbythen!Theywillhavewonoverhalftheirgamesbytheendoftheseason.

PerfectProgressiveTheperfectprogressive,justasyouwouldexpect,isacombinationoftheperfectandprogressiveaspects.Perfectprogressivereferstothecompletedportionofanongoingaction.Italmostalwaysinvolvesaformoftheverb“have”andaformoftheverb“tobe”combinedwithaverbendingin-ing.

PastPerfectProgressive

Verbsinpastperfectprogressiveexpressacontinuous,completedactionthathadtakenplaceinthepast.Use“hadbeen”combinedwiththe-ingformofthemainverb.

Shewastiredbecauseshehadbeenrunning.Ihadbeenlyingawakeforhourswhenthealarmwentoff.

PresentPerfectProgressive

Verbsinpresentperfectprogressiveexpressacontinuousactionthatbeganinthepastandcontinuesintothepresent.Use“hasbeen”or“havebeen”combinedwiththe-ingformofthemainverb.

Hehasbeenworkingonhispaperallmorning.Thelibrarianshavebeenhelpingmewithmyresearch.

FuturePerfectProgressive

Verbsinfutureperfectprogressiveexpressacontinuous,completedactionthatwillhavetakenplaceinthefuture.Use“willhavebeen”combinedwiththe-ingformofthemainverb.

Bythetimethewinterends,wewillhavebeengettingafootofsnoweveryweek.Thisspring,IwillhavebeenworkingforCoolStuff,Inc.fortwentyyears!

4.4.4:VerbMood:Indicative,Subjunctive,andImperative

Grammaticalmoodisaverbfeaturethatallowsspeakerstoexpresstheirattitudetowardwhattheyaresaying.

LearningObjective

Identifythemoodofaverb

KeyPoints

Grammaticalmoodisaverbfeaturethatallowswriterstoexpresstheirattitudetowardwhattheyaresaying.Themostcommonlyusedmoodistheindicativemood,whichisusedtoexpressfactualstatements.Thesubjunctivemoodreferstohypotheticalsituations.Theimperativemoodgivescommandsormakesrequests.

KeyTerms

grammaticalmood

Afeatureofverbswhichexpressesthespeaker’sattitudetowardthesubject.

imperativemood

Givescommandsormakesrequests.

indicativemood

Expressesfactualstatements.

subjunctivemood

Expressessituationsthatarehypotheticalorconditional.

Grammaticalmoodallowsspeakersandwriterstoexpresstheirattitudes

towardwhattheyaresaying(forexample,whetheritisintendedasastatementoffact,ofdesire,orofcommand).InEnglish,therearemanygrammaticalmoods,butbyfarthemostcommonaretheindicative,theimperative,thesubjunctive,andtheconditional.

Youcanchangetenseandaspectofaverbbychangingsomethingabouttheverbitself:Forexample,tomaketheverb“enjoy”pasttense,youadd-edtotheend.InEnglish,moodisalittledifferent.Youdon’tchangeanythingabouttheverbitself.Instead,youchangethesentencestructuretoexpressacertainmood.

TheIndicativeMoodInEnglish,theindicativemoodisthemostcommonlyused.Itisusedtoexpressfactualstatements.

AtlantaisthecapitalofGeorgia.Penguinscannotfly.Jebediahlikesthebeach.

TheImperativeMoodTheimperativemoodexpressesdirectcommands,prohibitions,andrequests.Inotherwords,itisusedtotellsomeonetodosomething.Intheimperativemood,thesubjectisalmostalwaysimpliedtobe“you.”

Doyourhomeworknow.Pleasedon’tleaveyourbagthere.

However,sometimesthesubjectcanbeimpliedtobe“we.”

Let’sgo!

Let’sgo

Theimperativemoodexpressesdirectcommandsandprohibitions.

TheSubjunctiveMoodThesubjunctivemoodisnotcommonlyusedinEnglish.Itisusedfordiscussingimaginaryorhypotheticaleventsandsituations,expressingopinionsoremotions,ormakingpoliterequests.Usually,thesubjunctivemoodisusedinadependentclause.Subjunctivesentencesareoftenofthefollowingform:[Indicativeverbphrasesettingupahypotheticalscenariosuchas“Iwish,”“Ibelieve,”“Ihope”]+[Subjunctivephrasedescribinghypotheticalscenario].

IwishPaulwouldeatmorehealthfully.[Mainclause“Iwish”isfactualandinindicativemood;dependentclause“Paulwouldeat”ishypotheticalandinsubjunctivemood.]Isuggestthatwewaituntilafterdinnertoeatthecake.[Mainclause“Isuggest”isfactualandinindicativemood;dependentclause“wewaituntil”ishypotheticalandinsubjunctivemood.]

TheConditionalMoodTheconditionalmoodisusedforspeakingofaneventwhosecompletiondependsonanotherevent.InEnglish,theconditionalmoodisusuallyoftheform“would”+bareverbwithnotenseoraspectmarkers.

Iwouldgoswimmingifitweren’tsorainy.Hewouldbakemoreoftenifhehadabetteroven.

Attributions

IntroductiontoVerbs:Tense,Aspect,andMood

“Perfectaspect.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_aspect.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“UsesofEnglishVerbForms.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_English_verb_forms%23Simple_futureWikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“directobject.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/direct%20object.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Gerund.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerund.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“tense.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tense.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/PartsofSpeech.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Parts_of_Speech%23VerbsWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“Verb.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb%23Tense.2C_aspect.2C_and_modalityWikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15229/15229-h/15229-h.htm.Publicdomain.

VerbTense:Past,Present,andFuture

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“GrammaticalTense.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tense.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“ContinuosandProgressiveAspects.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_and_progressive_aspects.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“GrammaticalAspect.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_aspect.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“verb.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/verb.WiktionaryCCBY-SA

3.0.

“EnglishinUse/Verbs.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English_in_Use/Verbs%23Tenses.WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“tense.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tense.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“VerbTense.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tense.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

VerbalAspect:Simple,Progressive,Perfect,andPerfectProgressive

“UsesofEnglishVerbForms.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_English_verb_forms.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Grammaticalaspect.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_aspect.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Tense-Aspect-Mood.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93moodWikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

VerbMood:Indicative,Subjunctive,andImperative

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“Grammaticalmood.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“EnglishinUse/Verbs.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English_in_Use/Verbs%23Moods.WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/39329/39329-h/39329-h.htm.Publicdomain.

4.5:Modifiers:AdjectivesandAdverbs4.5.1:IntroductiontoAdjectivesandAdverbs

Adjectivesmodifynounsandpronouns;adverbsmodifyverbs,adjectives,andotheradverbs.

LearningObjective

Distinguishbetweenadjectivesandadverbs

KeyPoints

Adjectivesdescribe,quantify,oridentifypronounsandnouns.Adjectivestypicallyanswerthequestionshowmany?;Howmuch?;Whatkind?;orWhichone?Adverbsmodifyverbs,adjectives,andotheradverbs.Adverbscommonlydescribehow,when,orwheretheactionofaverbtookplace.

KeyTerms

adjectives

Apartofspeechthatdescribes,quantifies,oridentifiesanounorpronoun.

adverb

Apartofspeechthatdescribes,quantifies,oridentifiesaverb,adjective,orotheradverb.

AdjectivesandAdverbsHaveyoueverseenaphotooftheGreatWallofChina?It’ssimplyenormous.It’sincrediblylong,snakingitsstonywayacrossthemountainsandvalleysofAsia,withbeautifultowersstandingtalleverycoupleofhundredfeet.But

withoutmodifiers,“theGreatWall”wouldsimplybe“theWall.”Weneedadverbsandadjectivesinordertobedescriptiveinourwriting.

Adjectives,like“great,”“enormous,”“stony,”“long,”and“beautiful,”modifynounsandpronouns.Adverbs,like“simply”and“incredibly,”modifyverbs,adjectives,andotheradverbs.

GreatWallofChina

Withoutadjectives,“theGreatWall”wouldjustbe“theWall.”

Descriptivewordscansignificantlyimproveyourwriting.Theyenhancethequalityofinformationyouprovide,makingyourworkmoreprecise.However,youdon’twanttooverwhelmyourreaderwithunnecessaryorexcessivedescription.Trytostrikeabalance.

Adjectives

Adjectivesdescribe,quantify,oridentifypronounsandnouns.Remember,anounisaperson,place,orthing.Pronouns,suchasI,me,we,he,she,it,you,andthey,taketheplaceofnouns.Adjectivesalsoanswerthefollowingquestions:Whatkind?Howmany?Howmuch?Whichone?

DescriptionsconcerningWhatkind?offerdescriptivedetailsaboutthenounorpronoun.Itmaydescribephysicalcharacteristicsoremotions.Hereareafewexamples:theblackcar,theangrycustomer,thefashionableteen.

ThequestionsHowmany?andHowmuch?refertoquantityofthenounorpronounbeingdescribedbytheadjective.Quantitycanbespecific(fourducks)orgeneral(someducks).Herearesomemoreexamples:fourteencents,afewpuppies,severalkittens,adozenbooks.

Whichone?specificallydescribeswhichobjectisbeingreferredto.Theseare

workhorsewordslike“this,”“that,”“these,”andotherwordslike“them”:thatcar,thisletter,thosevolunteers.

Adjectivesarehelpfulwhenadditionaldescriptionisneededforanounorpronoun.Likeadjectives,adverbscanalsohelpadddetailstoyourwriting.

Adverbs

Adverbsmodifyverbs,adjectives,andotheradverbs.Theycommonlydescribehow,when,orwheretheactionofaverbtookplace.Howreferstothemannerinwhichanactionoccurred.Whenaddressesthetimeoftheaction.Whereinvestigatestheplaceorlocationtheactiontookplace.Herearesomeexamples:

Theboysranloudlydownthestairs.[Howdidtheboysrun?Loudly.]Wewentdownlater.[Whendidwego?Later.]Hedeliveredpizzalocally.[Wheredidhedeliver?Locally.]

Adverbscanalsobeusedtomodifyadjectivesandotheradverbs.

Thetrainleavesatareasonablyearlyhour.[Theadverbreasonablymodifiestheadjectiveearly.]Shespokequitepassionatelyaboutpolitics.[Theadverbquitemodifiestheadverbpassionately.]

WhichShouldYouUse:AdjectivesorAdverbs?Writersoftenhaveachoiceinwordingasentencetouseeitheranadjectiveoranadverb:

Adjective:Wehadaquicklunch.Adverb:Weatelunchquickly.

So,howdoyouchoosewhentouseanadjectiveandwhentouseanadverb?Onewaytochooseissimplytofigureoutwhetherthewordyouwanttomodifyisanounoraverb.Inthefirstsentence,youaredescribingthelunch;inthesecondsentence,youaredescribingthemannerofeating.

Abetterapproach,though,isnottothinkaboutthewordsyoucouldmodifybuttheinformationyouwanttoconvey.Youdonotneedtodescribeevery

nounorverb—justtheoneswhosedetailsareimportanttothesentence.Ifyouwanttoemphasizethemeal,youwouldpickthefirstsentence;ifyouwanttoemphasizetheactofeating,youwouldpickthesecond.

Remember,adjectivesandadverbscanbeseparatedbywhichtypesofinformationtheyprovide.Thinkaboutthedetailsthatarenecessarytoinclude,andthenchooseyourmodifiersaccordingly.

4.5.2:Adjectives

Adjectivesmodifynounsandpronouns.

LearningObjective

Identifyadjectives

KeyPoints

Adjectivesareusedtodescribe,quantify,oridentifypronounsandnouns.Theyanswerthesequestions:Whatkind?Howmany?Howmuch?Whichone?Compoundadjectivesareusedwhentwoadjectivesareneededtodescribeanoun.Adjectivescanbeusedtocomparetwodifferentthings.

KeyTerms

adjective

Awordthatmodifiesanounorpronoun.

compoundadjective

Onewordformedwithtwohyphenatedwordsandusedtodescribeanoun.

AdjectivesAdjectivesdescribe,quantify,oridentifypronounsandnouns.Theyalsoanswerthefollowingquestions:Whatkind?Howmany?Howmuch?Whichone?

Descriptionsabout“Whatkind?”adddetailaboutthequalitiesofthenounorpronounbeingdescribed.Thisrangesfromdetailsregardingphysicalcharacteristicstoemotionalstates.Herearesomeexamples:theyellowdress,thesadclown,thesmartpupil.

Descriptionsanswering“Howmany?”and“Howmuch?”specifytheamountofwhatevernounorpronounyouaremodifying.Quantifyingadjectivescanbespecific(tencandles,threehundredpages)orgeneral(severalminutes,afewpeople,somecandy).

Descriptionsanswering“Whichone?”confirmexactlywhichobjectthewriterisreferringto.Examplesincludephrasessuchas“thatnovel,”“thiswriter,”or“thosestudents.”Mostadjectivesthatservethispurposearecalleddeterminersordemonstrativepronouns.

CompoundAdjectivesInsomesituations,twoadjectivesmaybeusedtodescribeanoun.Sometimesthesetwoadjectivesremainseparate,astwodistinctivewordsdescribingthenoun.Butothertimes,theadjectivescombinetobecomeoneadjectivejoinedbyahyphen.

Thephraseaheavymetaldetectorreferstoametaldetectorthatisheavyinweight.Heavyandmetalareseparateadjectivesdescribingthedetectorinthissituation.Thephraseaheavy-metaldetectorreferstoadetectorofheavymetals.Heavy-metalisthecompoundadjectivedescribingthedetector.

Asyoucansee,thehyphencompletelychangesthemeaningofthephrasebycombiningtwowordsintoone.Here’sanotherexample:

Thephrasemaneatingsharkreferstoamanwhoiseatingashark.Thephraseman-eatingsharkreferstoasharkthateatsmen.

AdjectivesforComparisonAdjectivesarealsousedtocompareitems:

Thisyear’sgraduatingclasswassmallerthanlastyear’sclass.Thisbookisthebestonewe’vereadsofar.

Thestandardformforusingadjectivesforcomparisonistoadd-ertotheendofanadjectivebeingusedtocomparetwoitems(brighter,cooler)and-esttotheendofanadjectiveusedtocomparemorethantwoitems(brightest,coolest).However,someadjectives—forexample,onesthatarethreeormoresyllables—likebeautifularechangedtosay“morebeautiful”and“mostbeautiful”ratherthanaddingtheseendings.

PronounsasAdjectivesSometimes,pronounscanbeusedasadjectives.Inadditiontodemonstrativepronouns,possessivepronounslike“his”or“their”canalsoidentifyspecificobjectswithinaset.Forexample:

Whichcarshouldwedrive?Weshoulddrivehercar.Whosehouseisclosest?Yourhouseisclosest.

PrepositionalPhrasesasAdjectivalPhrasesPrepositionalphrasescanactasadjectives,normallymodifyingthenounthatprecedesthem.

Whichbooksshouldweread?Thebooksonthecurriculum.Whosestoriesdidwelistentoinclass?Thoseoftheteacher.

Lastly,inadditiontosinglewords,youcanuseadjectivalphrases.Thesearephrasesthatbeginwithanadjectivebutthenhaveanounthataddsfurtherdetail,suchas“fulloftoys”insteadofjust“full.”Theyaremostfrequentlyusedasamodifierplacedrightafteranounorasapredicatetoaverb.Forexample,youcouldsay“Thechildlovedhisbinfulloftoys,”or“Thatbinisfulloftoys.”

4.5.3:Adverbs

Adverbsmodifyverbs,adjectives,andotheradverbs.

LearningObjective

Identifyadverbs

KeyPoints

Anadverbisusedtomodifyverbs,adjectives,andotheradverbs.Adverbsanswerthesequestions:Whendidsomethinghappen?Howoftendiditoccur?Howwastheactionperformed?Wheredidittakeplace?Sometimes,adverbsandadjectivesarehyphenatedtobetterdescribeanoun.

KeyTerm

adverb

Apartofspeechwhichmodifiesverbs,adjectives,andadverbs.

AdverbsJustasadjectivesmodifynounsandpronouns,adverbsmodifyverbs,adjectives,andotheradverbs.Howslimywasthatswamp?Extremelyslimy.Howdidsherun?Sheranquickly.Howquicklydidsherun?Veryquickly.

Adverbsareusedtoanswerhow,when,andwhereanactiontookplace.Morespecifically,consider:Whendidsomethinghappen?Howoftendiditoccur?Howwastheactionperformed?Wheredidittakeplace?Let’sexploresomeexamples:

Describingwhen:ThelasttimeIwentshoppingwasawhileago.Describinghowoften:Ivisitmyfriendsfrequently.Describinghow:Heranquicklyintherace.Describingwhere:Shesatdownnearby.

Manyadjectivescanbemadeintoadverbssimplybyadding-lytotheend.However,thereareotheradverbsthatdonotendin-ly:very,quite,somewhat,most,least,andmanyothers.

PrepositionalPhrasesasAdverbs

Youcanuseprepositionalphrasesasadverbsiftheymodifyaverb,adjective,oradverb.Forexample:

Don’tjudgeabookbyitscover.[Thephrase“byitscover”describestheverb“judge.”]Iamtiredofthisdiet.[“Ofthisdiet”describestheadjective“tired.”]

TheHyphenatedAdverbHyphenscanbeusedtocombineanadverbandadjectivetodescribeanoun.Inthissituation,theadverbisdescribingtheadjective,andtheadjectiveisdescribingthenoun.However,whentheadverbendswith-ly,ahyphenshouldnotbeused.Let’sreviewsomeexamples.

beautiful-lookingflowersbest-knownauthorwell-roundedstudentbest-paidjob

Ifthehyphenwasremovedfromanyoftheseexamplesthephrasewouldtakeonadifferentmeaning.Forexample,“best-knownauthor”describestheauthorwhoisknownthebest,whereas“bestknownauthor”woulddescribeanauthorwhois,separately,bothbestandknown.Thehypheniswhatmakessurethat“best”describes“known”ratherthan“author.”

4.5.4:MisplacedandDanglingModifiers

Amodifierisawordorgroupofwordsthatdescribesanotherwordorgroupofwords.

LearningObjective

Identifyincorrectlyusedmodifiers

KeyPoints

Amodifierisawordorphrasethatdescribes,limits,orqualifiesanotherword.Adjectivesandadverbsaretwotypesofmodifiersastheyareusedtodescribeotherwords.

Itisimportanttousemodifierscorrectlysoreadersunderstandyourintendedmeaning.Incorrectmodifierscomeintheformofdanglingmodifiers,misplacedmodifiers,andsquintingmodifiers.Thebestwaytofixanincorrectmodifieristorestructurethesentence.

KeyTerms

modifier

Awordorphrasethatdescribes,limits,orqualifiesthesenseofanotherwordorphrase.

misplacedmodifier

Occurswhenitisunclearwhatwordorwordsamodifierisreferencing.

squintingmodifier

Awordthatisplacedrightnexttotheworditrefersto,butisalsonearanotherwordthatitmightbemodifying.

danglingmodifier

Anerrorinthesentenceinwhichamodifierisassociatedwithawordorphrasethatitisnotsupposedtodescribe.

ModifiersAmodifierisawordorphrasethatdescribesanotherwordorphrase.Twocommontypesofmodifiersaretheadverb(awordthatdescribesanadjective,averb,oranotheradverb)andtheadjective(awordthatdescribesanounorpronoun).However,thoughalladjectivesandadverbsaremodifiers,notallmodifiersareadjectivesandadverbs.Manymodifiersareentirephrases.Forexample:

Responsibleforrepresentingstudentstothefacultyandoverseeingstudentorganizations,theStudentCouncilplaysanimportantroleincampuslife.

Themodifyingphrase(initalics)providesadditionalinformationaboutthesubjectofthesentence:theStudentCouncil.

ClaritywithModifiers

Aboveall,itshouldalwaysbecleartothereaderwhichwordanadjective,adverb,ormodifyingphraseisdescribing.Bypayingattentiontoplacementandmakingsurethatifyouwanttomodifyaverbyouuseanadverbinsteadofanadjective,youwillmakeitmucheasierforyourreadertopickuponyourintendedmeaning.Insituationswheremodifiersareusedincorrectly,theresultisadanglingmodifier,amisplacedmodifier,orasquintingmodifier.

DanglingModifiersAdanglingmodifieroccurswhenthemodifyingphraseistoofarawayfromtheworditissupposedtodescribe.Asaresult,themodifierappearstorefertosomethingelse,causingconfusionforthereader.Danglingmodifierscanbecorrectedbyrestructuringthesentence.Forexample:

GiantIllustration?

Dangling:CoveringmostofMinnesota,theillustrationshowedtheglaciercreatedthousandsoflakes.[ThisphrasingmakesitseemliketheillustrationcoversmostofMinnesota!]Corrected:CoveringmostofMinnesota,theglaciercreatedthousandsoflakes,asdepictedontheillustration.[Here,themodifyingphraseclearlyreferstoglacierasitisintended.]

WalkingWinds?

Dangling:Walkingacrossthedesert,fiercewindsswirledaroundtheriders.[Here,thedanglingmodifiermakesitseemlikethewindsarewalkingacrossthedesert!]Corrected:Fiercewindsswirledaroundtheridersastheywalkedacrossthedesert.[Thesentencehasbeenrephrasedsothattheridersaretheoneswalkingacrossthedesert.]

StrollingSquirrels?

Dangling:Strollingthroughthepark,thesquirrelsscamperedacrossourfeet.[Thisdanglingmodifiermakesitsoundlikethesquirrelsareenjoyinganicestrollinthepark!]Corrected:Aswestrolledthroughthepark,squirrelsscamperedacrossourfeet.[Thesentencehasbeenclarifiedsothatthespeakerandhis

companionaretheoneswhoarestrolling.]

MisplacedModifiersSimilartoadanglingmodifier,amisplacedmodifieroccurswhenitisunclearwhatword(s)themodifierisreferencing.Mostmisplacedmodifierscanbecorrectedbyplacingthemodifyingphrasenexttothesubjectitrefersto.Forexample:

HurtBicycle

Misplaced:Erikcouldn’tridehisbicyclewithabrokenleg.[Here,itsoundslikethebicyclehasabrokenleg!]Corrected:Withhisbrokenleg,Ericcouldn’tridehisbike.[Nowthatthemodifierisintherightplace,thesentencemakesitclearthatEricistheonewithabrokenleg.]

BallerinaDog

Misplaced:Thelittlegirlwalkedthedogwearingatutu.[Isshewalkingadogthatiswearingatutu?]Corrected:Stillwearingatutu,thelittlegirlwalkedthedog.[No,theyoungladyistheoneinthetutu!]

SquintingModifiersAsquintingmodifierisamodifierthatisplacedrightnexttotheworditrefersto,butisalsonearanotherwordthatitmightbemodifying.Thiscanalsobecorrectedbyrestructuringthesentence.Forexample:

AGreatExercise

Squinting:Cyclinguphillquicklystrengthensthelegmuscles.[Here,“quickly”couldmodifyeither“cyclinguphill”or“strengthensthelegmuscles.”]Corrected:Quicklycyclinguphillstrengthensthelegmuscles.[Nowit’sclearthatit’sthecyclingthathastobequick!]

Peter,I’mSureWeCouldFindYouaChair

Misplaced:Peteratethepiesittingonthewindowsill.[IsPetersittingonawindowsilloristhepie?]Corrected:Peteratethepiethatwassittingonthewindowsill.[Itwasthepie.]

Dangling

Toavoiddanglingandmisplacedmodifiersinyourwriting,makesurethewordorphrasebeingmodifiedisclearlyidentified.

Attributions

IntroductiontoAdjectivesandAdverbs

“Adverb.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverb.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Adjective.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjective.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“DirectDepositAuthorization.jpg.”https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:20090529_Great_Wall_8216.jpgWikimediaCommonsCCBY-SA4.0.

Adjectives

“adjectivalphrase.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/adjectival%20phrase.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“adjective.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/adjective.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“CompoundModifier.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_modifier.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“adverb.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/adverb.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/PartsofSpeech.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Parts_of_Speech%23AdjectivesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/PartsofSpeech.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Parts_of_Speech%23AdverbsWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

Adverbs

“Adverb.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverb.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

MisplacedandDanglingModifiers

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“danglingmodifier.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/dangling%20modifier.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“modifier.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/modifier.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/Danglingmodifier.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Dangling_modifier

WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“Statueofmandangling|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/vironevaeh/2703259723/.FlickrCCBY-SA2.0.

4.6:Conjunctions4.6.1:Conjunctions:Coordination,Correlation,Conjunction,andSubordination

Aconjunctionisapartofspeechthatconnectswordsorphrases.

LearningObjective

Choosethecorrectconjunctiontoconnecttwoclauses

KeyPoints

Aconjunctionisapartofspeechthatconnectstwowords,sentences,phrases,orclauses.Conjunctionshelpaddvarietytoyourwritingbecausetheycanbeusedtocreatesentenceswithdifferentstylesandmeanings.Thedifferentkindsofconjunctionsarecoordinatingconjunctions,subordinatingconjunctions,correlativeconjunctions,andconjunctiveadverbs.

KeyTerms

coordinatingconjunction

Awordthatjoinswordsandphrasesofequalsyntacticimportance.

conjunction

Apartofspeechthatconnectswordsorphrases.

subordinatingconjunction

Awordthatjoinstogethertheseparatesectionsofacomplexsentence.

InEnglishgrammar,aconjunctionisapartofspeechthatconnectstwowords,sentences,phrases,orclauses.Thereareseveraldifferenttypesofconjunctions.

CoordinatingConjunctions

Coordinatingconjunctionsareconjunctionsthatjoin,or“coordinate,”twoormoreitems(suchaswords,clauses,orsentences)ofequalimportance.Themajorcoordinatingconjunctionsarefor,and,nor,but,or,yet,andso.(YoucanusetheacronymFANBOYStorememberthese!)Themostcommoncoordinatingconjunctionsoutoftheseareand,or,andbut.

And

“And”connectsnon-contrastingitemsorideas:

Theywanthamburgersandhotdogs.Shelikesswimmingatthepoolandintheriver.Iwillgotothegrocerystoreandpickupthekids.

Or

“Or”presentsanalternativeitemoridea.

Theywanteitherhamburgersorhotdogs.Shelikesswimmingatthepoolorintheriverdependingonhowhotitis.Iwilleithergotothegrocerystoreorpickupthekids.

But

“But”presentsacontrastorexception.

Theywanthamburgers,butnothotdogs.Shelikesswimmingatthepool,butnotintheriver.Iwillgotothegrocerystore,butIwon’tpickupthekids.

Nor

“Nor”presentsanon-contrastingnegativeidea.

Theywantneitherhamburgersnorhotdogs.Shedoesn’tlikeswimmingatthepool,norintheriver.Iwillneithergotothegrocerystorenorpickupthekids.

Yet

“Yet”presentsacontrastorexception(usually,onemoresurprisingthan“but”).

Theywanthamburgers,yettheydon’twanthotdogs.Shelikesswimmingatthepool,yetnotintheriver.Icangotothegrocerystore,andyetIsomehowdon’thavetimetopickupthekids.

So

“So”presentsaconsequence.

Theyatehamburgers,sothey’retoofullforhotdogs.Shelikesswimmingatthepoolsoshedoesn’thavetodrivetotheriver.Iamgoingtothegrocerystore,soIcanpickupthekidsonthewayhome.

For

“For”presentsarationale.

Theywanthamburgers,fortheyarehungry.Shelikesswimmingatthepool,forshewantstostaycool.Iwillgotothegrocerystore,forweneedtobuyingredients.

SubordinatingConjunctionsSubordinatingconjunctionsareconjunctionsthatjointwoseparateclauses.ThemostcommonsubordinatingconjunctionsintheEnglishlanguageincludeafter,although,as,asfaras,asif,aslongas,assoonas,asthough,because,before,evenif,eventhough,everytime,if,inorderthat,since,so,sothat,than,though,unless,until,when,whenever,where,whereas,wherever,andwhile.

Joewenttothestorebecauseheneededsomeorangejuice.Afterthemovieisover,wecanhavedinneratmyhouse.Helikeshorses,eventhoughaponybithimonce.

CorrelativeConjunctions

Correlativeconjunctionsworkinpairsinordertojoinwordsandgroupsofwordsofequalweightinasentence.Therearemanypairsofcorrelativeconjunctions,including:either/or;notonly/butalso;neither/nor;both/and;whether/or.

Youeitherdoyourworkorprepareforatriptotheoffice.Notonlyishehandsome,butheisalsobrilliant.Neitherthebasketballteamnorthefootballteamisdoingwell.Boththecross-countryteamandtheswimmingteamaredoingwell.Whetheryoustayorgoisyourdecision.

NotonlyistheSphinxinthepicture,butthePyramidsaretoo.

Thetitlecontainsanexampleofacorrelativeconjunction:“notonly…butalso.”Acorrelativeconjunctionisjustonetypeofconjunction,whichisapartofspeechthatconnectstwowords,sentences,phrases,orclauses.Conjunctionscanassistincreatingsentencesofvariousstylesandemphases.

ConjunctiveAdverbsConjunctiveadverbsexpressarelationshiportransitionbetweentwoseparatepartsofacomplexsentence.Commonconjunctiveadverbsincludeso,otherwise,also,consequently,forexample,furthermore,however,inaddition,incontrast,infact,instead,likewise,moreover,nevertheless,otherwise,still,then,andtherefore.Forexample:

TheCEOwillbeattendingthelecture;accordingly,thevicepresidentwillbeavailablefortheluncheonatnoon.JaimewantedtoseeBillyMadison;however,NickwantedtoseeHappy

Gilmore.

Attributions

Conjunctions:Coordination,Correlation,Conjunction,andSubordination

“Coordination(linguistics).”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordination_(linguistics).WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“CoordinatingandSubordinatingConjunctions.”http://valenciacommunicationscenter.wikispaces.com/Coordinating+and+Subordinating+ConjunctionsvalenciacommunicationscenterWikispaceCCBY-SA3.0.

“Subordinateconjunction.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subordinate%20conjunction.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“coordinator.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/coordinator.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Conjunction(grammar).”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunction_(grammar).WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Subordination(linguistics).”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subordination_(linguistics).WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/Punctuation.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Punctuation%23OK.2C_which_terms_do_I_need_to_know.3FWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“coordinatingconjunction.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/coordinating%20conjunction.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/29507/29507-h/29507-h.htm.Publicdomain.

4.7:AgreementandParallelism4.7.1:Subject-VerbAgreement

Verbsneedtoagreewiththesubjectinbothpersonandnumber.

LearningObjective

Recognizeerrorsinsubject-verbagreement

KeyPoints

Verbsmustagreewiththeirsubjectinpersonandnumber.Afirst-personsubjectisIorwe.Secondpersonisyouoryouall.Thirdpersonisshe,he,it,orthey.Asingularsubjectisasubjectwherethereisonlyonepersonorthing;apluralsubjectismorethanonepersonorthing.It’sgoodtodouble-checkwhetheryourverbagreeswithyoursubject,astherearesituationswhereitmaybeunclear.

KeyTerms

collectivenoun

Anumberofpeopleorthingstakentogetherandspokenofasawhole.

massnoun

Athingorconceptusuallyreferredtoasawhole,ratherthancountedindividually(e.g.adviceorwater).

plural

Morethanoneinnumber.

verb

Awordthatindicatesanaction,anevent,orastateofbeing.

Subject-VerbAgreement

Inorderforsentencestosoundright,theirverbsandsubjectsneedtomeshwelltogether.Sincethesubjectistheoneperformingtheaction,theverbneedstomatchitinpersonandnumber.

“Person”isawayofsayingwhothesubjectis.Therearethreelevelsof“person”inEnglish:firstperson,secondperson,andthirdperson.Toputitsimply:Infirstperson,thesubjectisIorwe.Secondpersonisyouoryouall.Thirdpersonisshe,he,it,orthey.

“Number”isawayofsayinghowmanypeople(orobjects)areinthesubject.Ifonlyonepersonisinthesubject,it’ssingular.Otherwise,it’splural.

Thus,asubjecthasbothpersonandnumber,andtheverbtakesontheappropriateform.Taketheexamplesbelow:

Singularfirstperson:Iwork.Singularsecondperson:Youwork.Singularthirdperson:Heworks.Pluralfirstperson:Wework.Pluralsecondperson:Youwork.Pluralthirdperson:Theywork.

Theverb“work”hastwodifferentforms,“work”and“works,”dependingonthesubject.

UnusualSituationsAsclearasthisallseems,somesituationsareabittrickierthanothers.Forexample,takeanirregularverblike“be.”

Singularfirstperson:Iam.Singularsecondperson:Youare.Singularthirdperson:Heis.Pluralfirstperson:Weare.Pluralsecondperson:Youare.Pluralthirdperson:Theyare.

Thisverbishighlyirregular,andsoitcanbetrickiertomakesurethatthesubjectandverbmatchintenseandnumber.

Thisisnottheonlyunusualsituation,however.Subject-verbagreementcanbecomealittlemorecomplicatedwhenthesubjectisverylongandcomplex.Whenfacedwithsituationslikethese,itisgenerallybesttoconsiderthe

entirecomplexsubjectphraseasonesubject,andthenthinkaboutwhatkindofthingitrepresents.

CompoundSentences

Compoundsentences(twosentencesjoinedbyaclause)haveasubjectandverbineachclause.Makesurethesubjectofeachclauseagreeswiththeverbofeachclause.

Thepeanutbutterisonthecounterandthebeansareinthebag.Thechildrenhaveasnowday,soIamgoinghomeearly.

ModifyingPhrases

Sometimesmodifyingphrasescancomebetweenthesubjectandverbofasentence.Thisshouldnotaffectthesubject-verbagreement.

Theideaofservingfrankfurtersisagoodone.Thechildren,alongwiththeirfather,aretakingacabtothestation.

VerbPrecedesSubject

Sometimesthesubjectofasentencecancomeafteritsverb.Eveninthesecases,theverbshouldstillagreewiththesubject.

Wherearethecandlesforthecake?Thereisaquietspotbythepond.

CompoundSubjects

Compoundsubjects(twosubjectsjoinedbyaconjunction)takepluralverbsiftheyarejoinedby“and.”Thinkofitthisway:you’vegotmorethanonesubject,soyourverbhastobeplural.

Thepresidentandthechildrenareattheparty.MybrothersandIareattheparty.

PositiveandNegativeSubjects

Whenapositivesubjectandanegativesubjectarecompoundedandhave

differentnumbers,theverbshouldagreewiththepositivesubject.

Itisnottheassistantcoachesbuttheheadcoachwhocallstheplays.Itisthesoup,butnottheappetizers,thathaspoisonedthequeen.

Or

Whentwonounsdifferinginnumberarejoinedbytheword“or,”theverbshouldtaketheformofthenounclosesttoit.Forexample:

Mostviewersofthepaintingassumethateitherthemonkey’santicsorthehandler’schagrincausestheyoungmen’slaughter.

“Chagrin”isclosertotheverbthan“antics,”sotheverb“causes”takesthesingularform.Notethatthisisthecasespecificallybecauseoftheword“or.”

IndefinitePronouns

Fiveindefinitepronounsalwaystakepluralverbs:others,both,many,few,andseveral.

Botharearrivingatthesametime.Manypeopleloveparties.

However,mostindefinitepronounstakesingularverbs.

Everybodyisattheparty.Eitherrestaurantsoundsgood.

Someindefinitepronounscantakeasingularorpluralverbbasedonwhetherthenountowhichtheyarereferringisuncountable(singular)orcountable(plural).

Some(sand)isinmyshoe.Some(pebbles)areinmyshoe.

CollectiveNouns

Collectivenouns(whichrefertoagroupofbeingsorthingsasasingleunit)aresingular,andsotakesingularverbs.

Theaudiencewassilentattheendoftheplay.Theclasshasplentyofhomeworkfortheweekend.

MassNouns

Massnouns,like“water”or“mud”areneithersingularnorplural.Youcan’tsay“onewater”or“twowaters”becauseit’salljustacontinuousobject(unlessyouaretalkingabouttwodistinctcontainersofwater).Massnounsrepresentageneric,unknownamountofwhatevertheyare.Theytakeasingularverbform.

Mybaggagewasleftattheairport.[Thesubjectbaggageisamassnoun,sotheverbwasissingular.]Mybagswereleftattheairport.[Thesubjectbagsisapluralnoun,sotheverbwereisalsopluraltoagreewiththesubject.]

Amounts

Amountstakesingularverbsbecausetheyaretreatedasunits,whicharesingularnouns.

Tendollarsisenoughtobuythebook.AllIneedisfifteenminutestofinishtheexam.

Somenon-amountwordsendin“s”butalsotakesingularverbsbecausetheyrefertounitsorsingleentities.

Economicsisaninterestingsubject.Thenewsairsatsixo’clock.

PairWords

Somewordsendingin“s”refertosingleobjectsbutareconsideredpluralandsoshouldtakepluralverbs,unlesstheyareprecededby“pairof”(inwhichcase“pair”wouldbethesubject).

Yourshoesarebrightyellow.Myfavoritepairofpantsisinthewash.

Titles

Thetitleofabookorworkofartisalwayssingularevenifanouninthetitleisplural.

TheThreeMusketeersissittingontheshelfbythewindow.

Sumsandproductstakesingularverbsinmathematicalequations.Fractionalexpressionsvarydependingonthemeaning.

Threeplusfourequalsseven.Three-fourthsoftheprofessorsvoteRepublican.

Thechildstandsnearthedoor.

Thetitledemonstratesthenecessityofsubject-verbagreement.Thethirdpersonsubject,“Thechild,”requiresthattheverbalsotakeathirdpersonsingularform,“stands.”

Revising

Mostofthetime,writersusesubject-verbagreementautomatically.Mostofusaresousedtodoingitthatwedonotneedtothinkabouttheruleinordertofollowit.Nevertheless,youshouldbeawareofsubject-verbagreementwheneditingyourpapers,especiallyiftheyhavegonethroughmanyrevisions.Thisisonethingwritersmayforgettoedit.Mostmistakeshappenbecausewritersarenotpayingcarefulattentiontothenumberandpersonoftheirsubjects.

Tofigureoutwhichnountheverbshouldagreewith,beginbycrossingoutanyprepositionalphrasesorotherdescriptiveclauses.Thenfocusontheverbandaskyourself,“Whoorwhatisperformingthisaction?”Pareitdowntojustasubjectandverb,andseeifitsoundsright.Writersneedtoconsiderwhetherthesubjectofthesentenceissingularorplural,andwhetherthesubjectisfirstperson,secondperson,orthirdperson.Oncethishasbeendetermined,thecorrectconjugationoftheverbcanbeused.

4.7.2:Pronoun-AntecedentAgreement

Allpronounsmustagreewiththeirantecedentinnumberandgender.

LearningObjective

Recognizeerrorsinpronoun-antecedentagreement

KeyPoints

Apronounisawordthatreplacesanounoragroupofnounsinasentence.Apronounshouldagreeinnumberandgenderwiththenounorphraseitrefersto.Thenounorphraseapronounreferstoiscalledtheantecedent.Usingproperpronoun-antecedentagreementisimportanttoproperlyexpressingyourideasinwriting.

KeyTerms

pronoun

Awordthatreplacesanounorgroupofnounsinasentence.

antecedent

Anounornounphrasetowhichapronounrefers.

PronounsandAntecedentsApronounisawordthatreplacesanoun,oragroupofnouns,inasentenceorsentences.Apronounshouldagreeinnumberandgenderwiththenounorphraseitrefersto,whichisknownastheantecedent.Correctpronoun-antecedentagreementiscrucialtowritingprofessionally.

Apronounmighthaveanantecedentfromtheprevioussentence:

Carolinahatescats.Shehasterribleallergies.[ThepronounshereferstotheantecedentCarolina.]

Butpronounsandantecedentscanalsooccurinthesamesentence:

Jimsaidhedoesn’tlikecoffee.[ThepronounhereferstotheantecedentJim.]

Thetwinshelpedbybringingtheirtruck.[Thepronountheirreferstotheantecedenttwins.]

QuantityAgreement“Singular”means“oneofsomething,”whereas“plural”means“morethanone.”ThesingularpronounsincludeI,me,he,she,it,andmore.Theirantecedentwillalwaysbesingular:justonepersonorobject.

Jamilwasnotashungry.Hestayedattheoffice.[ThesingularpronounhereferstotheantecedentJamil.]

Examplesofpluralpronounsincludewe,us,they,andothers.Thesepronounsmusthaveanantecedentthatismorethanonepersonorobject.

George,Omar,andPhilwerestarvingforlunch.TheywenttoaChinesebuffet.[ThepluralpronountheyreferstotheantecedentGeorge,Omar,andPhil.]

Onetrickyexceptionis“you.”InEnglish,thepronoun“you”isthesamewhetheritissingularorplural.Sometimesyoucandistinguishbetweenthetwobysaying“youall”ifyouarespeakingtomorethanoneperson.

GenderAgreement

Insomesituations,pronounsneedtobegenderspecific.Thepronounshe,his,andhimaremasculine,whereasshe,her,andhersarefeminine.

Janicewantedtogotothemall.ShewantedScotttojoinher.Hewasnotinterestedingoingtothemall.[ThepronounssheandherrefertotheantecedentJanice.ThepronounhereferstotheantecedentScott.]MydogFranklinisveryskittish.Hedoesn’tenjoythedogpark.[ThepronounhereferstotheantecedentFranklin.]

Gender-NeutralPronouns

Gender-neutralpronounsincludeyou,they,their,theirs,we,us,our,ours,your,andyours.Inthecasewherethegenderoftheantecedentisunknown,thepronounshouldbegender-neutraloravoidedaltogether.

Forexample,takethegeneralstatement,“Astudentshouldhandhispapersinpromptly.”Inthissentence,thewordstudentdoesnotindicateanygender,becauseit’sjustageneral,anonymousstudent.Therefore,ratherthansaying“hispapers,”useoneofthefollowing:

Astudentshouldhandpapersinpromptly.[Here,thegenderedpronounhasbeendropped,butthesentenceisstillgrammaticallycorrect.]Studentsshouldhandtheirpapersinpromptly.[Bymakingtheantecedentplural,youcanusethegender-neutralpluralpronountheir.]

4.7.3:StructuralParallelismWithinaSentence

Parallelismrequiresthatsimilarideasbepresentedinsimilarform.

LearningObjective

Giveexamplesofparallelstructure

KeyPoints

Parallelismiswhentwoormoreelementsofthesamesentencehaveasimilarstructure.Themostimportantparallelmarkersarethethreemostcommonconjunctions:and,but,andor.Parallelismrequiresthatanarticle(a,an,orthe)oraprepositionapplyingtoallmembersofaseriesmusteitherappearbeforethefirst

itemonlyorberepeatedbeforeeachitem.

KeyTerm

parallelism

Whentwoormoreelementsofthesamesentencehaveasimilarstructure.

ParallelismAnunclearsentencerambles,driftingamongunrelatedtopicsinahaphazardandconfusingfashion.Parallelismhelpspromotebalance,emphasis,clarity,andreadability.Butwhatisparallelism?

Parallelismiswhenelementsofasentence“echo”eachotherbecausetheyhavesimilarformorstructure.Repeatingkeywordscancontributetounitywithinanessay.Parallelismcanbeusefulinmanysituations,butoftenweknowthatitwillcomeinhandywhenweusewordsthatlinkorcontrastitems,suchasand,or,andbut.

BasicFormofParallelismNonparallel:Studentsspendtheirtimegoingtoclasses,studying,working,andtheywishtheyhadtimeforasociallife.Parallel:Studentsspendtheirtimegoingtoclasses,studying,working,andwishingforasociallife.Nonparallel:High-schoolstudentshopeforshortschooldays,orfour-dayweekswouldbegreat,too.Parallel:High-schoolstudentshopeforshortschooldaysorfour-dayweeks.

UsingArticleswithParallelismParallelismrequiresthatanarticle(a,an,orthe)oraprepositionapplyingtoallitemsinalisteitherappearbeforethefirstitemonlyorberepeatedbeforeeachitem.Hereareafewexamplesoftheruleinaction:

Nonparallel:Wecanpaywithamark,ayen,buck,orpound.

Parallel:Wecanpaywithamark,ayen,abuck,orapound.Nonparallel:IwenttothestoreonMonday,Wednesday,andonFriday.Parallel:IwenttothestoreonMonday,Wednesday,andFriday.

PrepositionsinParallelismSomewordsrequirethatcertainprepositionsprecedethem.Whensuchwordsappearinparallelstructure,itisimportanttoincludealloftheappropriateprepositions,sincethefirstonemaynotapplytothewholeseriesofitems.Hereareafewexamplesoftheruleinaction:

Nonparallel:Hisspeechwasmarkedbydisagreementandscornforhisopponent’sposition.Parallel:Hisspeechwasmarkedbydisagreementwithandscornforhisopponent’sposition.Nonparallel:Thisisatimenotforwordsbutaction.Parallel:Thisisatimenotforwordsbutforaction.

CorrelativeExpressionsCorrelativeexpressionsarewordsthattendtoshowupinpairs.Sentenceswithcorrelativeexpressions(both/and;not/but;notonly/butalso;either/or;first,second,third…)shouldemployparallelstructureaswell.Simplerewritingcanoftenremedyerrorsinthesetypesofsentences.Hereareafewexamplesoftheruleinaction:

Nonparallel:Eitheryoumustgrantherrequestorincurherillwill.Parallel:Youmusteithergrantherrequestorincurherillwill.Nonparallel:Myobjectionsarefirst,theinjusticeofthemeasure,andsecond,thatitisunconstitutional.Parallel:Myobjectionsarefirst,thatthemeasureisunjust,andsecond,thatitisunconstitutional.

UsingLogictoDetermineStructureInsomeinstances,youmustfigureoutwhichpartsofthesentenceareparallelinmeaningbeforemakingthemparallelinstructure.Hereisanexample:

Correct:Salappliedhimselfinhisnewjob,arrivingearlyeveryday,skippinglunchregularly,andleavinglateeverynight.

Inthesentenceabove,the-ingparticiplephrases(“arrivingearlyeveryday,”“skippinglunchregularly,”and“leavinglateeverynight”)areparallel.Themainclause—“appliedhimselfinhisnewjob”—isnotparalleltotheseparticiplephrases.Thisisbecausethemainverbis“applied.”The-ingphrasessimplyprovideadditionalinformationabouthowSalappliedhimself.Itwoulddistortthemeaningtochangethesentencetothissuperficiallyparallelversion:

Incorrect:Salappliedhimselfinhisnewjob,arrivedearlyeveryday,skippedlunchregularly,andleftlateeverynight.

Thisversiongivesalltheactivitiesequalemphasis,insteadofmakingthelastthreeactivitiessubordinatetothemainactivity(“appliedhimselfinhisnewjob”).

Attributions

Subject-VerbAgreement

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“collectivenoun.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/collective%20noun.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“verb.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/verb.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“JoffreMeyer,Subject-VerbAgreement.September17,2013.”http://cnx.org/content/m34353/latest/.OpenStaxCNXCCBY3.0.

“EnglishinUse/Subject-verbAgreement.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English_in_Use/Subject-verb_Agreement.WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“MassNoun.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mass_noun.WikitionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“plural.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/plural.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/Lackofagreementbetweensubjectandverb.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Parts_of_Speech%23Verbs

WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/28024/28024-h/28024-h.html.Publicdomain.

Pronoun-AntecedentAgreement

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“pronoun.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pronoun.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“antecedent.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/antecedent.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/PartsofSpeech.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Parts_of_Speech%23PronounsWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

StructuralParallelismWithinaSentence

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“Parallelism.”http://xiamenwriting.wikispaces.com/Parallelism.xiamenwritingWikispaceCCBY-SA3.0.

“Parallelism.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallelism.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“parallelstructure.”https://writingguide.wikispaces.com/parallel+structure.writingguideWikispaceCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/TheStagesoftheWritingProcess.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/The_Stages_of_the_Writing_ProcessWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/28501/28501-h/28501-h.htm.Publicdomain.

5:OverviewofEnglishGrammar:PunctuationandMechanics

5.1:Commas5.1.1:IntroductiontoCommas

Thecommaisapunctuationmarkthatindicatesaslightbreak,pause,ortransition.

LearningObjective

Identifysituationsthatrequirecommas

KeyPoints

Thecommaisapunctuationmarkthatindicatesaslightbreak,pause,ortransition.Commasarenecessarybeforeacoordinatingconjunction(for,and,nor,but,or,yet,so)thatseparatestwoindependentclauses.Commasarenecessaryafterintroductorywords,phrases,orclausesinasentence.Commasarenecessarytosetoffelementsthatinterruptoraddinformationinasentence.

KeyTerms

participle

Aformofaverbthatmayfunctionasanadjectiveornoun.Englishhastwotypesofparticiples:thepresentparticipleandthepastparticiple.

preposition

Anyofaclosedclassofnon-inflectingwordstypicallyemployedtoconnectanounorapronoun,inanadjectivaloradverbialsense,withsomeotherword:aparticleusedwithanounorpronoun(inEnglishalwaysintheobjectivecase)tomakeaphraselimitingsomeotherword.

adverb

Awordthatmodifiesaverb,adjective,anotheradverb,orvariousothertypesofwords,phrases,orclauses.

adjective

Awordthatmodifiesanounordescribesanoun’sreferent.

infinitive

Theuninflectedformofaverb.InEnglish,thisisusuallyformedwiththeverbstemprecededby“to.”ForExample:“tosit.”

nonrestrictive

Describesamodifierthatcanbedroppedfromasentencewithoutchangingthemeaning.

Thecommaisapunctuationmarkthatindicatesaslightpauseoratransitionofsomekind.Itservesmanydifferentgrammaticalfunctionsandprovidesclarityforreaders.Commashavemanyuses,butthesituationsinwhichtheyareusedcanbebrokendownintofourmajorcategories:

1. Putacommabeforeacoordinatingconjunction(for,and,nor,but,or,yet,so)thatseparatestwoindependentclauses.

2. Putacommaafterintroductorywords,phrases,orclausesinasentence.3. Usecommastosetoffelementsthatinterruptoraddinformationina

sentence.4. Usecommastovisuallyseparatedistinctbutrelateditems.

CoordinatingConjunctionsCoordinatingconjunctionsareconjunctions,orjoiningwords,thatareplacedbetweenwordsandphrasesofequalimportance.Usedwithcoordinatingconjunctions,commasallowwriterstoexpresshowtheircompletethoughtsrelatetooneanother.Theyalsohelpavoidthechoppy,flatstylethatariseswheneverythoughtstandsasaseparatesentence.

Whenjoiningtwoindependentclauses,orclausesthatcouldstandontheirownasfullsentences,placeacommabeforetheconjunction.Ifthesecondindependentclauseisveryshort,orifitisanimperative,thecommacanbeomitted.

Example:Hewaslookingforwardtothedance,buthewasnotsurewhathewouldwear.

Bothclausesareindependentandcouldstandontheirownascompletesentences.Whentheyarejoinedinthesamesentence,however,theymustbeconnectedwithacommaandacoordinatingconjunction.

IntroductoryPhrasesandClausesPutacommaafterintroductorywords,phrases,orclausesthatintroduceasentence.

DependentClauses

Adependentclauseisagroupofwordsthatcan’tstandonitsownasasentencebecauseitdoesnotexpressacompletethought.Sometimesadependentclausecanbeusedtointroduceasentence.Inthissituation,useacommaafterthedependentclause.

Example:BecauseIwasrunninglate,Ididnothavetimetoeatbreakfast.

Thefirstphrasecouldnotstandonitsownasasentence,butwhenjoinedtotheindependentclausebythecomma,thesentenceiscomplete.

Notethatadependentclausecancomelaterinthesentence,butinthatcase,youwouldnotuseacomma:

Example:IdidnothavetimetoeatbreakfastbecauseIwasrunninglate.

Onlyuseacommatoseparateadependentandindependentclauseifthedependentclauseisfirst!

IntroductoryWordsandPhrases

Writerscangivereadersinformationthatlimitsorotherwisemodifiesamainideathatfollows.Todoso,writerscanuseintroductorywordsorintroductoryphrases.Theseintroductoryelementscanbeonewordorseveral.Commonintroductoryelementsincludetransitionwordsandstatementsabouttime,place,manner,orcondition.

Often,introductorywordsarealsoadverbs.Commasarealwaysusedtosetoffcertainadverbs,includingthefollowing:

howeverinfactthereforeneverthelessmoreoverfurthermorestill

Example:Therefore,itisobviousthatweshouldfundthedam-buildingproject.

Ifoneoftheseadverbsappearsinthemiddleofasentence,withinoneclause,itshouldbesetoffbyapairofcommas.

Example:Thedam,however,willtakesevenyearstoconstruct.

Forsomeadverbs,usingacommaisoptional.Inthesesituations,saythesentencetoyourself.Ifyouthinkapausemakesyoursentencemoreclearoremphasizeswhatyouwanttoemphasize,usethecomma;otherwise,dropit.

thensoyetinsteadtoofirst,second,etc.

Example:Firstwe’llgotothemall.Thenwe’llgotothepetstore.

Example:First,we’llgotothemall.Then,we’llgotothepetstore.

Bothofthosesentencepairsarecorrect!

AddingInformation:ModifiersandAppositivesModifiersarewordsorphrasesthatareaddedtosentencesinordertomaketheirmeaningmorespecific.Inordertounderstandwhatkindofmodifiersrequirecommas,firstwehavetounderstandtheconceptof“restrictiveness.”

NonrestrictiveModifiers

Somemodifiersarenonrestrictive,meaningthatthesentencewouldstillhaveessentiallythesamemeaning,topic,andstructurewithoutthem.Theysimplyaddalittleextrainformation.

Example:Katy’snewfishbowlisgrowingsomeweirdalgae.

Inthissentence,“new”and“weird”arenonrestrictive.Thesentencewithoutthemwouldbegrammaticallycorrectandhaveessentiallythesamemeaning.Theydonotrequireanycommas.

RestrictiveModifiers

Restrictivemodifiers,ontheotherhand,arethosewhoseuseisessentialtotheoverallmeaningofthesentence.Inotherwords,ifyoudroppedarestrictivemodifierfromasentence,themeaningofthesentencewouldchange.

Example:Themanwhoscratchedyourcarleftanoteonyourwindshield.

Thephrase“whoscratchedyourcar”isarestrictivemodifierbecauseitexplainswhichmanthesentencerefersto,andbecausethesentencewouldbeunclearwithoutit.

Appositives

Anappositiveisagrammaticalconstructioninwhichtwonounphrasesareplacedsidebyside,withoneidentifyingtheother.

Example:Mysister,AliceSmith,likesjellybeans.

Inthissentence,“AliceSmith”isanappositivemodifyingthenounphrase“mysister.”BecausethenameAliceSmithisjustaddinginformation,andthesentencewouldstillhavethesamebasicmeaningwithoutit,thisisanexampleofanonrestrictiveappositive.Nonrestrictiveappositivesdorequirecommas.

Ontheotherhand,arestrictiveappositiveprovidesinformationessentialtoidentifyingthenounbeingdescribed.Itlimitsorclarifiesthatnounphraseinsomecrucialway,andthemeaningofthesentencewouldchangeiftheappositivewereremoved.InEnglish,restrictiveappositivesarenotsetoffbycommas.

Example:HelovesthetelevisionshowIronChef.

Inthissentence,“IronChef”isanappositivemodifyingthenounphrase“televisionshow.”Becausethemeaningofthesentencewouldbeunclearwithout“IronChef,”itisconsideredrestrictiveandthusdoesnotrequireacomma.

SeparatingRelatedButDistinctInformation

Attribution

Useacommatosetofftheattribution(i.e.,whosaidorwroteaquotation)fromthequotationitself.Iftheattributioncomesattheendofthequotation,thenthecommashouldgoinsidethequotationmarks,evenifthequotationisacompletesentence.

Example:“Wereallymessedupthistime,”hesaid.

Apairofcommasshouldbeusedtosetofftheattributionwhenitappearsinthemiddleofthequotation.

Example:“Well,”shesaid,“IthinkIwouldprefertohavehamburgerstonight.”

Donotreplaceaquestionmarkorexclamationpointinaquotationwithacomma.

Example:“Wherearewegoingnow?”Eugeneasked.

Lists

Whentherearethreeormoreitemsinalist,commasshouldbeusedbetweentheitems.

Example:Buyapples,bananas,andgrapefruitatthestore.

Thefinalcomma,theonebeforeandoror,isknownasaserialcomma(alsocalledtheOxfordorHarvardcomma).Theserialcommashouldalwaysbeusedwhereitisneededtoavoidconfusion.Canyouseetheambiguityintheexamplebelow?

Example:“Thankyoufortheaward.I’dliketothankmyparents,CharlesDarwinandLindsayLohan.”

Itlookslikethespeaker’sparentsareDarwinandLohan,wheninreality,thespeakermeanttothankherparentsandCharlesDarwinandLindsayLohan.Inthissituation,theserialcommaneedstobeused.

Otherwise,dependingonthechosenstyleguide,itisconsideredoptional.Still,notusingtheserialcommaisrelativelyuncommoninAmericanEnglish,exceptinnewspapersandmagazines.

Accumulation

Anothertypeofrelationshipbetweenideasthatwriterssignaltoreaderswith

acommaisthatofaccumulation.Occurringattheendofasentence,cumulativeclauseshookuptoamainclauseandaddfurtherinformation.Theyoftenincludeadditionaldescriptivedetails.

Example,“Thesunroseslowlyoverthemountains,warmingthefacesoftheminersinthevalley,invitingthejaysoutfromtheirnests,shimmeringinthemorningdew,inchingthedayforwardoneshadowatatime.”

Asinthisexample,accumulativephrasesshouldbeseparatedbycommas.

Dates

Commasshouldalsobeusedwhenwritingdates.Thereshouldalwaysbeacommabetweenthedayandtheyearandbetweentheyearandtherestofthesentence.

Example:“OnDecember7,1941,JapaneseplanesattackedtheU.S.NavalbaseinHawaii.”

Evenwhenthedateisnotadependentclause,asitisinthepreviousexample,thelastiteminthedateshouldbefollowedbyacomma.

Callinginsickforwork,Bethhopedherbosswouldnotsuspectanything

Thetitlecontainsaverbinitsintroductoryphrase,whichwarrantsacommabeforethefinalclause.Thecommaservesavarietyofgrammaticalfunctions,includingtoindicatepausesorsetoffintroductoryphrases,asinthetitleexample.

5.1.2:CommonCommaMistakes

Byunderstandingtherulesofcorrectcommausage,youcanavoidcommoncommaerrors.

LearningObjective

Recognizecommonmistakeswhenusingcommas

KeyPoints

Avoidingunnecessarycommasissimplyamatterofunderstandingtherulesofcorrectcommausage.Acommaspliceoccurswhentwoindependentclausesarejoinedonlybyacommainsteadofanacceptableformofpunctuation,suchasacommawithacoordinatingconjunction,asemicolon,oraperiod.Arun-onsentenceoccurswhentwoormoreindependentclausesfusetogetherwithoutpunctuationtoseparatethem.

KeyTerms

preposition

Anyofaclosedclassofnon-inflectingwordstypicallyemployedtoconnectanounorapronoun,inanadjectivaloradverbialsense,withsomeotherword:aparticleusedwithanounorpronoun(inEnglishalwaysintheobjectivecase)tomakeaphraselimitingsomeotherword.

participle

Aformofaverbthatmayfunctionasanadjectiveornoun.Englishhastwotypesofparticiples:thepresentparticipleandthepastparticiple.

comma

Punctuationmark,usuallyindicatingapausebetweenpartsofasentenceorbetweenelementsinalist.

RulesofThumbCommausageerrorsfallintotwocategories:usingunnecessarycommasandfailingtousenecessarycommas.Toavoidmakingerrorswhenusingcommasinyourwriting,youmustunderstandwhencommasbelong(andwhentheydon’t).

Keepthefollowingrulesofthumbinmindforwhentonotusecommas.

Donotuseacommatoseparateasubjectfromitspredicate.

Incorrect:RegisteringforourfitnessprogramsbeforeSeptember15,willsaveyouthirtypercentofthemembershipcost.Correct:RegisteringforourfitnessprogramsbeforeSeptember15willsaveyouthirtypercentofthemembershipcost.

Donotuseacommatoseparateaverbfromitsobject,oraprepositionfromitsobject.

Incorrect:IhopetomailtoyoubeforeChristmas,acurrentsnapshotofmydogBenji.Incorrect:Shetraveledaroundtheworldwith,asmallbackpack,abedroll,apuptent,andacamera.Correct:IhopetomailtoyoubeforeChristmasacurrentsnapshotofmydogBenji.Correct:Shetraveledaroundtheworldwithasmallbackpack,abedroll,apuptent,andacamera.

Donotmisuseacommaafteracoordinatingconjunction.

Incorrect:Sleetfellheavilyonthetinroofbut,thefamilywasusedtothenoiseandpaiditnoattention.Correct:Sleetfellheavilyonthetinroof,butthefamilywasusedtothenoiseandpaiditnoattention.

Donotusecommastointroducerestrictive(i.e.,

necessary)modifiers.

Incorrect:Thefingers,onhislefthand,arebiggerthanthoseonhisright.Correct:Thefingersonhislefthandarebiggerthanthoseonhisright.

Donotuseacommabeforeadependentclausethatcomesafteranindependentclause.Thisiscalledadisruptivecomma.

Incorrect:Thefutureofprintnewspapersappearsuncertain,duetorisingproductioncostsandtheincreasingpopularityofonlinenewssources.Incorrect:Somearguethatprintnewspaperswillneverdisappear,becauseoftheirmanyreaders.Correct:Thefutureofprintnewspapersappearsuncertainduetorisingproductioncostsandtheincreasingpopularityofonlinenewssources.Correct:Somearguethatprintnewspaperswillneverdisappearbecauseoftheirmanyreaders.

Donotuseacommaafterashortintroductoryprepositionalphraseunlessyoumeantoaddextraemphasis.

Incorrect:Beforetheparade,Iwanttoeatpizza.Correct:BeforetheparadeIwanttoeatpizza.

Donotuseacommabetweenadjectivesthatworktogethertomodifyanoun.

Incorrect:Ilikeyourdancing,catt-shirt.Correct:Ilikeyourdancingcatt-shirt.

Donotuseacommatosetoffquotationsthatoccupyasubordinatepositioninasentence,oftensignaledbythewords“that,”“which,”or“because.”

Incorrect:Participatinginademocracytakesastrongstomachbecause,“itrequiresacertainrelishforconfusion,”writesMollyIvins.Correct:Participatinginademocracytakesastrongstomachbecause“itrequiresacertainrelishforconfusion,”writesMollyIvins.

Donotuseacommawhennamingonlyamonthandayear.

Incorrect:ThenextpresidentialelectionwilltakeplaceinNovember,2016.Correct:ThenextpresidentialelectionwilltakeplaceinNovember2016.

Donotuseacommainstreetaddressesorpagenumbers,orbeforeaZIPorotherpostalcode.

Correct:Thetableappearsonpage1397.Correct:Thefireoccurredat5509AvenidaValencia.Correct:Writetotheprogramadvisorat6455thStreet,Minerton,Indiana55555.

CommaSpliceErrorsAcommaspliceoccurswhentwoindependentclauses(thatis,twocompletesentences)arejoinedonlybyacomma.Inthosesituations,anacceptableformofpunctuationwouldbeasemicolonoraperiod.Forexample:

Incorrect:Everyday,millionsofchildrengotodaycarewithmillionsofotherkids,thereisnoguaranteethatnoneofthemareharboringinfectiousconditions.Incorrect:Manydaycareshavestrictrulesaboutsickchildrenneedingtostayawayuntiltheyarenolongerinfectious,enforcingthoserulescanbeverydifficult.Incorrect:Daycareprovidersoftenundergoextremepressuretoacceptasickchild“justthisonce,”theparenthasnoothercareoptionsandcannotmisswork.

Onceyoudiscoverwherethetwoindependentclausesare“spliced,”thereareseveralwaystoseparatethem.Youcanmaketwocompletesentencesby

insertingaperiod.Thisisthestrongestlevelofseparation.Youcanuseasemicolonbetweenthetwoclausesiftheyareofequalimportance;thisallowsyourreadertoconsiderthepointstogether.Youcanuseasemicolonwithatransitionwordtoindicateaspecificrelationbetweenthetwoclauses;however,youshouldusethissparingly.Youcanuseacoordinatingconjunctionfollowingthecomma,andthisalsowillindicatearelationship.Or,youcanaddawordtooneclausetomakeitdependent.

Forexample:

Correct:Everyday,millionsofchildrengotodaycarewithmillionsofotherkids.Thereisnoguaranteethatnoneofthemareharboringinfectiousconditions.Correct:Manydaycareshavestrictrulesaboutsickchildrenneedingtostayawayuntiltheyarenolongerinfectious;enforcingthoserulescanbeverydifficult.Correct:Manydaycareshavestrictrulesaboutsickchildrenneedingtostayawayuntiltheyarenolongerinfectious,butenforcingthoserulescanbeverydifficult.Correct:Daycareprovidersoftenundergoextremepressuretoacceptasickchild“justthisonce”becausetheparenthasnoothercareoptionsandcannotmisswork.

Run-OnErrorsWhilearun-onsentence,alsoknownasafusedsentence,mightjustseemlikeatypeofsentencethatgoesonandonwithoutaclearpoint,thetechnicalgrammaticaldefinitionofarun-onsentenceisonethatfuses,or“runstogether,”twoormoreindependentclauseswithoutusingpunctuationtoseparatethem.Theindependentclausesmaynothaveanypunctuationseparatingthem,ortheymayhaveacoordinatingconjunctionbetweenthem,butwithoutthecommathatneedstoaccompanyittoseparatetheindependentclauses.Forexample:

Incorrect:Everyday,millionsofchildrengotodaycarewithmillionsofotherkidsthereisnoguaranteethatnoneofthemareharboringinfectiousconditions.Incorrect:Manydaycarecentershavestrictrulesaboutsickchildrenneedingtostayawayuntiltheyarenolongerinfectiousbutenforcingthoserulescanbeverydifficult.Incorrect:Daycareprovidersoftenundergoextremepressuretoaccepta

sickchild“justthisonce”theparenthasnoothercareoptionsandcannotmisswork.

Ifyoulocatearun-onsentenceandfindwherethetwoindependentclauses“collide,”youcandecidehowbesttoseparatetheclauses.Fixingrun-onsentencesisverysimilartofixingcommasplices.Youcanmaketwocompletesentencesbyinsertingaperiod.Thisisthestrongestlevelofseparation.Youcanuseasemicolonbetweenthetwoclausesiftheyareofequalimportance;thisallowsyourreadertoconsiderthepointstogether.Youcanuseasemicolonwithatransitionwordtoindicateaspecificrelationbetweenthetwoclauses;however,youshouldusethissparingly.Youcanuseacoordinatingconjunctionandacomma,andthisalsowillindicatearelationship.Or,youcanaddawordtooneclausetomakeitdependent.

Forexample:

Correct:Everyday,millionsofchildrengotodaycarewithmillionsofotherkids.Thereisnoguaranteethatnoneofthemareharboringinfectiousconditions.Correct:Manydaycareshavestrictrulesaboutsickchildrenneedingtostayawayuntiltheyarenolongerinfectious;however,enforcingthoserulescanbeverydifficult.Correct:Manydaycareshavestrictrulesaboutsickchildrenneedingtostayawayuntiltheyarenolongerinfectious,butenforcingthoserulescanbeverydifficult.Correct:Daycareprovidersoftenundergoextremepressuretoacceptasickchild“justthisonce”becausetheparenthasnoothercareoptionsandcannotmisswork.

Attributions

IntroductiontoCommas

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“Apposition.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apposition.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Restrictiveness.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrictiveness.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Comma.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comma.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“adjective.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/adjective.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“infinitive.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/infinitive.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“preposition.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/preposition.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“participle.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/participle.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“TheComma.”https://writingguide.wikispaces.com/The+Comma+(.writingguideWikispaceCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/Commas.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Commas.WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“EnglishinUse/Commas.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English_in_Use/Commas.WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“adverb.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/adverb.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/33437/33437-h/33437-h.htm.Publicdomain.

CommonCommaMistakes

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“Comma.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comma.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“preposition.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/preposition.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“participle.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/participle.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“TheComma.”https://writingguide.wikispaces.com/The+Comma.writingguideWikispaceCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/Commas.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Commas.WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“EnglishinUse/Commas.”

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English_in_Use/Commas.WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“comma.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/comma.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

5.2:ColonsandSemicolons5.2.1:Colons

Colonsareusedtointroducedetailedlistsorphrasesandtoshowrelationshipsbetweennumbers,facts,words,andlists.

LearningObjective

Identifysentencesthatrequirecolons

KeyPoints

Acoloncanintroducethelogicalconsequence,oreffect,ofapreviouslystatedfact.Acoloncanintroducetheelementsofasetorlist.Colonsseparatechapterandversenumbersincitationsofpassagesinwidelystudiedtexts,suchasepicpoetry,religioustexts,andtheplaysofWilliamShakespeare.Acoloncanalsoseparatethesubtitleofaworkfromitsprincipaltitle.Colonsmayalsoseparatethenumbersindicatinghours,minutes,andsecondsinabbreviatedmeasuresoftime.Sometimes,acoloncanintroducespeechordialogue.

KeyTerms

enumeration

Adetailedaccountinwhicheachthingisnoted.

appositive

Awordorphrasethatisplacedwithanotherasanexplanatoryequivalent.

UsingColonsinSentencesSomepunctuationmarks,suchasperiods,questionmarks,andexclamationpoints,indicatetheendofasentence.However,commas,semicolons,and

colonsallcanappearwithinasentencewithoutendingit.

Thecolonhasawiderangeofuses.Themostcommonuseistoinformthereaderthatwhateverfollowsthecolonproves,explains,defines,describes,orlistselementsofwhatprecededthecolon.Essentially,sentencesthataredividedbycolonsareoftheform,“Sentenceaboutsomething:listordefinitionrelatedtothatsentence.”

InmodernAmericanEnglishusage,acolonmustbeprecededbyacompletesentencewithalist,adescription,anexplanation,oradefinitionfollowingit.Theelementsthatfollowthecolonmayormaynotbecompletesentences.Becausethecolonisprecededbyasentence,itisacompletesentencewhetherwhatfollowsthecolonisanothersentenceornot.

InAmericanEnglish,manywriterscapitalizethewordfollowingacolonifitbeginsanindependentclause—thatis,aclausethatcanstandasacompletesentence.TheChicagoManualofStyle,however,requirescapitalizationonlywhenthecolonintroducesspeechoraquotation,adirectquestion,ortwoormorecompletesentences.

OtherUsesoftheColonInadditiontobeingusedinthemiddleofsentences,colonscanalsobeusedtovisuallyseparateinformation.

SeparatingChaptersandVerses

Acolonshouldbeusedtoseparatechapterandversenumbersincitationsofpassagesinwidelystudiedtexts,suchasepicpoetry,religioustexts,andtheplaysofWilliamShakespeare.

Example:John3:14–16referstoverses14through16ofchapterthreeoftheGospelofJohn.

SeparatingNumbersinTimeAbbreviations

Example:Theconcertbeginsat11:45PM.Example:Therocketlaunchedat09:15:05AM.

SeparatingTitlesandSubtitles

Anappositivecolonalsoseparatesthesubtitleofaworkfromitsprincipaltitle.

Example:StarWarsEpisodeIV:ANewHope

IntroducingSpeech

Similartoadashandaquotationmark,asegmentalcoloncanintroducespeech.

Example:BenjaminFranklinproclaimedthevirtueoffrugality:“Apennysavedisapennyearned.”

Thisformcanalsobeusedinwrittendialogues,suchasplays.Thecolonindicatesthatthewordsfollowinganindividual’snamearespokenbythatindividual.

Example:

Patient:Doctor,Ifeellikeapairofcurtains.

Doctor:Pullyourselftogether!

5.2.2:Semicolons

Semicolonsareusedtolinkrelatedclausesandtoseparateinformationinliststhatcontainadditionalpunctuation.

LearningObjective

Identifywhenandhowtousesemicolonsproperly

KeyPoints

Semicolonsconnecttwocloselyrelated,independentclauses(completesentences)andturnthemintoasinglesentence.Semicolonstaketheplaceofperiodsorcommasfollowedbycoordinatingconjunctions(FANBOYS:for,and,nor,but,or,yet,so).Semicolonsshouldbeusedbeforeconjunctiveadverbs(however,meanwhile,therefore,otherwise,inaddition,andothers)tolinktogethersentences.Followconjunctiveadverbswithacomma.Semicolonscanbeusedinliststhatincludelotsofcommas.

KeyTerms

coordinatingconjunction

Simplewordsthatconnecttwoindependentclausestogetherorconnectanindependentclausetoadependentclause(sentencefragment).TheyarerememberedbytheacronymFANBOYS.

dependentclause

Thisgroupofwordsalsocontainsasubjectand/orverb,butdonotcreateacomplete,stand-alonesentence.

conjunctiveadverbs

Thesewordsareprecededbyasemicolonandfollowedbyacomma.Thereisalonglist,butherearesomeexamples:however,meanwhile,inaddition,andtherefore.

independentclause

Agroupofwordsthatcontainsasubject(noun)andaverbandcanstandasacompletesentence.

Semicolonslinktogetherindependentclausesthatarecloselyrelated,makingthemflowintoasinglesentence.Often,usingaperiodtoseparaterelatedsentencesmakesthemseemchoppy.Asemicolonisanalternativetousingaperiodoracommapluscoordinatingconjunction.Semicolonsusedbeforeconjunctiveadverbsalsoreplaceperiods.Itisimportanttounderstandthatusingasemicoloninplaceofaperiodfusestwoindependentclausesintoone;therefore,makesureyoudon’tstartthesecondindependentclausewithacapitalletter.Thefinaluseofsemicolonsistoseparateitemsinalistorserieswithlotsofcommasorotherpunctuation.

LinkingIndependentClausesSemicolonscanbeusedtojoincloselyrelated,independentclauses.Therearethreewaystolinkindependentclauses:withaperiod,asemicolon,oracommapluscoordinatingconjunction(FANBOYS).

Withaperiod:Johnfinishedhishomework.Heforgottopassitin.Withasemicolon:Johnfinishedhishomework;heforgottopassitin.Withacommaplusacoordinatingconjunction:Johnfinishedhishomework,butheforgottopassitin.

Remember,useofasemicolonisonlyappropriateifthesentenceshaveastrongrelationshiptoeachother.

IndependentClausesLinkedwithConjunctiveAdverbs

Semicolonscanalsobeusedbetweenindependentclauseslinkedwithaconjunctiveadverb.Followtheconjunctiveadverbswithacomma.Thisusageisveryformal,andistypicallyfoundinacademictests.

Example:Everyoneknowshecommittedthecrime;accordingly,weexpectthejurytoagreeonaguiltyverdict.Example:Thestudentsfailedtofinishtheirin-classassignment;therefore,theyarerequiredtoremainafterschool.

ListingItemsinaSeriesSemicolonsareusedbetweenitemsinalistorserieswhenthoseitemsthemselvescontaininternalpunctuation.

Example:Severalfast-foodrestaurantscanbefoundwithinthefollowingcities:London,England;Paris,France;Dublin,Ireland;andMadrid,Spain.Example:Herearethreeexamplesoffamiliarsequences:one,two,three;a,b,c;first,second,third.Example:Dentalhygienistsperformclericaljobssuchasbookkeeping,answeringphones,andfiling;administrativejobssuchasfilingoutinsuranceclaimsandmaintainingpatientfiles;andclinicaljobssuchasmakingimpressionsoftheteethandgums,takingx-rays,andremovingsutures.

FormattingwithSemicolonsCapitalization

Semicolonsaretypicallyfollowedbyalowercaseletter,unlessthatletteristhefirstletterofapropernounlike“I”or“Paris.”Insomestyleguides,suchasAPA,however,thefirstwordofthejoinedindependentclauseshouldbe

capitalized.

Spacing

Modernstyleguidesrecommendnospacebeforesemicolonsandonespaceafter.Modernstyleguidesalsotypicallyrecommendplacingsemicolonsoutsideofendingquotationmarks.

Attributions

Colons

“Colon.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colon_(punctuation).WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“appositive.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/appositive.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“enumeration.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/enumeration.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

Semicolons

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“Semicolon.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semicolon.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“IndependentClauses.”https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/independent_clause.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“CoordinatingConjunctions.”https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/coordinating_conjunction.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

5.3:ApostrophesandQuotationMarks5.3.1:Apostrophes

Apostrophesareusedtomarkcontractions,possessives,andsomeplurals.

LearningObjective

Identifywordswhichrequireapostrophes

KeyPoints

Apostrophescanbeusedtoindicatepossessives(forexample,“mydad’srecipe.”)Apostrophescanbeusedtoformcontractions,wheretheyindicatetheomissionofcharacters(forexample,“don’t”insteadof“donot.”)Apostrophescanalsobeusedtoformpluralsforabbreviations,acronyms,andsymbolsincaseswhereformingapluralintheconventionalwaywouldmakethesentenceambiguous.

KeyTerm

apostrophe

Apunctuationmark,andsometimesadiacriticmark,inlanguagesthatusetheLatinalphabetorcertainotheralphabets.

UsingApostrophestoShowPossessionApostrophescanbeusedtoshowwhoownsorpossessessomething.

ForNounsNotEndingin-s

Thebasicruleisthattoindicatepossession,addanapostrophefollowedbyan“s”totheendoftheword.

Thecarbelongingtothedriver=thedriver’scar.ThesandwichbelongingtoLois=Lois’ssandwich.Hatsbelongingtochildren=children’shats.

ForNounsEndingin-s

However,ifthewordalreadyendswith“s,”justusetheapostrophewithnoadded“s.”Forexample:

ThehousebelongingtoMs.Peters=Ms.Peters’house.(EventhoughMs.Petersissingular.)

Thesameholdstrueforpluralnouns,iftheirpluralendsin“s.”Justuseanapostropheforthese!

Threecats’toysareonthefloor.Thetwoships’lightsshonethroughthedark.

ForMoreThanOneNoun

Insentenceswheretwoindividualsownonethingjointly,addthepossessiveapostrophetothelastnoun.If,however,twoindividualspossesstwoseparatethings,addtheapostrophetobothnouns.Forexample:

Joint:IwenttoseeAnthonyandAnders’newapartment.(TheapartmentbelongstobothAnthonyandAnders.)Individual:Anders’andAnthony’ssensesofstylewerequitedifferent.(AndersandAnthonyhaveindividualsensesofstyle.)

ForCompoundNouns

Incasesofcompoundnounscomposedofmorethanoneword,placetheapostropheafterthelastnoun.Forexample:

Dashes:Mybrother-in-law’shouseisdowntheblock.Multi-word:TheMinisterforJustice’sinterventionwasrequired.Pluralcompound:Allmybrothers-in-law’swivesaremysisters.

ForWordsEndinginPunctuation

Ifthewordorcompoundincludes,orevenendswith,apunctuationmark,anapostropheandan“s”arestilladdedintheusualway.Forexample:

WestwardHo!‘srailwaystationLouisC.K.‘sHBOspecial

ForWordsEndingin-‘s

Ifanoriginalapostrophe,orapostrophewiths,isalreadyincludedattheendofanoun,itisleftbyitselftoperformdoubleduty.Forexample:

OuremployeesarebetterpaidthanMcDonald’semployees.Standard&Poor’sindexesarewidelyused.

Thefixed,non-possessiveformsofMcDonald’sandStandard&Poor’salreadyincludepossessiveapostrophes.

Don’tUseApostrophesFor…

Nounsthatarenotpossessive.Forexample:

Incorrect:Someparent’saremorestrictthanmine.

Possessivepronounssuchasits,whose,his,hers,ours,yours,andtheirs.Thesearetheonlywordsthatareabletobepossessivewithoutapostrophes.Forexample:

Incorrect:Thatparakeetisher’s.

UsingApostrophestoFormContractionsInadditiontoservingasamarkerforpossession,apostrophesarealsocommonlyusedtoindicateomittedcharacters.Forexample:

can’t(fromcannot)it’s(fromithasoritis)

you’ve(fromyouhave)gov’t(fromgovernment)’70s,(from1970s)‘bout(fromabout)

Anapostropheisalsosometimesusedwhenthenormalformofaninflectionseemsawkwardorunnatural.Forexample:

K.O.‘dratherthanK.O.ed(whereK.O.isusedasaverbmeaning“toknockout”)

UsingApostrophestoFormPluralsApostrophesaresometimesusedtoformpluralsforabbreviations,acronyms,andsymbolswhereaddingjustsasopposedto‘smayleavethingsambiguousorinelegant.Forexample,whenyouarepluralizingasingleletter:

Allofyoursentencesendwitha’s.(Asopposedto“Allofyoursentencesendwithas.”)Shetopsallofheri’swithhearts.(Asopposedto“Shetopsallofheriswithhearts.”)

Insuchcaseswherethereislittleornochanceofmisreading,however,itisgenerallypreferabletoomittheapostrophe.Forexample:

Hescoredthree8sforhisfloorroutine.(Asopposedto“three8’s.”)SheholdstwoMAs,bothfromPrinceton.(Asopposedto“twoMA’s.”)

5.3.2:QuotationMarks

Quotationmarksaremostoftenusedtomarkdirectspeechorwordsfromanotherauthororspeaker.

LearningObjective

Identifysituationswhichrequirequotationmarks

KeyPoints

Quotationmarksindicatewordsthatarespokenbysomeonewhoisnot

theauthor.Quotationmarksarealsousedtotitleshortliteraryworkssuchaspoems,shortstories,essays,andnewspaperandmagazinearticles.Quotationmarkscanalsobeusedtoshowironyorhighlightspecificwords.Inresearchpapers,itisimportanttousequotationmarkstohighlighttheworkofanotherauthorwhendirectlyquotingthatauthor.

KeyTerm

quotationmark

Apunctuationmarkusedtodenotespeechorwhenwordsarecopiedfromanotherauthororspeaker;canbedoublequotations(“)orsinglequotations(‘).

Quotationmarksaremostcommonlyusedtomarkdirectspeechoridentifythewordsofanotherauthororspeaker.Quotationmarkscanalsobeusedtohighlightspecificwords,expressthetitleofashortliterarywork,ortoemphasizeirony.

SpeechSingleordoublequotationmarksdenoteeitherspeechoraquotation.DoublequotesarepreferredintheUnitedStates.Regardless,thestyleofopeningandclosingquotationmarksmustmatch.Forexample:

Singlequotationmarks:‘Goodmorning,Frank,’saidHal.Doublequotationmarks:“Goodmorning,Frank,”saidHal.

Forspeechwithinspeech,usedoublequotationmarksontheoutside,andsinglemarksontheinnerquotation.Forexample:

“Halsaid,‘Goodmorning,Dave,’”recalledFrank.

Whenquotedtextisinterrupted,aclosingquotationmarkisusedbeforetheinterruption,andanopeningquotationmarkisusedaftertheinterruption.Commasareoftenusedbeforeandafterthephraseaswell.Forexample:

“Halsaideverythingwasgoingwell,”notedFrank,“butalsothathecouldusealittlehelp.”

Quotationmarksarenotusedforparaphrasedspeechbecauseaparaphraseisnotadirectquote.Quotationmarksrepresentanotherperson’sexactwords.

QuotingLiteratureandResearchInmostcases,quotationsthatspanmultipleparagraphsshouldbesetasblockquotations,andthusdonotrequirequotationmarks.Whenquotationmarksareusedformultiple-paragraphquotations,theconventioninEnglishistogiveopeningquotationmarkstothefirstandeachsubsequentparagraph,usingclosingquotationmarksonlyforthefinalparagraphofthequotation.

Inresearchpapersandliteraryanalyseswritersoftenneedtoquoteasentenceoraphrase.Onewillneedtousequotationmarkswhenquotingauthorstoshowwhichwordsarefromtheotherwork.Hereisanexamplesentence:

WhenJ.K.RowlingbeganwritingtheHarryPotterseries,sheneverexpected“theboywholived”tobecomeknownworldwide.

Inthisexample,itisclearthatthephrase“theboywholived”isfromJ.K.Rowling’sbook.

TitlesAsarule,awholepublicationshouldbeitalicized.Forexample,HarryPotterandtheSorcerer’sStoneisitalicizedbecauseitisabook.Thetitlesofsectionswithinalargerpublicationorofsmallerworks(suchaspoems,shortstories,namedchapters,journalpapers,newspaperarticles,TVshowepisodes,editorialsectionsofwebsites,etc.)shouldbewrittenwithinquotationmarks.Thus,whenreferencingachapterfromthebookonewouldusequotationmarks:HarryPotterandtheSorcerer’sStonebeginswiththechapterentitled“TheChosenOne.”

Let’sexploresomeotherexamples.

Shakespeare’sRomeoandJulietDahl’s“Taste”inCompletelyUnexpectedTalesArthurC.Clarke’s“TheSentinel”Thefirstchapterof3001:TheFinalOdysseyis“CometCowboy”“Extra-TerrestrialRelays,”WirelessWorld,October1945DavidBowie’ssong“SpaceOddity”fromthealbumDavidBowie

NicknamesQuotationmarkscanalsooffsetanicknameembeddedinanactualname,orafalseorironictitleembeddedinanactualtitle.Forexample:

Nat“King”ColeMiles“Tails”ProwerDwayne“TheRock”Johnson

Use-MentionDistinctionsEitherquotationmarksoritalicscanindicatewhenawordreferstotheworditselfratherthanitsassociatedconcept(i.e.,whenthewordis“mentioned”ratherthan“used”).

Cheeseisderivedfrommilk.[Use]Cheesehascalcium,protein,andphosphorus.[Use]“Cheese”isderivedfromawordinOldEnglish.[Mention]Cheesehasthreee’s.[Mention]

IronyQuotesindicatingverbalironyoranotherspecialusearesometimescalledscarequotes.Forexample:

Hesharedhis“wisdom”withme.Thelunchladyploppedaglobof“food”ontomytray.

Quotationmarksarealsosometimesusedtoindicatethatthewriterrealizesthatawordisnotbeingusedinitscurrentcommonlyacceptedsense.Inthesecases,thequotationmarkscancallattentiontoslang,specialterminology,aneologism,ortheycanindicatewordsorphrasesthatareunusual,colloquial,folksy,startling,humorous,metaphoric,orthatcontainapun.Forexample:

Crystalssomehow“know”whichshapetogrowinto.Ihopeyourdivingmeetgoes“swimmingly”!

Usingquotationmarksinthesewaysshouldbeavoidedwhenpossible.

PunctuatingQuotationsInEnglish,questionmarksandexclamationmarksareplacedinsideoroutsidequotedmaterialdependingonwhethertheyapplytothewholesentenceorjustthequotedportion.Commonly,theyapplytothequotedportionandwillbeincludedinsidethequotationmarks.Insomesituations,however,theexclamationmarkorquestionmarkwillapplytothesentenceasawholeandwillcomeafterthequotationmark.Incontrast,colonsandsemicolonsarealwaysplacedoutsideofthequotationmarks.Let’sexplorethispunctuationrulefurtherwithsomeexamples.

Didhesay,“Goodmorning,Dave”?(Thequestionmarkdoesnotrefertothephrasewithinthequotationmarkssothequestionmarkisplacedoutsideofthequotationmarks.)No,hesaid,“Whereareyou,Dave?”(Here,thequestionmarkispartofthequestionposedwithinthequotationmarks.)Therearethreemajordefinitionsoftheword“gender”:vernacular,sociological,andlinguistic.(Colonsandsemicolonsalwayscomeafterthequotationmark.)

InAmericanEnglish,commasandperiodsareusuallyplacedinsidequotationmarks,exceptinthefewcaseswheretheymaycauseseriousambiguity.Forexample:

“Carefree,”ingeneral,means“freefromcareoranxiety.”Thenameofthesongwas“Gloria,”whichmanyalreadyknew.Shesaidshefelt“freefromcareandanxiety.”“Today,”saidthePrimeMinister,“Ifeelfreefromcareandanxiety.”TousealongdashonWikipedia,typein“—”.(Here,theperiodcomesafterthequotationmarkbecausequotationmarksareusedtohighlightspecificallywhatshouldbetyped.)

ThestyleusedintheUKcontainsonlypunctuationusedbytheoriginalsource,placingcommas,periods,questionmarks,andexclamationmarksinsideoroutsidequotationmarksdependingonwheretheywereplacedinthematerialthatisbeingquoted.

“Carefree”means“freefromcareoranxiety.”(Americanstyle)“Carefree”means“freefromcareoranxiety”.(Britishstyle)

Attributions

Apostrophes

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“EnglishinUse/Punctuation.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English_in_Use/Punctuation%23ApostropheWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“apostrophe.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/apostrophe.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“elision.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/elision.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Apostrophe.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostrophe.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/Apostrophes.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/ApostrophesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

QuotationMarks

“Quotationmark.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quotation%20mark.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Quotationmarks.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quotation_marks.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“EnglishinUse/Punctuation.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English_in_Use/Punctuation%23Quotation_pointsWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/QuotationMarks.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Quotation_MarksWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

5.4:HyphensandDashes5.4.1:Hyphens

Hyphensareoftenusedtoconnecttwowordsintoasingleterm.

LearningObjective

Identifysituationswhichrequireahyphen

KeyPoints

Hyphensconnecttwowordstomakeasingleword.Hyphensarealsousedtoattachaprefixtoaword.Insomesituations,hyphensconnectadverbsandadjectivestodescribeanoun.Thiscanbeavoidedbyrewordingthesentence.Theplacementofahyphencangreatlychangethemeaningofawordandthustheentiresentence.

KeyTerms

hyphen

Thesymbol“-“,typicallyusedtojointwoormorewordstoformanewword.

homograph

Awordthatisspelledthesameasanotherbuthasadifferentmeaningandusuallysoundsdifferent.

Hyphens(“-“)connecttwowordstomakeasingleword.Thoughtheylooksimilartodashes(“–”and“—”),theyserveadifferentpurpose.Thedashisaformofpunctuationthatcomesinbetweenwordswhereashyphenscombinewords.LikemostcomponentsofEnglishpunctuation,hyphenshavegeneralrulesregardinghowtheyshouldbeused.Hyphensareoftenusedtoconnectadverbsandadjectiveswhendescribinganoun.Let’sexploretheseconceptsingreaterdetail.

LinkingPrefixesHyphenscanbeusedtolinkprefixessuchasnon-,sub-,andsuper-totheirmainwords.Whileitispossible(especiallyinAmericanEnglish)toattachtheseprefixeswithouthyphens,itisgenerallyhelpfultohyphenatewhenthelettersbroughtintocontactarethesame.It’salsohelpfulwhenthelettersarevowels,whenawordisuncommon,orwhenthewordcouldeasilybemisread.Forexample:

Non-negotiableSub-basementPre-industrial

UnitsIngeneral,valuesandunitsarehyphenatedwhentheunitisgivenasawholeword:

30-year-oldmanOnehalf-dose

HomographsHomographsarewordsthatarespelledthesame,butmeandifferentthingsandmaybepronounceddifferently.Topreventconfusion,hyphenscanbeusedtodistinguishbetweenhomographs.Forexample:

Re-dress(todressagain)Redress(toremedyorsetright)

CombiningAdverbsandAdjectivesHyphenscanbeusedtocombineanadverbandadjectivetodescribeanoun.Inthissituation,theadverbisdescribingtheadjective,andtheadjectiveisdescribingthenoun.However,whentheadverbendswith-ly,ahyphenshouldnotbeused.

Disease-causingnutritionBeautiful-lookingflowersAwell-meaninggesture

Itisnotalwaysnecessarytouseahyphenatedword.Sentencescanberearrangedtoavoidtheneedforahyphen.Iftheadverbandadjectivecomeafterthenounbeingdescribed,ahyphenisnotneeded.Forexample:

Alight-bluehandbagsatonthebench.Thehandbagwaslightblue.

Rememberthatusinghyphenstocombineadverbsandadjectivesinthiswaycreatesanewword.Theplacementofhyphenscangreatlychangethemeaningofaword,thuschangingtheentiresentence.Let’slookatsomeexamplesofhowremovingahyphenchangesthemeaning.

Disease-causingpoornutrition.(Poornutritionthatcausesdisease.)Diseasecausingpoornutrition.(Adiseasethatcausespoornutrition.)Little-celebratedpaintings(Paintingsthatareunderappreciated.)Littlecelebratedpaintings(Small,appreciatedpaintings.)Government-monitoringprogram(Aprogramthatmonitorsthegovernment.)Governmentmonitoringprogram(Aprogramthegovernmentmonitors.)

Usinghyphenscorrectlyisimportanttoclarifyingthesephrases.

5.4.2:EmDashesandEnDashes

Dashesareoftenusedtomarkinterruptionswithinsentencesandshowrelationshipsbetweenwords.

LearningObjective

Useemdashesandendashescorrectlyinyourwriting

KeyPoints

Dashesarecommonlyusedtoindicateanunexpectedoremphaticpause,buttheyserveotherspecificfunctionsaswell.Dashesareoftenusedtomarkinterruptionswithinsentences,illustrate

relationshipsbetweenwords,anddemarcatevalueranges.Therearetwokindsofdashes:emdashes(—)andshorterendashes(–).Dashesshouldnotbeconfusedwithhyphens(-).

DashesTherearetwokindsofdashes:emdashes(—)andshorterendashes(–).

TheEmDashEmdashesareoftenusedtomarkinterruptionswithinsentences.Theycanbeusedwithorwithoutspacing.

Forexample:

Threeunlikelycompanions—acanary,aneagle,andaparrot—flewbymywindowinanoddflock.(ChicagoStyle)

Threeunlikelycompanions—acanary,aneagleandaparrot—flewbymywindowinanoddflock.(APStyle)

Emdashesarealsousedtoindicatethatasentenceisunfinishedbecausethespeakerhasbeeninterrupted.Similarly,theycanbeusedinplaceofanellipsistoillustrateaninstancewhereasentenceisstoppedshortbecausethespeakeristooemotionaltocontinue.

Forexample:

“Hey,”saidPaul,“wheredoyouthink—”“Ineverunderstoodwhyyou—”Cesartrailedoff.

Emdashesaresometimesusedtosummarizeordefinepriorinformationinasentence.

Forexample:

Whenhesawhisbrother—hislong-lostbrotherwhodisappearedsixyearsprior—hebrokedownintears.(ChicagoStyle)TodayisSt.Patrick’sDay—adayforfamily.(APStyle)

TheEnDash

Endashesareusedtodemonstratedefiniterangesofvalues.Inthesecases,thereshouldnotbeanyspacesaroundtheendash.

Forexample:

June–July19671:00–2:00p.m.Forages3–5pp.38–55PresidentJimmyCarter(1977–1981)

Theendashcanalsobeusedtocontrastvalues,orillustratearelationshipbetweentwothings.Therearenospacesaroundtheendashesintheseinstances.

Forexample:

Radical–UnionistcoalitionNewYork–LondonflightMother–daughterrelationshipTheSupremeCourtvoted5–4toupholdthedecisionTheMcCain–Feingoldbill

Anexceptiontotheuseofendashesismade,however,whencombinedwithanalreadyhyphenatedcompound.Inthesecases,usinganendashisdistracting.Useahypheninstead.

Forexample:

Non-English-speakingairtrafficcontrollersSemi-labor-intensiveindustries

Whenhesawhisbrother—hislong-lostbrotherwhodisappearedsixyearsprior—hebrokedownintears.

Thetitlecontainsanexampleofemdashusage,which,inthiscase,showsabreakinthesentence.

Attributions

Hyphens

“Wikipedia:ManualofStyle.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style%23HyphensWikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Hyphen.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyphen.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“homograph.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/homograph.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“hyphen.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hyphen.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“compound.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/compound.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

EmDashesandEnDashes

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“Parantheses.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parantheses.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Parentheses.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parentheses%23Parentheses_.28_.29.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Dash.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dash.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/HyphensandDashes.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Hyphens_and_DashesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“dash.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dash.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“EnglishinUse/Punctuation.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English_in_Use/Punctuation%23Dash.WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/Parentheses.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/ParenthesesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/19642/19642-h/19642-h.htm.Publicdomain.

5.5:OtherPunctuation5.5.1:Parentheses

Parenthesescanbeusedtointerjectremarksorotherinformationintoasentence.

LearningObjective

Listtheusesofparentheses

KeyPoints

Parenthesescanbeusedtosetoffsupplementary,interjected,explanatoryorillustrativeremarks.Thewordsplacedinsidetheparenthesesarenotnecessarytounderstandingorcompletingthesentence.Squarebracketsaremainlyusedtoencloseexplanatoryormissingmaterial,whichisusuallyaddedbysomeoneotherthantheoriginalauthor.Parenthesesaresometimesusedtoenclosenumberswithinasentence.

KeyTerm

parentheses

Punctuationmarksusedinmatchedpairstosetapartorinterjectadditionaltextintoasentence.

Example

ParenthesesParenthesescanbeusedtosetoffsupplementary,interjected,explanatory,orillustrativeremarks.Theyaretallpunctuationmarks“()”usedinmatched

pairswithintext,tosetapartorinterjectothertext.

Thewordsplacedinsidetheparenthesesarenotnecessarytounderstandingorcompletingthesentence.Thewordswithintheparenthesescouldberemovedandacompletesentencewouldstillexists.

Parenthesesmayalsobenested(usuallywithoneset(suchasthis)insideanotherset).Thisisnotcommoninformalwriting(thoughsometimesotherbrackets[especiallysquarebrackets]willbeusedforoneormoreinnersetofparentheses[inotherwords,secondary{oreventertiary}phrasescanbefoundwithinthemainparentheticalsentence]).

Therearemanywaystouseparentheses.

InterruptedSentence

Jimmy(whoweallknowissmart)saidweshouldkeepsearching.Besuretocallme(extension2104)whenyougetthismessage.Copyrightaffectshowmuchregulationisenforced(Lessig2004).Sen.JohnMcCain(R.,Arizona)ranforpresidentin2008.

Anypunctuationinsideparenthesesorotherbracketsisindependentoftherestofthetext.Whenseveralsentencesofsupplementalmaterialareusedinparentheses,theendingpunctuationisplacedwithintheparentheses.Forexample:

Mrs.Pennyfarthing(What?Yes,thatwashername!)wasmylandlady.

Enumeration

Parenthesesaresometimesusedtoenclosenumberswithinasentence.Thepurposeofusingnumberswithinparenthesesistohighlightmultiplepointsinonesentence.

Allapplicantsmustsubmit(1)acoverletter,(2)aresume,(3)alistofreferences,(4)anessay,and(5)lettersofrecommendation.

Thenumberswithinparentheseshighlighttheitemsapplicantsneedtoinclude.Theyareintendedtoaddclaritytothesentence.

SquareBrackets

Squarebracketsaremainlyusedtoencloseexplanatoryormissingmaterial,whichisusuallyaddedbysomeoneotherthantheoriginalauthor.Thisisespeciallyprevalentinquotedtext.Forexample:

“Iappreciateit[i.e.,thehonor],butImustrefuse.“

“Thefutureofpsionics[i.e.,mentalpowersthataffectphysicalmatter]isindoubt.”

ModifyingQuotations

Squarebracketsmayalsobeusedtomodifyquotations.Forexample,ifreferringtosomeone’sstatement“Ihatetodolaundry,”onecouldwrite:He“hate[s]todolaundry.”

Thebracketedexpression“[sic]”isusedafteraquoteorreprintedtexttoindicatethepassageappearsexactlyasintheoriginalsource;abracketedellipsis“[…]”isoftenusedtoindicatedeletedmaterial;bracketedcommentsindicatewhenoriginaltexthasbeenmodifiedforclarity.Forexample:

“I’dliketothank[severalunimportantpeople]andmyparentals[sic]fortheirlove,tolerance[…]andassistance[emphasisadded].”

5.5.2:EndingPunctuation

Endingpunctuationidentifiestheendofasentence,andmostcommonlyincludesperiods,questionmarks,andexclamationmarks.

LearningObjective

Identifythecorrectpunctuationtoendagivensentence

KeyPoints

Endingpunctuationcomprisessymbolsthatindicatetheendofasentence,suchasperiods,questionmarks,andexclamationpoints.Periodsareusedattheendofdeclarativeorimperativesentences.Questionmarkscomeattheendofsentencesthatmakearequestoraskadirectquestion.Declarativesentencessometimescontaindirectquestions.Asentenceendinginanexclamationmarkmaybeanexclamation,animperative,ormayindicateastonishment.

KeyTerms

exclamationmark

Apunctuationmarkusuallyusedafteraninterjectionorexclamationtoindicatestrongfeelingsorhighvolume(shouting).

questionmark

Punctuationattheendofasentencethatasksadirectquestion.

period

Thepunctuationmarkthatindicatestheendofasentence.

Endingpunctuationcomprisessymbolsthatindicatetheendofasentence.Mostcommonly,theseareperiods,questionmarks,andexclamationpoints.Endingpunctuationcanalsobereferredtoasendmarks,stops,orterminalpunctuation.

Therearethreemaintypesofendingpunctuation:theperiod,thequestionmark,andtheexclamationmark.Aperiod(.)isthepunctuationmarkthatindicatestheendofasentence.Thequestionmark(?)replacesaperiodattheendofasentencethatasksadirectquestion.Theexclamationmark(!)isapunctuationmarkusuallyusedafteraninterjectionorexclamationtoindicatestrongfeelingsorhighvolume(shouting),andoftenmarkstheendofasentence.

PeriodPeriodsareusedattheendofdeclarativeorimperativesentences.Recallthatdeclarativesentencesmakestatementsandimperativesentencesgivecommands.Periodscanalsobeusedattheendofanindirectquestion.Indirectquestionsaredesignedtoaskforinformationwithoutactuallyaskingaquestion.Let’sreviewsomeexamples.

Mydogisagoldenretriever.(declarativesentence)Gogetyourdogandbringhiminsidethehouse.(imperativesentence)Janet’smomanddadwanttoknowwhatsheisdoing.(indirectquestion)“Getsomepapertowels,”sheordered.(declarativesentencecontaininganimperativestatement)

Periodsarealsousedinabbreviations.Forexample,“doctor”isabbreviated“Dr.”and“junior”isabbreviated“Jr.”Rememberthatifanabbreviationthat

usesaperiodcomesattheendofasentenceyoudonotaddaperiod—theperiodwiththeabbreviationservesastheendingpunctuationaswell.

QuestionMarkQuestionmarkscomeattheendofsentencesthatmakearequestoraskadirectquestion.Declarativesentencessometimescontaindirectquestions.

WhatisJanetdoing?(directquestion)Hermotherasked,“Whatareyoudoing,Janet?”(declarativesentencewithadirectquestion)

ExclamationMarkAsentenceendinginanexclamationmarkmaybeanexclamation,animperative,ormayindicateastonishment.Likequestionmarks,exclamationmarkscanbeincludedwithindeclarativesentences.Let’sreviewsomeexamples.

Wow!(exclamation)Boo!(exclamation)Stop!(imperative)Theywerethefootprintsofagiganticduck!(astonishment)Heyelled,“Stayoffthegrass!”(declarativesentencethatincludesanexclamation)

Exclamationmarksareoccasionallyplacedmid-sentencewithafunctionsimilartoacomma,fordramaticeffect,althoughthisusageisobsolescent:“Onthewalk,oh!therewasafrightfulnoise.”

Informally,exclamationmarksmayberepeatedforadditionalemphasis(“That’sgreat!!!”),butthispracticeisgenerallyconsideredunacceptableinformalprose.Theexclamationmarkissometimesusedinconjunctionwiththequestionmark.Thiscanbeinprotestorastonishment(“Outofallplaces,thesquatter-camp?!”);again,thisisinformal.Overlyfrequentuseoftheexclamationmarkisgenerallyconsideredpoorstyle,foritdistractsthereaderanddevaluesthemark’ssignificance.

Cutoutallthoseexclamationpoints.

ThefamousauthorF.ScottFitzgeraldwasnotafanofexclamationpoints;inhiswords:“Cutoutallthoseexclamationpoints.Anexclamationpointislikelaughingatyourownjokes.”

Attributions

Parentheses

“psionics.”https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/psionics.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

EndingPunctuation

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“Punctuation.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punctuation.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Terminalpunctuation.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_punctuation.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Questionmark.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Question_mark.

WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“FullStop.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_stop.WikpediaCCBY-SA4.0.

“Exclamationmark.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exclamation_mark.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“interrogative.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/interrogative.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“Period(punctuation).”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Period_(punctuation).WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Period(punctuation).”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Period_(punctuation).WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“FScottFitzgerald.”http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:F_Scott_Fitzgerald.jpg.WikimediaPublicdomain.

ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/12415/12415-h/12415-h.htm.Publicdomain.

5.6:GeneralMechanics5.6.1:CommonSpellingErrors

Itisimportanttobefamiliarwithcommonspellingerrorstoavoidtheminyourownwriting.

LearningObjective

Recognizecommonspellingerrors

KeyPoints

Itisimportanttobefamiliarwithspellingerrorsthatwritersfrequentlymakesoyoucanavoidtheminyourownwriting.Knowingwhythesemistakesoccurwillhelpyouwritewithbetterawareness.Word-processingprogramsusuallyhaveaspell-checker,butyoushouldstillcarefullycheckforcorrectchangesinyourwords.Thisisbecauseautomaticspell-checkersmaynotalwaysunderstandthecontextofaword.

KeyTerms

phonetics

Thestudyofthephysicalsoundsofhumanspeech(phones)andtheprocessesoftheirphysiologicalproduction,auditoryreception,andneurophysiologicalperception,aswellastheirrepresentationbywrittensymbols.

typo

Aspellingerror.

homophone

Awordwhichispronouncedthesameasanotherwordbutdiffersinspellingormeaningororigin,forexample:carat,caret,carrot,andkarat.

TheImportanceofSpellingMisspellingawordmightseemlikeaminormistake,butitcanreflectverypoorlyonawriter.Itsuggestsoneoftwothings:eitherthewriterdoesnotcareenoughabouthisworktoproofreadit,orhedoesnotknowhistopicwellenoughtoproperlyspellwordsrelatedtoit.Eitherway,spellingerrorswillmakeareaderlesslikelytotrustawriter’sauthority.

Thebestwaytoensurethatapaperhasnospellingerrorsistolookforthemduringtheproofreadingstageofthewritingprocess.Beingfamiliarwiththemostcommonerrorswillhelpyoufind(andfix)themduringthewritingandproofreadingstage.

Sometimes,awriterjustdoesn’tknowhowtospellthewordshewantstouse.Thismaybebecausethewordistechnicaljargonorcomesfromalanguageotherthanherown.Othertimes,itmaybeapropernamethatshehasnotencounteredbefore.Anytimeyouwanttouseawordbutareunsureofhowtospellit,donotguess.Instead,checkadictionaryorotherreferenceworktofinditsproperspelling.

CommonSpellingErrorsPhoneticErrors

Phoneticsisafieldthatstudiesthesoundsofalanguage.However,Englishphoneticscanbetricky:InEnglish,thepronunciationofaworddoesnotalwaysrelatetothewayitisspelled.Thiscanmakespellingachallenge.Herearesomecommonphoneticirregularities:

Awordcansoundlikeitcouldbespelledmultipleways.Forexample:“concede”and“conceed”arethesamephonetically,butonly“concede”istheproperspelling.Awordhassilentlettersthatthewritermayforgettoinclude.Youcannothearthe“a”in“realize,”butyouneedittospellthewordcorrectly.Awordhasdoublelettersthatthewritermayforgettoinclude.“Accommodate,”forexample,isfrequentlymisspelledas“acommodate”or“accomodate.”Thewritermayusedoubleletterswhentheyarenotneeded.Theword“amend”hasonlyone“m,”butitiscommonlymisspelledwithtwo.

Sometimes,wordsjustaren’tspelledthewaytheysound.“Right,”forexample,doesnotresembleitsphoneticspellingwhatsoever.Trytobecomefamiliarwithwordsthathaveunusualornon-phoneticspellingssoyoucanbeonthelookoutfortheminyourwriting.Butagain,thebestwaytoavoidthesemisspellingsistoconsultadictionarywheneveryou’reunsureofthecorrectspelling.

Homophones

“Bread”and“bred”soundthesame,buttheyarespelleddifferently,andtheymeancompletelydifferentthings.Twowordswithdifferentmeaningsbutthesamepronunciationarehomophones.Ifyoudon’tknowwhichhomophoneistherightonetouse,lookbothupinthedictionarytoseewhichmeaning(andspelling)youwant.Commonhomophonesinclude:

right,rite,wright,andwriteread(mosttensesoftheverb)andreedread(past,pastparticiple)andredrose(flower)androse(pasttenseofrise)carat,caret,andcarrotto,two,andtoothere,their,andthey’reitsandit’s

TypographicalErrors

Somespellingerrorsarecausedbythewriteraccidentallytypingthewrongthing.Commontyposinclude:

Omittinglettersfromaword(typing“brthday”insteadof“birthday,”forexample)Addingextraletters(typing“birthdayy”)Transposingtwolettersinaword(typing“brithday”)Spacingwordsimproperly(suchas“mybirthday”insteadof“mybirthday”)

Beingawareofthesecommonmistakeswhenwritingwillhelpyouavoidspellingerrors.

5.6.2:CapitalLetters

Capitallettersareusedtomakecertainwordsstandout.

LearningObjective

Identifywordsthatmustbecapitalized

KeyPoints

Threesituationsinwhichacapitallettershouldalwaysbeusedareatthestartofsentences,propernouns,andforthepronoun“I.”Namesandnicknames,languages,geographicalnames,religions,daysoftheweek,months,holidays,andsomeorganizationsareconsideredpropernouns.Intitledworks(suchasbooks,articles,orartwork)themajorityofthewordsarecapitalized.

KeyTerms

capitalization

Writingawordwithitsfirstletterasacapitalletter(upper-caseletter)andtheremaininglettersinlowercase.

propernoun

Aworddenotingaparticularperson,place,organization,ship,animal,event,idea,orotherindividualentity.

Capitallettersidentifypropernames,peopleandtheirlanguages,geographicalnames,andcertaingovernmentagencies.Differentstylemanualshavedifferentrulesforcapitalization,soit’simportanttohaveastyleguideonhandwhileyouwriteincaseyouhaveaquestionaboutcapitalization.TherearemanualsforMLA,APA,Chicago/Turabian,andotherstyles.

However,therearegeneralrulesforcapitalizationwhichapplytoallwriting.

StartingaSentenceAlwayscapitalizetheveryfirstwordofasentence,nomatterwhatitis.

Experiencedcooksusuallyenjoyexperimentingwithfood.

ThePronoun“I”Alwayscapitalizethefirst-personsingularpronoun“I.”

Sometimes,IwishIcouldcookwiththem.

QuotingOthersDirectlyquotedspeechiscapitalizedifitisafullsentence.

Theheadchefsaidtome,“Anyonecanbecomeagoodcookiftheyarewillingtolearn.”

ProperNounsNamesornicknames,people,languages,geographicalnames,religions,daysoftheweek,months,holidays,andsomeorganizationsareconsideredpropernouns.Propernounsshouldalwaysbecapitalized.

NamesandNicknames

Anameornicknameshouldalwaysbecapitalized.Thisincludesbrandnames.

JohnPaulIICindyParkerBuffaloBillPepsiNikeScotchtape

PeopleandLanguages

Namesreferringtoaperson’scultureshouldbecapitalized.Languagesarealsocapitalized.

AfricanAmericans

CaucasianEskimosFrenchEnglishJapanese

GeographicalNames

Thenamesofcities,states,countries,continents,andotherspecificgeographiclocationsarecapitalized.

ArcticCircleChinaNewYorkEurope

Organizations

Governmentagencies,institutions,andcompaniescapitalizetheirnames.

FordMotorCompanyInternationalRedCrossInternalRevenueServiceUniversityofSouthCarolina

Days,Months,andHolidays

Daysoftheweek,months,andholidaysarealwayscapitalized.However,seasons(fall,spring,summer,andwinter)arenotcapitalized.

TuesdayOctoberIndependenceDay

Religions

Religionsandtheiradherents,holybooks,holydays,andwordsreferencingreligiousfiguresarecapitalized.

ChristianityandChristian

HinduismandHinduIslamandMuslimJudaismandJewBible,Koran,Talmud,BookofMormonEaster,Ramadan,YomKippurGod,Allah,Buddha

TitledWorkIntitledworks(suchasbooks,articles,orartwork)themajorityofthewordsarecapitalized.Afewexceptionsarea,an,the,and,but,or,nor,for,so,andyet.Thesewordsareonlycapitalizediftheycomeatthebeginningofthetitle.Thiscanvarybasedonstyle,sobesuretocheckyourmanualforspecifics.

TheScarletLetterFromHeretoEternityHarryPotterandtheChamberofSecretsGirlwithaPearlEarring

5.6.3:AbbreviationsandAcronyms

Anabbreviationistheshortenedformofawordorphrase.

LearningObjective

Useabbreviationsappropriatelyinanacademiccontext

KeyPoints

Therearerulesthatexplainhowawritermayshortenalongwordorphraseintoanabbreviationoracronym.Followingabbreviationandacronymrulesensuresthatthereaderalwaysunderstandswhattheseabbreviationsmean.Phraseslike“lol”or“brb”areconsideredinappropriateforformalpapers.

KeyTerms

acronym

Abbreviationsformedfromtheinitialcomponentsinaphraseoraword.Thesecomponentsmaybeindividualletters(asinCEO)orpartsofwords(asinBeneluxandAmeslan).

abbreviation

Ashortenedformofawordorphrase,usedtorepresentthewhole.

AbbreviationsAnabbreviationistheshortenedformofawordorphrase.Mostabbreviationsareformedfromaletterorgroupofletterstakenfromtheoriginalword.Inanacademicpaper,abbreviationsarerarelyusedtostandinformajorconceptsorterms.Instead,theyareusuallyshortenedformsofcommonlyusedbutrelativelyminorwords,suchas“km”for“kilometer”or“Dr.”for“doctor.”Mostarecommonenoughthatawriterdoesnotneedtoprovidethereaderwithanexpandeddefinition.Ifanabbreviationisnotparticularlywell-known,considerwhetheryoushoulduseitorusethelonger(buteasiertounderstand)word.

StyleConventionsforAbbreviationsStyleguidesmaydiffersomewhatonhowtopunctuateabbreviations.Listedbelowarethemostcommonguidelines,whichcovermostofthescenariosforusingabbreviations.However,thisisnotacompletelycomprehensivelist.Iftoldtouseaspecificstylemanual,suchasMLAorTurabian,besuretocheckwhatitsaysaboutspecificusagerules.Andwhateverstyleyoudecidetouse,remembertobeconsistentwithhowyouuseandpunctuateabbreviations.

Abbreviationsshouldbecapitalizedjustliketheirexpandedformswouldbe.Iftheoriginalwordorphraseiscapitalized,thenyoushouldcapitalizetheabbreviation.Iftheoriginalislowercase,thentheabbreviationshouldbetoo.Abbreviationsusuallyendwithaperiod,particularlyiftheywereformedbydroppingtheendofaword(themajorexceptionbeingtheuseofacronyms).Whenasentenceendswithanabbreviation,useonlyoneperiodforboththeabbreviationandthesentence.

ShelivesinN.Y.(NewYorkisabbreviatedas“N.Y.”Inthisexample,itcomesattheendofthesentencebutthereisonlyoneperiod.)Hegotaticketforgoing70mphwhenthespeedlimitwas55.(Milesperhourisabbreviated“mph.”Notethatitisnotcapitalized.)

TheCIAisdepictedinmanyactionmoviesashighlysecretive.(CIAisalwayscapitalizedbecauseCentralIntelligenceAgencyisalwayscapitalized.)

AcronymsAcronymsareabbreviationsthatformanotherword.Laserissofrequentlyusedasawordthatfewpeopleknowitisanacronym.Laserstandsfor“lightamplificationbystimulatedemissionofradiation.”Scubaisalsoanacronymstandingfor“self-containedunderwaterbreathingapparatus.”Althoughthiswasthefoundationforacronyms,theydonotalwaysformanotherword.Moreoftenthannot,acronymsareformedfromtheinitialcomponentsofaseriesofwords.Thesecomponentsareusuallyindividualletters,butsomemayusethefirstsyllablesofwords.Themainpurposeofacronymsistoactasshorthandforlongerterms,particularlythoseawriterwantstoreferencefrequently.Intherightcircumstances,acronymscanmakethesetermsmoremanageableforthewritertouseandforthereadertounderstand.

UsingAcronymsinAcademicWritingWhileacronymscanbeveryuseful,onlysomeofthemareconsideredappropriateforuseinscholarlywriting.Ingeneral,acronymscanbeusedtostandinforjobtitles(suchasCEO),statisticalcategories(suchasRBI)orthenamesofcompaniesandorganizations(suchasFBI).Otherinstancesmayarisedependingonthetypeofpaperyouarewriting—ascientificessay,forexample,mighthaveacronymsforthenamesofchemicalcompoundsorscientificterms.Inmostcases,youwillbeabletojudgewhetherornotanacronymisappropriatebasedonthecontextofwhatyouarewriting.Theonlycategoryofacronymthatyoushouldneveruseisslang,especiallytermsderivedfromtexting.Phraseslike“lol”and“brb”maybefineincasualconversation,butwouldmakeawriterseemunprofessionalinaseriouspaper.Forallacronymsyouchoosetouse,makingsurethatthereaderknowswhattheymeanisessential.Thefirsttimeyouuseanyacronym,makesuretouseitsexpandedformfirst.Forexample:

JohnathanrecentlyjoinedtheAmericanAssociationofRetiredPersons(AARP).

MothersAgainstDrunkDriving(MADD)isknownforfightingfortheNationalMinimumDrinkingAgeAct.TheFamilyResearchCouncil(FRC)wasfoundedin1981.

Oncetheabbreviationhasbeenidentified,asshownintheseexamples,youcanusetheabbreviatedversionintherestofyourdocument.

StyleConventionsforAcronymsMostacronymsarewritteninall-uppercasewithnopunctuationbetweenletters.Thisdiffersfromabbreviations,whicharenormallywrittenwithperiodsinordertonotethedeletedpartsofwords.Asmallnumberofacronymsuseslashestoshowanellipsis,asin“w/o”for“without.”Spacesarenotusedbetweenthedifferentlettersofacronyms.Apostrophesaregenerallynotusedtopluralizeabbreviations.Theyare,however,usedtoformpossessives.

5.6.4:Numbers

Sometimesitisappropriatetowritenumbersasnumerals;othertimestheyshouldbespelledout.

LearningObjective

Listtherulesforusingnumbersindifferentkindsofwriting

KeyPoints

Inacademicwriting,numbersthatcanbeexpressedinoneortwowordsshouldbespelledout.Numbersthataremorethantwowordslongshouldbewrittenasnumerals.Theproperusageofnumbersintechnicalwritingvariesconsiderably.

KeyTerm

numeral

Asymbolthatisnotawordandrepresentsanumber,suchastheArabicnumerals1,2,3andtheRomannumeralsI,V,X,L.

Stylerulesforinsertingnumbersintotextvaryconsiderably.Whethernumbersshouldbewrittenout(e.g.two,twohundred)orwrittenasnumerals(e.g.2,200)dependsonwhatkindofwritingisbeingdone.

NumbersasWordsInstrictlyacademicwriting,numbersofoneortwowordsshouldbespelledoutwithletters.Forexample:

Anthonywasabletobikefivemilesinlessthananhour.

Noticethat5iswrittenoutas“five”becauseitisoneword.

Mariaboughtfivebananas,twobunchesofgrapes,andsixorangesforherfruitsalad.Sheneededtwenty-oneservingsfortheluncheon.

Noticethateachnumberiswrittenout,including21,becauseallofthemareoneortwowords.

NumbersasNumeralsNumbersthataremorethantwowordslongshouldbewrittenasnumerals.Forexample:“OurvacationtoNorthCarolinaendedupbeing728miles,asaroundtrip.”Or,inthecaseofyears:“Tonywasborninthefallof1966.”

Also,thefollowingnumbersarewrittenasnumerals:

Dates:December7,1941,32BC,AD1066Addresses:119LakewoodLane,1600PennsylvaniaAvenuePercentages:45percentor45%Fractionsanddecimals:1/3and0.25Scores:20to13or15–18Statistics:averageage25Surveys:2outof5Exactamountsofmoney:$861.34or$0.67Divisionsofbooks:volume6orchapter5Divisionsofplays:act2,scene4Timeofday:12:00AMor4:35PM

TechnicalWritingIntechnicalwriting(i.e.,researchwritingorotherwritingthatincludesmeasurementsorstatistics),theproperusageofnumbersvariessubstantially.Typicalrulestofollowintechnicalwritinginclude:

Technicalquantitiesofanyamountareexpressedinnumerals(3feet,12grams,etcetera).Nontechnicalquantitiesoffewerthan10areexpressedinwords(threepeople,sixwhales).Nontechnicalquantitiesof10ormoreareexpressedinnumerals(300people,12whales).Approximationsarewrittenoutasletters(approximatelytenthousandpeople).Decimalsareexpressedinnumerals(3.14).Decimalsoflessthanoneareusuallyprecededbyzero(0.146);however,thismayvarydependingonthestyleyouareaskedtowritein.Fractionsarewrittenout,unlesstheyarelinkedtotechnicalunits(two-thirdsofthemembers,31/2hp).Pagenumbersandthetitlesoffiguresandtablesareexpressedinnumerals.Back-to-backnumbersarewrittenusingbothwordsandnumerals(six3-inchscrews).

SpecialCasesTherearemanyspecialcasesforwritingnumbers.Anumberatthebeginningofasentenceshouldbespelledoutaswords.Withinasentence,thesameunitofmeasurementshouldbeexpressedconsistentlyineithernumeralsorwords.Ingeneral,monthsshouldnotbeexpressedintermsofnumbers.

Numbersinthenews

Whennumbersareusedintext,manybasicformattingrulesapply.

5.6.5:Italics

Writersuseitalicstoemphasisecertainwordssuchastitles,scientificwords,andforeignwords.

LearningObjective

Identifysituationsinwhichitalicsshouldbeused

KeyPoints

Italicsareatypefacefeaturedesignedtomakewordsstandout.Therearegeneralrulestousingitalicsproperly.Titlesoftextbooks,fictionornonfictionbooks,newspapers,magazines,academicjournals,films,epicpoems,plays,operas,musicalalbums,televisionshows,movies,worksofart,andthenamesoflegalcasesshouldallbeitalicized.Italicscanalsobeusedtoemphasizecertainwords.Italicsshouldalwaysbeusedwithscientificterms,algebraicequations,andforeign-languagewords.

KeyTerm

italics

Atypefacestylethatisusedtoaddemphasistowords.

Italicsarelettersthatslantslightlytotheright.Whenusingawordprocessor(likeMicrosoftWord)italicizedwordsgenerallylooklikethis:

Thissentenceisinitalics.

Italicsshouldbeusedconsistentlyinyourwriting.Ingeneral,italicsareusedtoidentifythetitleofamajorpublication(suchasabook,newspaper,ormagazine),foremphasis,forscientificortechnicalwords,andforforeignwords.

TitlesThetitlesofmajorliteraryworksshouldbeitalicized.Thisincludestextbooks,fictionornonfictionbooks,newspapers,magazines,academicjournals,films,epicpoems,plays,operas,musicalalbums,televisionshows,movies,worksofart,andthenamesoflegalcases.

MyfavoritebookisJuly’sPeoplebyNadineGordimer.IreadTheNewYorkTimestokeepupwiththepoliticaldebates.IhaveeveryTaylorSwiftalbumexceptTodayWasaFairytale.The1976versionofthemovieCarriewasmuchscarierthanthenewerversion.Homer’sTheIliadandTheOdysseyaremytwofavoriteepicpoems.TheScreambyEdvardMunchisawell-knownpainting.

Keepinmindthatsmallerpublishedworks,suchasanindividualarticlefromanewspaper/magazine/journal,orasinglepoem,shouldbesetinquotationmarks.Forexample:

ThemagazineSouthernLivingpublishedaninterestingarticleontravelingintheU.S.called“TheSouth’sBestRoadsideAttractions”intheNovember,2015edition.

EmphasisWhenyouneedtoemphasizeawordyoucanuseitalicstomakeitstandout.Sometimes,emphasizingcertainwordsgivesthesentenceasarcastictone.Itcanalsoemphasizeafactastrue.Let’sreviewsomeexamples.

Sheonlywantstomake100%oneverytest.Iftheyareoffended,thenthat’stheirproblem.Thesearethefilesweneed.

ScientificorTechnicalTermsItalicsareoftenusedinscientificandmathematicalwriting.Algebraicequationsareusuallyitalicized.Thescientific(Latin)namesofspeciesarealsoitalicized.Herearesomeexamples.

Slopeisfoundbycalculatingy=mx+b.SeveralmoreHomosapiensfossilswerediscoveredrecently.ThescientificnameforthehousesparrowisPasserdomesticus.

ForeignLanguagesWordsinforeignlanguagesshouldalsobeitalicized.Hereareacoupleofexamples.

Inaninterview,JuliaAlvarezoncesaid,“WhatIcan’tpushassuccessfullyoutofsightaremyownimmigrantchildhoodfearsofhavingagringastepmotherwithforeigntastesinourhouse.”Iwasatthecoffeeshopwhenamanapproachedmeandsaid,“Comoesta?”likeheknewme,butIdon’tspeakSpanish.

TheonlyexceptionsarewordsthathavebeenintegratedintoEnglishlikecliché,patio,andkarate.Otherwise,foreignwordsshouldbeitalicized.

Buboscandiacus

ThespeciesnameisitalicizedbecausespeciesnamesareinLatin.

Attributions

CommonSpellingErrors

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“Homophone.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophone.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Commonlymisspelledwords.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonly_misspelled_words.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“typo.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/typo.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“phonetics.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/phonetics.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“homophone.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/homophone.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

CapitalLetters

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“propernoun.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/proper_noun.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

AbbreviationsandAcronyms

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“Abbreviation.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbreviation.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“acronym.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/acronym.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Acronymandinitialism.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acronym_and_initialism.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“abbreviation.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/abbreviation.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

Numbers

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“numeral.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/numeral.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“Numbers.”http://grammartips.wikispaces.com/Numbers.grammartipsWikispaceCCBY-SA3.0.

ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/14979/14979-h/14979-h.htm.Publicdomain.

“CrunchingNumbers|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/psd/74176687/.FlickrCCBY.

Italics

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“TheOnionSpirit:Typography:Italics-WhenYouShouldUse

Them.”http://onionspirit.blogspot.com/2009/06/typography-italics-when-you-should-use.html.BlogspotCCBY-SA.

“Italictype.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italic_type%23When_to_use.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“emphasis.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/emphasis.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“italics.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/italics.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/30666/30666-h/30666-h.htm%23Page_210.Publicdomain.

6:WritingEffectiveSentences

6.1:TheImportanceofWording6.1.1:TheImportanceofWording

Establishingthepropertone,choosingappropriatewords,andusingvariedsentencestructureimprovesacademicwriting.

LearningObjective

Distinguishbetweenanobjectiveandasubjectivetoneinwriting.

KeyPoints

Toneisimportantinallwriting.Itconveystheauthor’sattitudetowardsthetopic.Diction(wordchoice)andsyntax(writingstyle)influencetone.Inacademicwriting,thetoneshouldbeformalandobjective.Thepurposeofacademicwritingistoengageinaneutralratherthanasubjective(orpersonal)dialogwiththereader.Theaudienceforapieceofwritingshouldalwaysbeconsideredwhenestablishingtone.Inacademicwriting,theaudienceisassumedtobeageneralunknownreaderwhodoesnotnecessarilyhaveanin-depthknowledgeofthetopic.Therefore,allinformationmustbeclearlyexplainedsothatageneralreadercanfollowit.

KeyTerms

denotation

Theliteralordictionarymeaningofawordorphrase.

connotation

Thewidearrayofpositiveandnegativeassociationsawordorphraseevokeinthereader.

diction

Awriter’sdistinctivechoiceofwords.

syntax

Thewayinwhichwordsandphrasesareputtogether.

tone

Thewriter’sattitudetowardsthesubjectandtheaudience,especiallyasinfluencedbydictionandsyntax.

Examples

Objectivetone:“Abasicknowledgeofwoodanatomyandstructureisvitaltoanyoneseriouslyworkingwithwood.Afamiliaritywiththecellularstructureofthetreeleadstoabetterunderstandingofwoodpropertiesandbehavior.Whatcausescolor,taste,andodor,andhowdoesitaffectwood’sintendeduse?Whatisthedifferencebetweendensityandspecificgravity,andhowdoesthisrelatetotheweightandhardnessofwood?Anin-depthunderstandingleadstoamoreintelligentuseofthisversatilematerial.”—fromWiththeGrain,byChristianBecksvoort,2015.[Doesthispassagereflectafactual,informativetone,communicatingquestionsandanswersaboutwood?]Subjectivetone:“Ialwaystellpeopleifyouwanttoworkwithwood,you’vegottoknowwhatitis.Youneedtounderstandatree’scellsbeforeyoucanknowmoreaboutwhatwoodisandhowitacts.Believeitornot,Ididn’tknowwherethoseweirdcolors,tastes,andsmellscamefromuntilIlearnedhowallthosethingsaffectedhowweusewood.Ididn’tthinkdensityandspecificgravitywereimportantuntilIgothowtheyrelatedtowood’sweightandhardness.Themoreyouknow,thesmarteryou’llbeabletousethisneatstuffcalledwood.”[Doesthispassagerefermostlytotheauthorandreflectaconversationaltone,includinghisorheropinions?]

SyntaxWritingwithvarietycanmakeyourwritingdistinctiveandinteresting.Thiscanbeachievedbyusingvariedsyntax,orsentencestructure.Writingconsistentlyshortsentencescanmakeyourwritingsoundchoppy.Usinglonger,morecomplexsentencescanmakeyourwritingdifficulttoreadandmaybogthereaderdown.Additionally,sentencestructurewithinasentencecanimpactyourreader’sresponse.Whileyoudon’twanttousetoomuchvarietyinyoursentences,knowingdifferentwaystostructuresentencesisimportant.Forexample,hereareafewdifferentwaystobeginyoursentences:

Prepositionalphrase:Outofnecessity,thenonprofitanimalsocietyhelditsfirstfundraisingeventthisyear.Sentenceconnective:Manyorganizationsstrugglewithattendanceforanewfundraisingevent.Butthenonprofitanimalsocietyhadtremendoussuccesswiththeirfirstpetshow.Appositive:Anotedbotanist,JaneDoewasnamedaDistinguishedFellowoftheBotanicalSocietyofAmericain2013.Adverbialclause:Suddenly,JaneDoefoundherselfamongthemostfamousbotanistsofhergeneration.

Academicwritingshoulddemonstrateanunderstandingofhowtowriteeffectively.Whendonecorrectly,usingshortandlongsentencesthatstartdifferentlyaddsprofessionalismtoyourwriting.

DictionSyntaxfocusesprimarilyonsentencestructure,whiledictionconcernsthewordscontainedinsentences.Inacademicwriting,choosingtheproperwordsimpactsyourargumentaswellasyourcredibility.Knowingthedifferencebetweenthedenotation,orliteralmeaningofwords,andconnotation,orthewiderangeofthoughtsandimpressionsmadebywordsorphrases,willimproveacademicwriting.Youmaybeunawareoftheconnotationofsomewordsinadditiontotheirliteralmeaning.Strengthenyourdictionbyensuringyouknowthefullrangeofmeaningofthewordsyouuse.Avoidoverlyinformaldictionaswell,asthesewordsareoftenlessspecificorsimplynotappropriateforacademicwriting.

Example:

Thedenotationofhomeisalocationwhereapersonorgroupresides.

Theconnotationofhomevariesfrompersontoperson.Mostpeopleviewhomewithcomfort,security,fondmemoriesoraffection.

Thinkofthedifferenceinthewords“domicile”vs.“home.”Bothwordsmean“placeofresidence”inthedictionarybuttheycommunicateverydifferentfeelings.Domicilemightbethebestchoiceoftermforapaperinlaworrealestateclasses.Homemightbeabetterchoiceforasociologyorchildhoodeducationpaper.

Tone

Writingwithvarietycanaidindevelopingtheappropriatetoneandholdyourreader’sattention.Toneshowsthewriter’sattitudetowardsthesubjectandtheaudience.Thewriter’stonecaninfluencethereader’sresponsetothewriting.Inacademicwriting,it’simportanttomaintainanappropriatetonethroughout.Writerscandothisbypayingattentiontosyntaxanddiction.

Attributions

TheImportanceofWording

“TheDenotationandConnotationofaWord.”http://www.lavc.edu/0-Kentico-Training/document-library/docs/Denotation-and-Connotation-of-a-Word-(2).aspx.AcademicResourceCenterLosAngelesValleyCollegeCCBY-SA.

“Style,Diction,ToneandVoice.”http://www.wheaton.edu/Academics/Services/Writing-Center/Writing-Resources/Style-Diction-Tone-and-Voice.WheatonCollegeWritingResourcesCCBY-SA.

6.2:WordChoice6.2.1:Precision

Youcanincreasetheclarityofyourwritingbyusingconcrete,specificwordsratherthanabstract,generalones.

LearningObjective

Classifywordsasspecificorgeneral

KeyPoints

Whenpossible,replacevaguegeneralizationswithmorespecificandconcisewording.Thisclarifiesforyourreaderthetopicofyourpaperandtheconceptualplaneofyourensuingargument.Youcanincreasetheclarityofyourwritingbyusingspecificwordsratherthangeneralones.Yourobjectivewhenchoosingwordsisnottoavoidgeneralwordsaltogether,butrathertoavoidusingthemwhenyourreaderswillwantmorespecificones.

KeyTerms

generalwords

All-inclusivewordsfromabroaderscope.

specificwords

Precisewordsfromanarrowerscope.

Throughprecisewordselection,youcanincreasetheclarityofyourargumentbyenablingyourreaderstograspyourintendedmeaningquicklyandaccurately.Atthesametime,itisimportanttokeepinmindthatyourwordchoicesaffectareader’sattitudestowardyourpresentationandyoursubjectmatter.Therefore,youalsoneedtochoosewordsthatwillconveyyourideasclearlytoyourreaders.Thiskindofprecisewritingwillhelpyouraudienceunderstandyourargument.

Generalvs.SpecificWordsAlmostanythingcanbedescribedeitheringeneralwordsorinspecificones.Generalwordsandspecificwordsarenotopposites.Generalwordscoverabroaderspectrumwithasinglewordthanspecificwords.Specificwordsnarrowthescopeofyourwritingbyprovidingmoredetails.Forexample,“car”isageneraltermthatcouldbemademorespecificbywriting“HondaAccord.”Specificwordsareasubsetofgeneralwords.Youcanincreasetheclarityofyourwritingbychoosingspecificwordsovergeneralwords.Specificwordshelpyourreadersunderstandpreciselywhatyoumeaninyourwriting.Here’sanexampleofgeneralandspecificwordsinasentence:

General:Shesaid,“Idon’twantyoutogo.”Specific:Shemurmured,“Idon’twantyoutogo.”

Thewords“said”and“murmured”aresimilar.Theybothareaformofverbalcommunication.However,“murmured”givesthesentenceadifferentfeelingfrom“said.”Thus,asawriter,choosingspecificwordsovergeneralwordscanadddescriptiontoandchangethemoodofyourwriting.

Inacademicwriting,itisimportanttofindabalancebetweengeneralandspecificwords.Alwaysusingspecifictermscanoverwhelmthereaderanddetractfromyourargument.Also,dependingonwhatyouarewriting,generaltermsmaybemoreappropriatethanspecificwords.Inscientific,technical,andotherspecializedfields,writersoftenneedtomakegeneralpoints,describegeneralcircumstances,orprovidegeneralguidanceforaction.Forexample,ifyouarewritingapaperonbestpracticesinbusiness,youmaywriteoneofthefollowingsentences:

Inthenormalcourseofprocedure,itisadvisedtoavoidmodificationsinhiringproceduresaftertheyhavebeenestablished.Normally,itisbesttoavoidchanginghiringprocessesaftertheyhavebeenestablished.

Bothofthesesentencesmakethesamestatement,buttheymaynotbothbeappropriateforyourpaper.Writingwithprecisionhelpsholdyouraudience’sattention.Makingstatementstoowordyinanargumentcanbedullforyourreaders.Thinkofyouraudiencewhilewriting.Sometimesitisbesttokeepyourwritingsimpleandprecise.Themorepreciseyourwritingis,theeasieritwillbeforyourreadertounderstandyourargument.Yourobjectivewhenchoosingwordsistoblendgeneralandspecificwordstogetherwithinyourwritingwhenappropriate,ensuringyoukeepyourreader’sattentionwhile

conveyingyourmessage.

6.2.2:UsingtheDictionaryandThesaurusEffectively

Becausewordscandifferdependingontheircontext,itisagoodideatocheckthedefinitionandspellingofanytrickywordsinadictionary.

LearningObjective

Selectappropriatetoolstohelpwithwordchoice

KeyPoints

Spell-checkfeaturesinwordprocessorsarehelpfultools,buttheywillnotcatchallmistakes.Athesauruscanaddvarietytodryprosebyhelpingyouidentifywordswithsimilarmeanings.Alwaysuseadictionarytoconfirmthemeaningofanywordaboutwhichyouareunsure.Dictionisimportantbecauseitreferstothewriter’sorspeaker’sdistinctivevocabularychoicesandstyle,anditimpactswordchoiceandsyntax.

KeyTerms

thesaurus

Apublication,usuallyintheformofabook,thatprovidessynonyms(andsometimesantonyms)forthewordsofagivenlanguage.

dictionary

Areferenceworkwithalistofwordsfromoneormorelanguages,normallyorderedalphabeticallyandexplainingeachword’smeaningandsometimescontaininginformationonitsetymology,usage,translations,andotherdata.

UsingtheDictionaryandThesaurusEffectively

Alwaysuseadictionarytoconfirmthemeaningofanywordaboutwhichyouareunsure.Althoughthebuilt-indictionarythatcomeswithyourwordprocessorisagreattime-saver,itfallsfarshortofcollege-editiondictionaries,ortheOxfordEnglishDictionary(OED).Ifthespell-checktoolsuggestsbizarrecorrectionsforoneofyourwords,itcouldbethatyouknowaworditdoesnot.Whenindoubt,alwayscheckadictionarytobesure.

VocabularyChoiceandStyleIfitfeelslikeyoukeeprepeatingawordthroughoutyourwriting,pulloutathesaurusforideasondifferent,morecreativechoices.Athesauruscanaddsomecoloranddepthtoapiecethatmayotherwiseseemrepetitiveandmundane.However,makesurethatthewordyousubstitutehasthemeaningyouintendtoconvey.Thesaurusesprovidewordswithsimilarmeanings,notidenticalmeanings.Ifyouareunsureabouttheprecisemeaningofareplacementword,lookupthenewwordinadictionary.

WordAccuracyRegardlessofthewordsyouuse,youmustusethemaccurately.Usageerrorscandistractreadersfromyourargument.Howcanyouensurethatwordsareusedaccurately?Unfortunately,thereisnoeasyway,buttherearesomesolutions.Youcanrevisitatextthatusesthewordandobservehowthewordisusedinthatinstance.Additionally,youcanconsultadictionarywheneveryouareuncertain.Beespeciallycarefulwhenusingwordsthatarenotyetpartofyourusualvocabulary.

ConnotationConnotationistheextendedorsuggestedmeaningofawordbeyonditsliteralmeaning.Forexample,“flatfoot”and“policedetective”areoftenthoughttobesynonyms,buttheyconnoteverydifferentthings:“flatfoot”suggestsaplodding,perhapsnotverybrightcop,while“policedetective”suggestsanintelligentprofessional.

Verbs,too,haveconnotations.Forinstance,to“suggest”thatsomeonehasoverlookedakeyfactisnotthesameasto“insinuate”it.To“devote”yourtimetoworkingonaclient’sprojectisnotthesameasto“spend”yourtime

onit.Theconnotationsofyourwordscanshapeyouraudience’sperceptionofyourargument.Forexample:

Oursalesteamisconstantlytryingtolocatenewmarketsforourvariousproductlines.Oursalesteamisconstantlydrivingtolocatenewmarketsforourvariousproductlines.

Register“Register”referstoaword’sassociationwithcertainsituationsorcontexts.Inarestaurantad,forexample,wemightexpecttoseetheclaimthatitoffers“amazinglydeliciousfood.”However,wewouldnotexpecttoseearesearchcompanyboastinaproposalforagovernmentcontractthatitiscapableofconducting“amazinglygoodstudies.”Here,theword“amazingly”isintheregisterofconsumeradvertising,butnotintheregisterofresearchproposals.

Beingawareoftheconnotationandregisterofthewordsyouchooseinyourwritingwillhelpincreaseyourwriting’sclarity.

Attributions

Precision

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“ProfessionalandTechnicalWriting/Rhetoric/Author/Style.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Professional_and_Technical_Writing/Rhetoric/Author/Style%23Selecting_WordsWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

UsingtheDictionaryandThesaurusEffectively

“abstract.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/abstract.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Diction.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diction.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“connotation.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/connotation.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“thesaurus.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/thesaurus.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“dictionary.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dictionary.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“BasicWriting/Proofreading.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Basic_Writing/Proofreading%23Common_Errors_and_Correction_StrategiesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

6.3:Tone6.3.1:AppropriateLanguage

Thegoalofacademicwritingistopresentandarticulateanargumenttoyourreaders.

LearningObjective

Distinguishbetweensimpleandcomplexlanguage

KeyPoints

Avoidwritingthatispretentiousandjargonheavy.Inyourwriting,striveforclaritybyusingappropriateandconciselanguage.Thiswillmakeyouroverallargumentmuchclearerforyourreader.Longerwordsandsentencesmayconfuseyourreaders,orcanmakethewritingsoundarrogant.

KeyTerms

cliché

Anexpression,idea,orelementofanartisticworkwhich,althoughconsideredmeaningfulatsomeearliertime,hasnowbecomeoverusedtothepointoflosingitsoriginalmeaningoreffect,eventothepointofbeingtriteorirritating.

colloquial

Denotingamannerofspeakingorwritingthatischaracteristicoffamiliarconversation;informal.

firstperson

Aformofnarrativewritingusingwordsinawaythatgivestheimpressionthattheactionishappeningtothenarrator.

jargon

Technicalterminologyuniquetoaparticularsubject.

argument

Anattempttopersuadesomeoneofsomethingbygivingreasonsorevidenceforacceptingaparticularconclusion.

Basedonthekindoflanguagethatreadersencounterinagivenpieceofwriting,areaderwilldrawconclusionsaboutthewriterthatcanenhanceordistractfromthepersuasivenessoftheargument.Thewriter’stone,whichisconveyedthroughwordchoiceandsentencestructure,impactsthereader’sresponse.Thewriter’stoneshouldbecontingentonthetypeofwriting.Academicwritingshouldbemoreformalthanpersonalwriting.Thisformalityisoftenconveyedthroughtone.Formalwritingrequireschoosingwordsthataremeaningfultothemembersofyouraudience.Theabilitytocraftandcontrollanguageisessentialtowritingeffectively.Effectivelanguagematchesthereader’ssenseofwhatisappropriateforagiventopic.Giventhatreadersofacademicpapersexpectamoreformallevelofinteractionwithatopicthandoreadersofpopularwriting,theyexpectacertainleveloftechnicalprose.Nonetheless,oneshouldavoidunnecessarilycomplicatedlanguage,jargon,andclichés.Itisimportanttorememberthatcomplicatedideascanbeexpressedclearly.Additionally,theuseoffirstpersoninacademicwritingcanbeappropriateincertainsituations.

TheUseofSimpleLanguageThegoalofacademicwritingistopresentandarticulateanargument.Whileutilizingalargevocabularycanbehelpfulintermsofexplainingcomplicatedideasindifferentways,onedoesnotwanttocomplicatethelanguageofatext.Whilecontractionsandcolloquialwordsandphrasesoftenmakewritingsoundinformal,theuseofshorterwordsdoesnotnecessarilyindicateaninformalstyle.Infact,manywritersprefersimplerlanguageasitcanhelptoclearlyconveydifficultideasorconcepts.Longerwordsandsentencesmayconfuseyourreaders,orcanmakethewritingsoundarrogant.Hereisanexample:

Overlycomplicated:Theprocessofnarrativizationmakespresent,withinarealmoftheimaginary,asocialandhistoricalawarenessthatisunavailablewithinsimple,materialfacticity.

Theprocessofnarrativizationmakespresent,withinarealmoftheimaginary,asocialandhistoricalawarenessthatisunavailablewithinsimple,materialfacticity

Thetitledemonstratesanexampleofasentencethatispretentiousandjargonheavy.Avoidingpretentiouswritinganddefininganytechnicaljargonwillendowyourwritingwithaclaritythatreaderswillappreciate.

Simplified:Narrativesdemonstratesomethingabouttheworldfromwhichtheyemerge,despitebeingclassifiedasfiction.

It’sagoodruleofthumb,eveninacademicwork,toerronthesideofsimplicityratherthanlinguisticornamentation.Inotherwords,avoidusingneedlesslyinflatedwordsthatbloatyourproseanddistractyourreadersfromyourcentralargument.Thegoalisformalwriting,notextravagantandflowerywriting.

JargonJargonislanguagethatisusedinaparticularcontextandmaynotbewellunderstoodoutsideofthatcontext(e.g.languagespecifictoaparticularprofession).Insomesituations,specializedtermscanhelpyoucommunicateeffectively.Theyconveyprecise,technicalmeaningseconomicallyinsofarasmanyspecializedtermshavenoexactequivalentineverydayspeech.Theycanalsohelpyouestablishcredibilityinyourfieldbyshowingthatyouarefamiliarwithestablishedconventions.

Still,whiletherearesituationswheretheuseofjargonisappropriate,inacademicwriting,it’sbesttoconsidertheaudiencefirst.

DefiningTermsforNewAudiencesFormalwritingmayrequireusingspecializedtermseventhoughsomepeopleinyouraudiencemaynotunderstandthem.Forinstance,youmaybewritingtoagroupofreadersthatincludespeopleinyourfieldandothersoutsideofit,oryoumaybeexplaininganentirelynewsubjecttoyourreaders.Insuchcases,thereareseveralwaystodefinethetermsforreaderswhoarenotfamiliarwiththem:

1.Giveasynonym:

Onaboat,aropeorcordiscalledaline.

2.Giveadescription:

Theexitgateconsistsoftowarmsthatholdajugwhileitisbeingpaintedandthenallowittoproceeddowntheproductionline.

3.Makeananalogy:

Anatomislikeaminiaturesolarsysteminwhichthenucleusisthesunandtheelectronsaretheplanetsthatrevolvearoundit.

4.Giveaclassicaldefinition,whereinyoudefinethetermbynamingsomefamiliargroupofthingstowhichitbelongsandthenidentifyingthekeydistinctionbetweentheobjectbeingdefinedandtheothermembersofthegroup.

Aburrowisaholeinthegrounddugbyananimalforshelterorhabitation.

ClichésAclichéisanexpression,idea,orelementofanartisticworkwhichhasbecomeoverusedtothepointoflosingitsoriginalmeaning,oreffect,andeventothepointofbeingtriteorirritating,especiallywhenatsomeearliertimeitwasconsideredmeaningfulornovel.Whileclichéshaveacertainusefulnessinsofarastheycanquicklycommunicatefamiliarideas,theyarerarelyappropriateinformalwriting.Thereasonwewanttoavoidusingclichésinacademicwritingisthattheytendtobeambiguousandcancomeoffasoverlycolloquialandinformal.

UsingtheFirstPersoninAcademicWritingTeachersorprofessorsmayhavetoldyoutotakeoutanyfirst-personreferencestoyourselfinformalwriting,particularlywithinpersuasivepaperswhereyouaretryingtoconvinceareadertotakeaspecificpositiononagiventopic.Whilethisisnotanabsoluterule,itisimportanttounderstandwhyyouhavebeentoldtoavoidusingsubjectivelanguage,suchas“I,”“me,”or“my.”

Theprimaryreasonthatsubjectivelanguageshouldbeavoidedistoimprovehowareaderperceivestheargumentyouarepresenting.Someformsofnonfictionwriting,suchasessayisticwriting,areenhancedbytheuseofsubjectivelanguage,whichintroducestheauthorasapresencewithinthetext.Frequently,thisuseofsubjectivelanguagecanimbuethewritingwithaqualitythatmanyfeelshouldbeabsentfromargumentativepapers.Theuseoffirst-personpronounsdemonstrateshowtheauthor’sbiographicalparticularsenhanceorexposesomethingsignificantaboutthetopicthattheyarewritingabout.However,formalpapers,suchasthosewrittenforcollegeorgraduatecourses,tendtocontainanargumentativestructureinwhichobjectivelanguageisusedtomakeclaimswithevidenceleadingtoaparticularconclusion.

Usingobjectivelanguagehelpsshiftyourpresenceasawriterintothebackgroundinordertoforegroundtheparticularsoftheargumentthatyouare

presenting.Thiscanassistreadersinsmoothlyfollowingthetrajectoryofyourargumenttowardaparticularconclusion,asopposedtobeingconstantlyinterruptedinordertoberemindedthattheseareyourthoughtsoropinions.Omittingfirst-personpronounsfromyourwritingaidsindevelopingaformaltonewithinyourargument.

Attributions

AppropriateLanguage

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“cliche.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/cliche.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“colloquial.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/colloquial.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“jargon.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/jargon.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“ProfessionalandTechnicalWriting/Rhetoric/Author/Style.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Professional_and_Technical_Writing/Rhetoric/Author/StyleWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/29607/29607-h/29607-h.htm.Publicdomain.

6.4:Diction6.4.1:Gender-NeutralLanguage

Genderneutralityinlanguageminimizesassumptionsaboutthegenderorsexofpeoplereferredtoinwritingorspeech.

LearningObjective

Giveexamplesofgender-neutrallanguage

KeyPoints

GenderneutralityinEnglishaimstominimizeassumptionsaboutthegenderorbiologicalsexofpeoplereferredtoinspeech.Proponentsofgender-neutrallanguagearguethattheuseofgender-specificlanguageoftenimpliesmalesuperiorityorreflectsanunequalstateofsociety.Proponentsofgender-neutrallanguageclaimthatlinguisticclarity,aswellasequality,wouldbebetterservedbyhaving“man”referunambiguouslytomales,and“human”toallpersons.Proposedalternativestothegeneric“he”include“heorshe,”“s/he,”ortheuseof“they”inthesingular.Insomecases,whenwritingorspeakingaboutapersonwhosegenderisunknown,ambiguous,orunimportant,gender-neutrallanguagemaybeachievedbyusinggender-inclusive,gender-neutral,orepicenewordsinplaceofgender-specificones.Gender-neutrallanguagemayalsobeachievedbyparallelusageofexistinggender-specificterms.

KeyTerms

gender-neutrallanguage

Usedtoeliminate(orneutralize)referencestogenderwhendescribingpeople.

epicene

Referstothelossofgenderdistinction,oftenspecificallythelossof

masculinity.

singularthey

Apronounthatisgenderneutralandreferstoasinglepersonwhenpairedappropriatelywithagender-neutralantecedent.

Gender-neutrallanguageisneithermasculinenorfeminineandavoidsusinggenderspecificpronounssuchas“he”or“she.”Thepurposeofgenderneutralityinwritingistominimizeassumptionsaboutthegenderorsexofpeople.

TheImportanceofGender-NeutralLanguageProponentsofgender-neutrallanguagearguethatgender-specificlanguage(suchaspolicemanorwaitress)oftenimpliesmalesuperiorityorreflectsanunequalstateofsociety.AccordingtoTheHandbookofEnglishLinguistics,genericmasculinepronouns(suchashe)andgender-specificlanguageserveasexamplesofhow,historically,societyhastreatedmenasthestandardforallhumans.Wordsreferringtowomenoftendevolveinmeaning,andfrequentlytakeonsexualovertones.Inessence,theuseofmasculinepronounswhenreferringtosubjectsofmixedorindeterminategenderisfrowneduponinacademicwriting.Thefollowingsentenceisagoodillustrationofavoidingsexistlanguagebyusingthegenderneutral“humanity”and“human”ratherthanthegender-specific“mankind”:“Sincethen,humanityhasenteredanewphaseofspiritualdevelopment,anevolutionofhighfaculties,theveryexistenceofwhichinhumannatureourancestorsscarcelysuspected.”Usinggender-neutralpronounsavoidspresumptionsofmalesuperiority.

GuidelinesforGender-NeutralLanguageInmostcasesofwritingorspeakingaboutapersonwhosegenderisunknown,ambiguous,orirrelevant,gender-neutrallanguagemaybeachievedthroughtheuseofgender-inclusive,gender-neutral,orepicenewords(havingcharacteristicsofbothsexes)inplaceofgender-specificones.Ifnogender-

inclusivetermsexist,newonesmaybecoined.Itisalsoimportanttoconsiderparallelusageofexistinggender-specificterms.

Whenpossibleandcontextuallyappropriate,usenounsandpronounsthataregender-neutralratherthangender-specific.

Insteadof:waitress;businessman;workman;mailmanUse:server;businessperson;worker;mailcarrierInsteadof:mankind;man-made;manhours;man-sizedjobUse:humankind;synthetic;workinghours;largejob

Whenreferringtopeopleingeneral,usepluralpronouns“s/he”or“heorshe”insteadofgender-linkedpronouns.

Insteadof:Shelooksforpremiumproductsandappreciatesastylishdesign.Use:Theylookforpremiumproductsandappreciateastylishdesign.Insteadof:Beforeanewbusiness-ownerfilestaxreturns,heshouldseekadvicefromacertifiedpublicaccountant.Use:Beforeanewbusiness-ownerfilestaxreturns,sheorheshouldseekadvicefromacertifiedpublicaccountant.

Whenasingularpronounisneeded,usethe“singularthey”withasingularantecedent.Intheseexamples,theantecedentsare“thepatient”and“someone.”

Insteadof:Thepatientshouldbeinformedofhowmuchhewillneedtopaypriortotheprocedure.Use:Thepatientshouldbeinformedofhowmuchtheywillneedtopaypriortotheprocedure.Insteadof:Someonelefthislunchinthebreak-roommicrowave.Use:Someonelefttheirlunchinthebreak-roommicrowave.

Whenindoubt,usegender-neutralsalutations.

Insteadof:DearSir;DearGentlemenUse:DearPersonnelDepartment;DearSwitzerPlasticsCorporation;DearDirectorofResearch

Additionally,manyeditinghouses,corporations,andgovernmentbodieshaveofficialpoliciesfavoringin-houseuseofgender-neutrallanguage.Insomecases,lawsexisttoenforcetheuseofgender-neutrallanguageincertainsituations,suchasjobadvertisements.Differentauthoritieshavepresented

guidelinesonwhenandhowtousegender-neutral,or“non-sexist”language.Severalarelistedbelow:

ThePublicationManualoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationhasanoft-citedsectionon“GuidelinestoReduceBiasinLanguage.”AmericanPhilosophicalAssociation—publishedin1986TheGuardian—seesectioncalled“genderissues”“AvoidingHeterosexualBiasinLanguage,”publishedbytheCommitteeonLesbianandGayConcerns,AmericanPsychologicalAssociation.

6.4.2:ActiveVoicevs.PassiveVoice

Ingrammar,“voice”referstotherelationshipbetweenthesubjectandtheverb—thatistosay,howtheactionisperformed.

LearningObjective

Classifysentencesasactiveorpassive

KeyPoints

Inactivevoice,thesubjectperformstheactionoftheverb.Aclausewithanactive,transitiveverbwillfollowapatternofsubject-verb-object—forexample,“Thedog[subject]eats[verb]thefood[object].”Asentenceinactivevoicewillhavedifferentemphasis,andthusaslightlydifferenttone,thanifthesamesentencewerewritteninpassivevoice.Trytouseactivevoiceunlessthereisareasontousepassivevoice.

KeyTerms

passivevoice

Asentenceconstructioninwhichtheverb’sactionisperformed,insomecases“by”asubject.

activevoice

Asentenceconstructioninwhichasubjectperformstheactionoftheverb.

voice

Ingrammar,therelationshipbetweenthesubjectandtheverb—i.e.,how

theactionisperformed.

Ingrammar,“voice”referstotherelationshipbetweenthesubjectandtheverb—thatistosay,howtheactionisperformed.Activevoiceemphasizesthesubjectastheoneperformingtheaction.Incontrast,passivevoicedeemphasizesthesubjectasperformerandinsteadframesthesubjectasreceivingtheaction.

Whichvoiceyouchoosetouseshoulddependonthetypeofwritingandyouraudience.Theactivevoiceismorefrequentlyusedinnon-scientificwriting.Sinceitusuallyusesfewerwords,itismoresuccinctandclearerthanthepassivevoice.However,onlyusingthepassivevoiceinscientificwritingcanmakeitdryandbogdownthereader.Choosingthepropervoicewillsetthetoneforyourwriting,butkeepinmindthatmostwritingwillincludebothactiveandpassivevoice.

Let’stakealookatsomeexamples.

ActiveandPassiveVoiceInasentencewritteninactivevoice,thesubject’sroleinperformingtheactionoftheverbisemphasized.Thesesentenceswillgenerallyfollowthepatternofsubject–verb–object(orsimplysubject–verb,forintransitiveverbs—i.e.,forverbsthatdon’tneedanobject):

Thestudent[subject]finishes[verb]theexercise[object].Fred[subject]ate[verb]hissandwich[object].Eve[subject]survived[verb,noobjectneeded].

Inasentencewritteninpassivevoice,thesubject’sroleinperformingtheactionoftheverbisdeemphasized.Instead,passivevoiceframesthesubjectasreceivingtheaction.Passivevoiceistheoppositeofactivevoice,sosentencesinpassivevoicetendtofollowthereversepatternofobject–verb–subject,andtheword“by”oftenshowsupbetweentheverbandthesubject:

Theexercise[object]wasfinished[verb]bythestudent[subject].Thesandwich[object]waseaten[verb]byFred[subject].

Inmostsentencesinpassivevoice,youwillseetheword“by”betweentheverbandthesubject.Infact,aruleofthumbforrecognizingpassivevoiceifyouseetheconstruction“was/is[verb]edby”(forverbslikefinishedorstarted)or“was/is[verb]enby”(forverbslikeeatenandforgotten).

Mostsentencescanbephrasedtobeineitheractiveorpassivevoice.Forexample:

Activevoice:Theteachersentthestudenttotheprincipal’soffice.Passivevoice:Thestudentwassenttotheprincipal’sofficebytheteacher.

Whichoneyouchoosemaynotsignificantlychangethemeaningofthesentence,butitwilllikelychangeitstoneandemphasis.Itisimportanttounderstandtheconnotationsofbothactiveandpassivevoice,therefore,soyoursentencesdon’tsoundoddoroutofcontext.

Thatsaid,sentenceswithintransitiveverbs—verbsthatdonottakedirectobjects—cannotbepassivizedbecausethereisnoobjecttoputbeforetheverb.Forexample:

Millionsofpeoplelived.Wearrivedyesterday.Shellywillbeasleep.

Trytoputtheseinpassivevoice(intheorderobject–verb–subject):“[Blank]waslivedbymillionsofpeople.”Itdoesn’tmakesense!Intransitiveverbscanneverbeusedinpassivevoice.

MostoftheTime,UseActiveVoiceActivevoiceisgenerallymoredirectandneutralthanpassivevoice.Passivevoicetendstosoundevasive,likethewriteristryingtoavoidblameforwhoeverperformedanaction,oracademic,likeadrysciencereport.Activevoiceisgenerallymoreeffectiveatcapturingthereader’sattention.Forexample,

Passivevoice:TheballwashitbyLinda.Activevoice:Lindahittheball.Passive:Thethemethatwasmostcommonlyaddressedby17th-centurywriterswas…Active:17th-centurywritersmostcommonlyaddressedthethemeof…

Theuseofactivevoiceismoredirectandprovidesinformationaboutwhoperformedtheaction.

GuidelinesforAvoidingPassiveVoice

1. Avoidsentencesthatusetheverb“tobe”oritsvariations(is,was,willbe).Theverb“tobe”oftendescribeswhatsomethingisratherthanwhatitdoes.

2. Avoidbeginningsentenceswith“Itis…”or“Thereare…”3. Avoidsentenceswheretheactionisfrozeninawordthatendswithone

ofthefollowingsuffixes:-tion;-ment;-ing;-ion;-ance.Thesewordsmutetheactionthattheverbshouldcommunicatebyturningthemintonouns.

UsingPassiveVoiceEffectivelyAllthatsaid,passivevoicecertainlyhasitsuses—youjustneedtobesmartaboutwhenyouuseit!Forexample:

”HamletwaswrittenbyShakespeare.”Here,thepassivevoiceemphasizes“Shakespeare,”themostimportantpartofthesentence.“Jameywasfascinatedbylanguagearts.”Thepassive-voiceconstructionofthissentenceemphasizes“Jamey”moreeffectivelythantheactive-voiceequivalent.“Smokingisstrictlyprohibited.”Becauseapassiveverbconsistsoftwowords,anadverb(likestrictly)isaccentuatedwhenplacedbetween“tobe”andthepastparticiple.

WhenWritingaResearchPaper

Inparticular,scientificresearchwritingoftenrequiresthatthewriterdeemphasizethemselvesastheperformeroftheaction.Thismakesthelanguagemoreobjective;intheory,anexperimentshouldhappenthesamewayandhavethesameresultsnomatterwhoconductsit.Forexample:

Activevoice:Ifoundthatthefrogpopulationdecreasedby10%lastyear.Passivevoice:Itwasfoundthatthefrogpopulationdecreasedby10%lastyear.

WhenTalkingaboutGeneralRules

Passivevoiceisalsooftenusedwhentalkingaboutgeneralrules,tomakeitclearthattheperformerislessimportantthantheaction.Forexample:

Activevoice:Thelandlordexpectstherentcheckonthefirstofthemonth.Passive:Therentcheckwillbecollectedonthefirstofthemonth.

Passivevoicecanalsobeusedtomakerulesorexpectationssoundlessharsh.Forexample:

Activevoice:Donotsmoke.Passivevoice:Smokingisprohibited.

Knowingthedifferentusesofvoiceisasimportantinwritingasinsinging

Themajorityofyoursentencesshouldbeinactivevoice.However,therearealsoeffectiveusesofpassivevoice;whenusedsparingly,itcangiveparticularsentencesspecialemphasis.

6.4.3:Concision

Itisimportanttokeepsentencesconcise;thelongerandmorecomplexasentencegets,theharderitisforareadertounderstand.

LearningObjective

Distinguishbetweenconciseandwordysentences

KeyPoints

Makeyourwritingmoreforceful,memorable,andpersuasivebymakingitconcise.Concisewritingisclearandreader-friendly,increasingyourreader’sabilitytounderstandyourargument.Avoidpaddingyourwritingwithextrawordsorlengtheningsentencesandparagraphstomeetawordcountforanassignment.Matchyourvocabularytoyourreaderandyourwritingtask.Avoidusingelevatedorflowerylanguagetosoundimpressive.

KeyTerm

concision

Brevity,orthepracticeofusingnomorewordsthannecessarytodescribeanidea.

SimplifyingSentencesVaryingsentencelengthsandtypesofsentencescanhelptobreakupotherwisetediousproseblocks.However,itisimportanttokeepinmindthatthelongerandmorecomplexasentencegets,themoredifficultitcanbeforareadertointerpretthatsentence.Takethisparagraphasanexample:

Theauthorofthenovelillustratedvariousdifferencesbetweenthecharacters.Thenovel,whichwasaromanticnovel,portrayedcharactersindevioussortsofwaysinwhichtheydidthingsthatwereverydeceptive.Thetwomaincharacters,AprilandJamil,wereneverdefinitelyandcompletelyhonestwitheachother,whichledtothefinaloutcomeoftheirdivorce.Thisoutcome,whichleftthembothmiserableastheystilllovedoneanother,isdesignedinawaytoshowthereadersjustexactlyhowthenovelistfeelsaboutlyinginrelationships.

Thisparagraphisquitewordyandtakeslongerthannecessarytomakeitspoint.Let’sbreakitupintoshortersentencesandomitunnecessarywords:

Theromanticnovelistportrayedthemaincharactersasdevious.AprilandJamilwereinlove,buttheywereneverhonestwitheachother,andultimatelytheygotadivorce.Thisshowsushowthenovelistfeelsaboutlying.

Thisismuchclearer!Studentsoftenmakethemistakeofusingmorewordsthannecessarybecausetheythinkitwillimpresstheirreaderorprofessor.However,instructorsandotherreaderseasilyseethroughthis,andtheyusuallyjustwantyoutogetyourpointacross!Alwaysconsideryourreader,andmakeyourwritingeasyforthemtograsp.

RevisingforConcisionConsiderthefollowinggeneralguidelines.Thesearegoodrulestokeepinmindwhenyouarerevisingyourpaperforconcision.

EliminateWords

Eliminateunnecessarywords.Keepaneyeoutforplaceswhereyoucanconveyyourmeaningmoredirectly.Forexample:

Original:Thephysicalsizeoftheworkroomistoosmalltoaccommodatethisequipment.Revised:Theworkroomistoosmallforthisequipment.

Thephysicalsizeoftheworkroomistoosmalltoaccommodatethisequipment

Thoughthetitlecommunicatesthenecessaryinformationaboutthisimage,itusestoomanywordstodoso.Asimplifiedversionofthesentenceis:“Theworkroomistoosmallforthisequipment.”Lookforplacesinyourownwritingwhereyoucanremoveunnecessarywordstomakeyourwritingmoreconciseandefficient.Yourreaderswillappreciateit!

Also,trytoavoidthefollowingphrases,whichareredundantandhavemoreconcisealternatives:

absolutelyessentialinmypersonalopinionbasicfundamentalspastmemorieseachandeverysmallinsizefirstandforemostveryunique

CombineShort,ChoppySentences

Afteryoueliminateunnecessarywords,youmayfindyourselfwithmuchshortersentences,soyourpapermaynowfeelchoppy.Combinetheseshortsentencestoimproveflowandclarifyyourtrainofthought.Thesinglecombinedsentencemaybelongerthaneachofthetwooriginalsentences,butoverallyouareusingfewerwordsandcommunicatingyourpointmoreclearly.

Original:WaterqualityinFairfielddeclinedinMarch.Thisdeclineoccurredbecauseoftheheavyrainfallthatmonth.AlltheextrawateroverloadedTomlinCounty’swatertreatmentplant.Revised:WaterqualityinFairfielddeclinedinMarchbecauseheavyrainfalloverloadedTomlinCounty’swatertreatmentplant.

AdditionalExamplesExample1

Original:Accordingtooptimalquality-controlpracticesinmanufacturinganyproduct,itisimportantthateverycomponentpartthatisconstituentoftheproductbeexaminedandcheckedindividually

afterbeingreceivedfromitssupplierorothersourcebutbeforethefinal,finishedproductisassembled.(45words)Revised:Effectivequalitycontrolrequiresthateverycomponentbecheckedindividuallybeforethefinalproductisassembled.(16words)

Example2

Original:Overthemostrecentmonthlyperiod,therehasbeenalargeincreaseinthenumberofcomplaintsthatcustomershavemadeaboutservicethathasbeenslow.(27words)Revised:Lastmonth,manymorecustomersthanusualcomplainedaboutslowservice.(11words)

Attributions

Gender-NeutralLanguage

“GenderneutralityinEnglish.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_neutrality_in_English.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“SingularThey.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular_they.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Epicene.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicene.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Gender-inclusivelanguage.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender-inclusive%20language.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“ProfessionalandTechnicalWriting/Rhetoric/Author/Style.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Professional_and_Technical_Writing/Rhetoric/Author/Style%23Guideline_7:_Ethics_Guideline:_Use_Inclusive_LanguageWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

ActiveVoicevs.PassiveVoice

“voice.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/voice.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“activevoice.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/active_voice.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“ProfessionalandTechnicalWriting/Rhetoric/Author/Style.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Professional_and_Technical_Writing/Rhetoric/Author/Style%23Constructing_SentencesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“passivevoice.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/passive_voice.

WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/ActiveandPassiveVoice.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Active_and_Passive_VoiceWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“Allsizes|[PortraitofJuneChristyandRedRodney,ClubTroubadour,NewYork,N.Y.,ca.Sept.1947](LOC)|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/library_of_congress/4888673630/sizes/l/in/photostream/FlickrPublicdomain.

ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/39691/39691-h/39691-h.htm.Publicdomain.

Concision

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“ProfessionalandTechnicalWriting/Rhetoric/Author/Style.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Professional_and_Technical_Writing/Rhetoric/Author/Style%23Guideline_1:_Simplify_Your_SentencesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“concision.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/concision.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“modifier.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/modifier.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/21660/21660-h/21660-h.htm.Publicdomain.

7:WritingEffectiveParagraphs

7.1:OrganizingYourIdeas7.1.1:TopicSentences

Separatingyourmainpointsintodifferentparagraphsallowsthereadertofeelthecumulativeeffectsofthemountingevidenceforyourclaim.

LearningObjective

Choosethebesttopicsentencetobeginaparagraph

KeyPoints

Introduceeachparagraphwithatopicsentencethattellsyouraudiencewhatyouwillargueinthatparagraph.Byprovidingreaderswithexpectationsatthebeginningoftheparagraph,youhelpthemunderstandandkeeptrackoftheoverallstructureofyourargument.Eachtopicsentenceshouldmakeadistinctpointinsupportofyourthesisstatement.Aparagraphshouldmakeonlyoneclaimandshouldcontainallthenecessaryevidenceforthatclaim.Thisiskeytomakinganargumentflowsmoothlyandthuspersuadingthereadertounderstandyourpoint.Evidenceandexamplesarebestusedassupportwithinaparagraphratherthanasatopicsentence.

KeyTerms

thesisstatement

Oftenfoundattheendofthefirstparagraphofanessayorsimilardocument,itsummarizesthemainpointsandargumentsoftheauthor.

paragraph

Apassageinatextaboutasubjectthatisdifferentfromthatoftheprecedingtext,markedbycommencingonanewline,withthefirstlinesometimesbeingindented.

claim

Anewstatementoftruthmadeaboutsomething,usuallywhenthe

statementhasyettobeverified.

topicsentence

Astatementofthemainideaoftheparagraphinwhichitoccurs.

Whenyoucreatedtheoutline,youwroteathesisstatementandthenalltheclaimsyouareusingtosupportit.Youthenorganizedyourresearch,findingtheevidencetosupporteachclaim.You’llbeverygratefultohavedonethatsortingnowthatyou’rereadytowriteparagraphs.Eachoftheseclaimswillbecomeatopicsentence,andthatsentence,alongwiththeevidencesupportingit,willbecomeaparagraphinthebodyofthepaper.

ParagraphStructureEachparagraphisaself-containedportionofyourargument.Eachparagraphwillbeginbymakingaclaim(thetopicsentence)thatconnectsbacktothethesis.Thebodyoftheparagraphwillpresenttheevidence,reasoning,andconclusionsthatpertaintothatclaim.Usually,paragraphswillendbyconnectingtheirclaimtothelargerargumentorbysettinguptheclaimthatthenextparagraphwillcontain.

Topicsentence:summarizesthemainideaoftheparagraph;presentsaclaimthatsupportsyourthesis.Supportingsentences:provideexamples,details,andexplanationsthatsupportthetopicsentence(andclaim).Concludingsentence:givestheparagraphclosurebyrelatingtheclaimbacktothetopicsentenceandthesisstatement.

Paragraphsshouldbeusedtodeveloponeideaatatime.Ifyouhavealotofideasandclaimstoaddress,youmaybetemptedtocombinerelatedclaimsintothesameparagraph.Don’tdoit!Combiningdifferentpointsinthesameparagraphwilldivideyourreader’sattentionanddiluteyourargument.Ifyouhavetoomanyclaims,choosethestrongestonestoexpandintoparagraphs,orresearchthecounterargumentstoseewhichofyourclaimsspeakmostpowerfullytothose.

Bydedicatingeachparagraphtoonlyonepartofyourargument,youwillgivethereadertimetofullyevaluateandunderstandeachclaimbeforegoingontothenextone.Thinkofparagraphsaswaysofguidingyourreader’sattention—bygivingthemasingletopic,youforcethemtofocusonit.Whenyoudirecttheirfocus,theywillhaveamucheasiertimefollowingyour

argument.

CreatingTopicSentencesEveryparagraphofyourargumentshouldbeginwithatopicsentencethattellsthereaderwhattheparagraphwilladdress—thatis,whatthatparagraph’sclaimis.Byprovidingthereaderwithexpectationsatthestartoftheparagraph,youhelphimorherunderstandwhereyouaregoingandhowtheparagraphfitsinwiththeoverallstructureofyourargument.Topicsentencesshouldalwaysconnectbacktoandsupportyourthesisstatement.

ThingstoAvoidDoinginYourTopicSentenceReferringtothePaperorParagraphItself

Youneedn’tsaydirectly,“Thisparagraphisabout…”Youdon’twantyourreaderremindedthatheorsheisreadingapaper.Thefocusshouldbeontheargument.ThiskindofannouncementislikeridingwithtrainingwheelsintheTourdeFrance.Youdon’treallyneedthiscrutch,andseeingitinapapercanbesomewhatstartlingtothereader,who’sexpectingaprofessionalpresentation.

OfferingEvidenceoranExample

“Ononeoccasion,anotherEMTandIwereheldatgunpoint.”Stickwithyourclaiminyourtopicsentence,andlettherestoftheparagraphaddresstheevidenceandofferexamples.Keepitclearbystatingthetopicandthemainidea.“Twenty-firstcenturyemergency-servicespersonnelfaceanever-increasingnumberofsecuritychallengescomparedtothoseworkingfiftytoahundredyearsago.”

NotBeingSpecificEnough

“Cookingisdifficult.”Thetopicmayrelatetoyourthesisstatement,butyou’llneedtobemorespecifichere.Forwhomiscookingdifficult,andwhy?

“Whiletherearefoodpantriesinplaceinsomelow-incomeareas,manyrecipientsofthesegoodshaveneitherthetimenortheresourcestomakenutritionallysoundmealsfromwhattheyreceive.”(Stylisticallyspeaking,ifyouwantedtoinclude“Cookingisdifficult,”youcouldmakeitthefirstsentence,followedbythetopicsentence.Itjustshouldn’tbethetopicsentence.)

Papers

Well-structuredparagraphsmakeyourpapereasiertounderstandandmoreenjoyableforyourreaders.

Attributions

TopicSentences

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“thesisstatement.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/thesis%20statement.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“paragraph.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/paragraph.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“claim.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/claim.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“HowtoWriteanEssay/Parts.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/How_to_Write_an_Essay/Parts.WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“Allsizes|GradingPapersAtTheBar|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/rexroof/268845025/sizes/o/in/photostream/FlickrCCBY.

7.2:ConnectingYourIdeas7.2.1:Transitions,SignalPhrases,andPointingWords

Transitionsconnectyourideasandmakeiteasierforyourreaderstofollowyourthoughtprocess.

LearningObjective

Identifysituationswheretransitionwordsareneeded

KeyPoints

Thefirststepinwritingaclearpaperiscreatingseparateparagraphsforeachideathatsupportsthepaper’smainthesis.Transitionscanmakeconnectionsbetweendifferentparagraphsorbetweensentenceswithinthesameparagraph.Pointingwordsconnectthecontentfromonepartofthepaperandrelateittoanotherpart.Asignalphrasealertsthereaderthatthewriterisabouttociteevidencefromanoutsidesource.

KeyTerms

signalphrases

Asentenceorphrasealertingthereaderthattheupcominginformationisnotthewriter’sbutisfromanoutsidesource.

pointingwords

Aterm,suchas“this”or“that,”referringbacksomethingorsomeonementionedearlierinthetext.

transition

Awordorphraseconnectingonepartofadiscoursetoanother.

Inexpositorywriting,eachparagraphshouldarticulateasinglemainideathatrelatesdirectlytothethesisstatement.Thisconstructioncreatesafeelingof

unity,makingthepaperfeelcohesiveandpurposeful.Connectionsbetweenideas—bothbetweensentencesandbetweenparagraphs—shouldenhancethatsenseofcohesion.

Followingthepartsofapoorlyconstructedargumentcanfeellikeclimbingaricketyladder.Transitionwordsandphrasessupporttherungsandrails,smoothingthejourneyofreadingyourpapersoitfeelsmorelikeclimbingawide,comfortablestaircase.Remember,though,thattransitionsaremorethanjustwordsandphrases;ifyou’rehavingtroublecomingupwithtransitionsbetweenparagraphs,revisityouressay’soverallstructuretomakesureyourideasthemselvesarearrangedinalogicalorder,withnorepetitionsormissingsteps.

WhyUseTransitions?Usingtransitionswillmakeyourwritingeasiertounderstandbyprovidingconnectionsbetweenparagraphsorbetweensentenceswithinaparagraph.Atransitioncanbeaword,phrase,orsentence—inlongerworks,theycanevenbeawholeparagraph.Thegoalofatransitionistoclarifyforyourreadersexactlyhowyourideasareconnected.

Transitionsrefertoboththeprecedingandensuingsentence,paragraph,orsectionofawrittenwork.Theyremindyourreadersofwhattheyjustread,andtellthemwhatwillcomenext.Bydoingso,transitionshelpyourwritingfeellikeaunifiedwhole.

TransitionsBetweenParagraphsInTopicSentences

Usingtransitionsinyourtopicsentencescanexplaintothereaderhowoneparagraphrelatestothepreviousone.Considerthissetoftopicsentencesfromapaperaboutmetricalvariationinthepoem“CalibanUponSetebos”:

Paragraphone:“Browningbeginsthepoembyestablishingacorrespondencebetweenmetricalvariationandsubversivelanguage.”Paragraphtwo:“OnceCalibanbeginshisexplorationofthenatureofSetebos,though,thepatternestablishedearlierinthepoembeginstobreakdown.”Paragraphthree:“Browningfurthersubvertsthemetricalconventions

establishedintheopeningstanzaby…switchingtoiambicpentameterwhenacknowledgingthatunmotivatedeventscananddooccur.”

Thetransitionshelpthereaderunderstandhowtheargumentisprogressingthroughoutthepaper,beginningwiththepoem’sbasicmeter,thenexplainingdifferentwaysinwhichthepatternshifts.Theword“though”inthesecondtopicsentenceletsthereaderknowthatthepatternexplainedinthefirstparagraphisgoingtochangeinthesecondparagraph.Theuseof“further”inthethirdtopicsentencealertsthereaderthatthepatternisshiftingagaininthethirdparagraph.Thesesimplewordsarethehandrailforthestepsthereaderisclimbing.

InConcludingSentences

Aparagraph’sconcludingsentencealsooffersanexcellentopportunitytobeginthetransitiontothenextparagraph—towrapuponeideaandhintatthenext.

Youcanuseaquestiontosignalashift:

It’sclear,then,thattheband’sbiggestsellingoriginalcompositionswerewrittenearlyintheircareer,butwhatdoweknowabouttheirlaterworks?

Alternatively,youcouldconcludebycomparingtheideainthecurrentparagraphwiththeideainthenext:

WhiletheDemocraticRepublicofCongoisrichinnaturalresources,ithasledatroubledpoliticalexistence.

An“if–then”structureisacommontransitiontechniqueinconcludingsentences:

Ifwearedecidedthatclimatechangeisnowunavoidable,thenstepsmustbetakentoavertcompletedisaster.

Here,you’rerelyingonthepointyou’vejustproveninthisparagraphtoserveasaspringboardforthenextparagraph’smainidea.

TransitionsWithinParagraphs

Transitionswithinaparagraphhelpreaderstoanticipatewhatiscomingbeforetheyreadit.Withinparagraphs,transitionstendtobesinglewordsorshortphrases.Wordslikewhile,however,nevertheless,but,andsimilarly,aswellasphraseslikeontheotherhandandforexample,canserveastransitionsbetweensentencesandideas.Seethe“ListofCommonTransitionalDevices”belowformoreexamples.

PointingWords

Pointingwordsletyoureferbacktocomplexideasconcisely.Alsocalled“hooks,”thesewordsscoopuptheinformationjustofferedandlinkittootherinformationinthepaper.Let’slookatanexample:

Thereisnothingovertlydeviantaboutthepoem’sformalelements.Butuponcloseexamination,thoseintricaciesofformareevenmoresuggestiveofaproblemintheislandhierarchythanisthecontentofCaliban’sspeech.

Thisisaconcludingsentence,andtheword“those”referstothewriter’sargumentlaidoutinthepreviousparagraphs.Ifthewriterhadinsteadwritten“theintricacies,”wereadersmightnotknowtomentallylinkthepreviousargumentwiththisstatement.Usingtheword“those”isagesturetoincludeallthereferencestoformthatwentbeforethisparagraph.

Canyouseehowthepointingwords(this,that,these,those)inthefollowingexamplesservetolinkoneideatothenext,ortothemainideaofthepaper?

“Forthosereasons…”“Thissuggestionisfurtherbuoyedby…”“Thesefactsclearlypointto…”“Thatkindofreasoningonlymakessenseif…”

SignalPhrases

Alsowithinparagraphs,signalphrasesalertthereaderthatheorsheisabouttoreadreferencedmaterial,suchasaquotation,asummationofastudy,orstatisticsverifyingaclaim.Ideally,yoursignalphraseswillconnecttheideaoftheparagraphtotheinformationfromtheoutsidesource.

“JenniferAakeroftheGlobalBusinessSchoolatStanfordUniversitywrites,insupportofthisidea,that…”“Infact,theUnitedNationsEnvironmentalProgramfoundthat…”

“However,‘Recyclingprograms,’theNorthernCaliforniaRecyclingAssociationretorts…”“Asgraph3.2illustrates,wecanbynomeansbecertainoftheoutcome.”

Suchphrasespreparethereadertoreceiveinformationfromanauthoritativesourceandsubconsciouslysignalthereadertoprocesswhatfollowsasevidenceinsupportofthepointbeingmade.

Herearesomecommonsignal-phraseverbs:acknowledges,adds,admits,argues,asserts,believes,claims,confirms,contends,declares,denies,disputes,emphasizes,grants,implies,insists,notes,observes,pointsout,reasons,refutes,rejects,reports,responds,suggests,thinks,writes.

TransitionParagraphsInlongerworks,youmightneedanentireparagraphtoconnecttheideaspresentedintwoseparatesections.Thepurposeofatransitionalparagraphistosummarizetheinformationinthepreviousparagraph,andtotellyourreaderhowitisrelatedtotheinformationinthenextparagraph.Transitionparagraphsaregoodplacestoreviewwhereyouhavebeenandhowitrelatestothenextstepofyourargument.

AppropriateUseofTransitionWordsandPhrasesBeforeusingaparticulartransitionalwordorphrase,besureyoucompletelyunderstanditsmeaningandusage.Forexample,ifyouuseawordorphrasethatindicatesaddition(“moreover,”“inaddition,”“further”),youmustactuallybeintroducinganewideaorpieceofevidence.Acommonmistakewithtransitionsisusingsuchawordwithoutactuallyaddinganideatothediscussion.Thatconfusesreadersandputsthembackonricketyfooting,wonderingiftheymissedsomething.

Wheneverpossible,stickwithtransitionwordsthatactuallyhavemeaningandpurpose.Overusingtransitionwords,orusingthemasfiller,isdistractingtothereader.“Itisfurtherconcludedthat,”forexample,soundsunnaturalandalittlegrandiosebecauseofthepassivevoice.“Also,”or“Furthermore”wouldbeclearerchoices,lesslikelytomakethereader’seyesroll.

Withthatsaid,herearesomeexamplesoftransitionaldevicesthatmightbeusefulonceyou’veverifiedtheirappropriateness:

Toindicateaddition:and,again,andthen,besides,equallyimportant,finally,further,furthermore,nor,too,next,lastly,what’smore,moreover,inaddition,still,first(second,etc.).

“Strengthofideaisindeedafactorinentrepreneurialsuccess,butequallyimportantiseconomicviability.”

Toindicatecomparison:whereas,but,yet,ontheotherhand,however,nevertheless,onthecontrary,bycomparison,where,comparedto,upagainst,balancedagainst,although,conversely,incontrast,althoughthismaybetrue,likewise,while,whilst,although,eventhough,ontheonehand,ontheotherhand,incontrast,incomparisonwith,but,yet,alternatively,theformer,thelatter,respectively,allthesame.

“Incontrasttowhatwenowconsiderhispedanticprose,hispoetryseemedsetfreetoexpresswhatliesineveryhumanheart.”

Toindicatealogicalconnection:because,for,since,forthesamereason,obviously,evidently,furthermore,moreover,besides,indeed,infact,inaddition,inanycase,thatis.

“TheBuddhasatunderthebodhitreeforthesamereasonJesusmeditatedinthedesert:tovanquishtemptationonceandforall.”

Toshowexception:yet,still,however,nevertheless,inspiteof,despite,ofcourse,onceinawhile,sometimes.

“Advocatesofcorporatetaxincentivesciteincreasedjobsinruralareasasanoffset;still,isthatsufficientjustificationforremovingtheirfinancialresponsibilities?

Toshowtime:immediately,thereafter,soon,afterawhile,finally,then,later,previously,formerly,first(second,etc.),next,andthen.

“First,thefamilysufferedadevastatinghousefirethatleftthemwithoutanypossessions,andsoonthereafterlearnedthattheirpassagetotheNewWorldhadbeenrevokedduetoaclericalerror.”

Tosummarizeorindicaterepetition:inbrief,asIhavesaid,asIhavenoted,ashasbeennoted,aswehaveseen,tosummarize.

“Wehaveseen,then,thatnotonlyarerisingtemperaturesandincreasedweatheranomaliescorrelatedwithanincreaseinfoodandwatershortages,butanimal-migrationpatterns,too,appeartobeaffected.”

Toindicateemphasis:definitely,extremely,obviously,infact,indeed,inany

case,absolutely,positively,naturally,surprisingly,notwithstanding,only,still,itcannotbedenied.

“Obviously,suchahighlyskilledarchitectwouldnotusuallybeinclinedtogivehisservicesaway,andyetthismanvolunteeredhisservicesoverandagaintoprojectsthatpaidhimonlythroughappreciation.”

Toindicatesequence:first,second,third,andsoforth,next,then,followingthis,atthistime,now,atthispoint,after,afterward,subsequently,finally,consequently,previously,beforethis,simultaneously,concurrently.

“So,finally,theauthoroffersonelasthintaboutthestory’struesubject:thewistfuldescriptionofthemountainsinthedistance.”

Toindicateanexample:forexample,forinstance,inthiscase,inanothercase,onthisoccasion,inthissituation,takethecaseof,todemonstrate,toillustrate,consider.

“Take,forexample,thefamoushucksterP.T.Barnum,whosereputationas‘ThePrinceofHumbugs’beliedhisloveandsupportofthefinerthingsoflife,likeopera.”

Toqualifyastatement:undernocircumstances,mainly,generally,predominantly,usually,themajority,mostof,almostall,anumberof,some,afew,alittle,fairly,very,quite,rather,almost.

“Generally,wecanassumethatthisstatementhasmerit,butinthisspecificcase,itbehoovesustodigdeeper.”

Thetransitionofthesun

Transitionwordsandphrasesareusedtomaketheshiftfromoneideatothenextassmoothandseamlessasthearcofthesunovertheearth.

Attributions

Transitions,SignalPhrases,andPointingWords

“UsingSignalWordsThatFittheAction.”https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/academic-writing-3/summarizing-18/using-signal-verbs-that-fit-the-action-89-3254/.BoundlessCCBY4.0.

“UsingPointingWords.”https://www.boundless.com/users/364813/textbooks/professional-

writing-ae312174-61d8-432f-9276-655b5a888adc/week-3-boundless-presentation-620/connecting-your-ideas-635/using-pointing-words-637-58/.BoundlessCCBY-SA4.0.

“transition.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/transition.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“TransitionsinEssays.”http://xiamenwriting.wikispaces.com/Transitions+in+Essays.xiamenwritingWikispaceCCBY-SA3.0.

ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/19103/19103-h/19103-h.htm.Publicdomain.

7.3:KeepingYourWritingEngaging7.3.1:VaryingYourSentenceStructureandVocabulary

Effectivewritingincludesvariationofsentencestructure,vocabulary,andotherelementstokeepthereaderinterestedandengagedwiththeargument.

LearningObjective

Usevariedsentencestructure

KeyPoints

Thetone,voice,andstyleofyourwritingareasimportantasthedetailsyouprovidetosupportathesis.Paperswillbeboringforthereaderifeverysentenceusesthesamestructure.Someofthebestwaystovarysentenceformatarebyaddingandrearrangingclauses.Sentencelength,sentencestructure,sentencetype,tone,vocabulary,transitionwords,andtypesofevidencecanallbevariedsothatyourargumentismoreconvincingandyourpointsmorecompellingtothereader.

KeyTerms

tone

Themannerinwhichspeechorwritingisexpressed.

clause

Thesmallestgrammaticalunitthatcanexpressacompleteproposition.

Argumentationisn’tjustaboutwhatyousaybuthowyousayit.Eventhemostsolidargumentwon’tgetfarwithareaderifthetextisn’tengaging.Buthowdowedothat?

Perhapsthebiggestsecrettocreatingcaptivatingwritingisvariation.Withoutit,yourreadermightfallasleepfromboredom.

Ifyou’veeverbeeninavibrantdebatewithsomeoneyourespectedaboutbeliefsyouholddear,youhaveasenseofjustthekindoflifewewanttocapturewhenwe’rewriting.Learning,debatingideas,diggingforthetruth:thesethingsareallfun!Noneedfor“anyone”tobedroolingonhisdesk.

Ifvariationiskey,whatcanwevary?We’vediscussedtheimportanceofstructure.Readersneedtodependonthepaper’sstructuretobeabletofollowtheargument.Theintroduction,conclusion,bodyparagraphswithtopicsentencesandtransitionsareallessential.Withinthestructure,however,youcanvarythefollowing:

sentencelengthsentencestructuresentencetypetonevocabularytransitionwordsandcategoriestypesofevidence

You’llwanttohavereasonsforthechoicesyoumake.Addingrandomrhetoricalquestionswillsoundstrange,butifyouasktherightquestionattherighttime,itwillmakethereaderthink.Thesamewillbetrueofallvariation.Theremustbeagoodreasontochooseaparticularsentencestructureoranewtypeofevidence.

Therearenocodifiedrulesonhowtovarysentencestructure,noraretherelistsofallthedifferenttypesofphrasingyoucanuse.TheEnglishlanguageallowsforsomuchflexibilitythatsuchalistwouldbenever-ending.However,therearesomeaspectsofwritingthatyoushouldconsiderwhenlookingfordifferentsentenceformats.

Clauses:Theeasiestwaytovarysentencelengthandstructureiswithclauses.Multi-clausesentencescanconnectrelatedideas,provideadditionaldetail,andvarythepatternofyourlanguage.

Length:Longersentencesarebettersuitedforexpressingcomplexthoughts.Shortersentences,incontrast,areusefulwhenyouwanttoemphasizeaconcisepoint.Clausescanvaryinlength,too.

Interrogatives:Whenusedsparingly,questionscancatchyourreader’sattention.Theyalsoimplicateyourreaderasaparticipantinyourargumentbyaskingthemtothinkabouthowtheywouldanswerthequestion.

Tone:Ifyoureallywantasentencetostandout,youcanchangethetoneofyourwriting.Usingdifferenttonescancatchthereader’sattentionandliven

upyourwork.Thatmeansyoucanbeplayfulwithyourreaderattimes,sounddemandingattimes,andcultivateempathywhenthatfeelsappropriate.Becarefulthatthetoneyouchooseisappropriateforthesubjectmatter.

Syntaxvariationcultivatesinterest.Startplayingwithstructure.Trychangingasentence’slanguagetomakeitsounddifferentfromtheonesaroundit.

SyntacticalVariationHereisanexampleofwhataparagraphwitharepetitivesyntaxcansoundlike:

”LookingBackwardwaspopularinthelatenineteenthcentury.Middle-classAmericanslikeditsvisionofsociety.Thevisionappealedtotheirconsumptionhabits.Also,theylikedthepossibilityofnotbeingbotheredbythepoor.”

Choppy?Uninteresting?Here’stherewrittenversion,withattentionpaidtosentencevariation:

“ThepopularityofLookingBackwardamongmiddle-classAmericansinthelatenineteenthcenturycanbetracedtoitsvisionofsociety.Thenovelpresentsasocietythateasilydispelsthenuisanceofpovertyandworking-classstrifewhilemaintainingthepleasureofmiddle-classconsumptivehabits.”

What’sdifferenthere?Therewritesimplycombinesthefirsttwoandthelasttwosentencesandaddsabitofvariationinvocabulary,butthedifferenceispowerful.Ofcourse,ifallthesentenceswerecompoundlikethese,thepaperwouldbegintosoundeitherpretentiousorexhausting.Ifthiswereyourpaper,youmightwanttomakethenextsentenceashortoneandgettoyourthesisstatementsoon.

VaryingVocabularyOnewaytoavoidappearingoverlyrepetitiveistoconsultathesaurusandusesynonyms.However,whenusingsynonyms,youshouldmakesurethatthewordyouchoosemeansexactlywhatyouthinkitmeans.(“Penultimate,”forexample,doesnotmean“thehighest,”andthere’sadifferencebetween“elicit”and“illicit.”)Checktheconnotationsofsynonymsbylookinguptheirdefinitions.

VaryingTransitions,SignalWords,PointingWords,andPronounsWriterswhoarefamiliarwiththeirownhabitswillsometimesresearchawordorphrasetheytypicallyoveruse(“however,”“thatsaid,”“moreover”)andreplacesomeofthosewordswithanothertransition,ortheymightreworkasentencetoavoidusinganytransitionwordsinthatspotiftheyfeelthey’reoverdoingit.Nouns,too,oftengetoverusedwhenpronounswouldsoundmorenatural.Don’tworryaboutthistoomuchinthewritingphase.Youjustwanttogetyourthoughtsonthepage.Butasyourevise,keepaneyeoutforrepetitionandswitchthingsupabittokeepyourpaperinteresting.

Introducingvariationbenefitsnotonlyyourreaderbutalsoyou,thewriter.Conceivingofdifferentwaystocommunicateessentialelementsofyourargumentwillallowyoutorevisitwhatmakestheseelementsessentialandtoconsiderthecentralargumentyouaremaking.Eachvariationisachancetointroducenuanceintoyourwritingwhiledrivingyourpointhome.However,variationshouldneverbeyourmaingoal—don’tsacrificeaudiencecomprehensiontoachievestylisticvirtuosity.You’lljustsoundsilly.Theargumentisthepoint.

Engagingyourreaderindifferentways

Varythetypesofsentencesyouusetokeepyourpaperinteresting.

Attributions

VaryingYourSentenceStructureandVocabulary

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“AvoidingRepetitiveness.”https://www.boundless.com/users/364813/textbooks/professional-writing-ae312174-61d8-432f-9276-655b5a888adc/week-3-boundless-presentation-620/connecting-your-ideas-635/avoiding-repetitiveness-639-59/.BoundlessCCBY-SA4.0.

“clause.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/clause.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“rhetoricalquestion.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/rhetorical_question.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“tone.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tone.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“TheCainProjectinEngineeringandProfessionalCommunication,SevenWaystoMotivatetheAudience.September17,2013.”http://cnx.org/content/m16190/latest/.OpenStaxCNXCCBY3.0.

ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/27574/27574-h/27574-h.htm.Publicdomain.

8:RhetoricalModes

8.1:IntroductiontoRhetoricalModes8.1.1:IntroductiontoRhetoricalModes

Thejudicioususeofrhetoricalmodesinoralandwrittencommunicationcanstrategicallystrengthenthemessagebeingdelivered.

LearningObjective

Explainthemeaningof“rhetoric”asitrelatestowrittencommunicationstrategies.

KeyPoints

Theterm“rhetoric”referstotheartandstudyoftheeffectiveuseoflanguagetocommunicateamessage.Writersandspeakersemployspecifictechniquesinordertoeffectivelypersuadeoraffectanaudience.Rhetoricaldevicesareapplicabletobothexpositoryandcreativewriting.Whenthetechniqueoverpowersthemessage,theterm“rhetoric”canbecomederogatory.

KeyTerms

creative

Creativewritingistheimaginativeuseofwordstoconveymeaning,whetherthroughnarrative,poetry,orimagery,withtheintenttoelicitanemotionalresponse(ratherthantoinform).

expository

Writingistermed“expository”whenitisintendedtoinformandinstruct;presentingreasons,explanations,orstepinaprocess.Expositorywritingshouldcontainamainidea,supportingdetails,andaconclusion.

rhetoricalmodes

Conventionsofwritingandspeakingusedstrategicallytopresentasubjectinaparticularmannertoanaudience

narrative

Narrativewritingisthetellingofastory;reportingconnectedevents,whetherrealorimagined.

rhetoric

Thestrategicartofinformingorpersuadinganaudiencewiththewrittenorspokenword;thestudyofthedesign,organization,andtechniquesassociatedwitheffectivewrittenandoralcommunication

ThePowerofRhetoricWe’veallhadthedualexperiencesofsittingspellbound,listeningtoamasterstorytellerweaveatalethatleavesusbreathless,andofenduringaspeechthatseemedtoolongfromthefirstsentence.Whenwewrite,wenaturallyhopetoemulatetheformer,ratherthanthelatter.Wewantourwordstosparkthereader’simaginationanddeeplyengagetheminourtopicofchoice.Noonewantstobeabore.

Theartofrhetoricbeganinancientcivilizationsaroundtheworldasbothanartandatool.Captivatingaudiencesisbothpoliticallyexpedientandsociallydesirable,andfromantiquitytopresentday,thosewhoholdthepeopleinthepalmoftheirhandalsoholdthepower.

Inexaminingrhetoricalmodes,we’llbetappingthesamecollectivewisdomusedbyAristotle,Confucious,Demosthenes,AbrahamLincoln,ElizabethCadyStanton,WinstonChurchill,CharlesdeGaulle,Dr.MartinLutherKing,Jr.,NelsonMandela,andyes,evenAdolfHitler,tobringanaudiencetoitsfeet.Whetheryourintentionistowriteastirringspeechorcomposeamovingpieceofprose,familiarizingyourselfwiththesetechniqueswillgiveyouthetoolsyouneedtomoveandinspire.

Butplease,beforewebegin,promisethatyou’lluseyournewfoundpowerforgood.

TwoTypesofWriting

Therearetwowritingenvironmentsinwhichyou’lluserhetoric:expositorywritingandcreative(ornarrative)writing.Thedifferenceliesinthepurposeofthepiece.Anexpositoryessayaimstoinformandinstruct,whilea

narrativeessayisastorymeanttoentertain.

Differencesinformarisefromthesedifferencesinpurpose.Guidelinesforexpositorywritingemphasizeclarityandbrevityinordertomakeanemphaticpoint.Narratives,ontheotherhand,canwanderorgettothepoint,dependingonthetypeofstorybeingtoldandtheintentionofthestoryteller.

Arelianceonfactnecessitatesevidencetobackupassertions,whereasarelianceonstoryrequiresfaithfulnesstothespiritoftheeventormemorybeingrelayed.Bothtypesofwritingcanberiveting,buttheyrequiredifferentapproachesandtools.

RhetoricalModes

Hereisalistofcommonrhetoricalmodesalongwithbriefdefinitions.Asyoureadthroughthem,seeifyoucanimagineanexampleofeach.Whichdoyouthinkmightlikelyshowupinanexpositoryessay,andwhichwouldseemnaturalforcreativewriting?

ArgumentationandPersuasion-makingacaseforyouropinionortheperspectiveyouwishyouraudiencetotakebyofferingsupportingideasorfacts

Classification-breakingasubjectintoitsseparatepartsandgroupingthesebasedoncommontraits

CauseandEffect-connectingeventsbyshowinghowagivenstimuluscreatedaparticularresponse

ComparisonandContrast-illustratingthewaysinwhichthesubjectofchoiceislikeordifferentfromsomethingelse

Definition-apreciseexplanationofatermgiveninenoughdetailthatonewhoisnotatallfamiliarwithitwillunderstandit

Description-capturinginwordsaconcept,character,setting,idea,person,orobjectsothatthereaderorlistenercanvisualizethesubject

IllustrationandExemplification-offeringthereader/listenerexamplesinordertoclarifyaconceptoridea,“showing”whatismeantthroughinstancesofuse

Narration-sequencingeventsinorderoftime,oftenusingsensoryelementstohelpthereaderorlisteneridentifywiththestory

ProcessAnalysis-breakinganeventoractionintosmallerpartsandexplainingitsstepsfrombeginningtoend,oftenofferingreasonsforeach

step

TheJudiciousUseofRhetoric

Theonecautionwithusingrhetoricaldevicesinwrittenorspokencommunicationisthattoomuch“technique”makesaspeech,anessay,orastorytedious,atbest,andmanipulative,atworst.

You’llneedtostudythetechniquesenoughtousethemskillfully,soasnottosoundinauthentic.Sincerityalwaysmakesforthebestwriting,sowhilethetechniquesyou’lllearnabouthereareinvaluablewhenusedwisely,theybecomedistastefulwhenoverused.

Attributions

IntroductiontoRhetoricalModes

8.2:TypesofRhetoricalModes8.2.1:ArgumentationandPersuasion

Argumentationandpersuasionarerhetoricalmodesusedtoconvinceothersofanopinion,belief,orthemeritsofacourseofaction.

LearningObjective

Determinethepurposeandstructureofargumentationandpersuasion.

KeyPoints

Argumentationandpersuasionarebothusedtoconvinceothersofanopinion,belief,orthemeritsofacourseofaction.Argumentationuseslogicandobjectivesupporttoconvincetheaudienceoftheveracityofanargument.Persuasionappealstotheemotionsoftheaudiencetoconvincethemoftheinherentvalueofastance.Thereareappropriatesettingsinwhichtousebothargumentationandpersuasion.Thedecisiontouseeitherargumentationorpersuasion(orboth)willguidethewriterastothewritingprocessandtheselectionofprimaryliterarytools.Thereisagenerallyacceptedstructureforapersuasive/argumentativeessaythatallowswithinittheopportunityforcreativeexpression.

KeyTerms

pathos

Amethodofpersuadingothersbycreatinganemotionalresponseinthem.

ethos

Amethodofconvincingthereader/listenerthroughthecredibilityofthewriter/speaker.

logos

Amethodofconvincingpeoplethroughlogicandreason.

Why,OhWhy?Whenwedecidetoputanopinionoutthere,we’redoingitforareason.Usually,thereasonisthatwewantpeopletoagreewithourperspectiveandeventakeupthecausethemselves.Thisiswhereyougiveyouraudiencethewhy:whyyourpointmakessense,whyyoursuggestedcourseofactionisthebest,whyotherideasarenotassound,andwhyyourthesisshouldbetattooedovertheirheart.Well,okay,maybethat’sgoingalittlefar.

Tattoosaren’tabadexample,though.Someoneorsomethinghadtobeprettyinspiringorconvincingtogetthemtoemblazonasymbolpermanentlyontheirbody.

Howcanyoubethatconvincing?Therearetwomajorstrategiesforansweringthe“why”ofyourthesis:arguingthroughlogicandconvincingthroughemotion.

ArgumentationWecanthinkofaconstructed“argument”notsomuchasanadversarialendeavor,butasearchforthetruthofamatter.JustasSupremeCourtjusticesarechargedwithlisteningtoallevidencebeforecomingtoaconclusionthatwillbestservetheRepublic,youmayassumethatyourreaderisseekingthemostreasonableperspectivetotake,basedonallthefacts.

Yourjob,then,asthewriterofanargument,istopresentthereaderwiththeargumentsandevidencesupportingboth(orall)perspectivesandreasonoutwhyyourthesisisthemostlogicalconclusion.Thetoneofsuchwritingisdispassionateandobjective;reasonisking.

Acommonmistakeaboutwritingargumentationispresentingonlytheargumentsthatsupporttheopinionyouwantyouraudiencetoadopt.Thatapproachislesseffective,becausethereader’smindnaturallyjumpstologicalobjectionsandcounter-arguments,andifthosedoubtsarenotaddressed,thereaderremainssuspiciousandthereforeunconvinced.Whenyoucontendwithallthepotentialobjections,however,thereader’smindissatisfiedandheorshecanrestcomfortablyinyourconclusion.

Anothercommonerrorinargumentationispresentingaweakenedargumentforopposingopinions,inhopesthatacursoryglanceatanddismissalofthe

counter-argumentswillsatisfythereaders’doubts.Mostreaderswillseethroughthisstrategy,though,andloserespectforboththewriterandtheargumentasaresult.Youwantyourthesistobestrongenoughtostanduptostrictcriticalscrutinyanddemonstratethatstrengthinyourargument.

Forthesereasons,argumentationisarigorousendeavor.Youusuallywon’tevenbegintoformulateathesisforsuchapaperuntilyou’vedoneextensiveresearch,becauseyou’llwanttobewell-educatedonthetopicbeforecomingtoanyconclusionsyourself.Thegoodnewsisthatyourprocessindecidingwhatyoubelieveisfodderforinformingyouraudience:onceyou’vedonethediscovery,youcanleadyourreadersonthepathyouyourselffollowedtotheconclusionthatfeelsnaturaltoyou.Ifyourownsearchwasthoroughenough,andifyouexpressitclearly,youraudiencewillbemorelikelytoagreewithyou,oratleasttorespectyouropinion.

Consideranargument,then,asincereefforttofindthe“truth,”oratleastthebestoptionforthesituationinquestion.

ToolsforArgumentation

Themosteffectivetoolinargumentationissolidsupportforeachaspectoftheargument.Youwillcreateanethosofcredibilitytotheextentyourreaderfindsyoutrustworthy.Tothisend,youwillneedtoconsiderboththeeffectivenessofthesourceformakingyourpoint(whetheritisaquote,facts,ordata),aswellasthereader’sperceptionofthesourceofthatinformation.

Reliableresearchhascertainmarkersthatmakeitcredible.Inaquantitativestudy,forexample,samplesizeisimportanttoensurethedataistrulyrepresentative.Datasaturationisakeyinqualitativeresearch.Anexampleofunreliableresearchwouldbetheclaim,“Votedbestfishtacointheworldthreeyearsinarow!”Whovoted?Thekitchenstaff?Thoughyoudon’thavetobearesearcheryourselftomakequalityarguments,youneedtolearnwheretolooktofindstudiesthatare,infact,reliable.Whichbringsustothenextpoint.You’llalsoneedtoassesstheperceivedreliabilityofthesource.StudiesfundedbycigarettecompaniesontheeffectsofcigarettesmokearelesslikelytofinddeleteriouseffectsthanstudiescommissionedbytheNationalInstitutesofHealth,oratleastwemightlogicallyassumethat.You’llwanttoavoidanyappearanceofbias,alongwithanyactualbias.Ifyourreaderperceivesyoursourcesasobjectiveandreliable,heorshewilltrustyouandbewillingtofollowyourargumenttoitsconclusion.

PersuasionIfyou’reless“Dr.Spock”andmore“CaptainKirk,”though,youmightbemoreinclinedtowardpersuadingyouraudiencetobelieveasyoudo.We’veallhadfriendswhocantalkusintoalmostanything.Howdotheydothat?Theygetusintroublebyeffectivelyproddingouremotions.

Yourintentions,ofcourse,willbenoble,butthetechniqueworkseitherway.

Persuasivewritingisaboutconvincingthereaderthatyouropinionistheoneheorsheshouldadopt.Thefocusisontheopinionitself,ratherthananycounter-arguments,andthereaderisled(orlured)stepbysteptofeelincreasinglymorecomfortablewiththethesis.Thetonecanbemoreaggressiveandpassionatethaninargumentation,becausethewriterisappealingtothereader’semotions,ratherthantothelogicalmind.

You’reinaplaneforthepurposeofskydivingwithyourdaredevilbuddy,butyou’veneverdoneitbeforeandyouarehesitanttojump.Yourfrienddoesn’tdiscussthepossibilityofyourlegbreakingorthechutenotopening.No,insteadyourfriendtalksofthethrillyou’llfeelasyousoarthroughtheair,theconfidenceitwillgiveyoutohavedonesomethingsodaring,andthebraggingrightsyou’llhaveonceyou’reontheground.Theremightbeastatisticortwothrowninabouthowfewpeoplegethurtskydiving,andtheremayevenbeawarningaboutwhatyou’llfeellikeifyoudon’tjump,butmostlyyourfriendistheretoinspire.

Naturally,youjump.

Howdoesonetranslatesuchproddingintowriting?It’sallaboutconvictionandanticipation.Yourfriendintuitedyourobjections,butratherthanmentioningthem,simplycounteredwithanaffirmationofthethesis(jumpingoutofairplanesisgreat).Thebenefitsofbelievingthiswayaregoingtomakeallcounterargumentsobsolete,soratherthanentertainthose,we’lljustkeepsteppinguptheemotionalpressuretoembracethethesis.

ToolsforPersuasion

Themosteffectivetoolsinpersuasivewritingareexamplesandsensoryimages.

Examples(illustrativestories)helpyourreaderidentifywithsomeoneexperiencingtheplightyoudescribe.Identificationwithanotherbeingisapowerfulpullontheemotions.“Thehomelessman,findingtheshelter

closedonceagainduetoovercrowding,castshiseyestothebustlingsidewalk,hopingsomeone,anyone,willcatchhiseyeandofferhelp,evenifit’sonlythefeelingofconnectiontoanotherhumanbeing.”Sensoryimages,unlikelogic,appealtoouremotionalcenter.Readingorhearinghowsomethinglooks,tastes,smells,sounds,orfeelscancreateavisceralresponseinus.“Hesighsandshufflesofftothetatteredoldrefrigeratorboxthatprovideslittleinsulationfromtheicygroundandreeksofthegarbagepiledinchesfromhisface.”

ChooseYourMethodYoumayhavecometotheconclusionthatanargumentativeessayisamoresophisticatedwayofgettingsomeonetoseeaparticularperspective.It’struethattheargumentisusuallyconsideredthemoreformalwritingstyle,buttherearecasesinwhichpathosmaybemoreappropriatethanlogos.Howdoyouknowwhichtochoose?

Audience-Knowtowhomyourwordswillbedirected.Areyourreadersmorelikelytobeswayedbypeer-reviewedresearchoremotionalappeals?Occasion-There’ssomethingtobesaidforgaugingtherighttimeforfactsandtheappropriatetimeforconviction.AreyouwritingaStateoftheUnionaddress,whereyou’rehopingtheaudiencewillleaptoitsfeetwithapplauseeveryfewparagraphs,orareyouexplainingtoyourboardofdirectorswhyyourcompanyshouldgopublicinsixmonths?Purpose-Similarly,you’llwanttokeeptheend-gameinmind.Askingyourreaderstotakeanimmediateactionmightrequireadifferentapproachthanaskingthemtopermanentlyaltertheirbeliefsystem.

Hereisanexampleoftheuseofapersuasivepieceofwriting.Doyouthinkitwouldhavebeenmoreeffectiveasalogicalargument?

TheBlackPantherParty’s1966TenPointProgramoutlineddemandsandbeliefsthattheorganizationbelievedwouldbegintorepairsomeofthedamageofslaveryandracismintheUnitedStates.Hereis#5fromthe“WhatWeWantNow!”section(notethateventheexclamationpointhintsatthepersuasivenatureoftheargument):

“WewanteducationforourpeoplethatexposesthetruenatureofthisdecadentAmericansociety.Wewanteducationthatteachesusourtruehistoryandourroleinthepresentdaysociety.”

Overadecadeearlier,ThurgoodMarshallhadpresentedapetitionalongthesamelinestotheSupremeCourt,onlyhechosetouseargumention:

Althoughheraisedavarietyoflegalissuesonappeal,themostcommononewasthatseparateschoolsystemsforblacksandwhiteswereinherentlyunequal,andthusviolatethe“equalprotectionclause”oftheFourteenthAmendmenttotheU.S.Constitution.Furthermore,relyingonsociologicaltests,suchastheoneperformedbysocialscientistKennethClark,andotherdata,healsoarguedthatsegregatedschoolsystemshadatendencytomakeblackchildrenfeelinferiortowhitechildren,andthussuchasystemshouldnotbelegallypermissible.

Thoughbothpleasrelatetoofferingastrongersystemofeducationforpeopleofcolor,thecontextforeachassertionwasdifferent.Onehadasanaudiencethegeneralpublic;theother,atleastinitially,spoketocourtjustices.TheoccasionofarguingbeforetheSupremeCourtrequiredMarshalltomakeaformalandobjectivecase,whereastheBlackPantherswereseekingadramaticshiftinthepublicperceptionofthestatusquo.Marshall’spurposewastobuildanargumentthatwouldstanduptoscrutinyfordecadesorevencenturiestocome,inanyinstanceofsocietalsegregation,andwhiletheBlackPantherswouldlikelyhaveagreedwiththatgoal,theirimmediatepurposewastolifttheveilofwhiteprivilege.

Youmightnotice,though,thatthereareelementsofpersuasivelanguageinMarshall’sargument:hespeaksof“atendencytomakeblackchildrenfeelinferior,”whichhintsatpathos.Thereasonwewouldn’tcategorizeitassuch,though,isbecauseheiscitingsociologicaldata:heispresentingthistendencyasafact,nottryingtomanipulatethecourt’semotions.

Similarly,theorganizationoftheBlackPanthers’TenPointProgrammightseemakintoalogicalargument,butthecontentof“WhatWeWantNow!”isgroundedinideasofrightandwrong,ratherthanobjectivedata.

So,impassionedpleaorreasonedargument,let’slookatthestepstocreation.

StepstoCreatinganArgument1. Consideryourtopic.Whataresomequestionsthatcomeupforyou

aboutthistopic?Whatdoyouexpecttofindasyouresearchit?Howmightpeopledisagreeaboutthetopic?

2. Researchthetopic.Findoutwhat’sbeingsaidaboutthetopiconbothorallsidesoftheissue.Lookattheprimarywritersorspeakers

championingeachperspectiveandallowyourselftimetomarinateineachoftheirideas.

3. Choosetheperspectiveyouagreewith.Havingreadmaterialrepresentingeachgeneralideaaboutthetopic,youwilllikelyfindyourselfagreeingwithoneoranother.Formulateapreliminarythesisstatementbasedonyourconclusions.

4. Gobacktotheliteraturetosupportyourthesisstatement,butbeopentochangingitifmoreinformationcomestolight.

5. Identifyeachcounterargument,findingthemostcogentresourcesforeach,andmakeyourbestargumentagainsttheseusingthemostapplicableandreliablesourcestosupportyourperspective.

6. Organizeyourpaperinawaythatwillmosteffectivelyanticipatethereader’smentaljourneythroughthetopic.

StepstoPersuasion1. Searchyourfeelingsforaresponsetothetopic.Whatkindofemotions

comeuparoundit?Whatisyourinitialgutreactiontoastatementforandastatementagainstthetopic?

2. Decidewhatyouwanttoconvinceothersaboutconcerningthisissue.Whatfeelsmeaningfultoyouconcerningthistopic?Createathesisstatementthatreflectsthisdesire.

3. Outlineanargumentbasedonwhatyoubelieveandfeel,thendiveintotheliteraturetofindoutwhatothershavehadtosayonthetopic.You’llwanttolookatobjectionstoyouropinionaswellassupportingevidenceinordertoanticipateyourreader’sthoughtprocess,evenifyouwon’tbeincludingallofthesereferencesinyourpaper.

4. Findorcreatestoriesandsensoryimagerythatwillspeaktothereader’semotions.

5. Organizeyourpaperinawaythatputsincreasingpressureonthereader’semotions.Often,thismeansbeginningwithimagerythatorientsthereadertothesituationandthenintensifyingthepathosasyougo.Keepcounterargumentsinmindaswell,asyouattendtoorganization.

Ifyouarecombiningtheapproaches,you’llwanttocreateyourpaperbasedonthestepstocreatinganargumentandthenincorporatesensoryimagery,stories,andimpassionedpleasintothestructureasappropriate—oftenintheintroductionandconclusion.

StructureoftheArgumentativeandPersuasiveEssayWhileyoucanuseargumentationandpersuasioninanytypeofwriting,acommonvenueistheessay,inwhichyou’reaskedtoarguefororagainstaposition.

Whiletherearenohardandfastrulestostructuringyouressay,therearesomegenerallyacceptedconventionsthatwillgiveyouaheadstartincreatingyourargumentandallowyoutofocusoncontent.

Introduction

Thinkoftheintroductionasaninvertedtriangle;afunnel.Youwanttobeginwithabroadintroductiontotherealmofthoughtandendwithaveryspecificthesisthattherestofthepaperwillprove.Thepurposehereistocapturethereader’sinterestandquicklymovehimorhertoanunderstandingofyourpointoffocus.

Introductorysentence.Thisiswhereyoucansparkyouraudience’sinterestinthetopic.Youcanusepathoshereormakeaboldstatementoffact,eitherofwhichcanserveasa“hook”tocapturethereader’sattention.Linkingsentence.Here,younarrowinonyourtopicmorespecifically.Again,youmaychoosetoaccomplishthisthroughimagery,astatementoffact,orbysimpleexplanation.Bytheendofthissentence(whichcouldactuallybeasmanysentencesasyouneedtoaccomplishthetask),youraudienceshouldknowtheproblemyouwishtoaddressandwhyit’simportant.Argument#1.Here,you’llpreviewthefirstargumentinfavorofyourthesis,whichyou’llexpoundoninthefirstbodyparagraph.Youhaven’tstatedyourthesisyet;thesethreesentenceswillleadyourreadertoitnaturally.Sothinkofthesethree(ormore)sentencesasprimingthepumpfortherushofclaritythatisyourthesisstatement.Argument#2.Again,thissentenceismerelyastatementofwhatyou’llexpoundoninthebodyofthepaper:thistime,inthesecondbodyparagraph.Argument#3.Here,you’resimplystatingtheargumentforthethirdbodyparagraph.Thesisstatement.Thethesisstatementshouldflownaturallyoutofthe

arguments(hence,thefunnelanalogy).Itshouldbeclear,concise,andone-sided.

BodyParagraphs

Eachoftheparagraphsinthebodyofyourpaperwillservethethesisstatement.Eachoftheseparagraphswillhaveitsownpointtoproverelatedtothethesis.Awell-structuredargumentwillgrowstrongerwitheachparagraph,whetherthetechniqueisargumentationorpersuasion.

Eachbodyparagraph(andthreetofiveparagraphsforabodyarethestandardguideline)shouldcontain

Atopicsentence.Alsocalleda“sub-thesis,”thetopicsentenceisamainpointthatsupportsyourthesisstatement.Youcanrefertothethesisstatementinthissentencetoremindyouraudiencehowthismainpointrelatestoit.Evidentiarysentences.Hereiswhereyouofferevidenceandexplanationstosupporttheveracityofthetopicsentence.Ratherthanasimplelistingofsupportingevidence,though,you’llwanttoformacoherentparagraphlinkingeachitemthoughtfully.Phraseslike,“notonly,”“therefore,”“inadditionto,”and“moreover”arecommonlyfoundlinkingpiecesofevidenceinabodyparagraph.Concludingsentence.Here,youwilllinkthefirsttopicsentence—theoneyoujustgaveevidencefor—tothesecondtopicsentencewhichyouareabouttointroduce.Thinkofthissentenceasavitallinkofachain.Withoutit,youraudiencewillnotbeabletofollowyourlineofthought.Howdoesthepointyoujustprovedrelatetotheoneyou’reabouttoprove?

Counterarguments

Inanargumentativeessay,youcanincludecounterargumentparagraphseitherdirectlyafterthemainpointtheyattempttocontradict(therebygettingtheobjectionoutofthereader’smindrightaway),oryoucanentertaincounterargumentsinaseriesofbodyparagraphsafteryourmainpointssupportingthethesis.Thestructuremimicsthebodyparagraphsbutinsteadofofferingevidenceforthetopicsentence,youareofferingevidencedisprovingthecounterargument.

Persuasiveessaysgenerallydonotentertaincounterarguments.

Conclusion

Justastheintroductionbeganbroadlyandendedwiththespecificpointofthethesis,yourconclusionwillbeginwiththethesisandbroaden.Ideally,itwillalsolinkbacktotheimageryorfactsthatbegantheintroduction.Suchlinkingworkswiththereader’smemorytocreateasatisfyingfeelingofcompletion.

Restatementofthethesis.Inthisfirstconcludingsentence,youremindthereaderofthethesisstatementyouhavenowgivenevidencefor.Commonlead-insforthissentencearephraseslike,“Itisclearnowthat…,”“Wehaveseenhow…”and“Giventhepreponderanceofevidence…”Summaryofthemainpoints.Here,you’llrestatethemainpointsofyourargument.Youcanpresenttheminadifferentwayherethaninthebodyofthepaper,perhapsbycombiningthemorincorporatingthemintoastoryorimage.Broadeningstatement.Thisiswhereyoucanlinkbacktothefirstsentenceoftheintroductoryparagraph.Hasthesadimageyouledwithfoundahappyendingwithyourthesisinplace?Mightthedisturbingfactsturnaroundbasedonfollowingyourmainpoints?

Keepinmindthatwhileyoudon’twanttosoundlikeyou’refollowingascriptoraformulaandsimplyplugginginyourtopic,usingastructurecanallowyourcreativitytoshinebyallowingyoutofocusoncontent.

Havefunwithyourargument!Playwiththeideasuntilyoufeelasparkignite.Comeatitfromvariousanglesandsurpriseyourreaderwithnewperspectives.Arguingyourpositioncanbebotheffectiveandenjoyable—bothforyouandyouraudience.

8.2.2:Classification

Classificationisamethodofcreatingbetterunderstandingofasubjectbyidentifyingthecategoriestowhichitbelongs.

LearningObjective

Determinethepurposeandstructureofclassification.

KeyPoints

Thepurposeofclassifyingistorevealinasubjectwhatmightremainobscuredifleftuncategorized,inordertoknowthesubjectmorecompletely.Theclassificationsystemselectedindicatesthemeaningthewriterwantstorevealaboutthesubject.Initialbrainstormingandsubsequentresearchareimportantstepsinselectingasystemofclassificationforasubject.Theintroductiontoaclassificationessayincludesanextendeddefinitionofthesubject,identifiestheclassificationsystemandcategories,andexplainswhythisexerciseofclassifyingwillenhancethereader’sunderstandingofthesubject.

KeyTerms

mindmap

Anartisticrepresentationofthoughtpatterns,createdduringbrainstormingaroundaspecifictopic.Therepresentationusuallyincludeslineslinkingcircledconcepts,withsubcategorylinklinesemergingfromlargercategorycircles.

classifying

Arrangingthings,ideas,orpeopleintogroupsbasedoncertaincharacteristics.

classification

Theprocessofclassifyingsomethingaccordingtosharedqualitiesorcharacteristics.

WhyClassify?Wespendmostofourtimetryingnottofallintothetrapofstereotypingand“pigeon-holing,”soasnottolimitthepotentialofapersonorthing.Afterall,aren’twesupposedtobelookingforoursimilarities,ratherthanourdifferences?

Well,yes,ofcourse,andyettherearetimeswhenidentifyingwhatcategoriesaperson,agroup,aphenomenon,orathingmightfallintocancreateabetterunderstandingofit—andevenofthewhole.

Ourpurposeinclassifyingistorevealwhatmightotherwiseremainobscured,whichcanhelpusknowsomethingmorecompletely.

Takelove,forexample.Wecantakeitasawholeconceptandrevelinitsconsistency;itssameness;itsconsistenteffects.There’snothingwrongwiththat.Andyet,ifwewanttoreallyunderstandlove,webegintosussoutitsnuancesandintuitvarioustypesoflove.Weseethatromanticloveisonething,butthelovebetweenaparentandchildhassomedifferentqualities.Andtheloveofadivinebeingseemstodifferfromthehumanlovewegenerallyexperience.Evenlovebetweenadoganditsmasterhasuniquequalities.Oh,andthenthere’steacher-studentloveandthekindofloveyoufeelfortheworldwheneverythingisgoingwell,andwhatabouttheloveofself?

Examininganythingcantakeyoudownasimilarpath.Youcouldcategorizepeoplebycommonbehavioraltraits;horsesbyphysicalattributes;chairsbystyle;windbyspeeds;treesbyleafshape.

Ofcourse,youcouldalsocategorizepeoplebybeliefsystems;horsesbytemperament;chairsbycomfortlevel;windbydirection;andtreesbyrootstructure.Andhereinliesthekeytoclassification:choiceofsystem.

ChoiceofClassificationSystem

Remember,yourpurposeinclassifyingistoilluminatethepartstobetterunderstandthewhole.Youcanthinkofselectingasystemofclassification,then,aschoosingyourmagnifyingperspective.Whatkindsofthingsdoyouwanttoreveal?Andwhy?

Let’sgetbacktoloveforamoment.Whatpurposesmightitservetoclassifylovebytype?Well,asareaderIwilllikelywanttoseeifIcanfindeachkindofloveinmyownlifeexperience.Thatmightbehelpfultoseewheretheremightbegaps.IfIdon’thaveachild,andIfeelasenseoflongingwhenIreadabout“storge,”andtheempathybond,ImightidentifyaneedIdidn’trealizeIhad.Orif,whenIreadabout“eros,”Irollmyeyes,ImightdiscoverhowcynicalIhavebecomebecauseofmylastfailedrelationship.C.S.Lewis’scategorizationsoflove,then,mightassistthereaderindiscerningthetypesofloveonecanidentifyinone’sownlifeandthetypesthatmaybemissing.Psychologicalorspiritualgrowtharepossibleresultsfromthisillumination.

Anotherwaytocategorizelovemightbethevariouswayspeopletendtofeelloved.Somepeopletendtofeellovedwhentheyreceivedgifts,otherswhentheirpartnergivesthemwordsofaffirmation.Physicaltouch,actsofservice,andqualitytimeareotherindicatorsforpeoplethatthey’reloved.Findingoutwhichofthesewaysspeakmosttoyoucanhelpyouaskforwhatyouneed,

andquizzingyourpartneraboutthecategoriescanberevelatory,assistingyouinknowinghowbesttocommunicatelovetohimorher.GaryChapman’sworkcategorizingexpressionsoflove,then,canaffectthequalityofrelationships.

YoucanseethatchoosingbyLewis’categorizationssystemorChapman’s,youwillbelayingbaredifferentaspectsofthephenomenonoflove.Andsomuchoftheworkthatgoesintoacategorizationessay,oranycategorizationeffort,willbeintheidentificationofthesystem.

StepstoChoosingaClassificationSystem(Pre-writing)

Sinceit’ssuchanimportantpartofclassification,let’stakealookathowonemightbegintoselectaclassificationsystem.

SmallFurryMammals

Brainstormingthevariousclassificationsystemsyoursubjectcouldbecategorizedundercanhelprevealwhichyoumightfindthemostmeaningfulandelucidating.

SmallFurryMammalsClassificationBrainstorm

1. Brainstorm.Onewayistobeginwithyourownbrain.Havingchosenatopic(letsgowithfurrymammalsthistime),simplystartbrainstormingonyourownorwithfriendsabouthowthetopiccouldbebrokendown.Youmightchoosetocreateamindmapforthisprocess,asitwillthenbeeasytosee,whenyou’refinished,wheremostofyourthoughtscentered.

2. Dosomeresearch.Choosethebrainstormedcategorythatmostinterests

youanddoaninitialsearchtoseewhatotherdivisionsexistinthatcategory.Forexample,ifyouwanttowriteaboutthegroupingtypesofsmallfurrymammals,you’llwanttofindoutwhatscientistscallthis,andthenamestheyuseforeachcategory.Ifyou’restillinterestedinthiscategorizationsystem,youcanmoveontothenextstep,andifyou’renot,yourresearchcanleadyouinanewdirection.

3. Selectthethree(orso)mostapplicablecategoriestouseforyourtopic.Threecategoriesisageneralguideline,soyoumayneedtogroupcategoriestogetheriftherearemore,e.g.mammalswholiveinfamilygroupswouldincludebothmammalswhomateforlifeandthosethatlivetogetherwhentheoffspringaregrowing.Youcantalkaboutthedistinctionsintheparagraphforthatcategory,ifnecessary.

4. Checkyourcategoriestobesuretheydoindeedexistinthesamecategorizationsystemandaredistinctfromoneanother.Forexample,ifyouarecategorizingwoodlandcreaturesbyhabitat,you’llbechoosingwhat“habitat”means.Therecanbetree-dwellingmammalswholiveintherainforestandtree-dwellingmammalswholiveinthedessert,andstillmoreinwoodlandareas;soyouwouldn’twant“tree-dwelling”and“rainforest”tobepresentedastwodifferentcategoriesinthesamesystem.

5. Placeyoursubjectintothecategoriesyou’veselectedandseehowtheyfall.Dothesecategoriesshedlightonthesubjectasawhole?How?Whyisitinterestingandimportanttolookatthesubjectthroughthelensofthiscategorizationsystem?Onceyouanswerthosequestions,you’rereadytowriteyourpaper.

StructureoftheClassificationEssayIntroduction

You’llgenerallybeginyouressaywithanextendeddefinitionofthetopicandadescriptionoftheclassificationsystemyou’lluse.Thiswillleadtoyourthesisstatement,whichwill:

identifywhatyouwillbeclassifying(abriefreminderofthetopicyou’vedefined),explaintheclassificationsystemyouwilluse,listthecategoriesyou’veselected,andexplainwhythisclassificationsystemisimportanttothereader’sunderstandingofthetopic.

BodyParagraphs

Eachbodyparagraphwillbecenteredaroundoneofthecategoriesfromtheclassificationsystem.You’llwanttochooseanorderforthebodyparagraphsthatmakesthemostsensetoyou.Youmaychoosetopresentthecategoriesinorderofimpact,orfrommostimportanttoleastimportant,orfromleastsurprisingtomostsurprising.Ifyouwerethereader,whichorderwouldbethemostconvincing?

Bodyparagraphsinclude

anexplanationofthecategoryhowthetopicfitsintothecategory,andwhatmakesthiscategorizationmeaningful

Conclusion

Inthefinalparagraph,you’llwanttobringthepartsyou’vejustcreatedbackintotheirstatusasawhole.Hereiswhereyoulayoutthemeaningyou’veshedonthetopicbyputtingitintocategories.Whatmoredowenowknowaboutsmall,furrymammalsnowthatwe’veseenthevarietyoftheirhabitats?Mightitsaysomethingaboutevolution?Abouttheiradaptability?Abouttheirusefulnessasresearchsubjects?You’llwanttoconsidertheinterestsofyouraudiencehere.

Aswithmostessays,yourconclusionwillbelikeaninvertedfunnel:

startingwitharestatementofthethesis,broadeningtodiscussthemeaningofthefindings,thenmakingamoregeneralstatementthatrelatesbacktotheintroduction’sopening.

Classificationessayscanbequiteusefulinclarifyingconceptsandrevealingasubject’sdeepermeaningifthepaperiswell-constructed.Thekeysareselectingaclassificationsystemandcategoriesthatarecoherentandclearlyrevealingtherelevanceofeachcategorytothewhole.

8.2.3:CauseandEffect

Therhetoricalmode“causeandeffect”isusedtolinkaneventwithitsconsequences.

LearningObjective

Determinethepurposeandstructureofcauseandeffect.

KeyPoints

Therhetoricalmode“causeandeffect”isusedtolinkanaction,event,ordecision,withitsconsequences.Inlinkingcauseswitheffects,itisimportanttoexaminerootcausesandtoavoidlabelingcoincidentaloccurrencesascauses.Theorganizationapproachtocauseandeffectessayswilldescribethesubjectoftheessayandexamineeitheritscausesoritseffects.Theresultofreadinganeffectivecauseandeffectessaywillbetoseelinksbetweenpreviouslyunlinkedeventsandtofindlinksbetweenthesubjectoftheessayandbroaderphenomena.

KeyTerm

causeandeffect

Arelationshipbetweeneventswhereonecreatesorinitiatestheother.

JustBecauseTherhetoricalmode“causeandeffect”isusedtolinkanaction,event,ordecision,withitsconsequences.Itanswersthequestion,“WhyX?”with“XbecauseY.”

Weusecauseandeffectthinkingallthetime;it’sthewayourbrainsfunction.Welookforpatternsandlinkageseverywhere.

Mystomachisupset.IbetitwasthefishIhadforlunch.Ihadafunnyfeelingaboutit,butIjustaddedmorelemonjuiceandateitanyway.That’llteachmenottolistentomyintuition!

Wetalktooneanotheraboutcausesandeffectsallthetime,too:

Nikki’smiddlefingersonherrighthandaredeformedbecausetheywerebrokenwhenshewaselevenyearoldandhersisterslammedthepianotopdown.That’swhyshelookedatyoufunnywhenyousaiditmustbenicetohavesiblings.

Sometimes(somewouldsayfartoooften),weevenlinkeffectstothewrongcause:

Ihavetowearmyredblazertothegamethisafternoon!I’vewornittothelastthreegames,andtheywoneverytime.Thetimebeforethat,itwastoohotandIdidn’tweartheblazer,andtheylostbythreepoints.Ishouldn’thaveletthemdownlikethat.Neveragain!

PurposeofCauseandEffectExposition

Youcanusecauseandeffectasthebasisofanessayorasaclarificationtoolinanywriting.Mysterynovelsareoftenbasedonfiguringoutthecauseofaparticularundesirableeffect.

Whymakelinksbetweencausesandeffectsinyourwriting?

toclearlyidentifylinkagesbetweenaneventanditsconsequencetoestablishaprecedentthatwillinformfuturedecision-makerstobetterunderstandthenuancesofaphenomenon’sevolution

CommonPitfallsinLinkingCauseandEffect

Whateveryourpurpose,youwillwanttoavoidthefollowing:

Mistakingcoincidenceforcauseandeffect.Justbecausetwoitemshappenedatthesametimeorplace,orbecauseonefollowedtheother,doesn’tmeanthatoneeventcausedtheother.Remembertheredblazerexample,above.Misattributionofcause.Inasimilarvein,sometimeswecanmakeattributeaneffecttoacausethatisrelatedtotheactualcausebutmaynotbethecause(orisn’tthewholestory).Forexample,youmayassertthatcashdepletioninyourbankaccountisduetothehighcostofgas,butthereasonyouhavespentsomuchongasisbecauseyou’vetakenseveralextratripssincebuyingthecar.Youcouldargueforeitherreason,butifthereisarelatedcauselikethisthatyouchoosenottoaddress,yourargumentwillbeinsincereandweak.

OrganizationoftheCauseandEffectEssay

Youhaveaninitialchoicetomakeinyourcauseandeffectessay:whichisyourfocus?Youmightchoosetofocusononeeffect(e.g.,Hitler’srisetopowerinthe1940s)andexploreitspossiblecauses:

Effect

Youmaywishtoexaminethemultiplereasonsaphenomenonoccurred.

Examiningthecausesofaphenomenon.

Anotheroptionistoexplorethemultipleeffectsofoneevent,action,ordecision.

Cause

Youmaywishtoexaminethevariouseffectsofaparticularphenomenon.

Theeffectsofaparticularevent.

Forclarificationpurposes,wewillidentifythesubjectasthephenomenoninthecircleontheleftsideofthegraphic,eithertheonecauseortheoneeffect.

Introduction

Beginwithasensoryimagehavingtodowiththesubjectofyouressay(whichcouldbeeithercauseoreffect).Hereisanexamplefromanessaythatwillgoontolink“TheTroubles”inNorthernIreland,whichendedwiththemurderofRobertMcCartney,toaseriesofdecisionstomilitarizeeffortsatIrishreunification:

BridgeenHagansstoodbleary-eyedatthedoor,tryingtounderstandwhattheBelfastpolicemanwasexplaining:Herfiance,RobertMcCartney,hadbeenslitfromchesttostomachbymembersoftheProfessionalIrishRepublicanArmy.Therewouldbenowedding.

Linktheimagetotheeffect(s)thatwillbeexamined.

Over3600peoplediedinthe30-yearspanofTheTroublesinNorthernIreland.

Linktheeffecttotheevent(s),decision(s),oraction(s)yourpaperwilldiscuss.

Thoughtheconflictisofficiallydatedfrom1968-1998,severaldecisionsbothbeforeandafterthesedatescomprisethereasonsbehindthedeaths:decisionstomilitarizepoliticalactiongroups

Expoundonthespecificevent(s),decision(s),oraction(s)yourpaperwillfocuson:

Wewilllookspecificallyattheoriginsoftheconflictdatingallthewaybackto1609,withtheScottishandEnglishsettlementofIreland,theCivilAuthoritiesActof1922,andthecivilrightsmarchinDerryin1968.Wewillalsoexaminethepost-GoodFridayAgreementviolenceresultingfrommilitarization.

Transitiontoyourthesisstatementbyexposingthepurposeofexaminingtheselinkages.

IntheinterestoflastingpeaceinIrelandandaroundtheworld,itisimperativetounderstandtherootsofitsundoing.ByidentifyingthecausesofTheTroubles,wecanbegintopinpointtheprecursorsofmortalconflictbetweencultures.

BodyParagraphs

Yourfirstbodyparagraphwilldescribeyoursubject(thecause,ortheeffect,dependingonyourorganization).Yourreaderwillneedtofullyunderstandwhatitisyouareattemptingtoexplainoridentify:

Mostclimatescientistsagreethemaincauseofthecurrentglobalwarmingtrendishumanexpansionofthe“greenhouseeffect”—warmingthatresultswhentheatmospheretrapsheatradiatingfromEarthtowardspace.Certaingasesintheatmosphereblockheatfromescaping.Long-livedgasesthatremainsemi-permanentlyintheatmosphereanddonotrespondphysicallyorchemicallytochangesintemperaturearedescribedas“forcing”climatechange.Gases,suchaswatervapor,whichrespondphysicallyorchemicallytochangesintemperatureareseenas‘feedbacks.’

Subsequentbodyparagraphs,exceptforthefinalbodyparagraph,willeachbededicatedtothecausesoreffectsyouwillbeexamining(thecausesofthephenomenonyouhavejustdescribedortheeffectsoftheevent/decision/actionyouhavejustdescribed).Bodyparagraphscanbeorganizedbytheimpactyouanticipatetheywillhaveonthereader(oftenfromlessdramatictomost),orinchronologicalorder.Choosetheorderthatwillmakethemostsense,bothlogicallyandemotionally,tothereader.

Watervapor.Themostabundantgreenhousegas,butimportantly,itactsasafeedbacktotheclimate.WatervaporincreasesastheEarth’satmospherewarms,butsodoesthepossibilityofcloudsandprecipitation,makingthesesomeofthemostimportantfeedbackmechanismstothegreenhouseeffect.

Carbondioxide(CO2).Aminorbutveryimportantcomponentoftheatmosphere,carbondioxideisreleasedthroughnaturalprocessessuchasrespirationandvolcanoeruptionsandthroughhumanactivitiessuchasdeforestation,landusechanges,andburningfossilfuels.HumanshaveincreasedatmosphericCO2concentrationbymorethanathirdsincethe

IndustrialRevolutionbegan.Thisisthemostimportantlong-lived“forcing”ofclimatechange.

Methane.Ahydrocarbongasproducedboththroughnaturalsourcesandhumanactivities,includingthedecompositionofwastesinlandfills,agriculture,andespeciallyricecultivation,aswellasruminantdigestionandmanuremanagementassociatedwithdomesticlivestock.Onamolecule-for-moleculebasis,methaneisafarmoreactivegreenhousegasthancarbondioxide,butalsoonewhichismuchlessabundantintheatmosphere.

Nitrousoxide.Apowerfulgreenhousegasproducedbysoilcultivationpractices,especiallytheuseofcommercialandorganicfertilizers,fossilfuelcombustion,nitricacidproduction,andbiomassburning.

Chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs).Syntheticcompoundsentirelyofindustrialoriginusedinanumberofapplications,butnowlargelyregulatedinproductionandreleasetotheatmospherebyinternationalagreementfortheirabilitytocontributetodestructionoftheozonelayer.Theyarealsogreenhousegases.

Thefinalbodyparagraphwilldescribethesignificanceoftherelationshipbetweenthesubjectandthecauses/effectsjustdiscussed.

OnEarth,humanactivitiesarechangingthenaturalgreenhouse.Overthelastcenturytheburningoffossilfuelslikecoalandoilhasincreasedtheconcentrationofatmosphericcarbondioxide(CO2).ThishappensbecausethecoaloroilburningprocesscombinescarbonwithoxygenintheairtomakeCO2.Toalesserextent,theclearingoflandforagriculture,industry,andotherhumanactivitieshasincreasedconcentrationsofgreenhousegases.

Conclusion

Yourconclusionwilloffer:

abriefsummaryofyourpointslinkingcause(s)andeffect(s)anindicationofwhytheselinkagesareimportant,andtowhom,andalinkbacktotheintroductoryparagraph’simagery,ifappropriate.Thefollowingexampleistheconclusiontoa2015articlebyFranciscaCarvajalandJoseManuelLerma-Cabrera:AlcoholConsumptionAmongAdolescents—ImplicationsforPublicHealth.

At1.8billion,adolescentsandyoungadultsrepresentmorethanaquarteroftheworld’spopulation.Manyhealth-relatedbehaviorsusuallystartinginadolescence(i.e.alcoholuse)contributetodiseaseinadulthood.Severalstudieshaveindicatedthataconsiderableamountofadolescentsdrinkalcohol,andthisnumberiscontinuallygrowing.Nevertheless,theincreaseinalcoholuseandabuseamongadolescentshasbeencoupledwithincreasingsocial,healthandeconomicconsequences.Adolescentswhodrinkalcoholmayexperiencearangeofadverseshort-andlong-termconsequences,includingphysicalandmentalhealthproblems,violentandaggressivebehavior,andadjustmentproblemsinschoolandathome.Clearly,underagedrinkinganditsconsequencespresentasignificantpublichealthproblemthatmustcommandourattention.

8.2.4:ComparisonandContrast

Effortsatcomparison-contrastlookatthecommonalitiesofanddifferencesbetweensubjectsincontextinordertodiscerndeepermeaningsthanmightotherwisebepossible.

LearningObjective

Determinethepurposeandstructureofcomparisonandcontrast.

KeyPoints

Thecomparison-contrastmethodisusedtoexposethesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweentwo(orsometimesmore)ideas.Thepointofcomparison-contrastistofindadeeperunderstandingofbothsubjectsandtheircontextthanyouwouldinlookingatthesubjectsalone.Youcancompareandcontrasttwosubjectsoneventerms,oryoucanuseonesubjectasalensthroughwhichtoviewtheother.Thecontextforthecomparison/contrastisasimportanttoexamineandexplainasthesubjects.PrewritingexercisesusingVenndiagramsorchartscanbeespeciallyusefulforthistypeofessay.Researchonthecontextandbothsubjectsoftheessaywilldeepenyourthoughtprocessandbettergroundyourdiscussion.Bodyparagraphsinthecomparison/contrastessaycanbeorganizedinavarietyofways,dependinglargelyontheconclusionsyouwantyour

readertomake.Boththeintroductoryandconcludingparagraphsofthecomparison/contrastessayneedtoincludeexplanationsofandlinksbetweenthecontextandsubjectsofstudy.

KeyTerm

comparison-contrast

Amethodofinvestigatingatopicbycomparingtwoormoresubjectstodiscerntheirsimilaritiesanddifferencesinaparticularcontextualframe.

ThisandThatThecomparison-contrastrhetoricalmethodisusedtoexposethesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweentwoormoreideas,resultinginadeeperunderstandingofbothideasandtheirrelationship.Noticethatwe’retalkingaboutideashere,ratherthan“things,”or“texts.”That’sbecausetheunderlyingtheme,evenwhencomparingtwotextsortwothings,isalwaysabouttheideastheyrepresent.

Comparingandcontrastingarecommonactivitiesourmindsplaywithallthetime.Likeobjectsinspace,wearedrawntooneanotheralmostgravitationallyandwanttoknowhowweareallalikeanddifferent.

Knowing(oratleastthinkingabout)howourbehavior,ourattitudes,ourideas,andourdreamsmatchuptootherpeople’shelpsusmakedecisions.Wemaydecidetotrynewthingsbasedonculturalpatterns,orwemightchoosetobuckthetrendsinfavorofinnerdirectives.Eitherway,though,thisconstant,subtlewonderingabouthowwematchuptootherskeepsourbrainsbusy:forbetterorworse.

Whenweusethiscapacityforcomparisonintherealmofideas,ourintellectsparkstolife.Diversityofopinionandthoughtiswhatperpetuatesintellectualevolution.Exposuretotwoideasthatmayberadicallyoronlysubtlydifferentisexcitingtothemind.Wewanttodiscernexactlyhowtheseideasdiffer,whattheyhaveincommon,andwhichmightbethebetteroptiontochooseinagivencontext.

Youhaveanauntwho’sgoneprematurelygrayandwearsherlonglocksproudly.Hermother(yourgrandmother),however,continuouslydiesherhairvariousshadesofpurple—violetoneweek,indigothenext—andrelishesthewide-eyedwondersheseesinhergrandchildren’seyes.“You’rewhatever

ageyouwanttobe!”shelaughs,whileherdaughter,youraunt,rollshereyesandretorts,“Youneedtoacceptyourbodyandyourselfforwhoyouarenow.”

There’snothinginherentlywrongwitheitheridea,right?Butyourmindwillwanttochoose.That’sitsnature.Theexerciseofcomparingandcontrastingmakesthisprocessconscious,turning“judging”into“discernment.”Intheend,youmightdecidethatbothgrandmotherandaunthavehituponimportantwisdomthat,thoughdifferentonthesurface,bothspeakdeeplytotheideaoffreedom.

Comparison-contrastessaysdistinguishthemselvesbytheirdiscernmentcapability.Whenlookingatbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenideas,weareexaminingthemwithmorecareandrigorthansomeothermethodsrequire.Lookingatazebraanddescribingitgivesyouonelevelofinformation,whilecomparingitssimilaritiesanddifferencestoahorsegivesyouanotherlevel:morenuancedandspecific.

HowtoRecognizeanInvitationtoCompareandContrast

Inanacademicsetting,youmightbeassignedacomparison-contrastessayoutright,butyoumightalsobeaskedtocompareandcontrastusingsubtlerlanguage.Herearesomeexamples:

Discusstheroleof“thestranger”aspresentedinD.H.Lawrence’sSnakeandJ.Rumi’sTheGuestHouse.(Here,you’rebeingaskedtocomparetwopoemsusingaparticularlens.)TennesseeWilliamssaidthat“We’reallofussentencedtosolitaryconfinementinsideourownskins…Personallyricismistheoutcryfromprisonertoprisonerfromthecellinsolitarywhereeachisconfinedforthedurationofhislife.”HowdothecharactersofBlancheDubois,andLauraWingfieldembodyboththesolitaryconfinementmetaphorandtheoutcrytootherprisoners?(Inthispaper,you’llbeusingtwocharactersfromdifferentplaystodelveintoameaningfulcommentbytheircreator.)Howdothedualthemesofsocio-economicstatusandpersonalinnocencecompetetocreatetheprimaryconflictinJohnKnowles’sASeparatePeace?(Thisisaquestionrelatingtotwoplotthreadsandtheireffectsontheclimaxofthestory.)MinaLoy,theninFlorence,Italy,wrotetothefeministmovementin1914,“Ceasetoplaceyourconfidenceineconomiclegislation,vice-

crusades,anduniformeducation—youareglossingoverReality(sic).Professionalandcommercialcareersareopeningupforyou—Isthatallyouwant?”Howmighthercommentsbemoreorlessapplicabletothefeministmovementofthe1970sandtowomen’sissuesinpresentday?(You’rebeingaskedtore-contextualizecriticismofaparticularmovementintwodifferenttimeperiods.)Whichofthecurrentlyavailabletypesettingmachinerywouldbeappropriatepurchasesforanewlyincorporated,mid-sizedprintingcompany?(Eveninbusinesssettings,you’llneedtouseeffectivecompare-contrastmethods;inthiscase,comparingmachinerybasedonavarietyoffactorsimportanttoanewbusiness.)Ofthebrassicas,whicharethemostlikelytothriveinlowpHsoilswithhighlevelsofmicronutrients?(Thoughwe’reinthefieldofbotanynow,you’restillbeingaskedtocompareagroupofthingsinaparticularcontext.)

Youcanseethatcomparison-contrastworksinavarietyofdifferentenvironments.Inageneralsense,anytimeyou’reaskedtoevaluatetwoormorethingsinonecontext,you’rebeingaskedtousethisstrategy.

TypesofComparison-ContrastEssays

Theclassiccomparison-contrastessaygivesequaltimeandequalemphasistobothoftwosubjects.Youusethistypeofessaytodiscernsimilaritiesanddifferences,butalsotorevealsurprisingrevelationsabouttheirrelationship.

Akeyholeessayusesonesubjectastheframetolookattheothersubject.Lookingatthewomen’ssuffragemovementthroughthelensofthewomen’sliberationmovementwouldbeanexample.Thiskindofessayyieldsmorespecializedinformationthanmightotherwisebefound.

HowtoCompareandContrastPrewriting

TheVenndiagramisausefultoolwhenapproachingacomparison-contrastessay.Simplycreatetwooverlappingcirclesandbeginputtinginthesimilaritiesyouseeintheoverlappingsectionandthecontrastingpiecesintheseparatedsections.Dothisasabrainstorm,withoutworryingaboutwhetheritemsareparallelorimportantenoughtobe

analyzed.Thatcomeslater.

Comparing/ContrastingPoems

YoucanuseaVenndiagramorachartortabletobrainstormandrecordyourinitialideasabouthowthesubjectsarealikeanddifferent.

Thevenndiagramcompares“WhereI’mFrom”byGeorgeEllaLyonand“TheLanyard”byBillyCollins.Thelistofitemsuniqueto“WhereI’mFrom”include“varietyofchildhoodevents,”“poignancy,”“varietyofobjectsasimagery,”and“ancestors.”Thelistofitemstouniqueto“TheLanyard”include“specificchildhoodevent,”“humor,”“specificobjectasmetaphor,”and“mother.”Theshareditemsinclude“toneofgratitude,”“phraserepetition,”“reflectingonchildhood,”and“placenames.”

Atable/chart/graphexercisesimilarlyhelpsyouorganizeyourideasandresearch.

GreatDivergence-1550-1850

Layingoutthesimilaritiesanddifferencesingraphortableformcangiveyouthevisualyourbrainneedstoformulateacoherentcomparisonbetweensubjects.

Thechartcomparesthe“EuropeanEconomy”andthe“AsianEconomy.”Theitemsuniquetothe“EuropeanEconomy”include“increasinglyhigherwagesforunskilledlabor1550-1850,”“colonizationexpandedresources,”and“state-enforcedlegaltradecontracts.”Theitemsuniquetothe“AsianEconomy”include“fallingwagesforunskilledlabor1550-1850,”“resourcesdwindledinsomeareas(notinIndia,butthentheywerecolonized,”and“honor-basedtradeagreementsnotenforcedbygovernment.”Thecommonitemsinclude“coalmining,”“literacyrates,”“constraintsonnativeresources,”“self-rule(exceptforIndiapost-EastIndiaCo.),and“tradingnetworks.”

Research

You’llnaturallywanttolearneverythingyoucanaboutthesubjectsyou’reworkingwith—thetwoormorethingsyou’recomparingandcontrasting.Butjustasimportantisresearchaboutthecontextyou’recomparingthemin.

Forexample,indiscussingtheroleof“thestranger”inbothD.H.Lawrence’sSnakeandJ.Rumi’sTheGuestHouse,yourcontextistheconceptof“thestranger.”Youcanresearchpsychologicalandsociologicalviewsaboutstrangersandfears;religiousspiritualideasandimageryspeculatingaboutwhatthepresenceofastrangermightindicate.Youcangodeeperandlookup

theJungianconceptof“shadow”andexplorewhatotherphilosophersandpsychologistshavepostulated.Youcouldevenfindotherliteraryreferencestostrangersandshadowstogetanideaofhowtheconcepthasbeentreatedovertime.

StructureoftheComparison-ContrastEssayIntroduction

Theintroductionwillincludeexpositionof

thecontextforthecomparison,adescriptionofthesubjects,therationaleforchoosingthesubjectsyou’vechosen,andthethesisstatement,whichneedstomaketherelationshipbetweensubjectsclear(oftenbeginningwiththeword,“while”or“whereas”).

TheBodyParagraphs

Bodyparagraphscanbeorganizedbyexaminingeachsubjectoneatatime:

SubjectA

Point1Point2Point3

SubjectB

Point1Point2Point3

Thiswayoforganizingcanbeespeciallyusefulifyouaredescribingtopicsthatmaybedifficulttounderstandandneedacohesivedescription.Itsdownfallisthatthecompare/contrastsectionthatfollowscaneithergetrepetitious(becauseyou’llhavetorepeatpointsyou’vealreadymade)orlookmorelikealistthanacoherentdiscussion.

Youcouldchooseaparagraphbyparagraphcomparisonofthesubjects:

Point1

SubjectASubjectB

Point2

SubjectASubjectB

Point3

SubjectASubjectB

Thisisacommonmethodoforganization,withtheadvantageofbeingabletopresentyourpointsandyoursubjectcomparisonstogether.Thedisadvantageisthatswitchingbackandforthbetweensubjectscangettediousorconfusingforthereaderifthewritingiseithertoorepetitiousorunclear.

Anotherorganizationoptionistofirstcompareandthencontrast.

PointA(Similarity)

SubjectASubjectB

PointB(Similarity)

SubjectASubjectB

PointC(Difference)

SubjectASubjectB

PointD(Difference)

SubjectASubjectB

Inthisway,youareemphasizingthedifferences,sinceyouleavethemfor

last,soifyouwantthemainthrustofyourpapertobethatthedifferencesrevealthecruxoftheissue,thisstyleoforganizationmaybethemostusefulapproach.Onedrawback,however,isthatinwaitingsolongtofindcontrasts,thereadermaygetalittlebored.

Howeveryouorganizethebodyofyourpaper,eachpointofyourargumentmustbelinkedbacktothethesis;eachpointmustshedlightontherelationshipofthesubjectstothecontextoftheargument.

Conclusion

Here,youwillsummarizeyourpointssuccinctlyinawaythatmakesitclearhowyourpointshaveprovenyourthesis.(E.g.,“Sowhileso-called“alternative”sourcesofpowerare,intheshortterm,moreexpensivethanmoreconventionaltypesofpower,itisclearthatincreasedseedmoneywilldecreasethesecostdifferencesandeventheplayingfield.Inthelongrun,thecost-benefitanalysissoclearlyfavorsrenewableenergy,thereisnoquestionofitssuperioritybothfiscallyandintermsofenvironmentalcost.”)

Aswithmostessays,youwillthenwanttobroadenyourpointandlinkbacktotheintroductoryparagraph,ifappropriate.

8.2.5:Definition

Therhetoricalmode“definition”explainsatermthatmaybecontentious,controversial,orambiguoussothattheaudienceandwriterdevelopacommonunderstandingoftheidea.

LearningObjective

Determinethepurposeandstructureofdefiniton.

KeyPoints

Inordertobeworthyofbeingdefinedinanessay,atermshouldbecomplex,withmeaningsthatcanbetracedhistoricallythatmightevenbecontroversial,andthatwillyieldimportantinsightuponexamination.Definitionsincludeanexplorationofthethinkingofotherscholarsonthetopic.Exploringthehistoryofwordsandphrasescangivethewriter,aswellasthereader,anewrespectforthelanguageanditsevolution.

KeyTerm

definition

Asarhetoricalmode,adetailedexplanationofatermandthewayitisbeingusedinaparticularcontext;possiblyincludinghistoricalusesandideasaboutthetermovertime.

What,Exactly,DoYouMean?Adefinitionessay,orthedefinitionportionofanessayorothertypeofwriting,guidestheaudiencetoacommonunderstandingofawordorconcept.Noneedtooverusethisform:youwon’twanttowasteyourreaders’timedefiningideasthatareinstandardusage.Attimes,though,therewillbesufficientvaguenessordisputearoundatermthatyou’llwanttoleadyourreadersthroughtheprocessofdefiningit.Andattimes,theexplorationofatermcanbebothtopicalandexciting!

TheDefinitionLitmusTest

Ofcourse,“vague”and“disputed”canexistinvariousdegrees,sohere’sawayforyoutodecidewhetherornottheideayou’reputtingforwardrequiresadefinition:

1. Isthetermcomplexenoughtoneedclarification?Theword“sentience,”forexample,appliedtophilosophy,wasoriginallyusedtodistinguishemotionfromreason,referringtotheformerexclusively.Ithasalsobeenapplied,throughmetaphysicsandevensciencefiction,asasynonymfor“consciousness”or“self-awareness,”andsometraditionsevenarguethattherearedegreesofsentience.

2. Istherecontentionaroundtheusageoftheterm?Tensionandconflictmakeforcompellingreading.Inordertotakethereader’stime,you’llwanttoaddressissuesfraughtwithcontention.Theideaofwhatconstitutesa“sentientbeing,”forexamplehasbeendisputedinrelationtohumanandanimalrights.Somesay“sentience”connotesanabilitytosufferandshouldindicatetheneedforprotection.Otherssaythattheabilitytocreateabstractionsisnecessaryforsentience,linkingittoconsciousnessandthereforeexcludinganimalsandfetusesinanyclassprotectedas“sentient.”

3. Doesthetermhaveastoriedhistory?Willtracingtheoriginoftheidea

offerinsightintotheusage(s)youareadvocating?Forexample,theword“sentience”comesfromtheLatinword,“tofeel”(sentire)asdistinctfrom“toreason.”InthehandsoflaterWesterners,itwasusedtoindicate“theabilitytoexperiencesensations,”whichoffersaslightvariation.Itthenenteredthemetaphysicalparlanceas“theabilitytohavesubjectiveexperience,”andsoon.

4. Willcreatingadefinitionmovethereadertowardanewunderstandingofabroaderissue?Whydoyouwanttodefinetheterm?You’llusuallyhaveamotivethatincludespersuadingotherstoadoptoneoranotherviewofthetopic.

SupportingYourPoints

Whilespeculationisnotunheardofindefinitionessays(youarepositinganopinion,afterall),thebulkofyouressaywillneedtobeundergirdedbysupportingdocuments:thewordsofotherthinkersonthetopic,researchdoneonthesubject,anddocumentationofthevariousdefinitionsthathaveevolvedovertime.

StructureoftheDefinitionEssayIntroduction

You’llwantyourreadertoknowrightawaywhyyou’rechoosingtodefine(orre-define)thisterm.Youcanbeginwithasentencethatillustratestheimportanceoftheterm,thereasonitneedstobereexaminedatthistime,orevenitscontroversialnature.

Body

Inthebodyofthepaper,you’llneedtoaddresstheevolutionoftheterm,thecontroversyovertheterm,andthecomplexitiesthathavecausedconfusion.Here,wewillusetheSociology2etextonthedefinitionof“family,”byOpenStaxCNS,asanexampleforeach.Theyareintheorderinwhichtheyappearintheoriginal;notethattheorderinwhichtheauthorsaddressthenecessarypartsofthebodyparagraphisdictatednotbyanyparticularformbutbythewaytheyflowbestforthereader’sunderstanding.

Controversy-Noticethatinadditiontoreferencingdefinitionsthat

differentgroupsholdof“family,”theauthorslayouthowtheydefinefamilyinthistext.Theyalsofurtherdefinefamilybydistinguishingtypesoffamilies.Theycouldhavegoneontocreatemorecategories,butthetwomentionedherearesufficientforthisintroductiontotheconcept.

Thequestionofwhatconstitutesafamilyisaprimeareaofdebateinfamilysociology,aswellasinpoliticsandreligion.Socialconservativestendtodefinethefamilyintermsofstructurewitheachfamilymemberfillingacertainrole(likefather,mother,orchild).Sociologists,ontheotherhand,tendtodefinefamilymoreintermsofthemannerinwhichmembersrelatetooneanotherthanonastrictconfigurationofstatusroles.Here,we’lldefinefamilyasasociallyrecognizedgroup(usuallyjoinedbyblood,marriage,cohabitation,oradoption)thatformsanemotionalconnectionandservesasaneconomicunitofsociety.Sociologistsidentifydifferenttypesoffamiliesbasedonhowoneentersintothem.Afamilyoforientationreferstothefamilyintowhichapersonisborn.Afamilyofprocreationdescribesonethatisformedthroughmarriage.Thesedistinctionshaveculturalsignificancerelatedtoissuesoflineage.

Complexities-Here,theauthorsdelvedeeperintothemeaningof“family”byexploringtwoapproachestoitsdefinition:“interactionism”and“functionalism.”Noticethesupportingreferenceregardingthelatterlineofthought.Alsonoticethattheauthorsarenotaskingthereadertomakeachoicebetweenthesetwostreams(astheydidintheareaofcontroversy)butareembracingbothparadigmsasvalidandrelevantandincludingthembothintheirdefinition.

Drawingontwosociologicalparadigms,thesociologicalunderstandingofwhatconstitutesafamilycanbeexplainedbysymbolicinteractionismaswellasfunctionalism.Thesetwotheoriesindicatethatfamiliesaregroupsinwhichparticipantsviewthemselvesasfamilymembersandactaccordingly.Inotherwords,familiesaregroupsinwhichpeoplecometogethertoformastrongprimarygroupconnectionandmaintainemotionaltiestooneanotheroveralongperiodoftime.Suchfamiliesmayincludegroupsofclosefriendsorteammates.Inaddition,thefunctionalistperspectiveviewsfamiliesasgroupsthatperformvitalrolesforsociety—bothinternally(forthefamilyitself)andexternally(forsocietyasawhole).Familiesprovideforoneanother’sphysical,emotional,andsocialwell-being.Parentscareforandsocializechildren.Laterinlife,adultchildrenoftencareforelderlyparents.Whileinteractionismhelpsusunderstandthesubjectiveexperienceof

belongingtoa“family,”functionalismilluminatesthemanypurposesoffamiliesandtheirrolesinthemaintenanceofabalancedsociety(ParsonsandBales1956).

Evolution-Forthisportionofthebody,theauthorsofferavarietyofcurrentperspectivesontheterm“family”usingstudiestotracepopularopinion.Theyhavewoveninthetraditionalinterpretationsoftheconcept,buttoarticulatethemmoreexplicitlymighthaveprovedtediousreading,sincemostofushavesomefamiliaritywiththehistoryofthisparticularconcept.Evenifthehistoricalinformationprovedsurprising,theauthorswererighttofocusoncurrentevolutionsincetheyareposingthequestionofhowtheconceptiscurrentlyperceived.Youwillhavetodecidehowfaryouwanttodelveintothehistoryofthetermyouareexploringbasedontherelevanceofeachpartofitsevolutiontoyourcurrentthesis.

PeopleintheUnitedStatesasawholearesomewhatdividedwhenitcomestodeterminingwhatdoesandwhatdoesnotconstituteafamily.Ina2010surveyconductedbyprofessorsattheUniversityofIndiana,nearlyallparticipants(99.8percent)agreedthatahusband,wife,andchildrenconstituteafamily.Ninety-twopercentstatedthatahusbandandawifewithoutchildrenstillconstituteafamily.Thenumbersdropforlesstraditionalstructures:unmarriedcoupleswithchildren(83percent),unmarriedcoupleswithoutchildren(39.6percent),gaymalecoupleswithchildren(64percent),andgaymalecoupleswithoutchildren(33percent)(Powelletal.2010).Thissurveyrevealedthatchildrentendtobethekeyindicatorinestablishing“family”status:thepercentageofindividualswhoagreedthatunmarriedcouplesandgaycouplesconstituteafamilynearlydoubledwhenchildrenwereadded.

Thestudyalsorevealedthat60percentofU.S.respondentsagreedthatifyouconsideryourselfafamily,youareafamily(aconceptthatreinforcesaninteractionistperspective)(Powell2010).Thegovernment,however,isnotsoflexibleinitsdefinitionof“family.”TheU.S.CensusBureaudefinesafamilyas“agroupoftwopeopleormore(oneofwhomisthehouseholder)relatedbybirth,marriage,oradoptionandresidingtogether”(U.S.CensusBureau2010).Whilethisstructureddefinitioncanbeusedasameanstoconsistentlytrackfamily-relatedpatternsoverseveralyears,itexcludesindividualssuchascohabitatingunmarriedheterosexualandhomosexualcouples.Legalityaside,sociologistswouldarguethatthegeneralconceptoffamilyismorediverseandlessstructuredthaninyearspast.Societyhasgivenmore

leewaytothedesignofafamilymakingroomforwhatworksforitsmembers(Jayson2010).

Conclusion

Yourconclusionwillofferaclarifiedworkingdefinitionoftheterm,abriefrestatementoftheevolutionofyourreasoning,andacommentontheconsequencesofthisdecisionasyouandthereadermoveforward.

GeorgiaWall’sethnographicessayonthemeaningoffoodandfoodwaystoItalianimmigrantsinLondonasanexplorationofthedefinition“heritage”offerssuchaconclusion:

TheconceptofheritageemergesthroughthenarrativeofSudItaliaasakeyintersectbetweenprivateaffectandpublicarticulation.Contradictionsareimplicitintheterm,whichappealstoinstitutionalauthorities,suchasUNESCO,forthevalorizationandreificationofapparentlyintenselypersonalvaluesandpractices;makingpizza,orspeakingalocallanguage.Thesetensionsarereflectedinthepertinenceitacquiresinindividualexpression.Heritageisontheonehandanimpreciseresourcethatisseenasembodiedinfamilymembersandtransmittedasanindefinitesetofvalues,affectsandpractices,towhichsubscriptionmarksouttheboundariesofacollective.Ontheother,throughtheconceptof“globalheritage”,specificperspectives—predominantlyWestern—transformreservationsregardingthepresentand/orfutureintoacelebrationofthepast,bestowingsignificanceuponcertainpracticesandartefacts.Heritagethereforerepresentsbothpersonalexplorationsofmeaningandthearticulationofgroupaffectandanxiety,andimplicatesbothinhierarchiesofpowerandauthority.Furthercriticalattentiontotheconceptpromisesnotonlyalternativewaysofconceptualizingthelifecourseandintergenerationaltransfer,butalsonewinsightsintothemobilityofpeople,ideas,andthingsthroughandacrosstime,andthechangesinvaluetheseprocessesgenerate.

Writingdefinitionessayscangiveyouanentirelynewwayoflookingatwriting,havinghadtheexperienceofdelvingdeeplyintothehistoryofawordorphrase.Justlikeanythingelse,languageisinaprocessofevolution.Aswriters,wearedocumentingthecurrentclimateinwhichthesewordsexist,providingedificationwhereveritwillbeusefultothereader.

8.2.6:Description

Therhetoricalmode“description”conveyssensoryimagestothereadersoastodeeplyconnecthimorhertothesubject.

LearningObjective

Determinethepurposeandstructureofdescription.

KeyPoints

Gooddescriptionmakesthereaderfeelasifthey’reexperiencingthesubject.Sensorydescriptioncanconnectthereaderemotionallytothematerial.Whiledetailedsensoryimagesarekeytogooddescriptivepassages,itisimportanttobediscerningwhenselectingbothtypeandnumber.

KeyTerms

Description

Arhetoricalmodeusedtoconveyamentalimageofanobject,idea,situation,oreventsothatthereaderfeelsconnectedtoitthroughthesenses.

sensory

relatingtooneofthefiveprimarysenses:seeing,hearing,tasting,touching,andsmelling

AModeofTransportationDescriptionisarhetoricalmodeyou’llwantinyourtoolboxbecauseitplacesyourreaderinthesceneyou’redescribing.You’lllikelyrelatethistooltofiction,becausethebestnovelsusedescriptiontocaptureourimagination.

DescriptioninFiction

NotethedetailedimageryinthisexamplefromtheCustomHouseIntroductorytotheScarletLetter,byNathanielHawthorne,whichforeshadowsthelackofmercyfoundbyHesterPrynne.

OvertheentrancehoversanenormousspecimenoftheAmerican

eagle,withoutspreadwings,ashieldbeforeherbreast,and,ifIrecollectaright,abunchofintermingledthunderboltsandbarbedarrowsineachclaw.Withthecustomaryinfirmityoftemperthatcharacterizesthisunhappyfowl,sheappears,bythefiercenessofherbeakandeyeandthegeneraltruculencyofherattitude,tothreatenmischieftotheinoffensivecommunity;andespeciallytowarnallcitizens.carefuloftheirsafety,againstintrudingonthepremiseswhichsheovershadowswithherwings.Nevertheless,vixenlyasshelooks,manypeopleareseeking,atthisverymoment,toshelterthemselvesunderthewingofthefederaleagle;imagining,Ipresume,thatherbosomhasallthesoftnessandsnugnessofaneider-downpillow.Butshehasnogreattenderness,eveninherbestofmoods,and,soonerorlater,—oftenersoonthanlate,—isapttoflingoffhernestlingswithascratchofherclaw,adabofherbeak,oraranklingwoundfromherbarbedarrows.

UsingDescriptioninNon-FictiontoPersuadeorInform

Notethatdescriptionisequallyusefulinessays,especiallywhenyouaremakinganemotionalappealofsomekind.Transportingyourreadertoadifferentplaceandtimewithsensorylanguagecanbeaveryconvincingwaytomakeapoint.

Thefollowingpassage,forexample,couldbeusedinapetitiontogivetheJemaael-Fnaa,amarketplaceinMarrakesh,protectedUNESCOstatus:

Duringthedayitispredominantlyoccupiedbyorangejuicestalls,watersellerswithtraditionalleatherwater-bagsandbrasscups,youthswithchainedBarbaryapesandsnakecharmers,despitetheprotectedstatusofthesespeciesunderMoroccanlaw.Asthedayprogresses,theentertainmentonofferchanges:thesnakecharmersdepart,andlateinthedaythesquarebecomesmorecrowded,withChleuhdancing-boys(itwouldbeagainstcustomforgirlstoprovidesuchentertainment),story-tellers(tellingtheirtalesinBerberorArabic,toanaudienceoflocals),magicians,andpeddlersoftraditionalmedicines.Asdarknessfalls,thesquarefillswithdozensoffood-stallsasthenumberofpeopleonthesquarepeaks.ThesquareisedgedalongonesidebytheMarrakeshsouk,atraditionalNorthAfricanmarketcateringbothforthecommondailyneedsofthelocals,andforthetouristtrade.Onothersidesarehotelsandgardensandcafeterraces,andnarrowstreetsleadintothealleysofthemedinaquarter.Onceabusstation,theplacewasclosedto

vehicletrafficintheearly2000s.Theauthoritiesarewellawareofitsimportancetothetouristtrade,andastrongbutdiscreetpolicepresenceensuresthesafetyofvisitors.

Vividdescriptioncanhelpyouraudiencemakeanemotionalconnectiontoyoursubject,whichiswherethetruepowerofthewrittenwordlies.

WritingDescriptivePassages

It’sallwellandgoodtoreadandappreciatedescriptivepassages,buthowdoesoneactuallywriteonewhileavoidingthecommonpitfallsofoverdoingsensoryimagesorconfusingthereaderwithtoolittlespecificity?

Tousethefollowingchart,putyourselfinthesceneyouwanttodescribeforyourreader.Noticethesensoryimpressionsyouwitnessinyourimagination(orinreality)andrecordthem.Whenyoubeginwritingadescriptivepassage,youcanusethesedetailstohelpyouconveythesenseimagesyouexperienced.

SensoryImageNotesforDescriptivePassages

Makenotesofthesensationsyouexperienceasyouimaginethephenomenonyou’redescribingtoyourreader.

SensoryImageNotesChart

Whileyou’llwanttofillinthechartascompletelyaspossible,you’llwantto

chooseonlyaselection,onlythemostsalient,tosharewiththereader.Here’sanexampleofgoingoverboardabitwithdescription:

Chedwick’shairyarmwasslungcarelesslyoverLuce’sdelicate,birdlikeshoulders.Hertiny,crookednosewriggledinvoluntarilyasthebreezecrossedhisarmpitandgentlycarriedhispiquantscentherway.Herhair,meanwhile,haddriftedlazilyontohisneckandChedwickhadtoresistslappinghisAdam’sapple,solikeaspiderdiditfeelonhismoistskin.

Youcanfindabalancethatsparksthereader’simaginationwithoutoverdoingthedescription.Youcanevenaddhumortothemix:

Noticehowphraseslike,“readyforacalvarycharge,”“landedwithacrashtothefloor,”“shehadlandedonallfoursontheground,”“thiswailofpainandsufferingandsurprise,”“myfranticseven-year-oldbrain,”and“scrambledbackupontothebunkbedwithallthegraceofababyunicorn…withonebrokenleg”servetodrawthelistenerintotheroomwithShawnandhissisterAmy.

Alsonoticethatineachofthedescriptiveexamplespresentedhere,thereisasenseoforder,similartoanarrative,thatservestoguidethereader’simaginationfromoneplacetoanother.Itmayhelptoenvisionafilmcamerazoominginandaroundanareaorasubject.

Whetheryou’reinformingorpersuading,puttingyouraudienceinthescenedrawsusinandmakesuswanttoknowmore.

8.2.7:IllustrationandExemplification

Illustrationandexemplificationoffersthereaderinternalimagesandstoriestowhichtorelatemoreabstractconceptsandideas.

LearningObjective

Determinethepurposeandstructureofillustrationandexemplification.

KeyPoints

Imagesandstoriescanservetoenhanceareader’sunderstandingofaconceptoridea.Whiletheremaybeatemptationtorelyonclichesasillustrations,originallanguageisusuallymoreeffective.Youmaychoosetosimplymakereferencetoastoryifyou’recertain

youraudiencewillbefamiliarwithit,butifyou’renotcertain,it’sbettertoretellthestory.Onestorymaybeusedandrevisitedthroughoutanessayasanexampleofthevariationsortheintricaciesdiscussed.It’susefultotakethetimetocreateorfindanexamplethatmostcloselyrelatestotheconceptyouarediscussingsothatthereaderfeelsanimmediate“Aha”ofrecognition.

KeyTerms

illustration

Aliterarydeviceinwhichoneusesimagery-richexamplestoenhanceunderstandingofaconcept.

exemplification

Arhetoricalmodeinwhichthewriterusesoneormorepertinentandconcreterealorimaginedexamplesofaconceptinordertoenhancethereader’sunderstanding.

ForInstance…Beforeenlightenment:chopwood,carrywater.Afterenlightenment:chopwood,carrywater.

Thisshortproverbservestoillustrateaconceptthat’sabitabstract:thatnotmuchonthematerialplanechangesonceonehasattainedspiritualtranscendence,thoughagreatdealshiftsinternally.Thoseonaspiritualpathwilloftenchuckleonhearingthis,becauseitisanaptdescriptionoftheapparentironyofworkingsohardforsomethingthatshowssolittleoutwardchange—butwhichisnonethelessthemostmeaningfultransformationtheycanenvision.

Thismomentofrecognitioninyouraudienceiswhatyou’llbegoingforwhenyouusethetoolsofillustrationandexemplificationinyourwriting.Considertheseotherexamplesofillustration,whichhaveserved(andyes,perhapsover-served)toclarifysomeabstractconceptsovertheyears:

“He’sbarkingupthewrongtree.”

“Abirdinthehandisworthtwointhebush.”

“She’sjustfollowingtheherd.”

Eachoftheseillustrationsgivesusapictureinourmindsofasituationanalogoustothepointwe’retryingtogetacrossandtherebyclarifiestheconceptforusinaninstant.

Exemplificationservesthesamepurpose,butexplainsusingspecificexamples.Ifyouweretryingtodescribethe“lawofdiminishingreturns,”forexample,ineconomics,youmightsay:

Whilethefirsticecreamconetastescreamyanddelicious,theeighthicecreamconeisenoughtomakeyousick.

Injustonesentence,yourreaderhasasolidideaoftheconceptofdiminishingreturnsbecauseyou’verelatedittosomethingfamiliartomostofus.Whilewehaven’talltriedeatingeighticecreamconesinarow,we’reprobablyabletoimaginewhatit’slike,basedonsimilarexperiencesandextendingthemthroughourimagination.

TooManyIceCreams

Anillustrationdemonstratingthelawofdiminishingreturns.

Toomanyicecreamcones.

Don’tGetTrippedUp

Thecautionwithillustrationsandexamplesistouseoriginallanguageasoftenaspossible.Oneortwoclicheslikethatabovemightservethepoint

wellenough,butyourrealgoalistouselanguagethatwillcapturethereader’simagination.Originalityisthekey.

Howmightyouillustratethefollowingconceptswithoutrelyingoncliches?

flexibilityinparenting(withoutreferringtoawillowtree)theloveofastudentforhismentor(withoutusingtheword“worship”)asuspicionthatsomethingisn’tsafe(stayingawayfrom“gutfeeling”)averydifficulttask(avoiding“heroic”)

Now,considerhowyouwouldexemplifyeachoftheseconcepts.Whichdoyoufindmoreeffective?

Therearelittlephrasesinourlanguagethatcombineillustrationandexemplification.A“Sisypheantask,”forexample,recallsthestoryofSisyphusrollingaboulderupahillendlessly,onlytohaveitrollbackdowneachtimeitgetsalmosttothetop.Peopleuseittoexplainafruitlessandfrustratingendeavor.

A“Herculeantask”hasitsrootsinthestoriesofthechallengesHerculeswasforcedtofaceandcanrefertoanydeedthatisverychallengingtoperform.(TheGreekmyths,infact,arebothillustrativeandexemplary,asareAesop’sFables,Grimm’sFairyTales,andthelike.)

Usingthiskindofreferencemaybeusefulifyouknowyouraudienceisfamiliarwiththestories,butifyou’renotcertain,you’llneedtoeithertellthefullstoryoruseadifferentwayofillustratingyourpoint.

Storytelling

Tellingastorycantranscendmanyblockstoareader’sattention,includingthemostdifficulttoovercome:defensiveness.Illustrationandexemplificationarewaystoofferthereaderaconnectiontothematerialyou’representing:drawingtheminbygettingspecific.

Danahadjustfinishedherradiobroadcastandwasrushingoutthedoortogettothedaycarecenterwhenherbosscalledafterher.“Dana,IwasjusttalkingwithConradfromaccounting,andhehadsomeideasI’dliketobounceoffyou.Couldyoucomeinhereforamoment?”Danastoppedandforasplitsecondconsideredpretendingshehadn’theard,butinsteadshesighed,plasteredonapleasantexpression,andfollowedheremployerintohisoffice.

Usingthisillustrationatthebeginningofanessayaboutthemanyroles

womenhavetoplayintheirdailylivesimmediatelyhumanizesanddepoliticizestheissuefortheaudience.Insteadoftellinguswhatit’slike,theauthorisshowingus,andthat’sthefirstruleofeffectivewriting.

Thisdeviceisoftenusedtointroduceaconcept,andtheexampleorillustrationcanberevisitedthroughoutthepapertofurtherexplicatethepointsyouaremaking.Dana,forexample,mighthavedifferentexperiencesbasedonyourideasofhowtosolvetheproblemswomenface.OryoumaysimplyoutlineyourpointswithoutusingexamplesandthenrevisitDanaattheendofthepaperashavingimplementedallthechangesyousuggest.Hopefully,she’sbetteroffinthisnewillustrativestory.

Cautions

Bejudiciousanddiscerningwithillustrationsandexamples.Makesurethatyou’reusingthemostappropriateexampleorillustrationpossibletoenhanceunderstanding.Don’toveruseexemplars,oryouraudiencemaybecomeconfused.Becautiousaboutusingnegativeexamplesorillustrationsthateitherdisproveyourpointorshowwhathappensifyourpointisnottaken.Sinceimageryandexamplestendtostickwithareader,it’sgenerallymoreeffectivetoshowwhatyoudomean,ratherthanwhatyoudon’tmean.Ifyoudoreferbacktooneexamplethroughoutthepaper,beconsistentwiththedescriptionofthecharacterorscene,changingonlyonevariableatatimetoillustrateapoint.

HowtoWriteanIllustration/ExemplificationEssayWhilemostofthetime,you’llbeusingillustrationsandexamplestoreinforcepointsinanessay,therewillbetimeswhenthewholepointofyouressayistoexplainaconceptusingillustrationandexemplification.Whenthat’sthecase,here’showtoorganizeit:

Introduction

Thisparagraphtellsyouraudienceabouttheconceptyou’llbeillustrating.Youmaywishtoinitiateoneexamplethatyou’llbeusingastheanchoring

themethroughoutthepaper,oryoumaywishtosimplydescribetheconcepthere.

Illustrative/ExemplifyingParagraphs

Twoormoreparagraphsofferillustrationsorexamples—usuallyoneperparagraph—toshowtheaudiencewhattheconceptlooks/smells/feels/tastes/soundslikeinlife(realorimaginedlife).Yourexamplescanalsoservetodistinguishtheconceptfromsimilarconceptsoroppositeconcepts,ifthatwillhelpclarify.

Conclusion

Here,youwillrestatetheconceptyou’reexaminingandrevisittheintroductoryexample,orallexamples.Oryoumaychoosetocreateonefinalstrongexampletocementyourreader’sunderstanding.

8.2.8:Narration

Thenarrativerhetoricalmodeisanaturalandappealingwaytopresentorreinforceaperspectiveintheformofastory.

LearningObjective

Determinethepurposeandstructureofnarration.

KeyPoints

Thenarrativerhetoricalmodeusesstorytellingtosupportapointortoeducateanaudienceonaparticulartopic.Storytellingissodeeplyingrainedinhumanrelationshipsandsocietythatreadersmaybemoreopentoandenthusiasticaboutnarrativeasatechnique.Satiricalnarrativeoffersonestoryasanallegoricalcriticismofareal-lifeeventorsituation.Narrativeismadeclearbyexposingtheeventsinsmallpieces,inchronologicalorder.Narrativeismademoreinterestingusingliterarydeviceslikesuspense,imageryandverisimilitudetoputthereaderinthescene.

KeyTerms

Narrative

Inwriting,tellingastory,usingdescriptiveelements,inchronologicalorder,tosupportapoint.

imagery

Languageusedindescriptionthroughsensoryexperience.

verisimilitude

Theinclusionofseeminglytruthfuldetailsappropriatetothestorybeingtoldsoastomakeitbelievabletothereader.

TheThingWeNeedMostintheWorldIhaddecidedtobecomeananthropologist—inMay,1923—becauseFranzBoasandRuthBenedicthadpresentedthetasksofanthropologyasmoreurgentthananyothertaskwhichlayreadytothechoiceofastudentofhumanbehavior.

WhatfeelingsandthoughtsdoesthisquotebyMargaretMeadbringupinyouwhenyoureadit?Whydoessheincludethispersonalglimpseinherprefacetothe1949editionofComingofAgeinSamoa?

Byusingevenabriefpersonalstory,Meadishelpingherreadersrelatetoherandopentoherviewpoint.Hermentorsandteachersinstilledinherasenseofpurpose—anurgentone,atthat—tostudyhumanbehaviorasithappensnaturallyinavarietyofsocietiesandcultures.Wecanallrelatetothefeelingoflongingforasenseofpurpose,eventhoughwemaynothaveaninterestinanthropologyspecifically.Mostofuswillnodknowinglyatherdecisionbecauseweunderstandthatwhenonefindsasenseofpurpose,thewilltomakeithappenfollowsstrongly.

Narrativereportstothereaderastoryrelatedtothepointthewriteristryingtomake.Thereasonweusenarrativeisbecausestorytellingisthemostnaturalwayforushumanstocommunicate.Notunlikeethnography,it’sbothawaywefindofrelatingtooneanotherandawaywelearntounderstandourdifferences.

Weusestoriestoeducateandtoentertain.Storiesfeelfriendlierthanlistsof

factsorcitationsofscientificstudies.Humansseemtohungerforstories,andsonarrativemaybethemostwell-receivedofrhetoricaldevices.

AsPhilipPullmansaid,

Afternourishment,shelterandcompanionship,storiesarethethingweneedmostintheworld.

UsingNarrative

You’llfindnarrativeusefulinanessaywhenyouwantyourreadertoidentifywithyourperspectiveorwiththeviewtakenbyoneofyourcharactersorsubjects.Documentaryfilmmakingisfullofnarrativeexamples:peopletellusthestoryofwhathappenedasiftheywerewitnesses,eveniftheeventhappenedmanyyearsbeforetheywereborn.It’saneffectivetechniquebecausethefilmmakerweavesataleforusthrougheachnarrator.

Youcantakeasimilarapproachinwriting,layingoutthefactsofastoryinterspersedwithfirst-personperspectives.Oryoumight,asMeaddid,offeryourreaderinsightintoyourownthoughtprocessasyoucametounderstandtheconceptorevent.

Satirecanbeaparticularlyeffectiveformofnarrative,exemplifiedbyAnimalFarmandGulliver’sTravels,asitexposesthedefectsinanideaorsocietybytellingafictionaltaleofadifferentsocialgroup.Fictionalcharactersstandinforrealpeopleorplayoutsocialideas,usuallypoliticalinnature.

WritingtheNarrativeEssayIfyouareusingnarrationastheprimarystrategyinwritingapaper,youwillusesomesemblanceofthefollowingformat:

Introduction

Here,youwillgiveadescriptionoftheeventyouwillbespellingoutintheessayandthereason(s)you’reexaminingit.Whyshouldyouraudiencebeinterested?Yourfinalintroductorysentencewillstatesimplythatyouareofferinganarrativeaccountoftheevent.

NarrativeParagraphs

Youwilldividetheeventintosmallereventsandgiveeachofthesesmallerincidentsaparagraph.Thesewillbesimpleexplanationsofwhathappenedwhen,thoughinamorecomplexessayyoumightincludereasonsforeacheventandcomparisonstoanother,morecurrentcircumstance.Accountsbyhistorians,witnesses,orthoughtleaderscanbewovenintothenarrativetostrengthentheperspectiveyou’reofferingortoofferthepossibilityofanotherperspective,inanefforttoprovideanobjectivereport.

You’llwanttomakeeachportionofthenarrativeinterestingtothereader,souseliterarydeviceslikesuspense,imagery,verisimilitude,andsurprise,perhapsalongwithalittlehumor,ifappropriate,tokeepyouraudienceengaged.

Conclusion

You’llleaveyourreaderwithasummaryoftheeventandmakereferencetothereason(s)forexaminingitthatyoupresentedintheintroduction.Youmaydecidetoendwithsomeideasabouthowthiseventisrelevanttothereaderandtotheworldatthistime.

Thechecklistforanarrativeessay:

Haveaclearpurpose.Tellthestoryclearlyandchronologically.Makethenarrativeinteresting.Relateittosomethinglargerthanitself,eitherovertly,orcovertly.

Happystorytelling!

8.2.9:ProcessAnalysis

Processanalysisdescribeindetailhowsomethingisaccomplishedorcreated.

LearningObjective

Determinethepurposeandstructureofprocessanalysis.

KeyPoints

Processanalysisdescribeshowsomethingisdone.Aninformativeprocessanalysisdescribeshowsomethinghappens.Adescriptiveprocessanalysisgivesinstructionsforhowtodo

something.Processanalysisconsistsofbreakingawholeintoitspartsandexplainingeachpart.Thebodyparagraphsofprocessanalysisessaysmaybeorganizedinavarietyofways,dependingonwhatwillbemostusefultoareaderseekingclarityofinstruction.

KeyTerms

Processanalysis

Astep-by-stepexplanationofhowsomethingisdone.

directiveanalysis

Astep-by-stepinstructivetutorial.

informativeanalysis

Adescriptionofhowsomethinghappensorisaccomplished.

Here’stheHowProcessanalysisanswersthe“how”questionwiththeideathatreaderswillbeabletoreplicateaprocessthemselves,oratleastthoroughlyunderstandit,afterreadingthepaper.Thatmeansitneedstobebothdetailedandthorough.

Itdoesn’tfollowthatitneedstobelong,however.Considerthisexample:

Lawsbeginasideas.First,arepresentativesponsorsabill.Thebillisthenassignedtoacommitteeforstudy.Ifreleasedbythecommittee,thebillisputonacalendartobevotedon,debatedoramended.Ifthebillpassesbysimplemajority(218of435),thebillmovestotheSenate.IntheSenate,thebillisassignedtoanothercommitteeand,ifreleased,debatedandvotedon.Again,asimplemajority(51of100)passesthebill.Finally,aconferencecommitteemadeofHouseandSenatemembersworksoutanydifferencesbetweentheHouseandSenateversionsofthebill.TheresultingbillreturnstotheHouseandSenateforfinalapproval.TheGovernmentPrintingOfficeprintstherevisedbillinaprocesscalledenrolling.ThePresidenthas10daystosignorvetotheenrolledbill.

Acomplexprocesshasbeenexplainedcompletelybybreakingitintopartsandbrieflydescribingeachstep.

Purposes

Therearetwopossiblereasonsyou’dwanttowriteaprocessanalysis.Oneisillustratedbytheparagraphaboveexplaininghowabillbecomesalaw:theinformativeanalysis.Thepurposehereistohelppeopleunderstandhowsomethinghappens.

Adirectiveanalysisshowsthereaderhowtodosomethinghimselforherself.Youmightteachthereadertofish,forexample,ordemonstratethestepstodefuseanincendiarydevice.

Ineithercase,gatheringallthestepsandputtingthemintothecorrectorderareyourtwoprewritingtasks.

TheProcessAnalysisEssayYoumay,ofcourse,decidetouseprocessanalysisaspartofanykindofwriting,fromablogpostabouthousecleaningtoalettertoyourgrandmotheraboutadvancedGooglesearches.Butinacademicwork,youmaybeaskedtowriteaspecificessaydedicatedtoprocessanalysis.Here’showitwilllook:

Introduction

Here,you’llwanttobrieflyexplainthe“why”ofyourpaper.Whatpurposedoesthesoon-to-be-describedactivityorprocessserve?You’llalsolisteachstepandthenstatethegeneralideaofwhatyou’redescribinginthelastsentenceoftheparagraph.

BodyParagraphs

Eachparagraphofthebodyofthepaperwilldescribeaspecificsteporstageoftheprocess.Youcanbeginwiththe“why”ofthestep,includinghowitnaturallyfollowsthepreviousstep,ifappropriate,andthendescribethestepindetail.Youcanendtheparagraphwithalead-intothenextstageoftheprocess.

Youwillwanttoorganizethematerialinwhateverwaywillbethemostusefultoyouraudience.Forexample,aprocessanalysisofpruninganappletreewillneedtobedividedbasedonthestageofgrowthofthetree,thetimeofyear,andthegoalofpruning.Insuchcases,numberingsectionscanhelpifyoudirectthereader,asin,“Ifyouaredealingwitholdorneglectedtrees,

skiptoSectionTwo.”

Conclusion

Here,you’llrecapthestepsbrieflyandexpandontheusefulnessoftheprocess.Asusualwithconclusions,you’llmovefromthespecifictothebroad.Hereisanexampleofthelastsentenceofaconcludingparagraph:

Whetheryourworkisrescuinganoldorchard,cultivatinganewone,orsimplytrimmingasingletree,yourrewardwillbeabountyofbloomsinthespring,followedinthefallbythesupremesweetnessthatcanonlycomefromfruityou’vegrownyourself.

Examplesofprocessanalysisareallovertheweb.It’soneofthemostexcitingbenefitsoftheinternet.Here’sacreativetutorial:

Attributions

ArgumentationandPersuasion

“60YearsAfterBrownv.BoardofEducation.”https://www.congress.gov/congressional-record/2014/5/19/house-section/article/h4462-1.CongressionalRecordoftheUnitedStatesCC01.0Universal.

“TenPointProgram.”https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ten-Point_Program&oldid=751083961.WikipediaCCBY-SA.

Classification

“TheFiveLoveLanguages.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Five_Love_Languages.WikipediaCCBY-SA.

“TheFourLoves.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Four_Loves.WikipediaCCBY-SA.

“OriginalfigurebyPrudenceTippins.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”PrudenceTippinsCCBY-SA3.0.

CauseandEffect

“AlcoholConsumptionAmongAdolescents:ImplicationsforPublicHealth.”http://www.intechopen.com/books/howtoreference/topics-in-public-

health/alcohol-consumption-among-adolescents-implications-for-public-health.InTechPublicdomain.

“GlobalClimateChange:VitalSignsofthePlanet.”https://climate.nasa.gov/causes/.NASAPublicdomain.

“OriginalfigurebyPrudenceTippins.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”PrudenceTippinsCCBY-SA3.0.

“OriginalfigurebyPrudenceTippins.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”PrudenceTippinsCCBY-SA3.0.

ComparisonandContrast

“OriginalfigurebyPrudenceTippins.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”PrudenceTippinsCCBY-SA3.0.

“OriginalfigurebyPrudenceTippins.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”PrudenceTippinsCCBY-SA3.0.

Definition

“Reading;DefiningFamily.”https://courses.lumenlearning.com/intro-to-sociology/chapter/reading-what-is-marriage-what-is-a-family/.LumenSociologyCCBY4.0.

“Sentience.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentience.WikipediaCCBY-SA.

“Foodways,CampervansandtheTermsofMobility:TransnationalBelonging,Home,andHeritageintheNarrativeof“SudItalia”.”http://www.mdpi.com/2076-0787/5/2/23/htm.HumanitiesCCBY4.0.

Description

“TEDxBloomingtonShawnAchor“TheHappinessAdvantage:LinkingPositiveBrainstoPerformance”.”https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GXy__kBVq1M.YouTubeYoutubeLicense.

“TheCustom-HouseIntroductorytoTheScarletLetter.”http://eldritchpress.org/nh/slcus.html.EldritchPressPublicdomain.

“Jemaael-Fnaa.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jemaa_el-Fnaa.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“OriginalfigurebyPrudenceTippins.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”PrudenceTippinsCCBY-SA3.0.

IllustrationandExemplification

“Handenvolmetijsjes-Holdingtoomanyicecreams.”https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AHanden_vol_met_ijsjes_-_Holding_too_many_ice_creams_(4900465673).jpg.WikimediaCommonsCCBY-SA.

“WhatMakesaHero?-MatthewWinkler.”https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hhk4N9A0oCA.YouTubeYoutubeLicense.

“Handen_vol_met_ijsjes_-_Holding_too_many_ice_creams_49004656731.jpg.”https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Handen_vol_met_ijsjes_-_Holding_too_many_ice_creams_(4900465673).jpg#filelinks.WikimediaCommonsCCBY-SA.

Narration

“TheSubjectofAnthropology.”http://ethnografix.blogspot.com/2010/05/subjects-of-anthropology.html.EthnografixCCBY-SA3.0.

“ColbertstaysincharacteratcongressionalhearingbyPBSNewsHour.”https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ewPburLEZyY.YouTubeYoutubeLicense.

ProcessAnalysis

“Step-by-StepTutorial:HowtoPaintwithAlcoholInks.”https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hWA3VJmgGjg&t=28s.YouTubeYoutubeLicense.

“HowAreLawsMade?.”http://www.house.gov/content/learn/legislative_process/.UnitedStatesHouseofRepresentativesPublicdomain.

9:WritingAcrossDisciplines

9.1:IntroductiontoWritingAcrossDisciplines9.1.1:WritinginDifferentAcademicDisciplines

Academicwritingconventionsvarysubstantiallyaccordingtodiscipline—thatis,whetheroneisworkinginthehumanities,thesocialornaturalsciences,orbusiness.

LearningObjective

Identifythekeycharacteristicsofwritingindifferentacademicdisciplines

KeyPoints

Writinginthehumanitiesusuallyseekstoanalyze,interpret,argue,and/orexplainthoughts,reactions,ideas,andemotions.Writinginthesciencesfocusesoninformingthereaderofnewdiscoveriesandassistingreadersindiscoveringtruththroughfactsandsoliddataprovidedindetail.Writinginbusinessoftenmeansexplainingasituation,event,orchangetocompelthereadertowardaveryspecificaction.

KeyTerms

creativewriting

Theartofcraftingtexts,suchasnovels,biographies,shortstories,andpoems,thatfalloutsidetheboundsofprofessional,journalistic,academic,andtechnicaldiscourse.Creativewritingcanbeusedtotellstories,evokeemotions,buildempathy,andinspirenewwaysofthinkingabouttheworld.

genres

Categoriesortypesofwriting,includinganalytical,creative,explanatory,interpretive,andpersuasive(amongmanyothers).

Academicwritinginacollegesettingcangenerallybedividedintothreemain

categoriesorgenres:writinginthehumanities,writinginthesciences,andwritinginbusiness.Eachgenrehasitsownspecificrequirementsintermsofstyle,content,andformat.

WritingintheHumanitiesAcademicwritinginthehumanitiesexploresquestionsthatdealwithhumanvalues.Theultimategoalinwritinginthehumanitiesistoexplainorunderstandthehumanexperience—tousewritingasatooltoreflectuponlife.The“humanities,”asadiscipline,includesnotonlyliterature,butalsophilosophy,ethics,performingarts,finearts,history,andaspectsofanthropology,culturalstudies,foreignlanguages,andlinguistics.Inahumanitiesclass,youmightbeaskedtoanalyzeapoem,aperformanceorplay,apainting,afilm,orevenamusicalwork.

WritingintheSciencesSciencewritingincludeswritingintwomaincategories—naturalsciencesandsocialsciences.Ineachgenre,thewritingfocusesoninformingreadersofnewdiscoveriesandassistingthemindiscoveringtruththroughfactsandfirm,detaileddata.

Research-basedwritinginthesciencestypicallyusesaformaltone,employsathird-personvoice,andavoidspersonalreferencesandneedlessadjectives.Dependingontheassignment,youmightalsowriteananalytical,explanatory,orpersuasivepaperinanyofthesefieldsforapopularorprofessionalaudience.

NaturalSciences

Naturalsciencesincludephysicalsciencessuchasbiology,chemistry,engineering,geology,andphysics.Thistypeofwritingisgenerallyconciseandincludesgenressuchaslabreportsandreviewsofscientificliterature.

SocialSciences

Thesocialsciences,ontheotherhand,focusonhumanbehaviorandsocieties.Theyinvolvedocumentingactualeventsastheyhappen.Categories

ofsocialscienceincludepsychology,anthropology,politicalscience,sociology,education,andeconomics.

WritinginBusinessBusinesswritingoftenmeansexplainingasituation,event,orchangeinordertocompelthereadertowardaveryspecificaction.Formatiskeytoawell-writtenbusinessdocumentbecauseitsstructureneedstoallowthereadertoquicklyfindparticularsectionsandacontactpersonwhocananswerfurtherquestions.Writinginbusinesscanincludememos,coverletters,resumes,projectreports,proposals,thank-youletters,emails,andbusinessplans.Whileadherencetoconventionalgrammar,spelling,andpunctuationisimportantineverydiscipline,businesswritingplacesthegreatestemphasisonmechanics.

Attributions

WritinginDifferentAcademicDisciplines

“Creativewriting.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_writing.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“creativewriting.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/creative_writing.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“socialscience.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/social_science.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/AdvancedTopics.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Advanced_TopicsWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

9.2:WritingintheHumanities9.2.1:IntroductiontoWritingintheHumanities

Academicwritinginthehumanitiesallowsforsomeflexibilityinstyleandvoice,whilestillfollowingspecificconventionsofformatanddocumentation.

LearningObjective

Definethesubtypesofwritingthatexistwithinthehumanities

KeyPoints

Generally,writinginthehumanitiesfallsintooneofthreecategories:researchwriting,interpretive/analyticalwriting,andcreativewriting.Whenwritingaresearchpaperinthehumanities,youwillcollect(andcite!)informationfromavarietyofdifferentsourcestosupportanargument.Ininterpretive/analyticalwriting,youwillmakeaclaimaboutwhataparticulartext(orfilm,orpainting,etc.)meansorhowitgoesaboutpresentingmeaning;youwillmakeanargumentbackedupwithspecificexamplesfromthetext.Insomeanalyticalwriting,youmaybeaskedtointerpretatextthroughthelensofaparticulartheory—forexample,modernisttheory,psychoanalytictheory,etc.Creativewritingmostlycomprisesfictionwriting,suchaspoems,shortstories,novels,andsonglyrics;however,thereisalsoatypeofwritingcalledcreativenonfiction,inwhichcreativewritingcentersaroundrealevents.

KeyTerms

thesis

Aclaimortheorythatmustbesupportedwithevidencetoarguefororagainstaspecificideaorposition.

literaryanalysis

Apieceofacademicwritingthatexploresandinterpretsthemeaning

behindthestory,characters,themes,andpurposesofatext.

humanities

Thecollectionofacademicdisciplinesthatstudyhumanexpression,ideas,andthought.

expository

Ofatypeofwritingthatexplains,informs,ordescribesaprocessorconcept.

WritingintheHumanitiesTheultimategoalinwritinginthehumanitiesistoexplainorunderstandthehumanexperienceandhumanvalues.Thehumanities—alsocalledtheliberalarts—includephilosophy,religion,art,music,literature,history,andlanguage.Thesefieldsareabroadwayofstudyingandunderstandinghowpeopleexpressideas,information,andfeelings—theexperienceofwhatmakesushuman.Sometimesmislabeledasthe“opposite”oftheappliedsciencesorprofessionalprogramssuchasbusiness,thehumanitiesareinfactatthecoreofeveryhumanendeavortopursue,discover,andpassonknowledge.

Thereisnosingle,all-encompassingtypeofwritinginthehumanities.Youmightwritealiteraryanalysisofanovel,story,play,orpoem;ananalysisthatexplainshowawrittenorvisualtextworkstopersuadeaspecificaudience;anexpositoryessaythatsharespersonalexperiencesorexploresideas;aresearchpaperinvestigatingthehistoryofaparticulartheoreticalapproach;orapersuasivearticlethatworkstoconvinceaspecificaudienceofyourthesis.Generally,however,writinginthehumanitiesfallsintooneofthreecategories:researchwriting,interpretive/analyticalwriting,andcreativewriting.

ResearchWritingWhenwritingaresearchpaperinthehumanities,youwilllikelyberelyingonanumberofdifferentsourcestosupportabroaderclaimthatyou’retryingtomake.Itiscrucialthatyoucorrectlyciteandattributeallideasandinformationthatarenotcommonknowledgeandnotyourown.Forexample,youwouldneedtoprovideacitationforastatementlike,“60%ofgunsrecoveredincrimesaresoldbyunlicenseddealers,”whichislikelywritten

aboutinaspecificstudy,butnotforastatementlike,“WilliamShakespearewasbornin1564,”whichiscommonknowledgeandreferencedinmanydifferentsources.

Interpretive/AnalyticalWritingAninterpretation,oranalysis,involvesthediscoveryofmeaninginatext(orfilm,orpainting,etc.)ortheproductionofmeaningintheprocessofreadingatext.Assuch,analyticalwritingfocusesonthequestionsof“how?”and“why?”Ittriestoassistthereaderinunderstandingspecificevents(literary,cultural,orotherwise)ratherthanjustengaginginsummary.Writingaboutliterature(poems,shortstories,plays,etc.)ofteninvolvesmakinganargumentthatcanbebackedupwithspecificexamplesfromthetext.Forexample,astudentwritinganinterpretivepaperaboutaspecificbookmaytrytoexplaintheauthor’sattitudesorviewsonaspecificsubjectmatter.Thewriterofthepapermustthenuseevidencefoundinthatbook—specificlines,words,orphrases—tobackuptheirclaims.

TheoreticalWriting

Theoreticalwritinginvolveswritingonatopicfromaparticulartheoreticalperspectiveorcombinationofperspectives(e.g.,modernism,deconstructionism,psychoanalytictheory,etc.).Often,studentswillbeaskedtocombinetheanalyticalandtheoreticalgenres:towriteapaperinterpretingaspecifictextorfilmthroughthelensofaparticulartheoryortheoreticaltext.Forexample,astudentmightwriteanessayonFordMadoxFord’sTheGoodSoldier,investigatinghowitsuseoflanguagefitsintoNietzsche’stheoryofhumancommunication.Anotherexamplemightbeapaperinterpretingafilmusingcertaintenetsofpsychoanalytictheory.

CreativeWritingCreativewritingattemptstoachieve,orcreate,aneffectinthemindsofreaders.Creativewritingcanalsobeusedasanoutletforpeopletogettheirthoughtsandfeelingsoutandontopaper.Poems,shortstories,novels,andevensonglyricsareallexamplesofcreativewriting.

Tosome,nonfictioncanalsobeconsideredcreativewritingbecauseitisdonefromtheauthor’spointofviewandmaybewritteninanindividualstylethat

engagesthereader.Infact,manyuniversitiesoffercoursesin“creativenonfiction.”Othersliketoseparatenonfictionfromcreativewritingbecauseitdealswithrealeventsthatactuallytookplace,eveniftheyarewrittenaboutsubjectively.

Attributions

IntroductiontoWritingintheHumanities

“WritingintheHumanities.”https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Writing_in_the_HumanitiesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

9.3:WritingintheNaturalandSocialSciences:TheResearchPaperandtheIMRADModel9.3.1:PrinciplesofWritingintheSciences

Scientificwritinghastwogoals:toinformthereaderofnewdevelopmentsinaspecificfield,andtoaddressexistingquestionswithnewevidence.

LearningObjective

Listthestylisticelementsofasuccessfulscientificpaper

KeyPoints

Academicwritinginthesciencesaddressesnewscientificdevelopmentsandclarificationsofscientificquestions,mostfrequentlyintheformofalabreport,journalarticle,orliteraturereview.Thenaturalsciencesincludefieldssuchasastronomy,biology,chemistry,andphysics;thesocialsciencesincludeanthropology,economics,linguistics,politicalscience,sociology,andpsychology.ScientificpaperscommonlyfollowtheIMRADmodel,whichstandsforintroduction,method,results,anddiscussion.Theintroductionshoulddescribeelementssuchasthepaper’smotivation,aim,problem,testedhypothesis,novelcontributions,backgroundmaterials,andanoverviewofthesubsequentmaterial.Themethodssectionshouldcoverthewriter’sassumptions,systemmodel,simulationmodel,andperformancemeasures.Foranoriginalstudy,when,where,andhowthestudywasconducted,whatmaterialswereused,andwhowasincludedinthestudygroupsshouldallbeincluded.Indescribingtheresults,thewritershouldincludeanyempiricaldata,charts,andplotsthatconveytheanswertotheresearchquestion,andstatewhethertheresearchhypothesiswasprovenornotproven.Thediscussionsectionshouldanalyzetheresults,statewhytheymatter,contextualizetheminrelationtoexistingresearch,andsuggestthe

implicationsforfutureresearch.

KeyTerms

objectivity

Theabilitytoperceiveasubjectwithoutbeinginfluencedbypersonalbiasesoremotions.

bias

Adefiniteopinionorpositiononasubject.

labreport

Astep-by-stepexplanationofthematerials,methods,data,results,analysis,conclusions,andreferencesofanexperiment.

Scientificresearchpapersreportnewdiscoveries,applyingevidencetoanswerquestionsandidentifypatterns.Writinginthesedisciplinesoftentakestheformofpeer-reviewedjournalarticles,literaturereviews,grantproposals,casestudies,andlabreports.

Forexample,inanenvironmental-sciencelabreport,astudentmightanalyzeresearchresultstoaddressorclarifyaparticularscientificdevelopmentorquestion:

“Thisstudyaimstoidentifylevelsofchlorineandphosphoruscompoundsinathree-milestretchoftheColumbiaRiver,whichisanareanotableforsalmonruns.Ananalysisofsamplestakenoveratwo-yearperiodfromvariouslocationswithinthethree-milestretchrevealedthepersistenceofhighlevelsofphosphorousandchlorinecompounds.Inthestudy,weexaminetherelationshipbetweensalmonpopulationandthepersistenceofthesecompounds.”

Scientificpapersrequireagreatdealofpreliminarywork,includingresearch,fieldwork,andexperimentation.Translatingthatworkintowritingcanbedifficult,butacademicconventionsprovideacommontemplateforcommunicatingfindingsclearlyandeffectively.

GeneralStyleWritinginthesciencesseekstoexplaincomplexphenomenainclear,straightforwardprosethatminimizesauthorialbias.Italsoincludeselementsofclassicalargument,sincescientificpapersareexpectedtocontextualize,

analyze,andinterprettheinformationathand.

PrecisionofLanguageLabreports,casestudies,andothertypesofscientificwritingmustbepreciseinordertoprovideresultsthatcanbetestedandreproduced.

Strivetousesimplewordsandsentences.Somestudentstrytomaketheirworksoundmoreintellectualbyusingobscurewordsandlong,elaboratesentences.Inreality,theacademyvaluesprecisewordsanddetaileddescriptionsthatarestillunderstandabletoalayaudience.Don’ttrytomimicthestereotypeofdense,convolutedacademicwriting.Instead,writeassimplyandclearlyaspossible.Precisionisakeycomponentofclarity.

Inthesciences,precisionhastwomainapplications:usingconcreteexamples,andusingclearlanguagetodescribethem.Definingyourparametersaccuratelyisessential.Don’tgeneralize—provideexacttimes,measurements,quantities,andotherrelevantdatawheneverpossible.Usingprecise,straightforwardlanguagetodescribeyourworkisalsovital.Thisisnotthetimeorplaceforflashyvocabularywordsorrhetoricalflourishes.Style,however,isstillimportant:writingaboutthesciencesdoesn’tgiveyouapasstowritesloppily.

ObjectivityThesciencesaimforobjectivityateverystage,fromtheexperimentalprocedurestothelanguageusedinthewrite-up.Sciencewritingmustconvinceitsaudiencethatitsofferinganimportant,innovativecontribution;asaresult,ithasanargumentativecharacter.Combiningobjectivityandargumentativewritingcanbechallenging.Scientificobjectivityhastworequirements:yourhypothesismustbetestable,andyourresultsmustbereproducible.

Theimportanceofobjectivityinthescienceslimitswriters’abilitytousepersuasiverhetoric.However,itisstillnecessarytomakeastrongcasefortheimportance,relevance,andapplicabilityofyourresearch.Argumentativewritingdoeshaveaplaceinscientificpapers,butitsroleislimited.Youmayusepersuasivelanguageintheabstract,introduction,literaturereview,discussionofresults,andconclusion,butavoidusingitwhenyoudescribeyourmethodsandpresentyourresults.

TransitionsManystudentsstruggletotransitionfromonetopictothenext.Transitionsarewellworthmastering—theyarethegluethatholdsyourideastogether.Neverassumethatthereaderwillcorrectlyguesstherelationshipsbetweendifferentsubtopics;itisyourresponsibilitytoexplaintheseconnections.

ScientificReasoningKeepingyourchosenmodelinmindwhileyouwritecanhelpensurethatyourdecisionsandconclusionsarelogicallyconsistent.Also,watchoutforlogictrapssuchasbiasandfaultycausality.Researchersmustaccountfortheirownbiases,orpersonalpreferences,prejudices,andpreconceivednotions.Thesemayincludecognitivebias(irrationalthinking),culturalbias(theimpositionofone’sownculturalstandardsuponresearchsubjects),andsamplingbias(thetendencyduringsamplecollectiontoincludesomemembersoftheintendedsamplemorereadilythanothers).

9.3.2:OverviewoftheIMRADModel

Thebodyofascientificpapergenerallyconsistsofthefollowingsections:introduction(whichmayincludealiteraturereview),methods,results,anddiscussion.

LearningObjective

DefineeachelementoftheIMRADstructure

KeyPoints

TheIMRADmodelistheconventionalstructuralapproachtoacademicwritinginthesciences.TheIMRADmodelhasfourparts:introduction,methods,results,anddiscussion.Theliteraturereviewprovidesanoverviewofrelevantresearchinyourdiscipline.Thismaybeincludedaspartoftheintroduction,oritmaystandasitsownsection.Themethodssectionshouldexplainhowyoucollectedandevaluatedyourdata.

Ifyourprojectconductsanexperimentoranoriginaldataanalysis,youshouldincludeaseparatesectionthatreportsyourresults.Thediscussionsectionshouldanalyzeyourresultswithoutreportinganynewfindings.

KeyTerms

quantitative

Ofresearchmethodsthatrelyonobjectivemeasurementsanddataanalysis.

literaturereview

Asynthesisofthecriticalpointsofcurrentknowledgeinagivenfield,whichincludessignificantfindingsaswellastheoreticalandmethodologicalcontributionstoaparticulartopic.

IMRAD

AnacronymforIntroduction,Methods,Results,andDiscussion—theconventionalstructureofascientificpaper.

result

Thediscovery(orabsenceofdiscovery)thatarisesfromthescientificmethodofinvestigation.

qualitative

Ofresearchmethodsthatcreateamoresubjectiveunderstandingbystudyingasubject’sdefiningqualitiesandcharacter.

Inthenaturalandsocialsciences,theformatforthebodyofthepapervariesdependingonthediscipline,audience,andresearchmethods.Generally,thebodyofthepapercontainsanintroduction,amethodssection,results,anddiscussion.ThismethodiscalledIMRADforshort.

Thesesectionsareusuallyseparate,althoughsometimestheresultsarecombinedwiththemethods.However,manyinstructorspreferthatstudentsmaintainthesedivisions,sincetheyarestilllearningtheconventionsofwritingintheirdiscipline.MostscientificjournalsprefertheIMRADformat,orvariationsofit,andevenrecommendthatwritersdesignatethefourelementswithuniformtitleheadings.

Trytostaytruetoeachsection’sstatedpurpose.Youcanciterelevantsourcesinthemethods,discussion,andconclusionsections,butagain,savethelengthydiscussionofthosesourcesfortheintroductionorliteraturereview.

Theresultssectionshoulddescribeyourresultswithoutdiscussingtheirsignificance,whilethediscussionsectionshouldanalyzeyourresultswithoutreportinganynewfindings.Thinkofeachsectionasacourseservedatafancydinner—don’tpourthesoupintothesaladoraddleftoverscrapsfromtheentreetothedessert!

IntroductionInthefirstsectionofyourpaper,makeacaseforyournewresearch.Explaintoyourreaderwhyyouchosetoresearchthistopic,problem,orissue,andwhysuchresearchisneeded.Explainany“gaps”inthecurrentresearchonthistopic,andexplainhowyourresearchcontributestoclosingthatgap.

LiteratureReview

Whilenotalwaysrequired,theliteraturereviewcanbeanimportantpartofyourintroduction.Itprovidesanoverviewofrelevantresearchinyourdiscipline.Itsgoalistoprovideascholarlycontextforyourresearchquestion,andexplainhowyourownresearchfitsintothatcontext.Aliteraturereviewisnotmerelyasummaryofthesourcesyou’vefoundforyourpaper—itshouldsynthesizetheinformationgatheredfromthosesourcesinordertodemonstratethatworkstillneedstobedone.

Explainyourselectioncriteriaearlyon—whydidyouchooseeachofyoursources?Theliteraturereviewshouldonlyrefertoworkthataffectsyourparticularquestion.Seekoutadiverserangeofsources.Lookatprimary-researchreportsanddatasetsinadditiontosecondaryoranalyticalsources.

MethodsThissectionshouldexplainhowyoucollectedandevaluatedyourdata.Usethepasttense,andusepreciselanguage.Explainwhyyouchoseyourmethodsandhowtheycomparetothestandardpracticesinyourdiscipline.Addresspotentialproblemswithyourmethodology,anddiscusshowyoudealtwiththeseproblems.Classifyyourmethods.Aretheyempiricalorinterpretive?Quantitativeorqualitative?

Afteryousupportyourmethodsofdatacollectionorcreation,defendtheframeworkyouusetoanalyzeorinterpretthedata.Whattheoreticalassumptionsdoyourelyon?

Afteryouprovidearationaleforyourmethodology,explainyourprocessindetail.Ifyouarevagueorunclearindescribingyourmethods,yourreaderwillhavereasontodoubtyourresults.Furthermore,scientificresearchshouldpresentreproducible(i.e.,repeatable)results.Itwillbeimpossibleforotherresearcherstorecreateyourresultsiftheycan’tdetermineexactlywhatyoudid.Includeinformationaboutyourpopulation,sampleframe,samplemethod,samplesize,data-collectionmethod,anddataprocessingandanalysis.

ResultsWhenyoudescribeyourfindings,dosointhepasttense,usingimpartiallanguage,withnoattempttoanalyzethesignificanceofthefindings.Youwillanalyzeyourresultsinthenextsection.However,itisperfectlyacceptabletomakeobservationsaboutyourfindings.Forinstance,iftherewasanunexpectedlylargegapbetweentwodatapoints,youshouldmentionthatthegapisunusual,butsaveyourspeculationsaboutthereasonsforthegapforthediscussionsection.Ifyoufindsomeresultsthatdon’tsupportyourhypothesis,don’tomitthem.Reportincongruousresults,andthenaddresstheminthediscussionsection.Ifyoufindthatyouneedmorebackgroundinformationtoprovidecontextforyourresults,don’tincludeitintheresultssection—gobackandaddittoyourintroduction.

DiscussionThisistheplacetoanalyzeyourresultsandexplaintheirsignificance—namely,howtheysupport(ordonotsupport)yourhypothesis.Identifypatternsinthedata,andexplainhowtheycorrelatewithwhatisknowninthefield,aswellaswhethertheyarewhatyouexpectedtofind.(Often,themostinterestingresearchresultsarethosethatwerenotexpected!)Youshouldalsomakeacaseforfurtherresearchifyoufeeltheresultswarrantit.

Itcanbeveryhelpfultoincludevisualaidssuchasfigures,charts,tables,andphotoswithyourresults.Makesureyoulabeleachoftheseelements,andprovidesupportingtextthatexplainsthemthoroughly.

RoyalAcademySchool

Oneofthegoalsoftheliteraturereviewistodemonstratefamiliaritywithabodyofknowledge.

9.3.3:Abstract

Theabstractisthefirst(and,sometimes,only)partofascientificpaperpeoplewillread,soit’sessentialtosummarizeallnecessaryinformationaboutyourmethods,results,andconclusions.

LearningObjective

Describethepurposeoftheabstract

KeyPoints

Manyonlinedatabaseswillonlydisplaytheabstractofascientificpaper,sotheabstractmustengagethereaderenoughtopromptthemtoreadthelongerarticle.Theabstractisthefirst(and,sometimes,only)partofyourpaperpeoplewillsee,soit’simportanttoincludeallthefundamentalinformationaboutyourintroduction,methods,results,anddiscussionsections.Whileascientificpaperitselfisusuallywrittenforaspecializedprofessionalaudience,theabstractshouldbeunderstandabletoabroaderpublicreadership(alsoknownasa“layaudience”).

KeyTerm

abstract

Theoverallsummaryofascientificpaper,usuallyfewerthan250words.

TheImportanceoftheAbstractTheabstractofascientificpaperisoftentheonlypartthatthereadersees.Awell-writtenabstractencapsulatesthecontentandtoneoftheentirepaper.Sinceabstractsarebrief(generally300–500words),theydonotalwaysallowforthefullIMRADstructure.Aspecializedaudiencemayreadfurtheriftheyareinterested,andtheabstractisyouropportunitytoconvincethemtoreadtherest.Additionally,theabstractofanarticlemaybetheonlypartthatisavailablethroughelectronicdatabases,publishedinconferenceproceedings,orreadbyaprofessionaljournalreferee.Henceabstractsshouldbewrittenwithanon-specializedaudience(oraverybusyspecializedaudience)inmind.

WhattoAddressintheAbstractWhileeachmediumofpublicationmayrequiredifferentwordcountsorformatsforabstracts,agoodgeneralruleistospendonetotwosentencesaddressingeachofthefollowing(donotuseheadersorusemultipleparagraphs;justmakesuretoaddresseachcomponent):

SummarizeYourIntroduction

Thisiswhereyouwillintroduceandsummarizepreviousworkaboutthetopic.Statethequestionorproblemyouareaddressing,anddescribeanygapsintheexistingresearch.

SummarizeYourMethods

Next,youshouldexplainhowyousetaboutansweringthequestionsstatedinthebackground.Describeyourresearchprocessandtheapproach(es)youusedtocollectandanalyzeyourdata.

SummarizeYourResults

Presentyourfindingsobjectively,withoutinterpretingthem(yet).Resultsareoftenrelayedinformalproseandvisualform(charts,graphs,etc.).Thishelpsspecializedandnon-specializedaudiencesalikegraspthecontentandimplicationsofyourresearchmorethoroughly.

SummarizeYourConclusions

Hereiswhereyoufinallyconnectyourresearchtothetopic,applyingyourfindingstoaddressthehypothesisyoustartedoutwith.Describetheimpactyourresearchwillhaveonthequestion,problem,ortopic,andincludeacallforspecificareasoffurtherresearchinthefield.

9.3.4:IntroductionandThesis

Inacademicwriting,theintroductionandthesisstatementformthefoundationofyourpaper.

LearningObjective

Identifyelementsofasuccessfulintroduction

KeyPoints

Writinginthesocialsciencesshouldadoptanobjectivestylewithoutfigurativeandemotionallanguage.Bedetailed;remainfocusedonyourtopic;beprecise;andusejargononlywhenwritingforaspecialistaudience.Inthesocialsciences,anintroductionshouldsuccinctlypresentthesefivepoints:thetopic,thequestion,theimportanceofthequestion,yourapproachtothequestion,andyouranswertothequestion.Athesisstatementisabriefsummaryofyourpaper’spurposeandyourcentralclaim.Thethesisstatementshouldbeonetothreesentencesinlength,dependingonthecomplexityofyourpaper,anditshouldappearinyourintroduction.

KeyTerms

thesisstatement

Aclaim,usuallyfoundattheendofthefirstparagraphofanessayorsimilardocument,thatsummarizesthemainpointsandargumentsofthe

paper.

introduction

Aninitialsectionthatsummarizesthesubjectmaterialofabookorarticle.

Socialsciences

Thesocialsciencesincludeacademicdisciplineslikeanthropology,sociology,psychology,andeconomics

Theintroductioncanbethemostchallengingpartofapaper,sincemanywritersstrugglewithwheretostart.Ithelpstohavealreadysettledonathesis.Ifyou’refeelingdaunted,youcansometimeswritetheothersectionsofthepaperfirst.Then,whenyou’veorganizedthemainideasinthebody,youcanwork“backward”toexplainyourtopicandthesisclearlyinthefirstparagraph.

PresentMainIdeasTheintroductiontoasocial-sciencepapershouldsuccinctlypresentthemainideas.Thegoaloftheintroductionistoconvincethereaderthatyouhaveavalidanswertoanimportantquestion.Inordertodothat,makesureyourintroductioncoversthesefivepoints:thetopic,thequestion,theimportanceofthequestion,yourapproachtothequestion,andyouranswertothequestion.

StructuringYourIdeasApopularintroductionstructureistheconcept-funnel—beginwithgeneralinformationaboutyourtopic,narrowthefocusandprovidecontext,andendbydistillingyourpaper’sspecificapproach.Asyoumovefromgeneralbackgroundinformationtothespecificsofyourproject,trytocreatearoadmapforyourpaper.Mirrorthestructureofthepaperitself,explaininghoweachpiecefitsintothebiggerpicture.Itisusuallybesttowritetheintroductionafteryouhavemadesignificantprogresswithyourresearch,experiment,ordataanalysistoensureyouhaveenoughinformationtowriteanaccurateoverview.

Papersinthesciencesgenerallyaimforanobjectivevoiceandstayclosetothefacts.However,youhaveabitmorefreedomatthebeginningoftheintroduction,andyoucantakeadvantageofthatfreedombyfindingasurprising,high-impactwaytohighlightyourissue’simportance.Herearesomeeffectivestrategiesforopeningapaper:

MakeaprovocativeorcontroversialstatementStateasurprisingorlittle-knownfactMakeacaseforyourtopic’srelevancetothereaderOpenwitharelevantquoteorbriefanecdoteTakeastandagainstsomethingStakeapositionforyourselfwithinanongoingdebateTalkaboutachallengingproblemorparadox

EstablishingRelevanceAfteryouengageyourreader’sattentionwiththeopening,makeacasefortheimportanceofyourtopicandquestion.Herearesomequestionsthatmayhelpatthisstage:Whydidyouchoosethistopic?Shouldthegeneralpublicoryouracademicdisciplinebemoreawareofthisissue,andwhy?Areyoucallingattentiontoanunderappreciatedissue,orevaluatingawidelyacknowledgedissueinanewlight?Howdoestheissueaffectyou,ifatall?

ThesisStatementAthesisstatementisabriefsummaryofyourpaper’spurposeandcentral

claim.Thethesisstatementshouldbeonetothreesentences,dependingonthecomplexityofyourpaper,andshouldappearinyourintroduction.Athesisstatementinthesocialsciencesshouldincludeyourprincipalfindingsandconclusions.Ifwritingaboutanexperiment,itshouldalsoincludeyourinitialhypothesis.Whilethereisnohard-and-fastruleaboutwheretostateyourthesis,itusuallyfitsnaturallyatorneartheendoftheintroductoryparagraph(notlaterthantheverybeginningofthesecondparagraph).Theintroductionshouldprovidearationaleforyourapproachtoyourresearchquestion,anditwillbeeasiertofollowyourreasoningifyourevealwhatyoudidbeforeyouexplainwhyyoudidit.

TestabilityYourthesisisonlyvalidifitistestable.Testabilityisanextensionoffalsifiability,aprincipleindicatingthataclaimcanbeproveneithertrueorfalse.Thestatement,“allSwedishpeoplehaveblondehair”isfalsifiable—itcouldbeprovenfalsebyidentifyingaSwedewithadifferenthaircolor.Forahypothesistobetestable,itmustbepossibletoconductexperimentsthatcouldrevealobservablecounterexamples.Thisistheequivalentoftheprincipleinthehumanitiesthataclaimisonlyvalidifsomeonecouldalsoreasonablyargueagainstit.

ThesisStatementstoAvoidThestatementwithoutathesis:Astatementofafact,opinion,ortopicisnotathesis.Pushthethesisstatementbeyondthelevelofatopicstatement,andmakeanargument.Thevaguethesis:Ifyourthesisstatementistoogeneral,itwillnotprovidea“roadmap”forreaders.The“valuejudgment”thesis:Yourargumentshouldnotassumeauniversal,self-evidentsetofvalues.Value-judgment-basedargumentstendtohavethestructure“ isbad; isgood,”or“ isbetterthan .”“Good,”“bad,”“better,”and“worse”arevaguetermsthatdonotconveyenoughinformationforacademicarguments.Inacademicwriting,itisinappropriatetoassumethatyourreaderwillknowexactlywhatyoumeanwhenyoumakeanoverlygeneralclaim.Theburdenofproof,andthoroughexplanation,isonyou.Theoversizedthesisclaim.Thereisonlysomuchmaterialyoucancoverwithinapagelimit,somakesureyourtopicisfocusedenoughthat

youcandoitjustice.Also,avoidargumentsthatrequireevidenceyoudonothave.Therearesomeargumentsthatrequireagreatdealofresearchtoprove—onlytacklethesetopicsifyouhavethetime,space,andresources.

9.3.5:Methods

Amethodssectionisadetaileddescriptionofhowastudywasresearchedandconducted.

LearningObjective

Identifytheelementsofasuccessfulmethodssection

KeyPoints

Scientificobjectivityrequiresthatyourpaperhaveatestablehypothesisandreproducibleresults.Yourmethodssectionshouldincludeallinformationnecessaryforyourreaderstoexactlyrecreateyourexperiment;thisgivesothersachancetotestyourfindingsanddemonstratesthatyourprojectmeetsthecriteriaofscientificobjectivity.Toprovethatyourpapermeetsthosecriteria,youneedtoincludeadetaileddescriptionofhowyouconductedyourexperimentandreachedyourconclusions.Specifically,yourmethodssectionshouldincludedetailsaboutyourassumptions,yourvariablesandparticipants,andwhatmaterialsandmetricsyouused—essentially,anyimportantinformationaboutwhen,where,andhowthestudywasconducted.

KeyTerms

IMRAD

Currentlythemostprominentnormforthestructureofascientificpaper;anacronymfor“introduction,methods,results,anddiscussion.”

testable

Alsoknownasfalsifiable;abletobedisproven.

reproducible

Capableofbeingreproducedatadifferenttimeorplaceandbydifferent

people.

IMRAD:TheMethodsSectionYourmethodssectionshouldincludeafull,technicalexplanationofhowyouconductedyourresearchandfoundyourresults.Itshoulddescribeyourassumptions,questions,simulations,materials,participants,andmetrics.

Becausethemethodssectionisgenerallyreadbyaspecializedaudiencewithaninterestinthetopic,ituseslanguagethatmaynotbeeasilyunderstoodbynon-specialists.Technicaljargon,extensivedetails,andaformaltoneareexpected.

Themethodssectionshouldbeasthoroughaspossiblesincethegoalistogivereadersalltheinformationnecessaryforthemtorecreateyourexperiments.Scientificpapersneedathoroughdescriptionofmethodologyinordertoprovethataprojectmeetsthecriteriaofscientificobjectivity:atestablehypothesisandreproducibleresults.

PurposeoftheMethodsSection:TestabilityHypothesesbecomeacceptedtheoriesonlywhentheirexperimentalresultsarereproducible.Thatmeansthatiftheexperimentisconductedthesamewayeverytime,itshouldalwaysgeneratethesame,orsimilar,results.Toensurethatlaterresearcherscanreplicateyourresearch,andtherebydemonstratethatyourresultsarereproducible,itisimportantthatyouexplainyourprocessveryclearlyandprovideallofthedetailsthatwouldbenecessarytorepeatyourexperiment.Thisinformationmustbeaccurate—evenonemistakenmeasurementortypocouldchangetheprocedureandresultsdrastically.

ExampleMethodsSectionThefollowingisanexampleofamethodssectionofascientificpaper:

“Thestudyfocusedonathree-hundred-milestretchoftheColumbiaRiver,whichhasbeenthestretchoftherivermoststudiedhistorically.Five

locationswereselected,eachsixtymilesapart.Eachlocationhadthreedifferentwatersamplesselectedforthreelevelsofthewater:surfacewater(3-inchdepth),mid-levelwater(12-inchdepth),andwaterfromthebottomoftheriver(36-inchdepth).Samplesweretakenthreetimesaday,sevendaysaweek,duringaperiodstretchingfromthefourthmonthbeforeuntilthefourthmonthaftertheyear’ssalmonrun.”

9.3.6:Results

Theresultssectionofascientificpaperobjectivelypresentstheempiricaldatacollectedinastudy.

LearningObjective

Identifytheinformationthatbelongsintheresultssection

KeyPoints

Afterdiscussingthemethodologyofyourstudy,describetheoutcomesthatyoumeasuredorobserved.Whenpresentingthefindings,avoiddrawingconclusions.Insteadprovideandexplainthedatayoucollected.Thisisyouropportunitytotellthereaderwhatyoufoundwithoutdrawinganyexplicitconclusionsfromit.Usecharts,tables,orgraphstopresentyourfindingsinawaythatisclearandeasilyunderstood.

KeyTerms

summary

Acondensedversionofthebackgroundormainideasofatext.

results

Thesectionofascientificpaperthatobjectivelypresentsthedatacollectedorobservedinaresearchstudy.

methodology

Adetailedexplanationofspecificcomponentsofaresearchproject,suchasphases,tasks,methods,techniques,andtools.

WritingtheResultsSectionTheresultssectioniswhereyoustatetheoutcomeofyourexperiments.Itshouldincludeempiricaldata,anyrelevantgraphics,andlanguageaboutwhetherthethesisorhypothesiswassupported.Thinkoftheresultssectionasthecold,hardfacts.

Style

Sincethegoalofthescientificpaperistopresentfacts,useaformal,objectivetonewhenwriting.Avoidadjectivesandadverbs;insteadusenounsandverbs.Passivevoiceisacceptablehere:youcansay“Thestreamwasfoundtocontain0.27PPMmercury,”ratherthan“Ifoundthatthestreamcontained0.27PPMmercury.”

PresentingInformation

Usingcharts,graphs,andtablesisanexcellentwaytoletyourresultsspeakforthemselves.Manyword-processingandspreadsheetprogramshavetoolsforcreatingthesevisualaids.However,makesureyouremembertotitleeachfigure,provideanaccompanyingdescription,andlabelallaxessothatyourreaderscanunderstandexactlywhatthey’relookingat.

WasYourHypothesisSupported?

Thisisthepartwhereitisthemostdifficulttobeobjective.Ifyoufollowedthescientificmethod,youbeganyourresearchwithahypothesis.Nowthatyouhavecompletedyourresearch,youhavefoundthateitheryourhypothesiswassupportedoritwasnot.Intheresultssection,donotattempttoexplainwhyorwhynotyourhypothesiswassupported.Simplysay,“Theresultswerenotfoundtobestatisticallysignificant,”or“Theresultssupportedthehypothesis,with significance,”orthelike.Beobjective—therewillbetimeforinterpretationlater.

GettingReadyfortheConclusionItwillbetemptingtostartdrawingconclusionsasyouwritetheresultssection.Youmayalsowanttocompareyourresultstotheoutcomesofother

researchers’experiments.Resisttheurge!You’llgetyourchancetodrawconclusionsintheconclusionsection.Themostyoushoulddointheresultssectionispresentthedatayourexperimentsproduced.Thinkofitaslayingthefoundationforwhatyouwillconcludelateroninyourpaper.

9.3.7:DiscussionandConclusion

Thediscussionsectionofascientificpaperanalyzesandinterpretstheresultsofastudy,whiletheconclusionexplainsimplicationsforfurtherresearch.

LearningObjective

Differentiatebetweenthediscussionsectionandtheconclusion

KeyPoints

Thediscussionsectionshouldbrieflyremindthereaderofyourresearchquestionandprincipalfindings,andtheninterpretyourresults.Besuretoacknowledgeotherpossibleinterpretationsofyourresultsinthediscussionssection,andadmityourproject’slimitations.Inyourconclusion,restatetheresearchquestion,themainresults,andthemeaningofthoseresults.However,avoidsimplyrepeatingyourdiscussionsection.Inyourconclusionyoumayalsodiscussthesignificanceofyourresearchforfutureresearch,publicpolicy,personaldecision-making,orotherspheresofinfluence.

KeyTerms

conclusion

Theend,finish,close,orlastpartofsomething.

discussion

Textgivingfurtherdetailonasubject.

DiscussionThediscussionsectionofascientificpapershouldinterprettheresultsofyourresearch.First,brieflyremindyourreaderofyourresearchquestionand

principalfindingsbybrieflyrestatingthesepoints.Thenexplaintheresultsthemselves.Discusshowtheyfit(ordonotfit)yourhypothesis,andwhethertheyareconsistentwiththeresultsofsimilarresearchprojects.Didyouencounteranythingsurprisingoridiosyncratic?Ifso,whyisitsignificant?Whatmighthavecausedit?Buildontheresearchquestionyouposedintheintroduction,andthecontextyouestablishedintheliteraturereview.Makeacaseforthemeaningandsignificanceofyourfindings,andsupportyourcasebyconnectingittorelatedresearch.

Acknowledgeotherpossibleinterpretationsofyourresults,andadmityourproject’slimitations.Yourargumentwillbemoreconvincingifyoucananticipateyourreader’spotentialobjectionstoyourclaimsandaddressthemdirectlyinthediscussionsection.Forexample,generalizability(orhowapplicableastudy’sresultsaretoamoregeneralpopulation)ismorelimitedwithasmallerorlesshomogeneoussample.Ifyourresearchsampleissmallorlimited,besuretoacknowledgethoselimitationsandaddresshowtheymighthaveaffectedtheresults.

Ifyourinterpretationhasbroaderimplications,youcaneithersuggesttheminthediscussionsectionorintroducetheminaseparateconclusion.Youdon’thavetowriteaconclusionifyourpointsfitneatlyintothediscussionsection,butaconclusionishelpfulifyouwanttomakesuggestionsthatstretchbeyondthescopeofyourproject.

ConclusionTheconclusionsectionisnotstrictlynecessaryinthesocialsciences,butitcanbehelpfultoprovideasuccinctsummaryofyourwork.Itisalsoagoodplacetomakeboldspeculationsabouttheimplicationsofyourproject.Youshoulddiscuss,somewhereinyourpaper,thesignificanceofyourresearchforfutureresearch,publicpolicy,personaldecision-making,orotherspheresofinfluence.Butthinkcarefullyaboutwhetheryoucouldbenefitfromthedistancingeffectofputtingtheseimplicationsinaseparateconclusion.

Theconclusionshouldnotrepeatyourdiscussionsection.Itshouldtakeonetothreeparagraphstorestatetheresearchquestion,themainresults,andthemeaningofthoseresults.Theconclusionthenreachesbeyondthesuggestionsyoumadeinthebodyofthepapertoemphasizetheimportanceoftheresultsandtheirpotentialconsequences.

Conclusion

Conclusionshavebeenanimportantpartofwritingforcenturies.

Attributions

PrinciplesofWritingintheSciences

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“Objectivity(science).”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objectivity_(science).WIKIPEDIACCBY-SA3.0.

“Casestudy.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_study.WIKIPEDIACCBY-SA3.0.

“IMRAD.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMRAD.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Precision.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precision.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“Socialscience.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science.WIKIPEDIACCBY-SA3.0.

“Literaturereview.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature_review.WIKIPEDIACCBY-SA3.0.

“Naturalscience.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science.

WIKIPEDIACCBY-SA3.0.

“Casestudy.”https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Psychology/Case_StudiesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/WritingintheSciences.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Writing_in_the_SciencesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“objectivity.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/objectivity.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“bias.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bias.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“TesttubesandotherrecipientsinchemistrylabbyHoriaVarlaninTesttubeonFotopedia-ImagesforHumanity.”http://www.fotopedia.com/items/flickr-4273968004.FotopediaCCBY-SA3.0.

OverviewoftheIMRADModel

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/WritingintheSciences.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Writing_in_the_Sciences%23Social_SciencesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“result.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/result.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“literaturereview.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/literature%20review.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“SocialResearchMethods/ReadingandWritingSocialResearch.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Social_Research_Methods/Reading_and_Writing_Social_ResearchWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“RoyalAcademySchool-ScientistsofNote|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/swanksalot/6298615953/.FlickrCCBY-SA.

AbstractIntroductionandThesis

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“Devcompage|Alearningresourceondevelopmentcommunication.”http://devcompage.com/.devcompageCCBY-SA.

“thesisstatement.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/thesis%20statement.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“introduction.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/introduction.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“TheCainProjectinEngineeringandProfessionalCommunication,ThreeModulesonClearWritingStyle:AnIntroductiontoTheCraftofArgument,byJosephM.WilliamsandGregoryColomb.September17,2013.”http://cnx.org/content/m17223/latest/?collection=col10551/latest.OpenStaxCNXCCBY3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/WritingintheSciences.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Writing_in_the_Sciences%23Social_SciencesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“SocialResearchMethods/ReadingandWritingSocialResearch.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Social_Research_Methods/Reading_and_Writing_Social_ResearchWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

”GoogleImageResultforhttp://s0.geograph.org.uk/photos/93/28/932893_55ff837b.jpg.”http://www.google.com/imgres?hl=en&sa=X&biw=1334&bih=723&tbs=sur:fmc&tbm=isch&tbnid=Eui9_9JhKzNXRM:&imgrefurl=http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/932893&docid=VfK4jFPSAn-90M&imgurl=http://s0.geograph.org.uk/photos/93/28/932893_55ff837b.jpg&w=640&h=480&ei=IBe6T4aXD-HG6AHirfjDCg&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=188&vpy=63&dur=29&hovh=193&hovw=258&tx=148&ty=96&sig=107678383186574758964&page=1&tbnh=142&tbnw=200&start=0&ndsp=13&ved=1t:429,r:0,s:0,i:148GoogleCCBY-SA.

“300Socialsciences|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/helder/147680983/in/photostream/.FlickrCCBY-SA.

Methods

“IMRAD.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMRAD.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/WritingintheSciences.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Writing_in_the_SciencesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“reproducible.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/reproducible.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

Results

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“result.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/result.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“summary.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/summary.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“methodology.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/methodology.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/WritingintheSciences.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Writing_in_the_Sciences%23Elements_of_the_Natural_Sciences_PaperWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

DiscussionandConclusion

“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.

“conclusion.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/conclusion.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“discussion.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/discussion.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“RhetoricandComposition/WritingintheSciences.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Writing_in_the_Sciences%23Social_SciencesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“SocialResearchMethods/ReadingandWritingSocialResearch.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Social_Research_Methods/Reading_and_Writing_Social_ResearchWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.

“conclusion.png.”https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Collier_conclusion.jpg.WikimediaCommonsPublicdomain.

9.4:WritinginBusiness9.4.1:IntroductiontoWritinginBusiness

Businesswritingconsistsofmanydifferenttypes,allofwhichrequireaspecifictoneandorganizationalstructure.

LearningObjective

Listthestylisticelementsofsuccessfulbusinesswriting

KeyPoints

Businesswritingincludesreports,memos,PRcommunications,email,socialmedia,andmuchmore.Eachtypeofbusinesswritinghasadifferentaudience,purpose,organization,andstyle.Businesswritingisalwaysformalandusesathird-personvoice(“he,”“she,”“they”).Concisionisextremelyimportantinbusinesswriting.Eliminateanylanguagethatisnotessentialtoyourpurpose.

KeyTerms

primaryaudience

Thereaderorreadersforwhomapieceofwritingisintended.

secondaryaudience

Thereaderorreaderswhomayalsoreadapieceofwriting,evenifthepiecewasnotoriginallyintendedforthem.

genre

Acategoryortypeofwriting.

Businesswritinghaschangedagreatdealsincethedaysoftypedmemosandreports.Whilereportsandmemosareofcoursestillrelevant,theworldofbusinesswritinghasexpandedtoincludeemail,PRcommunications,socialmedia,andmuchmore.Eachgenreofbusinesswritingcarriesitsown

conventionsoforganization,voice,andaudience.

GenreSomeofthewritinggenresyouwillencounterinthebusinessworldincludethefollowing:resumesandcoverletters,proposals,instructions,businessandsalesletters,emails,businessplans,caseanalyses,memoranda,performancereviews,andprofessionalbiographies.Theaudiencesandpurposeswillvarywitheachtypeofwriting(andevenwithingenresthemselves).

OrganizationDifferenttypesofbusinesswritingrequiredifferentpatternsoforganization.Dependingonwhetheryouwanttosimplyinform,conveygoodnews,makeadirectrequest,conveybadnews,orpersuadeyouraudienceofsomething,youmightchoosefromanyofthefollowingorganizationalstructures:

Directandtothepoint;startsrightawaywithaproblemorrequestDetailedexplanation:statetheproblemandofferideasforsolutionsPresentideasandevidencefirst,thenconclusionsorrecommendations

Style,Voice,andToneWritinginthebusinessworldisalwaysformalandusesathird-personvoice(“he,”“she,”“they”),althoughyoumayusecontractionstosoundmorenatural.Insomecases,suchasemailsandsalesletters,aslightlylessformaltone(“I”and“you”)ispermissible,butthesubjectandvoiceshouldalwaysremainbusinesslike.Aboveall,lessismore—beasconciseaspossible,eliminatingneedlesswordsthatarenotessentialtoyourpurpose.

AudienceYouprobablyalreadyknowhowtoproperlyaddresstheprimaryaudience(thepersonorpersonswhoaretheintendedrecipients).It’salsocrucialtorememberthatanyandallformsofbusinesswritingshouldbeappropriateforsecondaryaudiencesaswell(i.e.,peopleorgroupsforwhomthewritingmay

nothavebeenoriginallyintended,butwhomightreaditanyway).Forexample,youmightsubmitaproposaltoyourdirectsupervisor(yourprimaryaudience),whointurnmaypassitontohisorhersupervisor,ataskforceorcommittee,orsomeothersecondaryaudience.

Attributions

IntroductiontoWritinginBusiness

10:WritingaPaperinMLAStyle(Humanities)

10.1:IntroductiontoMLAStyle10.1.1:WhentoUseMLAStyle

MLAstyle,createdbytheModernLanguageAssociationofAmerica,istheprimarycitationstyleusedforpapersinliteratureandmediastudies.

LearningObjective

RecognizewhentouseMLAstyleinwriting

KeyPoints

Ifyoutakeawritingorliteratureclassincollege,youwillalmostcertainlyneedtowriteallyourpapersinMLAstyle.MLAstyleisthehousestyleoftheModernLanguageAssociationofAmerica(MLA).MLAstyleprovidesguidelinesforevaluatinganddocumentingsources.

KeyTerm

MLAstyle

Acommoncitationandformattingstyleusedincomposition,literature,andmediastudies.

MLAstyleisoneofthemostcommoncitationandformattingstylesyouwillencounterinyouracademiccareer.AnypieceofacademicwritingcanuseMLAstyle,fromaone-pagepapertoafull-lengthbook.ItiswidelyusedbyinmanyhighschoolandintroductorycollegeEnglishclasses,aswellasscholarlybooksandprofessionaljournals.Ifyouarewritingapaperforaliteratureormediastudiesclass,itislikelyyourprofessorwillaskyoutowriteinMLAstyle.

TheTwoMLAStyleGuidesMLAstyle,thehousestyleoftheModernLanguageAssociationofAmerica(MLA),hastwoofficialpublications.Themostrecentlypublishededitionsof

bothworkshavebeenupdatedinlightofadvancementsincomputerword-processingprogramsandelectronicanddigitalpublishingpractices.

ForStudents

ThefirstMLAstyleguideistheMLAHandbook.Thispublicationtargetshighschoolandcollegestudentsandteachers,explainingthestyleandformattingrulesrelevanttostudentwriting;thisisthepublicationofmostinteresttoyou.ThemostrecentversionoftheMLAHandbookistheeighthedition,publishedin2016.

ForAcademicProfessionals

ThesecondistheMLAStyleManualandGuidetoScholarlyPublishing,calledtheMLAStyleManualforshort.Thispublicationtargetsacademicscholarsandprofessors,explainingthestyleandformattingrulesrelevanttothepublicationofMLA-stylebooksandjournalarticlesinliteratureandmediastudies.ThemostrecentversionoftheMLAStyleManualisthethirdedition,publishedin2008.

Followingtheadventofthe8theditionoftheMLAHandbookinspring2016,theMLAstatedthattheMLAStyleManualwouldbedeclaredoutofprinteffectiveSeptember1,2016.

ThePurposeoftheMLAHandbookTheMLAstyleguideaimstoaccomplishseveralgoals:

1. todefineplagiarismandexplainhowtoavoidit;2. toprovideguidelinesforevaluatingthereliabilityofsources;3. toensureproperattributionofideastotheiroriginalsources,forthesake

ofacademichonestyandintertextualdialogue;4. andtoensureconsistentformattingandpresentationofinformation,for

thesakeofclarityandeaseofnavigation.

Attributions

WhentoUseMLAStyle

“MLAHandbookforWritersofResearchPapers.”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MLA_Handbook_for_Writers_of_Research_PapersWikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“MLAStyleManual.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MLA_Style_Manual.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

10.2:MLA:QuotationsandCitations10.2.1:MLA:BlockQuotations

InMLAstyle,formatquotationsofmorethanfourlinesofproseormorethanthreelinesofverseasblockquotations.

LearningObjective

RecognizewhentouseblockquotationsinMLAstyle

KeyPoints

Aregularquotationispartofasentencewithinaparagraphinyourpaper;however,forlongerquotations(morethanfourlinesofprose,ormorethanthreelinesofverse),formattheexcerptasablockquotation.Ablockquotationbeginsonitsownline,isnotenclosedinquotationmarks,and—ifapplicable—hasanin-textcitationafterthefinalpunctuation.Blockquotationsaredouble-spaced,liketherestofyourpaper,andindentedhalfaninchfromtheleftmargin.

WhentoUseaBlockQuotationAtypicalquotationisenclosedindoublequotationmarksandispartofasentencewithinaparagraphofyourpaper.However,ifyouwanttoquotemorethanfourlinesofprose(orthreelinesofverse)fromasource,youshouldformattheexcerptasablockquotation,ratherthanasaregularquotationwithinthetextofaparagraph.Mostofthestandardrulesforquotationsstillapply,withthefollowingexceptions:ablockquotationwillbeginonitsownline,itwillnotbeenclosedinquotationmarks,anditsin-textcitationwillcomeaftertheendingpunctuation,notbeforeit.

Blockquotation

Anexampleofaproperlyformattedblockquotation

SpacingandAlignmentTheentireblockquotationshouldbeindentedhalfaninchfromtheleftmargin.Thefirstlineoftheexcerptshouldnotbefurtherindented,unlessyouarequotingmultipleparagraphs—inwhichcasethefirstlineofeachquotedparagraphshouldbefurtherindented0.25inches.

Tobettervisuallydistinguishablockquotationfromthesurroundingtext,besuretoleaveanextra(blank)linebothaboveandbelowyourblockquotation.

Ifquotingmorethanthreelinesofverse,maintaintheoriginallinebreaks.

10.2.2:MLA:In-TextCitationsandParentheticals

InMLA,therearedifferentformatsforcitingsourcesintextdependingonthetypeofsource.

LearningObjective

Arrangein-textcitationsinMLAstyle

KeyPoints

In-textcitationsarewhereyoutellthereader,withinthetextofyourpaper,whichsourceyouareciting.Thecorrectformattingforanin-textcitationvariesdependingonhowmanyauthorscreatedtheworkbeingcited.Formattingalsovariesdependingonwhetheryoucitethesamesourcemorethanonce,whetheryoucitemultipleworksbythesameauthor,and

whetheryoucitesourceswithpagenumbers.

Inyourpaper,whenyouquotedirectlyfromasourceintheirwords,orwhenyouparaphrasesomeoneelse’sidea,youneedtotellthereaderwhatthatsourceissotheauthorgetscreditfortheirwordsandideas.Whenyoutellthereaderwhichsourceyouarereferringtowithinthetextofyourpaper,thisiscalledanin-textcitation.

SourcebyaSingleAuthorTocitethistypeofreferenceinthetext,youshouldusewhatisknownasaparenthetical—thecitationinformationenclosedinparentheses—attheendoftherelevantsentence.Theparentheticalshouldincludesimplytheauthor’slastname(withnofirstormiddleinitial).Ifyou’recitingadirectquote,youalsoneedtoincludethepagenumber.Forexample:

Socialrepresentationstheorypositsthatreifiedscientificknowledgethatexistsattheboundariesofagivensocietywillbeinterpretedinmeaningfulandoftensimplifiedformsbythemajority(Pauling113).Socialrepresentationstheory“proposesanewhypothesis…”(Pauling113).

Ifyouchoose,youcanintegratetheauthor’snameintothesentenceitself—thisisknownasa“signalphrase”—andprovidejustthepagenumberinparentheses:

Pauling(113)positsthat“scientificknowledge…”

SourcebyTwoAuthorsAuthorsshouldbepresentedintheorderinwhichtheyarelistedonthepublishedarticle.Ifyouincludetheauthors’namesintheparenthetical,usetheword“and”betweenthetwonames.Forexample:

Socialrepresentationstheorypositsthatreifiedscientificknowledgethatexistsattheboundariesofagivensocietywillbeinterpretedinmeaningfulandoftensimplifiedformsbythemajority(PaulingandLiu113).

Usingasignalphrase:

PaulingandLiu(113)positthat…

SourcebyThreeorMoreAuthorsForanarticlewiththreeormoreauthors,tosavespaceandtomakeyourpapereasiertoread,youshoulduseonlythefirstauthor’slastnamefollowedby“etal.”,andthenthepagenumber,ifapplicable(“etal.”isshortfor“etalia,”whichmeans“andotherpeople”inLatin—muchlike“etc.”isshortfor“etcetera,”whichmeans“andotherthings”inLatin.):

(Paulingetal.113)

Usingasignalphrase:

Paulingetal.(113)posit…

SourcebyNoKnownAuthorForanarticlewithnoknownauthor,usethesourcetitleinplaceoftheauthor’sname,formattedasitwouldbe(i.e.,italicizedorenclosedinquotationmarks)inyourWorksCitedsection:

(“BilingualMinds,BilingualBodies”4)

Usingasignalphrase:

Thearticle“BilingualMinds,BilingualBodies”(4)claims…

MultiplePublicationsbyDifferentAuthorsIfyouneedtocitemultiplepublicationsbydifferentauthorsinthesamesentence,youshouldlistthemultiplesourcesinalphabeticalorderbyauthoranduseasemicolontoseparatethem.

…majority(Alford24;Pauling113;Sirkis96).

MultiplePublicationsbytheSameAuthorIfanauthorhasmultiplepublicationsthatyouwanttociteinthesamesentence,includetheauthor’snameinasignalphraseandthetitlesofthereferencedsourcesinsteadintheparentheticals:

Achenbach’srecentresearch(“BibliographyofPublishedStudies”17)demonstratesaradicalshiftinthinkingfromhisstanceofadecadeago(“School-AgeAssessments”39)…

SourceWithoutPageNumbersIfyouneedtociteasourcewithoutpagenumbers,includeotherlocationinformationifitthatinformationisconsistentlyavailabletoallusers.Forexample,ifyou’recitinganebookwithoutpagenumbers,includeacommafollowedbythechapternumberinstead:

(PaulingandLiu,ch.6)

Usingasignalphrase:

PaulingandLiu(ch.6)positthat…

10.2.3:MLA:TheWorksCitedSection

InMLAstyle,thesourcesyouciteinyourpaperarelistedalltogetherattheend,intheWorksCitedsection.

LearningObjective

ArrangetheWorksCitedsectioninMLAstyle

KeyPoints

InMLAstyle,allthesourcesyoucitethroughoutthetextofyourpaperarelistedtogetherattheend,intheWorksCitedsection.ThereareninecoreelementsofaWorksCitedentry:Author.Titleof

source.Titleofcontainer,Othercontributors,Version,Number,Publisher,Publicationdate,Location.Eachelementisfollowedbyacommaoraperiod(asshown),thoughthefinalelementinaWorksCitedentryisalwaysfollowedbyaperiod.OnlytheelementsrelevanttoaparticularsourceshouldbeincludedinitsWorksCitedentry.TheWorksCitedsectionisarrangedalphabetically.Inaddition,thefirstandsubsequentlinesofeachcitationshouldbeindentedahalfaninchfromtheleftmargin.

InMLAstyle,allthesourcesyoucitethroughoutthetextofyourpaperarelistedtogetherinfullintheWorksCitedsection,whichcomesafterthemaintextofyourpaper.

ConstructingaCitationThereareninecoreelementsofaWorksCitedentry:

1. Author.2. Titleofsource.3. Titleofcontainer,4. Othercontributors,5. Version,6. Number,7. Publisher,8. Publicationdate,9. Location.

Eachelementisfollowedbyacommaoraperiod(asshown),thoughthefinalelementinaWorksCitedentryisalwaysfollowedbyaperiod.

OnlytheelementsrelevanttoaparticularsourceshouldbeincludedinitsWorksCitedentry.

Abriefexplanationofeachofthenineelementsfollows.ConsulttheMLAHandbook,8thEditionformoreinformation.TheMLAwebsitealsocontainsahelpfulguide,includingapracticetemplate:

1.Author.

Ifthesourceiswrittenbyoneauthor,thecitationshouldbeginwiththe

author’slastname,acomma,therestoftheauthor’sname,andthenaperiod.Forexample,ifyou’recitingasourcewrittenbyZadieSmith,thecitationshouldbegin:

Smith,Zadie.

Ifthesourceiswrittenbytwoauthors,thecitationshouldbeginwiththefirstauthor’slastname,acomma,therestofthefirstauthor’sname,acomma,thesecondauthor’sfullname(inthenormalorder),andthenaperiod.Forexample,ifyou’recitingasourcewrittenbyMarkTwainandCharlesDudleyWarner,thecitationshouldbegin:

Twain,Mark,andCharlesDudleyWarner.

Ifthesourceiswrittenbythreeormoreauthors,thecitationshouldbeginwiththefirstauthor’slastname,acomma,therestofthefirstauthor’sname,acomma,andthenet.al.,whichmeans“andothers.”Forexample,ifyou’recitingasourcewrittenbyWayneC.Booth,GregoryG.Colomb,andJosephM.Williams,thecitationshouldbegin:

Booth,WayneC.,etal.

2.TitleofSource.

IfthesourceiswhattheMLAHandbookdescribesas“self-containedandindependent,”suchasabookoracollectionofessays,stories,orpoemsbymultipleauthors,includethetitleinitalics,followedbyaperiod.Forexample,ifyou’recitingZadieSmith’snovelSwingTime,thecitationshouldbegin:

Smith,Zadie.SwingTime.

Ifthesource,ontheotherhand,isaworkthatappearswithinalargerwork,suchasapoemthatappearswithananthology,includethetitleinquotationsmarksinstead.(Makesurethattheperiodfollowingthetitleappearsinsidetheclosingquotationmark.)Forexample,ifyou’recitingSeamusHeaney’spoem“Digging”fromhiscollectionDeathofNaturalist,thecitationshouldbegin:

Heaney,Seamus.“Digging.”

3.TitleofContainer,

Acontainer,inthiscontext,isthelargerworkthatcontainstheshorterworkbeingcited.SeamusHeaney’spoetrycollectionDeathofaNaturalist,for

example,isthecontainerforhispoem“Digging.”

Ifthesourceyou’recitingappearswithinacontainer,continuethecitationbyincludingthetitleofthecontainerinitalics,followedbyacomma:

Heaney,Seamus.“Digging.”DeathofaNaturalist,

Here’sanotherexample.Inthiscase,thewebsiteSlateisthecontainerforthearticle“HackersBreachedSanFrancisco’sTransitSystemandDemandedaRansom”:

Grabar,Henry.“HackersBreachedSanFrancisco’sTransitSystemandDemandedaRansom”Slate,

4.Othercontributors,

Sometimesthereareothercontributorstoawork—inadditiontotheauthororauthors—whoshouldbeincludedintheWorksCitedentry.Includeacontributoriftheircontributionhelpsfurtheridentifytheworkoriftheircontributionisparticularlyrelevanttoyourresearch.

IfyouincludeacontributorinyourworkCitedentry,addadescriptionofthecontribution(“adaptedby,”“directedby,”“editedby,”“illustratedby,”etc.),followedbythefullnameofthecontributorandacomma.

Forexample,ifyou’recitingaworkthathasbeentranslatedfromanotherlanguage,continuethecitationbyincludingthephrase“translatedby”followedbythefullnameofthetranslatorandacomma:

Calvino,Italo.InvisibleCities.TranslatedbyWilliamWeaver,

Or,forexample,ifyourresearchrelatestotheillustrationscontainedwithinawork,continuethecitationbyincludingthephrase“Illustratedby”followedbythefullnameoftheillustratorandacomma:

Bloom,AmyBeth.LittleSweetPotato.IllustratedbyNoahZ.Jones,

5.Version,

Someworksarepublishedindifferentversionsoreditions.Ifyou’recitingaparticularversionofawork,continuethecitationbyincludingtheversionfollowedbyacomma.Herearetwoexamples:

Nelson,Philip.BiologicalPhysics:Energy,Information,Life.UpdatedVersion,

King,LauraA.TheScienceofPsychology:AnAppreciativeReview.3rded.,

6.Number,

Similarly,someworksarepublishedinmultiplenumbers,volumes,issues,episodes,orseasons.Ifyou’recitingaparticularnumberofawork,continuethecitationbyincludingthenumberfollowedbyacomma.Hereareafewexamples:

“IndigenousRightsinCanada:ContestedWilderness.”TheEconomist,Vol.421,Number9017,

Kirkman,Rodman.TheWalkingDead.IllustratedbyCharlieAdlardandCliffRathburn,Vol.4:TheHeart’sDesire,

“Airport2010.”ModernFamily.WrittenbyDanO’ShannonandBillWrubel,season1,episode22,

7.Publisher,

Ifthesourceisdistributedbyapublisher,blognetwork,orotherorganization,continuethecitationbyincludingthepublisher,followedbyacomma.Herearetwoexamples:

Miranda,Lin-Manuel,andJeremyMcCarter.Hamilton:TheRevolution.GrandCentralPublishing,

McMillan,Robert.“HerCodeGotHumansontheMoon—andInventedSoftwareItself.”Wired,CondéNast,

8.PublicationDate,

Continuethecitationbyincludingtheavailablepublicationdateinformationmostrelevanttoyoursource,followedbyacomma.Ifyou’recitingabook,forexample,acopyrightyearwillsuffice:

Fish,Stanley.HowMiltonWorks.BelknapPress,2001,

Ifyou’recitingatweet,ontheotherhand,providetheday,month,year,andtime,assomepeopleandorganizationstweetmorethanonceaday:

@POTUS.“ThisThanksgiving,wegivethanksforourblessings,andworktofulfillthetimelessresponsibilitywehaveasAmericanstoserveothers.”Twitter,24Nov.2016,2:05p.m.,

9.Location.

Location,inthiscontext,referstothelocation(e.g.pagenumber(s),DOI,URL,etc.)ofasourcewithinacontainerorthephysicallocationofaliveperformance,lecture,orpresentation.Ifapplicable,continuethecitationbyincludingthelocationinformation,followedbyaperiod.Hereareafewexamples:

Heaney,Seamus.“Casualty.”FieldWork:Poems,Farrar,Straux,andGiroux,2009,pp.13-16.

Grabar,Henry.“HackersBreachedSanFrancisco’sTransitSystemandDemandedaRansom,”Slate,TheSlateGroup,28Nov.2016,slate.com/blogs/future_tense/2016/11/28/san_francisco_muni_hacked_for_a_ransom_payment.html.

Ernst,Steve,andLizaNeustaetter.“EmpoweringFacultyandStudentswithHighQualityModularCourseware.”OLCAccelerate,18Nov.2016,WaltDisneyWorldSwanandDolphinResort,Orlando.

FormattingtheWorksCitedSectionYourWorksCitedentriesshouldbelistedinalphabeticalorder.

Eachreferenceshouldbeformattedwithwhatiscalledahangingindent.Thismeansthefirstlineofeachcitationshouldbeflushwiththeleftmargin(i.e.,notindented),buttherestofthatcitationshouldbeindentedahalfaninchfromtheleftmargin.Anyword-processingprogramwillletyouformatthisautomaticallysoyoudon’thavetodoitbyhand.(InMicrosoftWord,forexample,yousimplyhighlightyourcitations,clickonthesmallarrowrightnexttotheword“Paragraph”onthehometab,andinthepopupboxchoose“hangingindent”underthe“Special”section.ClickOK,andyou’redone.)

MultiplePublicationsbytheSameAuthor

Ifyouarereferencingmultiplepublicationsbythesameauthor(orgroupofauthors),thereisaspecialrulefordenotingthis.YoushouldfirstorderthosearticlesalphabeticallybysourcetitleintheWorksCitedsection.Then,replacetheauthor’sname(orlistofnames)withthreehyphens,followedbyaperiod,forallbutthefirstentrybythatauthor:

Achenbach,ThomasM.“Bibliographyof….

–.“School-Age…

WorksCited

AproperlyformattedWorksCitedpage.

Attributions

MLA:BlockQuotations

“OriginalfigurebyLizaNeustaetter.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”LizaNeustaetterCCBY-SA3.0.

MLA:In-TextCitationsandParentheticalsMLA:TheWorksCitedSection

“OriginalfigurebyLizaNeustaetter.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”LizaNeustaetterCCBY-SA3.0.

11:WritingaPaperinAPAStyle(SocialSciences)

11.1:IntroductiontoAPAStyle11.1.1:WhentoUseAPAStyle

APAstyle,whichisbasedontheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationstylemanual,iswidelyusedinmanyformsofacademicwriting.

LearningObjective

RecognizewhentouseAPAstyleinwriting

KeyPoints

APAstyleisoneofthemostcommoncitationandformattingstylesyouwillencounterinyouracademiccareer.APAstyleisbasedonthestyleguideoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation(APA),officiallytitledthePublicationManualoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation.APAstyleisnotusedonlyinthefieldofpsychology;itisextremelycommonthroughoutthesocialandbehavioralsciences.APAstyleprovidesguidelinesforgrammar,formatting,andcitingyoursources.

KeyTerm

APAstyle

Acommoncitationandformattingstyle,usedespeciallyofteninthesocialandbehavioralsciences.

APAstyleisoneofthemostcommoncitationandformattingstylesyouwillencounterinyouracademiccareer.AnypieceofacademicwritingcanuseAPAstyle,fromaone-pagepapertoafull-lengthbook.Itiswidelyusedbyhundredsofscientificjournalsandmanytextbooks.Ifyouarewritingapaperforapsychologyorsociologyclass,itispossiblethatyourprofessorwillaskyoutowriteinAPAstyle.

TheAPAManual

APAstyleisbasedonthestyleguideoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation(APA),officiallytitledthePublicationManualoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation.ButAPAstyleisnotusedonlyinthefieldofpsychology;infact,itisextremelycommonthroughoutthesocialandbehavioralsciences,andsomewhatcommoninotherscientificfields,suchasmedicine.

ThemostrecentversionoftheAPAmanualisthesixthedition,secondprinting(whichcorrectederrorsfoundinthefirstprinting),publishedin2009.Thesixtheditionintroducedguidelinesforcitingonlinesourcesandonline-accessjournalarticles.

ThePurposeofAPAStyleTheAPAstyleguideaimstoaccomplishseveralgoals:

1. toensureconsistentformattingandpresentationofinformation,forthesakeofclarityandeaseofnavigation;

2. toensureproperattributionofideastotheiroriginalsources,forthesakeofintellectualintegrity;and

3. toprovideaclearstructuralscaffoldforanexperimentalpaper,forthesakeofscientificrigor.

GrammarandFormattingAPAstyleincludesmanybasicgrammaticalrules.Forexample,APAstyledoesusetheOxfordcomma,whichsomeothercitationstyles(e.g.,APstyle)donot.Otherexamplesincluderulesaboutwhatpunctuationshouldbeincludedinsideaquotationandwhentousewhattypeofdash.

APAstylealsohasrulesaboutformatting,suchashowtousedifferentlevelsofheadersthroughoutyourpaperandwhatsizemarginsyoushoulduse.

CitationsAPAstylealsoputsforthguidelinesforcitingyoursources—infact,thisiswhyitiscalleda“citationstyle.”Forexample,APAstylehasspecificrulesforwhatinformationtoincludeinyourReferencessection,howtocitequotationswithinaparagraph,andhowtoincorporateblockquotations.

TheScientificMethodAPAstylerulesarenotlimitedtogrammarandformatting;infact,itwasoriginallydevelopedasasetofguidelinesforwritingwithoutbiasinthesciences.Theguidelinesforreducingbiasinlanguagehavebeenupdatedovertheyearsandprovidepracticalguidanceforwritingaboutrace,ethnicity,age,gender,sexualorientation,anddisabilitystatus.

APAstyleprovidesaroadmapforthestructureofascientificpaperthatcloselymirrorsthescientificmethod,withsectionsfortheIntroduction(includingyourhypothesis),Method,Results,andDiscussion.

11.1.2:OverallStructureandFormattingofanAPAPaper

EverypaperwritteninAPAstylehasthesamebasicstructuralelements.

LearningObjective

IdentifythestructuralelementsofanAPApaper

KeyPoints

AnAPApapershouldincludeatitlepage,anabstract,abody,references,andinsomecases,atableofcontentsand/orendnotes.TherearespecificAPAguidelinesforfont(12ptTimesorTimesNewRoman),linespacing(double-spaced),margins(1inch),indentation,andpagenumbering.WhenwritinganAPApaper,besuretousetheOxfordcomma,andonlyuseonespacefollowingperiods.Listentoyourprofessor’sspecificguidelinesiftheywantyoutouseatableofcontents.

KeyTerm

Oxfordcomma

Thecommathatcomesafterthesecondtolastiteminalist.

OverallStructureofanAPAPaperYourAPApapershouldincludethefollowingbasicelements:

1. Titlepage2. (Inrarecases)Tableofcontents3. Abstract4. Body5. References6. (Inrarecases)Endnotes

GeneralFormattingRulesFont

Yourpapershouldbewrittenin12-pointTimesorTimesNewRomanfont.

LineSpacing

Alltextinyourpapershouldbedouble-spaced.

Margins

Allpagemargins(top,bottom,left,andright)shouldbe1inch(orgreater,but1inchisstandard).Alltext,withtheexceptionofheaders,shouldbeleft-justified.

Indentation

Thefirstlineofeveryparagraphandfootnoteshouldbeindented1inch(withtheexceptionofthefirstlineofyourAbstract,whichshouldbeginatthemargin).

PageNumbers

PagenumbersinArabicnumerals(1,2,3…)shouldappearright-justifiedintheheaderofeverypage,beginningwiththenumber1onthetitlepage.Most

word-processingprogramshavetheabilitytoautomaticallyaddthecorrectpagenumbertoeachpagesoyoudon’thavetodothisbyhand.

GeneralGrammarRulesTheOxfordComma

TheOxfordcomma(alsocalledtheserialcomma)isthecommathatcomesafterthesecond-to-lastiteminaseriesorlist.Forexample:

TheUKincludesthecountriesofEngland,Scotland,Wales,andNorthernIreland.

Intheabovesentence,thecommaimmediatelyafter“Wales”istheOxfordcomma.

Ingeneralwritingconventions,whethertheOxfordcommashouldbeusedisactuallyapointofferventdebateamongpassionategrammarians.However,it’sarequirementinAPAstyle,sodouble-checkallyourlistsandseriestomakesureyouincludeit!

CapitalizationAfterColonsandEmDashes

Ifyouhaveacolonoremdash(—)inthemiddleofasentence,andwhatfollowsafterisanindependentclause(i.e.,itcouldbeasentenceonitsown),thewordafterthecolonoremdashshouldbecapitalized(asthoughthefollowingsentencewereonitsown).Forexample:

Therewasonlyonepossibleexplanation:Thetrainhadneverarrived.

Here,“Thetrainhadneverarrived”couldstandasitsownsentencebecauseitisanindependentclause(i.e.,ithasbothasubject—thetrain—andaverbphrase—hadneverarrived).Therefore,wecapitalizeitsfirstwordfollowingthecolon.

However,ifwemakeonesmallchangetothissentence,therulechanges:

Therewasonlyonepossiblepersontoblame:thetrainconductor.

Here,“thetrainconductor”cannotstandasitsownsentence,soitsfirstwordfollowingthecolonisnotcapitalized.

SentenceSpacing

Itusedtobeconventiontotypetwospacesaftereveryperiod—forexample:

“Marywenttothestore.Sheboughtsomemilk.Thenshewenthome.”

Thisconventionwasdevelopedwhentypewriterswereinuse;thespaceonatypewriterwasquitesmall,sotwospaceswereneededtoemphasizetheendofasentence.However,typewriters,andthereforethispractice,arenowobsolete—infact,usingtwospacesaftersentencesisnowgenerallyfrownedupon.APAstyleinparticularincludesanexplicitruletouseonlysinglespacesafterperiods:

“Marywenttothestore.Sheboughtsomemilk.Thenshewenthome.”

ANoteontheTableofContentsBecauseAPAstyleissooftenusedforjournalarticles,whichappearaspartofalargerbodyofwork,itdoesnotprovideguidelinesfortablesofcontentsfortheindividualpapersthemselves.Ifyourprofessorasksyoutoincludeatableofcontentsinyourpaper,theywillgiveyoutheirownguidelinesforformatting.

Attributions

WhentoUseAPAStyle

“APAstyle.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APA_style.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

OverallStructureandFormattingofanAPAPaper

“Colon(punctuation).”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colon_(punctuation).WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

“APAstyle.”https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/APA_style.WikiversityCCBY-SA3.0.

“APAstyle.”http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/APA_style.PsychologyWikiCCBY-SA3.0.

11.2:APA:StructureandFormattingofSpecificElements11.2.1:APA:TitlePageandRunningHead

APApapershaveatitlepageanda“runninghead,”oralineatthetopofeverypagetoidentifythepaper.

LearningObjective

ArrangethetitlepageandrunningheadcorrectlyinanAPApaper

KeyPoints

Yourtitlepageshouldbedouble-spaced,justliketherestofyourpaper.Centertheinformationonthetitlepagehorizontallyandvertically.Yourtitlepageshouldincludethetitleofyourpaper,yourname,andthenameofyourschool.TherunningheadisuniquetoAPAstyle.Itmakesthepaperidentifiablewithoutusingthenameoftheauthor.

KeyTerm

runninghead

Aheaderthatdoesnotcontaintheauthor’sname,sothatthepapercanbeevaluatedwithoutbias.

TitlePageLiketherestofyourpaper,yourwholetitlepageshouldbedouble-spaced.Thefollowinginformationshouldbecenteredhorizontallyandverticallyonthetitlepage:

1. onthefirstline,thefulltitleofyourpaper2. onthesecondline,yourname3. onthethirdline,thenameoftheinstitutionyouareaffiliatedwith(e.g.,

thenameofyourschool)

Theseelementsshouldnotbebolded,underlined,oritalicized.

RunningHeadTherunningheadisanelementuniquetoAPAstyle.Thepurposeoftherunningheadistomakethepaperidentifiablewithoutusingthenameoftheauthor;thisstyleiscommonlyusedinjournalarticles,sincejournalsneedtobeabletoevaluateapaperwithoutbiastowardtheauthor.

Left-justifiedintheheader(i.e.,attheverytop)ofyourtitlepage,youshouldhavethetext“Runninghead:”followedbyanabbreviatedtitleofyourpaperinallcaps.Thisisusuallythefirstseveralwordsofyourtitleandcannotexceed50charactersinlength(includingspaces).Theabbreviatedtitle,stillinallcaps,shouldthenappearatthesameplace—left-justifiedintheheader—oneveryfollowingpageofyourpaper,butwithoutthetext“Runninghead:”precedingit(thatshouldappearonlyonthetitlepage).

Anyword-processingprogramshouldallowyoutoeditthepageheadersothatthesameinformationappearsoneverypage.Youwillhavetochangetheoptionssothatthefirstpageisdifferent,soyoucanincludethetext“Runninghead:”onlyonthetitlepage.Yourheaderandfootershouldappear0.5inchesfromtheedgeofthepage—thisisalsoanoptionyoucanchangeinyourword-processingprogram.

Titlepage

ThisisanexampleofatitlepageproperlyformattedinAPAstyle.

11.2.2:APA:Abstract

AnAPAabstractshouldsummarizeyourentirepaperandshouldbeformattedaccordingtotheAPAstyleguide.

LearningObjective

ArrangetheabstractcorrectlyinanAPApaper

KeyPoints

Yourabstractshouldappearbyitselfonpage2ofyourpaper;itshouldbenomorethan250wordsandshouldsummarizeyourentirepaper.Theentireabstractshouldbeonlyone,non-indentedparagraph.Someabstractsmustincludekeywords.

KeyTerm

abstract

Abriefsummaryofapaper.

Yourabstractshouldappearbyitselfonpage2ofyourpaper.Recallthattherunningheadshouldnowappearleft-justifiedintheheaderonthispageandoneverypagethatfollows.(Alsorecallthat,startingonthispage,therunningheadshouldbeonlyyourabbreviatedtitleinallcaps,withoutthewords“Runninghead:”atthebeginning.)

ContentYourabstractshouldbenomorethan250wordsandshouldsummarizeyourentirepaper,fromliteraturereviewtodiscussion.

FormattingThispageshouldsimplybetitled“Abstract”;thetitleshouldbecentered(andnotbolded,underlined,oritalicized)andshouldappearinthefirstline.Theabstractitselfshouldstartonthefollowingline.

Theentireabstractshouldbeonlyoneparagraph,anditistheonlyparagraphinyourpaperthatisnotindentedatthebeginning—theentireparagraphshouldbeleft-justifiedalongthemargin.

Anynumberthatappearsintheabstractshouldbewrittenasanumeral(e.g.,1.5,300)ratherthanspelledout(e.g.,oneandahalf,threehundred)unlessitbeginsasentence—thenitshouldbespelledout(e.g.,“Threehundredchildrenate1.5sandwicheseach”).

Keywords(Optional)APAstylealsoincludesguidelinesforprovidingkeywordsunderyourabstract,butthisisonlyrequiredinsomesituations.Ifyourprofessordoesn’tmentionit,youprobablydon’tneedtoincludethem.

Thatsaid,ifyoudoneedtoincludekeywords,theyshouldappearonthelineimmediatelyafterthelastlineofyourabstract.Beginthelistwiththe

italicizedword“Keywords:”.Then,includealistof3–10wordsorphrasesrelevanttoyourpapertopic;separatethemwithcommas,anddonotendwithaperiod.Forexample,ifyou’rewritingaboutpeople’sexperiencesofanxietyinstressfulsituations,youmightincludethekeywords“anxiety”and“stress.”

Abstract

ThisisanexampleofanabstractproperlyformattedinAPAstyle.

11.2.3:APA:Headings

InAPAstyle,headingsareusedtoorganizeyourwritingandgiveitahierarchicalorganization.

LearningObjective

OrderheadingscorrectlyinAPAstyle

KeyPoints

InAPAstyle,headingsareusedtoorganizeyourwritingandgiveita

hierarchicalorganization.Therecanbeuptofivelevelsofheadingsinyourpaper.Someusetitlecase,someusesentencecase.

KeyTerms

titlecase

Aformatinwhichthefirstlettersofmajorwordsarecapitalized.

sentencecase

Aformatinwhichonlythefirstmajorword(andanypropernoun)iscapitalized.

InAPAstyle,headingsareusedtoorganizeyourwritingandgiveitahierarchicalorganization.Thisisespeciallyimportantinpapersthatpresentexperimentalresearchbecausetheyfollowtheparticularlyrigidstructureofthescientificmethod.

APAstyleputsforthspecificrulesforformattingheadings(uptofivelevels)withinyourpaper:

APAheadinghierarchy

ThesearetheformattingrulesfordifferentlevelsofheadingsinAPAstyle.

Ifaheadingissaidtobeintitlecase,thatmeansyoushouldformatitasthoughitwerethetitleofabook,withthefirstlettersofmostmajorwordscapitalized(e.g.,AStudyofColor-BlindnessinDogs).

Ifaheadingissaidtobeinsentencecase,thatmeansyoushouldformatitasthoughitwereanormalsentence,withonlythefirstletterofthefirstword

(andofanypropernouns)capitalized(e.g.,Astudyofcolor-blindnessindogs).

Youshouldalwaysuseheadinglevelsinthisorder,beginningwithLevel1.So,ifyouhaveapaperwithtwolevelsofheadings,youwoulduseLevel1formattingforthehigherlevelandLevel2formattingforthelowerlevel.Similarly,ifyouhaveapaperwithfivelevelsofheadings,youwoulduseLevel1formattingforthehighestlevelandLevel5formattingforthelowestlevel.

Yourheadingsshouldnotbeginwithsectionnumbers(e.g.,yourMethodssectionshouldbetitledsimply“Methods”,not“2.Introduction”).

Theintroductionofthepapershouldnotbetitled“Introduction”;instead,thepapershouldsimplybeginwiththetitleoftheentirepaper.Notethatthe“Abstract”titleandtheoverallpapertitledonotactuallycountasheadings,sotheyaresimplycenteredandintitlecase,butnotboldedasLevel1headingswouldbe.ThismeansthatthefirstheadingyouuseinyourintroductionwillfollowLevel1formatting,becauseitisthefirstandsoatthehighestlevel.

11.2.4:APA:SeriesandLists

InAPAstyle,therearespecificformatsforseriesandlists.

LearningObjective

DistinguishbetweencorrectlyformattedlistsandseriesinAPAstyle

KeyPoints

Ifyouareincludingasimple,relativelyshortlistofthreetofiveelements,formatitasa“series.”Ifyouhavemorethanfiveelements,oryourelementsarecomplexorimportant,formatitasa“list.”Useabulletedlistiftheorderoftheatomsdoesn’tmatter.Useanumberedlistiftheorderoftheatomsdoesmatter.

KeyTerms

series

Asimple,relativelyshortlistofthreetofiveitemswithinaparagraph.

element

Anitemwithinaseriesorlist.

SeriesIfyouareincludingasimple,relativelyshortlistofthreetofiveitemswithinaparagraph—alsoknownasaseries—theproperformattingisto:(a)precedethelistwithacomma,(b)labeleachitemwithalowercaseletterenclosedinparentheses,and(c)separateeachitemwithcommasorsemicolons.Theitemswithinaseriesoralistareknownas“elements.”

Asisstandardinmoststyleguides,usesemicolonsratherthancommastoseparatetheelementsoftheseriesifatleastoneoftheelementsincludesacommasomewherewithinit(knownasan“internalcomma”).Forexample:“Josiewassohungrysheate:(a)thebrownie;(b)thecupcake,wrapperandall;and(c)thebowloficecream.”Donotcapitalizethefirstletterofeachelement(e.g.,donotwrite:(a)Thebrownie;(b)Thecupcake,wrapperandall;and(c)Thebowloficecream.)

ListsYouwillwanttousealistratherthanaseriesifanyofthefollowingistrue:

youhavemorethanfiveelements,yourelementsarecomplexphrasesorfullsentences,ortheinformationisimportantenoughtodeservebeingvisuallydistinguishedfromtherestofthetextofyourpaper.

Listsdifferfromseriesinthattheyappearseparatefromaparagraphratherthanembeddedwithinit.However,thesamerulesofcapitalizationandofusingcommasorsemicolonstoseparatetheelementsapply.

Unlikeaseries,alistcanincludeelementsthatareallfullsentences,orevenparagraphs.Ifthisisthecase,eachelementshouldendwithaperiod,ratherthanacommaorsemicolon,andshouldbeginwithacapitalletter.

Tobettervisuallydistinguishalistfromthesurroundingtext,besuretoleaveanextra(blank)linebetweenthelastlineofthelistandthefirstlineofthefollowingparagraph.

BulletedLists

Youshoulduseabulletedlistiftheorderoftheitemsdoesn’tmatter.Eachelementofthelistshouldstartonanewline.Thebulletpointsshouldbeindentedoneinchfromtheleftpagemargin,andthetextofeachelementshouldbeindentedafurther0.5inchesfromthebulletpointitself.

NumberedLists

Iftheorderofyourelementsdoesmatter—e.g.,ifyou’reoutliningastep-by-stepprocess,asummaryofhowaneventunfoldedovertime,oraseriesofitemsinorderofimportance—youwillneedtouseanumberedlist.

Aswithabulletedlist,eachelementshouldstartonanewline.Thefirstelementshouldbeginwiththenumber1,thesecondwiththenumber2,andsoon.Thesenumbersshouldbefollowedbyperiods,andthetextofeachelementshouldbeindentedafurther0.5inchesfromthebeginningnumber.

11.2.5:APA:BlockQuotations

InAPAstyle,formatquotationsofmorethan40wordsasblockquotations.

LearningObjective

RecognizewhentouseblockquotationsinAPAstyle

KeyPoints

Atypicalquotationispartofasentencewithinaparagraphinyourpaper;however,forlongerquotations(morethan40words),formattheexcerptasablockquotation.Ablockquotationbeginsonitsownline,isnotenclosedinquotationmarks,andhasitsin-textcitationafterthefinalpunctuation.Blockquotationsaredouble-spaced,liketherestofyourAPApaper.

KeyTerm

blockquotation

Awayofformattingaparticularlylongexcerptorquotationinapaper.

WhentoUseaBlockQuotationAtypicalquotationisenclosedindoublequotationmarksandispartofasentencewithinaparagraphofyourpaper.However,ifyouwanttoquotemorethan40wordsfromasource,youshouldformattheexcerptasablockquotation,ratherthanasaregularquotationwithinthetextofaparagraph.Mostofthestandardrulesforquotationsstillapply,withthefollowingexceptions:ablockquotationwillbeginonitsownline,itwillnotbeenclosedinquotationmarks,anditsin-textcitationwillcomeaftertheendingpunctuation,notbeforeit.

Forexample,ifyouwantedtoquotetheentirefirstparagraphofLewisCarroll’sAliceinWonderland,youwouldbeginthatquotationonitsownlineandformatitasfollows:

Alicewasbeginningtogetverytiredofsittingbyhersisteronthebank,andofhavingnothingtodo:onceortwiceshehadpeepedintothebookhersisterwasreading,butithadnopicturesorconversationsinit,‘andwhatistheuseofabook,’thoughtAlice‘withoutpicturesorconversations?’(Carroll,p.98)

ThefullreferenceforthissourcewouldthenbeincludedinyourReferencessectionattheendofyourpaper.

SpacingandAlignmentTheentireblockquotationshouldbeindentedfromtheleftmarginthesamedistanceasthefirstlinesofyourparagraphs(andthefirstlineshouldnotbefurtherindented).Astherestofyourpaper,itshouldbedouble-spaced.Andaswithseriesandlists,tobettervisuallydistinguishablockquotationfromthesurroundingtext,besuretoleaveanextra(blank)linebetweenthelastlineoftheblockquotationandthefirstlineofthefollowingparagraph.

Blockquotation

ThisblockquotationisproperlyformattedinAPAstyle.

Attributions

APA:TitlePageandRunningHead

“OriginalfigurebyCatherineMcCarthy.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”CatherineMcCarthyCCBY-SA3.0.

APA:Abstract

“OriginalfigurebyCatherineMcCarthy.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”CatherineMcCarthyCCBY-SA3.0.

APA:Headings

“APAstyle.”http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/APA_style.PsychologyWikiCCBY-SA3.0.

“APAHeadings.”http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/APA_style%23Headings.PsychologyWikiaCCBY-SA3.0.

“APAHeadings.”http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/APA_style%23Headings.PsychologyWikiaCCBY-SA3.0.

APA:SeriesandListsAPA:BlockQuotations

“OriginalfigurebyCatherineMcCarthy.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”CatherineMcCarthyCCBY-SA3.0.

11.3:APA:EmpiricalResearchPapers11.3.1:APA:ReportingStatistics

BecausepapersusingAPAstyleoftenreportexperimentaldata,youmustbeabletodiscussstatisticsinyourpaper.

LearningObjective

IdentifycorrectlyformattedstatisticsaccordingtoAPAstyle

KeyPoints

SinceexperimentalpapersinthesocialsciencesareusuallywritteninAPAstyle,youwillneedtoknowhowtoproperlytalkaboutstatisticsinthetextofyourpaper.Neverneverreportastatisticinthetextofyourpaperthatisalreadyevidentinatableorfigure,orreportastatisticinatablewhichisreportedinyourtext.Alwaysitalicizestatisticalvariables.Summarizeimportantstatisticalrelationshipsinclear,plainEnglish.

KeyTerm

statistic

Anumericalfigurefromexperimentaldata.

SinceexperimentalpapersinthesocialsciencesareusuallywritteninAPAstyle,youwillneedtoknowhowtoproperlytalkaboutstatisticsinthetextofyourpaper.

GeneralRulesYoushouldnevermentionastatisticinthetextofyourpaperthatisalreadyevidentinatableorfigure,andviceversa.

Besuretoitalicizestatisticalvariables(e.g.,p-value;t-test,F-test).

ClarityToplacethefocusonthemeaningofyourstatisticaltestsandtheirrelevancetoyouroverallargument,youshouldsummarizeeachstatisticalrelationshipinclear,plainEnglish.Also,includetheimportantvaluesinparentheses,andthetestinformationandsignificanceattheendofthesentence.Forexample,ratherthanwritingthis:

Themeananxietyscoreforwomenwas43.5,andthemeananxietyscoreformenwas47.9.Thisdifferencewassignificant;at-testfoundat-scoreof2.34,andthep-valuewas0.01.

Youshouldwritethis:

IntermsoftheirscoresontheAnxietyScale,womenwerefoundtobesignificantlymoreanxious

thanmen ,

( standsfor“mean”—meaningaverage—and standsfor“standarddeviation.”)

Reportingstatistics

ThisfigureshowstheproperwaytoreportstatisticsinanAPA-stylepaper.

11.3.2:APA:TablesandFigures

APAstylehasspecificrulesforformattingtablesandfigures.

LearningObjective

ArrangetablesandfiguresinAPAstyle

KeyPoints

APAspecifiestwomethodsforpresentinginformationvisually:tablesandfigures.Atableisachartthatpresentsnumericalinformationinagridformat.Afigure,bytheAPAdefinition,isgenerallyagraphorvisualrepresentationofaprocess;inrarecasesitcanalsobeaphotograph.Usingatableorafigureasavisualaidcanhelpyoustrengthenaclaim

you’remaking.

Whenyouneedtosummarizequantitativedata,wordscanonlygosofar.Sometimes,usingachart,graph,orothervisualrepresentationcanbeusefulinprovingyourpoint.However,it’simportanttomakesureyouincorporatethisextrainformationinawaythatiseasytounderstandandinlinewiththeconventionsofAPAstyle.

APAspecifiestwomethodsforrepresentinginformationvisually:tablesandfigures.

TablesAtableisachartthatpresentsnumericalinformationinagridformat.APAstylerecommendsthatatablebeusedonlyforparticularlycomplexdataorlargedatasets;ifyourtablehasonlyoneortwocolumns,youshouldsummarizetheinformationwithinthetextofaparagraphinstead.

InAPAstyle,youmustincludeeachtableonitsownseparatepageattheveryendofyourpaper,aftertheReferencessection.(Notethatthesepagesshouldstillincludetherunningheadandpagenumber.)Becausetablesareinaseparatesection,youmustrefertoeachoneinthetextofyourpaperbyitsnumber(e.g.,“Table1”)sothereaderknowswhereitisrelevant.

Formatting

Formatyourtablesassimplyaspossible.Donotuseboldoritalicizedtext(unlessyouaretalkingaboutavariableorstatisticaltestthatrequiressuchformatting).

APAstylehasstrictrulesabouthowtoformattheborders,orthelines,ofyourtable.Generally,forsimplertables,youshouldhaveonlythreehorizontallines:oneimmediatelyaboveandoneimmediatelybelowthecolumnheadings,andoneatthebottomofthetable.

Simpletable

ThistableisproperlyformattedinAPAstyle,usingonlythreehorizontalborders.

Ifyouhaveamorecomplextable—e.g.,onethathasmultiplelayersofcolumnheadersorsectionsofdata—youmaysparinglyuseadditionalhorizontallinesasvisualseparators.

Complicatedtable

ThismorecomplicatedtableisproperlyformattedinAPAstyle;itusesmorethanthreehorizontalborderstoclearlyseparatethedifferentsections.

TitleandSource

Everytableshouldappearflushwiththeleftmargin.Immediatelyabovethetable,provideitsnumber(e.g.,“Table1”),andthenonthenextlineprovideashortbutdescriptivetitleinitalicizedtitlecase.

Ifyourtableincludesanyabbreviationsthatneeddefining,orstatisticswhosesignificancelevelsneednoting,immediatelybelowthetable,writetheword“Note”initalics,followedbyacolon,andthenprovidetheneededexplanation.

Ifyourtablecomesfromanothersource,youneedtoaddthatsourcetoyourReferencessection.Usingthesameformatting,youshouldalsoplacethatinformationimmediatelybelowyourtable,followingtheword“Source”initalics.

FiguresInAPAstyle,youmustalsoincludeeachfigureonitsownseparatepageattheendofyourpaper;thissectionoffiguresshouldappearafterthesectionoftables.(Notethatthesepagesshouldalsostillincludetherunningheadandpagenumber.)

Becausefiguresappearseparatefromthebodyofyourpaper,youmustrefertoeachoneinthetextofyourpaperbyitsnumber(e.g.,“Figure1”)sothereaderknowswhereitisrelevant.

Formatting

APAstylehasstrictrulesabouthowtocreateandformatyourfigures.

Anytextinafigure(e.g.,axislabels,legendlabels)shouldbeinasans-seriffont,between8ptand14ptinsize.One-columnfigures(e.g.,agraphwithasinglepanel)shouldbebetween2and3.25inchesinwidth.Two-columnfigures(e.g.,agraphwithtwopanels)shouldbebetween4.25and6.875inchesinwidth.

Single-panelfigure

Thisisasingle-panelfigureproperlyformattedinAPAstyle.

TitleandCaption

Everyfigureshouldappearflushwiththeleftmargin.Immediatelybelowthefigure,provideitsnumber(e.g.,“Figure1”)initalics,followedbyaperiod,followedbyabriefbutdescriptivetitle(calleda“figurecaption”)insentencecase.Forexample:

Figure1.Averageself-reportedanxietyof18-to24-year-oldwomeninresponsetoperceivedsocialslight.

Ifyourfigureincludesanyabbreviationsthatneeddefining,orstatisticswhosesignificancelevelsneednoting,includethisinformationinthefigurecaption.Forexample:

Figure1.Averageself-reportedanxietyof18-to24-year-oldwomeninresponsetoperceivedsocialslight.

Thetitleofthefigureshouldnotappearinthefigureitself—itshouldappearonlyinthecaptionbeneaththefigure.

Three-panelfigure

Thisisathree-panelfigureproperlyformattedinAPAstyle.

Attributions

APA:ReportingStatistics

“OriginalfigurebyCatherineMcCarthy.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”CatherineMcCarthyCCBY-SA3.0.

APA:TablesandFigures

“OriginalfigurebyCatherineMcCarthy.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”CatherineMcCarthyCCBY-SA3.0.

“OriginalfigurebyCatherineMcCarthy.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”CatherineMcCarthyCCBY-SA3.0.

“OriginalfigurebyCatherineMcCarthy.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”CatherineMcCarthyCCBY-SA3.0.

“OriginalfigurebyCatherineMcCarthy.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”CatherineMcCarthyCCBY-SA3.0.

11.4:APA:CitationsandReferences11.4.1:APA:TheReferencesSection

InAPAstyle,thesourcesyouciteinyourpaperarelistedalltogetherattheend,intheReferencessection.

LearningObjective

ArrangetheReferencessectioninAPAstyle

KeyPoints

InAPAstyle,allthesourcesyoucitethroughoutthetextofyourpaperarelistedtogetherintheReferencessection.TheReferencessectionhasitsownspecialformattingrules,includingdouble-spacedtextandhangingindentation.Howyoushouldformateachindividualcitationdiffersdiffersslightlybasedonsourcetype;therearedifferentcitationstylesforbooks,onlineresources,journals,andmanyothers.

KeyTerm

hangingindent

AformattingstyleforcitationsinAPAReferencepagesinwhicheverylineexceptthefirstisaninchawayfromtheleftmargin.

InAPAstyle,allthesourcesyoucitethroughoutthetextofyourpaperarelistedtogether,andmorefully,intheReferencessection,whichcomesafterthemaintextofyourpaper.

FormattingtheReferencesSectionThetopofthepage,astherestofyourpaper,shouldstillincludetherunningheaderontheleftandthepagenumberontheright.Onthefirstline,thetitleofthepage—“References”—shouldappearcenteredandnotitalicizedorbolded.(Asisthecasewiththe“Abstract”pagetitle,thisdoesnotcountasan

actualheading,soitisnotformattedpertheheadingguidelines.)And,liketherestofyourpaper,thispageshouldalsobedouble-spaced.

Startingonthenextlineafterthepagetitle,yourreferencesshouldbelistedinalphabeticalorderbyauthor.Multiplesourcesbythesameauthorshouldbelistedchronologicallybyyearwithinthesamegroup.

Eachreferenceshouldbeformattedwithwhatiscalledahangingindent.Thismeansthefirstlineofeachreferenceshouldbeflushwiththeleftmargin(i.e.,notindented),buttherestofthatreferenceshouldbeindentedoneinchfromtheleftmargin.Anyword-processingprogramwillletyouformatthisautomaticallysoyoudon’thavetodoitbyhand.(InMicrosoftWord,forexample,yousimplyhighlightyourcitations,clickonthesmallarrowrightnexttotheword“Paragraph”onthehometab,andinthepopupboxchoose“hangingindent”underthe“Special”section.ClickOK,andyou’redone.)

References

ThisisanexampleofthefirstpageofaReferencessectionproperlyformattedinAPAstyle.

ConstructingaCitation

Thefirststepinbuildingeachindividualcitationistodeterminethetypeofresourceyouareciting,sinceineachcitationstyleformattingdiffersslightlybasedonsourcetype.Somecommontypesareabook,achapterfromabook,ajournalarticle,anonlinebookorarticle,anonlinevideo,ablogpost,andpersonalcommunicationsuchasanemailoraninterviewyouconducted.(You’llnoticethat“website”isnotacategorybyitself.Iftheinformationyoufoundisonline,youwanttodetermineifyou’relookingatanonlinebook,anonlinearticle,orsomeothertypeofdocument.)

Asanexample,let’slookindetailattheprocessofcitingthreeparticularsourcesinAPAstyle:JosephConrad’sHeartofDarkness(i.e.,abookbyoneauthor),ProjectGutenberg’sonlinetextofthesamebook(i.e.,anonlinebook),andanonlinejournalarticleaboutthebook.

PrintSourcesAuthorName

Youalwayswanttostartwiththeauthorinformation.Youshouldpresenttheauthorinformationinthefollowingorderandformat:theauthor’slastname(capitalized),acomma,theauthor’sfirstinitial,thenaperiod,andfinallytheirmiddleinitialandperiod(ifgiven):

Conrad,J.

DateofPublication

Aftertheauthor’sname,youprovidetheyear,insideparentheses,inwhichthesourcewaspublished,followedbyaperiod.Itmaylookodd,butmakesureyourperiodisoutsidetheparentheses.

(1993).

TitleofSource

Next,youshouldincludethetitleofthesourceinsentencecase.Forabook,thetitleisitalicized.

Heartofdarkness.

CityofPublication

Next,youwanttoprovidethelocationofthepublisher’soffice.Thelocationisgenerallyacity,suchas“London”or“NewYork,NY.”

London:

PublisherName

Next,providethepublisher’sname,followedbyaperiod:

Everyman’sLibrary.

Alltogether,then,thecitationlookslikethis:

Conrad,J.(1993).Heartofdarkness.London:Everyman’sLibrary.

OnlineSourcesNowlet’stakealookatthecitationfortheonlineversionofthesamebook,availableonlinethroughProjectGutenberg(gutenberg.org).Muchofthecitationisthesame:

Conrad,J.(2006).Heartofdarkness.ProjectGutenberg.Retrievedfromhttps://www.gutenberg.org/files/219/219-h/219-h.htm

JournalArticlesandMultipleAuthors

NooriBerzenji,L.S.,&Abdi,M.(2013).TheimageoftheAfricansinHeartofDarknessandThingsFallApart.InterdisciplinaryJournalofContemporaryResearchinBusiness,5(4),710–726.

Muchofthiscitationwilllookfamiliartoyounowthatyouknowthebasics.Again,westartwiththeauthorinformation.Thisarticlehasmultipleauthors,sowelisttheminthesameorderinwhichtheyarelistedinthesource,andinthesameformatasbefore(lastname,firstinitial,middleinitial),separatedbycommas.Thelastauthorshouldalsohavean“and”sign,orampersand(&),

beforeit.Herewehaveonlytwoauthors,butifwehadfive,theampersandwouldcomebeforethefifthauthor’slastname,afterthecommafollowingthefourthauthor’sname.

Thedateofpublicationandtitleareformattedthesame.NotethateventhoughAPAstylesaysthatthearticletitleshouldnotbeitalicized,thebooktitles“HeartofDarkness”and“ThingsFallApart”withinthearticletitlearestillitalicized.

Thenewinformationherebeginswithcitingthejournalthisarticleisfrom.Includethetitleofthejournalinitalicizedtitlecase(allmajorwordscapitalized,asinthetitleofabook),followedbyacomma:

InterdisciplinaryJournalofContemporaryResearchinBusiness,

Thenincludethejournalvolume,alsoitalicized:

5

Iftheparticularjournalyou’recitinglistsanissuenumberinadditiontothevolumenumber,asthisonedoes,includeitinparenthesesimmediatelyafterthevolume,anddonotitalicizeit.Thenfollowitwithacomma.

5(4),

Finally,listthepagenumbersofthearticle,followedbyaperiod[notethatthedashbetweenthefirstandsecondnumbersisanen-dash(–),notahyphen(-)orem-dash(—)]:

710–726.

MultiplePublicationsbytheSameAuthorintheSameYearIfyouarereferencingmultiplepublicationsbythesameauthor(orgroupofauthors)thatwerepublishedinthesameyear,thereisaspecialrulefordenotingthis.YoushouldfirstorderthosearticlesalphabeticallybysourcetitleintheReferencessection.Then,appendalowercaseletterinalphabeticalordertotheendofeachyearofpublication:

Achenbach,T.M.(2012a).Bibliographyofpublishedstudiesusingthe

ASEBA.RetrievedMarch25,2012,fromAchenbachSystemofEmpiricallyBasedAssessment:http://www.aseba.org/asebabib.htmlAchenbach,T.M.(2012b).School-age(ages6–18)assessments.RetrievedMarch18,2012,fromAchenbachSystemofEmpiricallyBasedAssessment:http://www.aseba.org/schoolage.html

ANoteonCapitalizationIntheguidelinesforcitingdifferenttypesofsourcesinAPAstyle,youwillnoticeseveraldifferentpatternsincapitalizingsourcetitles.Aworkthatstandsonitsown—abook,apainting,afilm,etc.—shouldbewritteninitalicizedtitlecase(everymajorwordcapitalized).Asourcethatispartofalargerwork—achapterinananthology,anarticleinajournal,awebpage,etc.—shouldbewritteninsentencecaseandnotitalicized.(Recallthatsentencemeansthatjustthefirstwordandpropernounsarecapitalized,aswellasthefirstwordafteracolon,ifthereareany).Asanexample,comparethecitationsofHeartofDarknessandtheNooriBerzenji&Abdi(2013)article.

11.4.2:APA:HowtoReferenceDifferentTypesofSources

InAPAstyle,therearedifferentformatsforcitingsourcesattheendofyourpaperdependingonthetypeofsource.

LearningObjective

ListthewaystocitedifferentsourcetypesinAPAstyle

KeyPoints

InyourReferencessection,youwillhavetocreateacitationforeverysourceyouusedinyourpaper;thesecitationswillbeformatteddifferentlydependingonthesourcetype.Therearedifferentcitationstylesforbooks,dependingonhowmanyauthorstheyhave.Therearedifferentcitationstylesforarticles,dependingonwhereyoufoundthem.Therearewaystoformatsourcesthatarenotbooksorarticles.

KeyTerm

ellipsis

Apunctuationmarkconsistingofthreeperiodsinarow,usedtoindicateanomission,apause,oradditional,unmentionedlistitems.

NowthatyouknowthedifferentcomponentsofabookcitationinAPAstyleandhowtheyshouldbeformatted,youwillbeabletounderstandthecitationformatsforothersourcetypes.Herearesomeexamplecitationsforthemostcommontypesofresourcesyouwilluse.

BookbyOneAuthorSherman,R.D.(1956).Theterrifyingfuture:Contemplatingcolortelevision.SanDiego:Halstead.

BookbyMultipleAuthorsTwoAuthors

Kurosawa,J.,&Armistead,Q.(1972).Hairball:Anintensivepeekbehindthesurfaceofanenigma.Hamilton,ON:McMasterUniversityPress.

ThreetoSevenAuthors

Brown,T.E.,LeMay,H.E.,Bursten,B.E.,Murphy,C.,&Woodward,P.(2011).Chemistry:Thecentralscience.London:PrenticeHall.

MorethanSevenAuthors

Listthefirstsixauthors,thenanellipsis,thenthefinalauthor.

Hughes-Hallett,D.,Gleason,A.M.,McCallum,W.G.,Lomen,D.O.,Lovelock,D.,Tecosky-Feldman,J.,…Lock,P.F.(2008).Calculus:Singlevariable.Hoboken,NJ:Wiley.

ArticleinanEditedBookStanz,R.F.(1983).Practicalmethodsfortheapprehensionandsustainedcontainmentofsupernaturalentities.InG.L.Yeager(Ed.),Paranormalandoccultstudies:Casestudiesinapplication(pp.42–64).London,England:OtherWorldBooks.

ArticleinaJournalwithContinuousPaginationRottweiler,F.T.,&Beauchemin,J.L.(1987).DetroitandSarnia:Twofoesonthebrinkofdestruction.Canadian/AmericanStudiesJournal,54.66–146.

ArticleinaJournalPaginatedSeparatelyCrackton,P.(1987).TheLoonie:God’slong-awaitedgifttocolourfulpocketchange?CanadianChange,64(7),34–37.

ArticleinanInternet-OnlyJournalBlofeld,H.V.(1994,March1).ExpressingoneselfthroughPersiancatsandmodernarchitecture.Felines&Felons,4,Article0046g.RetrievedOctober3,1999,fromhttp://journals.f+f.org/spectre/vblofeld-0046g.html

PageonaWebSitePavlenko,A.(2015,October7).Bilingualminds,bilingualbodies.PsychologyToday.Retrievedfromhttps://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/life-bilingual/201510/bilingual-minds-bilingual-bodies

PageonaWebSite,NoAuthorIdentified,NoDateBilingualminds,bilingualbodies.(n.d.).PsychologyToday.Retrievedfromhttps://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/life-bilingual/201510/bilingual-minds-bilingual-bodies

11.4.3:APA:In-TextCitationsandParentheticals

InAPAstyle,therearedifferentformatsforcitingsourcesintextdependingonthetypeofsource.

LearningObjective

Arrangein-textcitationsinAPAstyle

KeyPoints

In-textcitationsarewhereyoutellthereader,withinthetextofyourpaper,theauthor’snameandthedatethesourcewaspublished.Thecorrectformattingforanin-textcitationvariesdependingonhowmanyauthorscreatedtheworkbeingcited.Formattingalsovariesdependingonwhetheryoucitethesamesourcemorethanonce,orwhetheryoucitemultipleworksbythesameauthor.

KeyTerm

in-textcitation

Givingthenameandyearorotheridentifyinginformationoftheauthorofasourcewithinthetextofapaper.

Inyourpaper,whenyouquotedirectlyfromasourceintheirwords,orwhenyouparaphrasesomeoneelse’sidea,youneedtotellthereaderwhatthatsourceissotheauthorgetscreditfortheirwordsandideas.Whenyoutellthereadertheauthor’snameandthedatethesourcewaspublishedinthetextofyourpaper,thisiscalledanin-textcitation.

In-textcitations

Thesein-textcitationsareproperlyformattedinAPAstyle.

SourcebyaSingleAuthorTocitethistypeofreferenceinthetext,youshouldusewhatisknownasa

parenthetical—thecitationinformationenclosedinparentheses—attheendoftherelevantsentence.Theparentheticalshouldincludetheauthor’slastname(withnofirstormiddleinitial),followedbyacomma,followedbytheyearthesourcewaspublished.Ifyou’recitingadirectquote,youalsoneedtoincludethepagenumber.Forexample:

Socialrepresentationstheorypositsthatreifiedscientificknowledgethatexistsattheboundariesofagivensocietywillbeinterpretedinmeaningfulandoftensimplifiedformsbythemajority(Pauling,2005).Socialrepresentationstheory“proposesanewhypothesis…”(Pauling,2005,p.113).

Ifyouchoose,youcanintegratetheauthor’snameintothesentenceitself—thisisknownasa“signalphrase”—andprovidejusttheyearinparentheses:

Pauling(2005)positsthat…

SourcebyTwoAuthorsAuthorsshouldbepresentedintheorderinwhichtheyarelistedonthepublishedarticle.Ifyouincludetheauthors’namesintheparenthetical,useanampersand(&)betweenthetwonames.Forexample:

Socialrepresentationstheorypositsthatreifiedscientificknowledgethatexistsattheboundariesofagivensocietywillbeinterpretedinmeaningfulandoftensimplifiedformsbythemajority(Pauling&Liu,2005).

Ifyouchoosetouseasignalphraseinstead,usetheword“and”ratherthananampersand:

PaulingandLiu(2005)positthat…

SourcebyThreetoFiveAuthorsForanarticlewiththreetofiveauthors,thefirsttimeyoucitethearticleinthetextofyourpaper,youshouldincludethenamesofalltheauthors(inthesameorderinwhichtheyappearinthearticle)followedbytheyearofpublication.Afterthat,tosavespaceandtomakeyourpapereasiertoread,youshoulduseonlythefirstauthor’snamefollowedby“etal.”andtheyear

ofpublication.(“Etal.”isshortfor“etalia,”whichmeans“andotherpeople”inLatin—muchlike“etc.”isshortfor“etcetera,”whichmeans“andotherthings”inLatin.)

FirstInstance

Socialrepresentationstheorypositsthatreifiedscientificknowledgethatexistsattheboundariesofagivensocietywillbeinterpretedinmeaningfulandoftensimplifiedformsbythemajority(Pauling,Liu,&Guo,2005).

Usingasignalphrase:

Pauling,Liu,andGuo(2005)posit…

SubsequentInstancesintheSameDocument

(Paulingetal.,2005)

Usingasignalphrase:

Pauling,etal.(2005)posit…

SourcebyMorethanFiveAuthorsForanarticlewithmorethanfiveauthors,includeonlythefirstauthor’snamefollowedby“etal.”andtheyearofpublicationineachin-textcitation.

(Hughes-Hallettetal.,2008)

Usingasignalphrase:

Hughes-Hallettetal.(2008)claimthat…

MultiplePublicationsbyDifferentAuthorsIfyouneedtocitemultiplepublicationsbydifferentauthorsinthesame

sentence,youshouldlistthemultiplesourcesinalphabeticalorderbyauthoranduseasemicolontoseparatethem.

…majority(Alford,1995;Pauling,2004;Sirkis,2003).

Ifwithinthiscitationyoualsohavemultiplesourcesbythesameauthor,afterthatauthor’snameseparatethemultipledatesofpublicationwithasemicolonandorderthemchronologically(earliesttolatest).

…majority(Alford,1995;Pauling,2004;2005;Sirkis,2003).

MultiplePublicationsbytheSameAuthorIfanauthorhasmultiplepublicationswhichyouwishtociteinthesamesentence,youuseasemicolon(;)toseparatetheyearsofpublicationinchronologicalorder(oldesttomostrecent).

…majority(Pauling,2004;2005).

Usingasignalphrase:

Pauling(2004;2005)suggeststhat…

MultiplePublicationsbytheSameAuthor/sintheSameYearIfmultiplepublicationsbythesameauthor(orgroupofauthors)werepublishedinthesameyear,thereisaspecialrulefordenotingthis.IntheReferencessection,youwouldorderthosearticlesalphabeticallybysourcetitle,andthenappendalowercaseletterinalphabeticalordertotheendoftheyearofpublication.Forexample,ifyouhadtwopublicationsbyPaulingin2004,thefirstwouldbemarkedas(2004a)andthesecondas(2004b).Youwouldthenincludetheselowercaselettersinyourin-textcitationsaswell:

…majority(Pauling,2004a;2004b).

Attributions

APA:TheReferencesSection

“APAstyle.”http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/APA_style.PsychologyWikiCCBY-SA3.0.

“BasicsofCiting,APA,2of3(References).”https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k3zz7VOpuQM.YoutubeCCBY.

“OriginalfigurebyCatherineMcCarthy.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”CatherineMcCarthyCCBY-SA3.0.

APA:HowtoReferenceDifferentTypesofSources

“Howtoreferenceandlinktosummaryortext.”http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/How_to_reference_and_link_to_summary_or_textPsychologyWikiCCBY-SA3.0.

“BasicsofCiting,APA,2of3(References).”https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k3zz7VOpuQM.YoutubeCCBY.

APA:In-TextCitationsandParentheticals

“APAstyle.”http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/APA_style.PsychologyWikiCCBY-SA3.0.

“OriginalfigurebyCatherineMcCarthy.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”CatherineMcCarthyCCBY-SA3.0.

12:WritingaPaperinChicago/TurabianStyle(History)

12.1:IntroductiontoChicago/TurabianStyle12.1.1:WhentoUseChicago/TurabianStyle

Chicagostyle,createdbytheUniversityofChicago,istheprimarycitationstyleusedforpapersinhistory.

LearningObjective

RecognizewhentouseChicago/Turabianstyleinwriting

KeyPoints

Chicagostyleisoneofthemostcommoncitationandformattingstylesyouwillencounterinyouracademiccareer.ChicagostyleisbasedonTheChicagoManualofStyle.TurabianstyleisbasedonKateL.Turabian’sAManualforWritersofResearchPapers,Theses,andDissertations,whichisverysimilartoChicagostylebutwithanemphasisonstudentwriting.Chicagostyleprovidesguidelinesforgrammar,formatting,andcitingyoursources.TherearetwosubsetsofChicago/Turabianstylewhichcitetheirresearchsourcesdifferently:Author–DateandNotesandBibliography.

Chicagostyleisacitationandformattingstyleyoumayencounterinyouracademiccareer.AnypieceofacademicwritingcanuseChicagostyle,fromaone-pagepapertoafull-lengthbook.Itisusedbymosthistoricaljournalsandsomesocialsciencepublications.Ifyouarewritingapaperforahistoryclass,itislikelyyourprofessorwillaskyoutowriteinChicagostyle.

TheChicagoManualTheChicagoManualofStyle(abbreviatedinwritingasChicagostyle,CMS,orCMOS)isastyleguideforAmericanEnglishpublishedsince1906bytheUniversityofChicagoPress.Itssixteeneditionshavespecifiedwritingand

citationstyleswidelyusedinpublishing,particularlyinthebookindustry(asopposedtonewspaperpublishing,whereAPstyleismorecommon).Chicagostyledealswithmanyaspectsofeditorialpractice.ItremainsthebasisfortheStyleGuideoftheAmericanAnthropologicalAssociationandtheStyleSheetfortheOrganizationofAmericanHistorians.Manysmallpublishersthroughouttheworldadoptitastheirstyle.

TheTurabianManual“Turabianstyle”isnamedafterthebook’soriginalauthor,KateL.Turabian,whodevelopeditfortheUniversityofChicago.Exceptforafewminordifferences,TurabianstyleisthesameasChicagostyle.However,whileChicagostylefocusesonprovidingguidelinesforpublishingingeneral,Turabian’sManualforWritersofResearchPapers,Theses,andDissertationsfocusesonprovidingguidelinesforstudentpapers,theses,anddissertations.

ThePurposeofChicago/TurabianStyleChicago/Turabianstyleofferswritersachoiceofseveraldifferentformats,becauseitisusedinawidevarietyofacademicdisciplines.Itallowsthemixingofformats,providedthattheresultisclearandconsistent.

ThemostrecenteditionofTheChicagoManualofStylepermitstheuseofbothin-textcitationsystems(“Author–Date”style,whichisusuallyusedinthesocialsciences)orfootnotesandendnotes(thisiscalled“Notesandbibliography”style,whichisusuallyusedinthehumanities).

GrammarandFormattingChicagostyleincludesmanybasicgrammaticalrules.Forexample,ChicagostyledoesusetheOxfordcomma,whichsomeothercitationstyles(e.g.,APstyle)donot.Otherexamplesincluderulesaboutwhatpunctuationshouldbeincludedinsideaquotationandwhentousewhattypeofdash.Forinstance,Author–Datecitationsareusuallyplacedjustinsideamarkofpunctuation.

CitationsAsmentionedabove,themostrecenteditionsofTheChicagoManualofStylepermittheuseofeitherin-textcitationsystemsorfootnotesandendnotes.Itcangiveinformationaboutin-textcitationbypagenumberorbyyearofpublication;itevenprovidesforvariationsinstylesoffootnotesandendnotes,dependingonwhetherthepaperincludesafullbibliographyattheend.

12.1.2:OverallStructureandFormattingofaChicago/TurabianPaper

EverypaperwritteninChicago/Turabianstylehasthesamebasicstructuralelements.

LearningObjective

IdentifythestructuralelementsofaChicago/Turabianpaper

KeyPoints

AChicago/Turabian-stylepapershouldincludeatitlepage,abody,areferencessection,and,insomecases,endnotes.Chicago/Turabianstyleprovidesspecificguidelinesforlinespacing(yourpapershouldbedouble-spaced),margins(1–1.5inches),andpagenumbering.UsetheOxfordcomma,andonlyuseonespacefollowingperiods.Listentoyourprofessor’sspecificguidelinesiftheywantyoutouseatableofcontents.

KeyTerm

footnote

Ashortpieceoftext,oftennumbered,placedatthebottomofaprintedpagetoaddacomment,citation,orreferencetoadesignatedpartofthemaintext.

OverallStructureofaChicagoPaperYourChicagopapershouldincludethefollowingbasicelements:

1. Titlepage2. Body3. References(ifusingtheAuthor–Datemethod)4. Bibliography(ifusingthenotesandbibliographymethod)

GeneralFormattingRulesTypeface

YourpapershouldbewritteninalegiblefontsuchasTimesNewRoman,andshouldbeatleast10-ptinsize(12-ptisrecommended).

LineSpacing

Alltextinyourpapershouldbedouble-spacedexceptforblockquotationsandimagecaptions.Onyourcitationspage,eachcitationshouldbesingle-spaced,butthereshouldbeablanklinebetweeneachcitation.

Margins

Allpagemargins(top,bottom,left,andright)shouldbeatleast1inchandnomorethan1.5inches.Alltext,withtheexceptionofheaders,shouldbeleft-justified.

Indentation

Thefirstlineofeveryparagraphandfootnoteshouldbeindented0.5inches.

PageNumbers

PagenumbersinArabicnumerals(1,2,3…)shouldappearright-justifiedin

theheaderofeverypage,beginningwiththenumber1onthefirstpageoftext.Mostword-processingprogramshavetheabilitytoautomaticallyaddthecorrectpagenumbertoeachpagesoyoudon’thavetodothisbyhand.

GeneralGrammarRulesTheOxfordComma

TheOxfordcomma(alsocalledtheserialcomma)isthecommathatcomesafterthesecond-to-lastiteminaseriesorlist.Forexample:

TheUKincludesthecountriesofEngland,Scotland,Wales,andNorthernIreland.

Intheabovesentence,thecommaimmediatelyafter“Wales”istheOxfordcomma.

Ingeneralwritingconventions,whethertheOxfordcommashouldbeusedisactuallyapointofferventdebateamongpassionategrammarians.However,it’sarequirementinChicagostyle,sodouble-checkallyourlistsandseriestomakesureyouincludeit!

CapitalizationAfterColons

Inmostcases,thefirstwordafteracolonshouldnotbecapitalized:

Iknowexactlywhathappened:hestolethecookies.

However,ifwhatfollowsacolonisaseriesofmultiplesentences,oraquotation,youdoneedtocapitalizethefirstwordafterthecolon:

Ifyouhaveacoloninthemiddleofasentence,andwhatfollowsafterisaquotationormultiplesentences,thefirstwordafterthecolonshouldbecapitalized.Forexample:

Iknowexactlywhathappened:Hestolethecookies.Shesnatchedthecupcakes.Youtookthebrownies.

SentenceSpacing

Itusedtobeconventiontotypetwospacesaftereveryperiod—forexample:

“Marywenttothestore.Sheboughtsomemilk.Thenshewenthome.”

Thisconventionwasdevelopedwhentypewriterswereinuse;thespaceonatypewriterwasquitesmall,sotwospaceswereneededtoemphasizetheendofasentence.However,typewriters,andthereforethispractice,arenowobsolete—infact,usingtwospacesaftersentencesisnowgenerallyfrownedupon.Chicagostyleinparticularincludesanexplicitruletouseonlysinglespacesafterperiods:

“Marywenttothestore.Sheboughtsomemilk.Thenshewenthome.”

ANoteontheTableofContentsChicagostyledoesnotprovideguidelinesfortablesofcontentsforindividualpapersthemselves.Ifyourprofessorasksyoutoincludeatableofcontentsinyourpaper,theywillgiveyoutheirownguidelinesforformatting.

Attributions

WhentoUseChicago/TurabianStyle

“TheChicagoManualofStyle.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Chicago_Manual_of_Style.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.

OverallStructureandFormattingofaChicago/TurabianPaper

“footnote.”https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/footnote.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

12.2:Chicago/Turabian:StructureandFormattingofSpecificElements12.2.1:Chicago/Turabian:TitlePage

ApaperinChicago/Turabianstylehasatitlepagethatfollowsspecificformattingrules.

LearningObjective

ArrangethetitlepagecorrectlyinaChicago-stylepaper

KeyPoints

Yourtitlepageshouldincludethetitleofyourpaper,yourname,thenameofyourcourse,andthedatethepaperisdue.Alltheinformationonyourtitlepageshouldbecenteredhorizontally.Thetitleofyourpapershouldbewritteninallcapitalletters.

KeyTerm

dissertation

Aformalresearchpaperthatstudentswriteinordertocompletetherequirementsforadoctoraldegree.

TitlePageThefollowinginformationshouldbecenteredhorizontallyonthetitlepage:

1. athirdofthewaydownthepage,thetitleofyourpaperinallcapitalletters;

2. onthenextline,thesubtitleofyourpaper(ifyouhaveone);3. two-thirdsofthewaydownthepage,yourname;4. onthenextline,thenameofyourcourse;and5. onthenextline,theduedateofthepaper.

Theseelementsshouldnotbebolded,underlined,oritalicized.Notethattherequirementsmaybedifferentfordoctoralthesesordissertations.

Chicago-styletitlepage

Atitlepageintroducesthetitleofyourpaper—andyou,itsauthor!

12.2.2:Chicago/Turabian:Headings

InChicagostyle,headingsareusedtoorganizeyourwritingandgiveitahierarchicalorganization.

LearningObjective

OrderheadingscorrectlyinChicago/Turabianstyle

KeyPoints

InChicagostyle,headingsareusedtoorganizeyourwritingandgiveitahierarchicalorganization.Therecanbeuptofivelevelsofheadingsinyourpaper.Someusetitle

case;someusesentencecase.

KeyTerm

hierarchical

Arrangedaccordingtoimportance.

InChicagostyle,headingsareusedtoorganizeyourwritingandgiveitahierarchicalorganization.Chicagostyleputsforthspecificrulesforformattingheadings(uptofivelevels)withinyourpaper:

Chicagoheadinghierarchy

ThesearetheformattingrulesfordifferentlevelsofheadingsinAPAstyle.

Ifaheadingissaidtobeintitlecase,thatmeansyoushouldformatitasthoughitwerethetitleofabook,withthefirstlettersofmostmajorwordscapitalized(e.g.,AStudyofColor-BlindnessinDogs).

Ifaheadingissaidtobeinsentencecase,thatmeansyoushouldformatitasthoughitwereanormalsentence,withonlythefirstletterofthefirstword(andofanypropernouns)capitalized(e.g.,Astudyofcolor-blindnessindogs).

Youshouldalwaysuseheadinglevelsinthisorder,beginningwithLevel1.So,ifyouhaveapaperwithtwolevelsofheadings,youwoulduseLevel1formattingforthehigherlevelandLevel2formattingforthelowerlevel.Similarly,ifyouhaveapaperwithfivelevelsofheadings,youwoulduseLevel1formattingforthehighestlevelandLevel5formattingforthelowestlevel.

12.2.3:Chicago/Turabian:BlockQuotations

InChicagostyle,formatquotationsofmorethanfivelinesasblock

quotations.

LearningObjective

RecognizewhentouseblockquotationsinChicago/Turabian

KeyPoints

Atypicalquotationispartofasentencewithinaparagraphinyourpaper;however,forlongerquotations(morethanfivelines),formattheexcerptasablockquotation.Ablockquotationbeginsonitsownline,isnotenclosedinquotationmarks,andhasitsin-textcitationafterthefinalpunctuation.Blockquotationsarenotdouble-spaced,unliketherestofyourChicagostylepaper.

WhentoUseaBlockQuotationAtypicalquotationisenclosedindoublequotationmarksandispartofasentencewithinaparagraphofyourpaper.However,ifaquotationtakesupmorethanfivelinesinyourpaper,youshouldformatitasablockquotationratherthanasaregularquotationwithinthetextofaparagraph.Mostofthestandardrulesforquotationsstillapply,withthefollowingexceptions:ablockquotationwillbeginonitsownline(skipalinebeforeandaftertheblockquotation),itwillnotbeenclosedinquotationmarks,anditsin-textcitationwillcomeaftertheendingpunctuation,notbeforeit.

Forexample,ifyouwantedtoquotethefirsttwosentencesofThomasPaine’s“CommonSense”,youwouldbeginthatquotationonitsownline,indenteveryline,andformatitasfollows:

Perhapsthesentimentscontainedinthefollowingpages,arenotYETsufficientlyfashionabletoprocurethemgeneralfavour;alonghabitofnotthinkingathingwrong,givesitasuperficialappearanceofbeingright,andraisesatfirstaformidableoutcryindefenseofcustom.Butthetumultsoonsubsides.(Paine)

ThefullreferenceforthissourcewouldthenbeincludedinyourReferencessectionattheendofyourpaper.

SpacingandAlignmentEachlineoftheblockquotationshouldbeindentedfromtheleftmarginthesamedistanceasthefirstlinesofyourregularbodyparagraphs.Unliketherestofyourpaper,itshouldbesingle-spaced.Andaswithseriesandlists,tobettervisuallydistinguishablockquotationfromthesurroundingtext,besuretoleaveanextra(blank)linebetweenthelastlineoftheblockquotationandthefirstlineofthefollowingparagraph.

Blockquotations

ThisblockquotationiscorrectlyformattedaccordingtoChicago/Turabianstyle.

12.2.4:Chicago/Turabian:TablesandFigures

Chicago/Turabianstylehasspecificrulesforformattingtablesandfigures.

LearningObjective

ArrangetablesandfiguresinChicagostyle

KeyPoints

Chicago/Turabianspecifiestwomethodsforpresentinginformationvisually:tablesandfigures.Atableisachartthatpresentsnumericalinformationinagridformat.Afigure,bytheChicago/Turabiandefinition,isanyvisualthatisnotatable.Usingatableorafigureasavisualaidcanhelpyoustrengthenaclaimyou’remaking.

Whenyouneedtosummarizequantitativedata,wordscanonlygosofar.Sometimes,usingachart,graph,orothervisualrepresentationcanbeusefulinprovingyourpoint.However,it’simportanttomakesureyouincorporatethisextrainformationinawaythatiseasytounderstandandinlinewiththeconventionssetforthinChicago/Turabianstyle.

Chicago/Turabianspecifiestwomethodsforrepresentinginformationvisually:tablesandfigures.

TablesAtableisachartthatpresentsnumericalinformationinagridformat.InChicago/Turabianstyle,youmustpresentatableimmediatelyfollowingtheparagraphinwhichyoumentionedit.Whenyoumentionatableinthetextofyourpaper,makesureyourefertoitbyitsnumber(e.g.,“Table1”)ratherthanwithaphraselike“thetablebelow”or“thistable.”

Formatting

Formatyourtablesassimplyaspossible.Donotuseboldoritalicizedtext,anddonotoveruseborders.Generally,youshouldhaveonlythreehorizontallinesinyourtable:oneimmediatelyaboveandoneimmediatelybelowthecolumnheadings,andoneatthebottomofthetable,tohelpseparateitfromthesurroundingtext.However,Chicagostyledoesallowtwoexceptions:youmayuseanadditionalhorizontallineif(1)youneedtoseparateaddednumbersfromtheirtotal,or(2)ifyouhavemultiplelevelsofcolumnheadingswithinatable.

TitleandSource

Everytableshouldappearflushwiththeleftmargin.Immediatelyabovethetable,provideitsnumber,followedbyacolon,followedbyashortbutdescriptivetitle:

Table1:FrogpopulationsintheWillametteRiverfrom2009-2014

Immediatelybelowthetable,writetheword“Source”(oror“Sources”)initalics,followedbyacolon,andthenprovidethesource(s)oftheinformationinthetable.Includethesameinformation,withthesameformatting,asinaparentheticalcitation—i.e.,theauthor’slastnameandthepagenumber.Endthislinewithaperiod:

Source:Rottweiler67.

BesuretoalsoincludethefullcitationforthissourceinyourReferencesorBibliographysection.Neitherthetitlenorthesourcelineshouldbedouble-spaced.

Sampletable

ThistableisformattedcorrectlyaccordingtoChicago/Turabianformattingrules.

FiguresTreatafiguremuchasyouwouldtreatatable,withtwoexceptions:(1)youshouldpresentafigureimmediatelyafteryouhavereferenceditinthetext,and(2)allinformationaboutthefigure,includingitsnumber(“Figure1”)andtitle(“FrogsintheWillametteRiver,2012”)shouldappearonthelineimmediatelybelowthefigure.Thesourceinformationshouldappearonthenextline.

Samplefigure

ThisfigureisformattedcorrectlyaccordingtoChicago/Turabianformattingrules.

Attributions

Chicago/Turabian:TitlePage

“dissertation.”https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dissertation.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

“OriginalfigurebyEvaPetzinger.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”EvaPetzingerCCBY-SA3.0.

Chicago/Turabian:Headings

“OriginalfigurebyEvaPetzinger.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”EvaPetzingerCCBY-SA3.0.

Chicago/Turabian:BlockQuotations

“CommonSensebyThomasPaine.”http://www.ushistory.org/paine/commonsense/singlehtml.htm.USHistory.orgPublicdomain.

“OriginalfigurebyEvaPetzinger.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”EvaPetzingerCCBY-SA3.0.

Chicago/Turabian:TablesandFigures

“OriginalfigurebyEvaPetzinger.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”EvaPetzingerCCBY-SA3.0.

“OriginalfigurebyEvaPetzinger.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”EvaPetzingerCCBY-SA3.0.

12.3:Chicago/Turabian:CitationsandReferences–NotesandBibliography(NB)System12.3.1:Chicago/Turabian(NB):TheBibliographySection

InChicagoNBstyle,thesourcesyouciteinyourpaperarelistedattheendinthebibliography.

LearningObjective

ArrangethebibliographyinaChicago/TurabianNBpaper

KeyPoints

InChicago/Turabianstyle,therearetwoapproachestoformattingyourcitations:theAuthorDatesystemortheNotesandBibliography(NB)system.IfyouareusingNB,youwillneedabibliographyattheendofyourpaper,inwhichallthesourcesyoucitethroughoutthetextofyourpaperarelistedtogether.Thebibliographyhasitsownspecialformattingrules,includinghangingindentation.Ineachcitationstyle,formattingdiffersslightlybasedonsourcetype;forexample,youwouldformatacitationdifferentlyifyoursourcewasanonlinebookvs.aphysicaltextbook.Therearedifferentcitationstylesfortypesofsources,includingbooks,onlineresources,journals,andmanyothers.

InChicago/TurabianpapersusingtheNotesandBibliography(NB)citationsystem,allthesourcesyoucitethroughoutthetextofyourpaperarelistedtogetherandinfullinthebibliography,whichcomesafterthemaintextofyourpaper.(IfyouareusingtheAuthorDatecitationsystem,thiswillbecalledtheReferencessection.)

FormattingtheBibliographyThetopofthebibliographypage,astherestofyourpaper,shouldstillincludethepagenumberintherightheader.Onthefirstline,thetitleofthepage—“Bibliography”—shouldappearcenteredandnotitalicizedorbolded.Afterthepagetitle,leavetwoblanklinesbeforeyourfirstcitation.

Unliketherestofyourpaper,thispageshouldnotbedouble-spaced:leaveablanklinebetweeneachcitation,butthecitationsthemselvesshouldnotbedouble-spaced.Yourcitationsshouldbeinalphabeticalorderbythefirstwordineachcitation(usuallytheauthor’slastname).

Eachcitationshouldbeformattedwithwhatiscalledahangingindent.Thismeansthefirstlineofeachreferenceshouldbeflushwiththeleftmargin(i.e.,notindented),buttherestofthatreferenceshouldbeindentedoneinchfromtheleftmargin.Anyword-processingprogramwillletyouformatthisautomaticallysoyoudon’thavetodoitbyhand.(InMicrosoftWord,forexample,yousimplyhighlightyourcitations,clickonthesmallarrowrightnexttotheword“Paragraph”onthehometab,andinthepopupboxchoose“hangingindent”underthe“Special”section.ClickOK,andyou’redone.)

Bibliography

ThisisanexampleofacorrectlyformattedbibliographyinChicago/TurabianNBstyle.

ConstructingaCitationThefirststepinbuildingeachindividualcitationistodeterminethetypeofresourceyouareciting,sinceineachcitationstyleformattingdiffersslightlybasedonsourcetype.Somecommontypesareabook,achapterfromabook,ajournalarticle,anonlinebookorarticle,anonlinevideo,ablogpost,andpersonalcommunicationsuchasanemailoraninterviewyouconducted.(You’llnoticethat“website”isnotacategorybyitself.Iftheinformationyoufoundisonline,youwanttodetermineifyou’relookingatanonlinebook,anonlinearticle,orsomeothertypeofdocument.)Themostimportantinformationtohaveforcitingasourcewillalwaysbetheauthornames,thetitle,andthepublisherinformationandyearofpublication.

Asanexample,let’slookindetailattheprocessofcitingthreeparticularsourcesinChicagostyle:JosephConrad’sHeartofDarkness(i.e.,abookbyoneauthor),ProjectGutenberg’sonlinetextofthesamebook(i.e.,anonlinebook),andanonlinejournalarticleaboutthebook.

PrintSourcesAuthorName

Youalwayswanttostartwiththeauthorinformation.Youshouldpresenttheauthorinformationinthefollowingorderandformat:theauthor’slastname(capitalized),acomma,theauthor’sfirstname(capitalized),theauthor’smiddleinitial(ifgiven),andthenaperiod:

Conrad,Joseph.

TitleofSource

Next,youshouldincludethetitleofthesourceintitlecase.Forabookorotherstandalonesource,thetitleisitalicized;otherwiseitshouldbeenclosedinquotationmarks.

HeartofDarkness.

CityofPublication

Next,youwanttoprovidethelocationofthepublisher’soffice.Thelocationisgenerallyacity,suchas“London”or“NewYork,NY.”

London:

PublisherName

Next,providethepublisher’sname,followedbyacomma:

Everyman’sLibrary,

DateofPublication

Afterthepublisherinformation,youprovidetheyearinwhichthesourcewaspublished,followedbyaperiod.

1993.

Alltogether,then,thecitationlookslikethis:

Conrad,Joseph.HeartofDarkness.London:Everyman’sLibrary,1993.

OnlineSourcesNowlet’stakealookatthecitationfortheonlineversionofthesamebook,availableonlinethroughthepublisherProjectGutenberg(gutenberg.org).Treattheonlineversionofaprintbookexactlythesameasaprintbook,butwithanindicationofwhereyoufounditonline.

Conrad,Joseph.HeartofDarkness.ProjectGutenberg,2006.https://www.gutenberg.org/files/219/219-h/219-h.htm.

JournalArticlesandMultipleAuthors

NooriBerzenji,LatefS.,andMarwanAbdi.“TheImageoftheAfricansinHeartofDarknessandThingsFallApart.”InterdisciplinaryJournalofContemporaryResearchinBusiness5,no.4(2013):710–726.

Muchofthiscitationwilllookfamiliartoyounowthatyouknowthebasics.Again,westartwiththeauthorinformation.Ifthesourcehasmultipleauthors,thecitationrulesarealittledifferent.Thefirstauthorwillbelistedwiththeirsurnamefirst(Conrad,Joseph)butsubsequentauthorswillbelistedwiththeirfirstnamesfirst(JosephConrad).Usetheword“and”(notanampersand,&”)beforethelastauthor.Herewehaveonlytwoauthors,butifwehadfive,the“and”wouldcomebeforethefifthauthor’slastname,afterthecommafollowingthefourthauthor’sname.

Thedateofpublicationandtitleareformattedthesame.NotethateventhoughChicagostylesaysthatthearticletitleshouldnotbeitalicized,thebooktitleswithinthearticletitlearestillitalicized.

Thenewinformationherebeginswithcitingthejournalthisarticleisfrom.Includethetitleofthejournalinitalicizedtitlecase(allmajorwordscapitalized,asinthetitleofabook):

InterdisciplinaryJournalofContemporaryResearchinBusiness

Thenincludethejournalvolume:

5

Ifanissuenumberisprovidedinadditiontothevolumenumber,asitishere,addacommaafterthevolumenumber,theabbreviation“no.”,andtheissuenumber:

5,no.4

Next,listtheyearofthearticle’spublicationinparentheses,followedbyacolon:

(2013):

Finally,listthepagenumbersofthearticle,followedbyaperiod[notethatthedashbetweenthefirstandsecondnumbersisanen-dash(–),NOTahyphen(-)orem-dash(—)]:

710–726.

MultiplePublicationsbytheSameAuthorIfyouarereferencingmultiplepublicationsby(orgroupofauthors)thatwerepublishedinthesameyear,thereisaspecialrulefordenotingthis.Youshouldfirstorderthosearticlesalphabeticallybysourcetitleinthebibliography.Butthen,replacetheauthor’snameinallentriesexceptthefirstonewithanem-dash(—).

Achenbach,Thomas.“BibliographyofPublishedStudiesUsingtheASEBA.”AchenbachSystemofEmpiricallyBasedAssessment,2012.http://www.aseba.org/asebabib.html.—.“School-Age(Ages6–18)Assessments.”AchenbachSystemofEmpiricallyBasedAssessment,2012.http://www.aseba.org/schoolage.html.

12.3.2:Chicago/Turabian(NB):HowtoReferenceDifferentTypesofSources

InChicago/TurabianNBstyle,therearedifferentformatsforcitationsinyourbibliographydependingonthetypeofsourceyouareciting.

LearningObjective

ListthewaystocitedifferentsourcetypesinaChicago/Turabianbibliography

KeyPoints

IfyouareusingtheNotesandBibliography(NB)methodofChicago/Turabianstyle,youwillneedabibliographyattheendofyourpaper.Inyourbibliography,youwillhavetocreateacitationforeverysourceyouusedinyourpaper;thesecitationswillbeformatteddifferentlydependingonthetypeofsource.Therearedifferentcitationstylesforbooks,dependingonhowmanyauthorstheyhave.Therearedifferentcitationstylesforarticles,dependingonwhereyou

foundthem.

KeyTerm

bibliography

Asectionofawrittenworkcontainingcitations,notquotations,ofallthesourcesreferencedinthework.

NowthatyouknowthedifferentcomponentsofabookcitationinChicago/TurabianNotesandBibliography(NB)styleandhowthecitationshouldbeformatted,youwillbeabletounderstandthecitationformatsforothersourcetypes.Herearesomeexamplecitationsforthemostcommontypesofresourcesyouwilluse.

BookbyOneAuthorDoyle,Arthur.TheMemoirsofSherlockHolmes.Mineola:DoverPublications,Inc.,2010.

BookbyMultipleAuthorsTwoorMoreAuthors

(Writeoutallauthornames.)

Dubner,Stephen,andStevenLevitt.Freakonomics:ARogueEconomistExplorestheHiddenSideofEverything.NewYork:HarperPerennial,2005.

Brown,Theodore,H.EugeneLemay,BruceBursten,CatherineMurphy,PatrickWoodward,andMatthewStoltzfus.Chemistry:TheCentralScience.London:PrenticeHall,2015.

BookwithAuthorandEditorLovecraft,HowardPhillips.Tales.EditedbyPeterStraub.NewYork:LibraryofAmerica,2005.

ArticleinaJournalwithContinuousPaginationRottweiler,Frank,andJacquesBeauchemin.“DetroitandSarnia:Twofoesonthebrinkofdestruction.”Canadian/AmericanStudiesJournal54(2012):66–146.

ArticleinaJournalPaginatedSeparatelyRottweiler,Frank,andJacquesBeauchemin.“DetroitandSarnia:Twofoesonthebrinkofdestruction.”Canadian/AmericanStudiesJournal54,no.2(2012):66–146.

ArticleinanInternet-OnlyJournalMarlowe,Philip,andSarahSpade.“DetectiveWorkandtheBenefitsofColourVersusBlackandWhite.”JournalofPointlessResearch11,no.2(2001):123–124.AccessedOctober31,2015.http://www.jpr.com/stable/detectiveworkcolour.htm.

PageonaWebSitePavlenko,Aneta.“BilingualMinds,BilingualBodies.”PsychologyToday.LastmodifiedOctober7,2015.https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/life-bilingual/201510/bilingual-

minds-bilingual-bodies.

PageonaWebSite,NoAuthorIdentified,NoDate“BilingualMinds,BilingualBodies.”PsychologyToday.AccessedOctober29,2015.https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/life-bilingual/201510/bilingual-minds-bilingual-bodies.

12.3.3:Chicago/Turabian(NB):FootnotesandEndnotes

InChicago/TurabianNotesandBibliographystyle,usefootnotesorendnotesforcitingsourcesintext.

LearningObjective

ArrangefootnotesinChicago/TurabianNBstyle

KeyPoints

Afootnoteiswhenyoufollowaquotation,aparaphrasedidea,orapieceofinformationthatotherwiseneededtobecitedwithasuperscriptnumber.Anendnoteisexactlylikeafootnote,exceptthenoteonwhatsourcewasusedisattheendofthepaperratherthanthebottomofthepage.Therearetwostepstocreatingafootnote.First,youneedtoplaceanumberinthetexttotellthereaderwhatnotetolookfor;then,youneedtocreatethenoteitself.

KeyTerms

endnote

Anoteattheendofapaper,correspondingtoanumberinatext,whichgivesthereadercitationinformation.

footnote

Anoteatthebottomofthepage,correspondingtoanumberinatext,

whichgivesthereadercitationinformation.

FootnotesandEndnotesInyourpaper,whenyouquotedirectlyfromasourceintheirwords,orwhenyouparaphrasesomeoneelse’sidea,youneedtotellthereaderwhatthatsourceissotheauthorgetscreditfortheirwordsandideas.Onemethodfordoingthisiscreatingafootnote.

Afootnoteiswhenyoufollowaquotation,aparaphrasedidea,orapieceofinformationthatotherwiseneededtobecitedwithasuperscriptnumber(likethis.)1Then,atthebottomofthepage,yougiveabriefindicationofwhereyouretrievedthatinformation.Fullerinformationaboutthatsourceisthencontainedinthepaper’sbibliography.Thinkofthefootnoteastellingthereaderwheretogoinyourbibliographytofindthesource,andthebibliographyentryastellingthereaderwheretogointherealworldtofindthesource.

Anendnoteisexactlylikeafootnote,exceptthatendnotesappearalltogetherattheendofthepaper,whileeachfootnoteappearsonthebottomofthesamepageasitssuperscriptednumber.

CreatingaFootnoteTherearetwostepstocreatingafootnote.First,youneedtoplaceanumberinthetexttotellthereaderwhatnotetolookfor;then,youneedtocreatethenoteitself.Asanexample,let’ssaywearewritingapaperaboutmeerkatpopulationsandwewritethefollowingsentences:

Asof2009,themeerkatpopulationhasincreasedby20%inEasternBotswana.“It’sthrilling,”saysrenownedbiologistElizabethKhama,“Theanimalsaretrulymakingacomeback.”

Weneedtocreatefootnotestociteoursources.

Numbering

Thefirststeptocreatingafootnoteisplaceanumbernexttothestatementthatneedstobesourced.Todothis,placethenumberattheendofthesentenceitrefersto,afterallpunctuation.

Asof2009,themeerkatpopulationhasincreasedby20%inEasternBotswana.1“It’sthrilling,”saysrenownedbiologistElizabethKhama,“Theanimalsaretrulymakingacomeback.”2

Yourfirstfootnoteofthepapershouldbenumbered1,yoursecondshouldbe2,andsoonuntiltheendofthepaper.Ifyouarewritinganexceptionallylongpaper,suchasadoctoralthesis,numbersshouldrestartatthebeginningofeverychapter.

CreatingtheNotes

Next,youneedtocreatethenotethatthenumberrefersto.Everynumberneedsanote.Inthenote,youwillhavetheauthor’sname,thetitleofthework,thepublicationinformation,andthepagenumber:

1. AndrewByrd,“TheResurgenceoftheMeerkat,”SouthernAfricanEcology32,no.2(2009):221.

Youonlyneedtocreateanotethatcontainsallofthisinformationonceperpaper.Ifyoucitethissourceagainlaterinthepaper(say,inyoursixthnote),youwouldsimplywritetheauthor,title,andpagenumber,separatedbycommas:

6.Byrd,“TheResurgenceoftheMeerkat,”256.

Using“Ibid.”

However,ifyoucitetheexactsamesourcemorethanonceinarow,withoutcitinganyothersourcesinbetween,thereisaspecialshorthandyoucanuse.ChicagoNBstylehasveryspecificrulesforwhattodointhissituation.Ifyoucitethesamesourcemultipletimesinarow,simplywrite“Ibid.”ineachnoteafterthefirst—thismeans“thissourceisthesameasthesourceinthepreviousnote”:

1. AndrewByrd,“TheResurgenceoftheMeerkat,”SouthernAfricanEcology32,no.2(2009):221.

2. Ibid.

Ifyou’recitingadifferentpageofthesamesource,addacommaandthenewpagenumberafter“Ibid.”:

1. AndrewByrd,“TheResurgenceoftheMeerkat,”SouthernAfrican

Ecology32,no.2(2009):221.2. Ibid.,225.

Onceyouciteadifferentsource,youruseof“Ibid.”hastostartover—youshouldnotuseitagainuntilyouhavemultiplenotesinarowthatcitethesamesource.

12.3.4:HowtoReferenceDifferentTypesofSourcesinFootnotes

Differentsourcetypesrequiredifferentcitationinformationwhenbeingcitedinfootnotes.

LearningObjective

ListthewaystocitedifferentsourcetypesinChicago/Turabianfootnotes

KeyPoints

Footnotesarelike“mini-citations”atthebottomofthepage,whichdirectyourreadertoabibliographyentry.Differenttypesofsourcerequiredifferentcitationinformation.

KeyTerm

NotesandBibliography

AsubsetoftheChicago/Turabiancitationstyle,whichusesfootnotestocitesourcesinthetext.

FootnotesarethepreferredcitationmethodfortheChicago/TurabianNotesandBibliographycitationstyle.Whenusingfootnotes,youcreatewhatisessentiallya“mini-citation”atthebottomofthepage.Thesefootnotesguidethereadertothecorrespondingentryinyourbibliography.

Differenttypesofsourcerequiredifferentcitationinformation,buttheyalwaysfollowtheformof:author,title,publicationinformation,andtheneitherpagenumberorwebsiteURL(allseparatedbycommas).Andremember,thisinformationwillalsobecontained,inaslightlydifferentform,inyourbibliography.

BookbyaSingleAuthor1.StevenPinker,HowtheMindWorks(NewYork:Norton,1997),223.

BookbyTwotoFourAuthors2.StephenDubnerandStevenLevitt,Freakonomics(NewYork:WilliamMorrow,2005),101.

BookbyFiveorMoreAuthors3.TheodoreBrownetal.,Chemistry:TheCentralScience(UpperSaddleRiver:PrenticeHall,2005),642.

JournalArticle4.AndrewByrd,“TheResurgenceoftheMeerkat,”SouthernAfricanEcology32,no.1(2009):221.

ElectronicJournalArticle5.AndrewByrd,“TheMeerkatsHaveAllGoneAway,”AfricanEcologyOnline18,no.2(2006):169,accessedOctober31,2015,http://www.afrecoonline.org/byrd1.htm.

WebsitewithAuthorandPublicationDate6.CaraNelson,“TheTopThreeMoviesofAllTime,”BestMovies,lastmodifiedJune26,1993,http://www.bestmovies.com/nelsoncara1.htm.

WebsitewithUnknownAuthorandPublicationDate7.“SomeCoolMovies,”BestMovies,accessedOctober14,2015,http://www.bestmovies.com/anonymous.htm.

Attributions

Chicago/Turabian(NB):TheBibliographySection

“OriginalfigurebyEvaPetzinger.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”EvaPetzingerCCBY-SA3.0.

Chicago/Turabian(NB):HowtoReferenceDifferentTypesofSources

“bibliography.”https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bibliography.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.

Chicago/Turabian(NB):FootnotesandEndnotesHowtoReferenceDifferentTypesofSourcesinFootnotes

12.4:Chicago/Turabian:CitationsandReferences–Author–Date(AD)System12.4.1:Chicago/Turabian(Author–Date):TheReferencesSection

InChicagoAuthor–Datestyle,thesourcesyouciteinyourpaperarelistedattheendintheReferencessection.

LearningObjective

ArrangetheReferencessectioninaChicago/TurabianAuthor–Datepaper

KeyPoints

InChicago/Turabianstyle,therearetwowaysofformattingyourcitations:theAuthor–DatesystemortheNotesandBibliographysystem(NB).IfyouareusingtheAuthor–Datesystem,youwillneedaReferencessection.AllthesourcesyoucitethroughoutthetextofyourpaperarelistedtogetherintheReferencessectionattheendofyourpaper.TheReferencessectionhasitsownspecialformattingrules,includinghangingindentation.Ineachcitationstyle,formattingdiffersslightlybasedonsourcetype;forexample,youwouldformatacitationdifferentlyifyoursourcewasanonlinebookvs.aphysicaltextbook.Therearedifferentcitationstylesfortypesofsources,includingbooks,onlineresources,journals,andmanyothers.

InChicago/TurabianpapersusingtheAuthor–Datecitationsystem,allthesourcesyoucitethroughoutthetextofyourpaperarelistedtogetherinfullintheReferencessection,whichcomesafterthemaintextofyourpaper.(IfyouareusingNB,thiswillbecalledthebibliography.)

FormattingtheReferencesSectionThetopofthepage,astherestofyourpaper,shouldstillincludethepagenumberintherightheader.Onthefirstline,thetitleofthepage—“References”—shouldappearcenteredandnotitalicizedorbolded.Afterthepagetitle,leavetwoblanklinesbeforeyourfirstcitation.

Unliketherestofyourpaper,thispageshouldnotbedouble-spaced:leaveablanklinebetweeneachcitation,butthecitationsthemselvesshouldnotbedouble-spaced.Yourcitationsshouldbeinalphabeticalorderbythefirstwordineachcitation(usuallytheauthor’slastname).

Eachreferenceshouldbeformattedwithwhatiscalledahangingindent.Thismeansthefirstlineofeachreferenceshouldbeflushwiththeleftmargin(i.e.,notindented),buttherestofthatreferenceshouldbeindentedoneinchfromtheleftmargin.Anyword-processingprogramwillletyouformatthisautomaticallysoyoudon’thavetodoitbyhand.(InMicrosoftWord,forexample,yousimplyhighlightyourcitations,clickonthesmallarrowrightnexttotheword“Paragraph”onthehometab,andinthepopupboxchoose“hangingindent”underthe“Special”section.ClickOK,andyou’redone.)

Referencespage

ThisisacorrectlyformattedReferencespageinChicago/TurabianAuthor–Datestyle.

ConstructingaCitationThefirststepinbuildingeachindividualcitationistodeterminethetypeofresourceyouareciting,sinceineachcitationstyleformattingdiffersslightlybasedonsourcetype.Somecommontypesareabook,achapterfromabook,ajournalarticle,anonlinebookorarticle,anonlinevideo,ablogpost,andpersonalcommunicationsuchasanemailoraninterviewyouconducted.(You’llnoticethat“website”isnotacategorybyitself.Iftheinformationyoufoundisonline,youwanttodetermineifyou’relookingatanonlinebook,anonlinearticle,orsomeothertypeofdocument.)

Asanexample,let’slookindetailattheprocessofcitingthreeparticularsourcesinChicagostyle:JosephConrad’sHeartofDarkness(i.e.,abookbyoneauthor),ProjectGutenberg’sonlinetextofthesamebook(i.e.,anonlinebook),andanonlinejournalarticleaboutthebook.

PrintSourcesAuthorName

Youalwayswanttostartwiththeauthorinformation.Youshouldpresenttheauthorinformationinthefollowingorderandformat:theauthor’slastname,acomma,theauthor’sfirstname,theauthor’smiddleinitial(ifgiven),andthenaperiod:

Conrad,Joseph.

TitleofSource

Next,youshouldincludethetitleofthesourceintitlecase.Forabook,thetitleisitalicized.

HeartofDarkness.

CityofPublication

Next,youwanttoprovidethelocationofthepublisher’soffice.Thelocationisgenerallyacity,suchas“London”or“NewYork,NY.”

London:

PublisherName

Next,providethepublisher’sname,followedbyacomma:

Everyman’sLibrary,

DateofPublication

Nowprovidetheyearinwhichthesourcewaspublished,followedbyaperiod.

1993.

Alltogether,then,thecitationlookslikethis:

Conrad,Joseph.HeartofDarkness.London:Everyman’sLibrary,1993.

OnlineSourcesNowlet’stakealookatthecitationfortheonlineversionofthesamebook,availableonlinethroughthepublisherProjectGutenberg(gutenberg.org).Treattheonlineversionofaprintbookexactlythesameasaprintbook,butwithanindicationofwhereyoufounditonline.

Conrad,Joseph.HeartofDarkness.ProjectGutenberg,2006.https://www.gutenberg.org/files/219/219-h/219-h.htm.

JournalArticlesandMultipleAuthors

NooriBerzenji,LatefS.,andMarwanAbdi.“TheImageoftheAfricansinHeartofDarknessandThingsFallApart.”InterdisciplinaryJournalofContemporaryResearchinBusiness5,no.4(2013):710–726.

Muchofthiscitationwilllookfamiliartoyounowthatyouknowthebasics.Again,westartwiththeauthorinformation.Ifthesourcehasmultipleauthors,thecitationrulesarealittledifferent.Thefirstauthorwillbelistedwiththeirsurnamefirst(Conrad,Joseph)butsubsequentauthorswillbelistedwiththeirfirstnamesfirst(JosephConrad).Usetheword“and”(notanampersand,&)beforethelastauthor.Herewehaveonlytwoauthors,butifwehadfive,the“and”wouldcomebeforethefifthauthor’slastname,afterthecommafollowingthefourthauthor’sname.

Thedateofpublicationandtitleareformattedthesame.NotethateventhoughAPAstylesaysthatthearticletitleshouldnotbeitalicized,thebooktitles“HeartofDarkness”and“ThingsFallApart”withinthearticletitlearestillitalicized.

Thenewinformationherebeginswithcitingthejournalthisarticleisfrom.Includethetitleofthejournalinitalicizedtitlecase(allmajorwordscapitalized,asinthetitleofabook):

InterdisciplinaryJournalofContemporaryResearchinBusiness

Thenincludethejournalvolume:

5

Ifanissuenumberisprovidedinadditiontothevolumenumber,asitishere,addacommaafterthevolumenumber,theabbreviation“no.”,andtheissuenumber:

5,no.4

Next,listtheyearofthearticle’spublicationinparentheses,followedbyacolon:

(2013):

Finally,listthepagenumbersofthearticle,followedbyaperiod[notethatthedashbetweenthefirstandsecondnumbersisanen-dash(–),NOTahyphen(-)orem-dash(—)]:

710–726.

MultiplePublicationsbytheSame

AuthorIfyouarereferencingmultiplepublicationsby(orgroupofauthors)thatwerepublishedinthesameyear,thereisaspecialrulefordenotingthis.YoushouldfirstorderthosearticlesalphabeticallybysourcetitleintheReferencessection.Butthen,replacetheauthor’snameinallentriesexceptthefirstonewithanem-dash(—).

Achenbach,Thomas.“BibliographyofPublishedStudiesUsingtheASEBA.”AchenbachSystemofEmpiricallyBasedAssessment,2012.http://www.aseba.org/asebabib.html.—.“School-Age(Ages6–18)Assessments.”AchenbachSystemofEmpiricallyBasedAssessment,2012.http://www.aseba.org/schoolage.html.

12.4.2:Chicago/Turabian(Author–Date):HowtoReferenceDifferentTypesofSources

InChicago/Turabianstyle,therearedifferentformatsforcitingsourcesattheendofyourpaperdependingonthetypeofsource.

LearningObjective

ListthewaystocitedifferentsourcetypesinChicago/TurabianAuthor–Datestyle

KeyPoints

IfyouareusingtheAuthor–DatemethodofChicago/Turabianstyle,youwillneedaReferencessectionattheendofyourpaper.InyourReferencessection,youwillhavetocreateacitationforeverysourceyouusedinyourpaper;thesecitationswillbeformatteddifferentlydependingonthesourcetype.Therearedifferentcitationstylesforbooks,dependingonhowmanyauthorstheyhave.Therearedifferentcitationstylesforarticles,dependingonwhereyoufoundthem.Therearewaystoformatsourcesthatarenotbooksorarticles.

KeyTerm

Author–Date

AsubsetoftheChicago/Turabiancitationstylethatusesin-textcitationsandaReferencespageattheend.

NowthatyouknowthedifferentcomponentsofabookcitationinChicago/TurabianAuthor–Datestyleandhowtheyshouldbeformatted,youwillbeabletounderstandthecitationformatsforothersourcetypes.Herearesomeexamplecitationsforthemostcommontypesofresourcesyouwilluse.ThesearehowyourcitationswillbeformattedonyourReferencespageattheendofyourAuthor–Datestylepaper.

BookbyOneAuthorDoyle,Arthur.TheMemoirsofSherlockHolmes.Mineola:DoverPublications,Inc.,2010.

BookbyMultipleAuthorsTwoorMoreAuthors

(Writeoutallauthornames.)

Dubner,Stephen,andStevenLevitt.Freakonomics:ARogueEconomistExplorestheHiddenSideofEverything.NewYork:HarperPerennial,2005.

Brown,Theodore,H.EugeneLemay,BruceBursten,CatherineMurphy,PatrickWoodward,andMatthewStoltzfus.Chemistry:TheCentralScience.London:PrenticeHall,2015.

BookwithAuthorandEditorLovecraft,HowardPhillips.Tales.EditedbyPeterStraub.NewYork:LibraryofAmerica,2005.

ArticleinaJournalwithContinuousPaginationRottweiler,Frank,andJacquesBeauchemin.“DetroitandSarnia:TwoFoesontheBrinkofDestruction.”Canadian/AmericanStudiesJournal54(2012):66–146.

ArticleinaJournalPaginatedSeparatelyRottweiler,Frank,andJacquesBeauchemin.“DetroitandSarnia:TwoFoesontheBrinkofDestruction.”Canadian/AmericanStudiesJournal54,no.2(2012):66–146.

ArticleinanInternet-OnlyJournalMarlowe,Philip,andSarahSpade.“DetectiveWorkandtheBenefitsofColourVersusBlackandWhite.”JournalofPointlessResearch11,no.2(2001):123–124.AccessedOctober31,2015.http://www.jpr.com/stable/detectiveworkcolour.htm.

PageonaWebSitePavlenko,Aneta.“BilingualMinds,BilingualBodies.”PsychologyToday.LastmodifiedOctober7,2015.https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/life-bilingual/201510/bilingual-

minds-bilingual-bodies.

PageonaWebSite,NoAuthorIdentified,NoDate“BilingualMinds,BilingualBodies.”PsychologyToday.AccessedOctober29,2015.https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/life-bilingual/201510/bilingual-minds-bilingual-bodies.

12.4.3:Chicago/Turabian(Author–Date):In-TextReferencesandParentheticals

InChicago/TurabianAuthor–Datestyle,in-textcitationsfollowstrictformattingrules.

LearningObjective

Arrangein-textcitationsinChicago/TurabianAuthor–Datestyle

KeyPoints

In-textcitationsarewhereyoutellthereader,withinthetextofyourpaper,theauthor’snameandthedatethesourcewaspublished.Thecorrectformattingforanin-textcitationvariesdependingonhowmanyauthorscreatedthesourcebeingcited.Formattingalsovariesdependingonwhetheryoucitethesamesourcemorethanonce,orwhetheryoucitemultipleworksbythesameauthor.

KeyTerm

parenthetical

Awordorphrasewithinparentheses.

Inyourpaper,whenyouquotedirectlyfromasourceintheauthor’swords,orwhenyouparaphrasesomeoneelse’sidea,youneedtotellthereaderwherethewordsandideascomesfromsotheoriginalauthorgetscredit.Whenyoudothiswithinthetextthereadertheauthor’snameandthedatethesourcewaspublishedinthetextofyourpaper,thisiscalledanin-textcitation.

TheChicago/Turabiancitationstyleusesin-textcitationsonlyinitsAuthor–Datemethod,whichisgenerallyusedforsocialsciencepapersandisexplainedbelow.Ifyourprofessorasksyoutocitesourceswithfootnotesandbibliographyratherthanin-textcitations,makesureyouusetheNotesandBibliography(NB)methodratherthantheAuthor–Datemethoddescribedhere.

SourcebyaSingleAuthorTocitethistypeofreferenceinthetext,youshouldusewhatisknownasaparenthetical—citationinformationenclosedinparentheses—attheendoftherelevantsentence.Theparentheticalshouldincludetheauthor’slastname(withnofirstormiddleinitial)followedbytheyearthesourcewaspublished.Ifyou’recitingadirectquote,youalsoneedtoincludethepagenumberafteracomma.Forexample:

Socialrepresentationstheorypositsthatreifiedscientificknowledgethatexistsattheboundariesofagivensocietywillbeinterpretedinmeaningfulandoftensimplifiedformsbythemajority(Pauling2005).Socialrepresentationstheory“proposesanewhypothesis…”(Pauling2005,113).

Ifyouchoose,youcanintegratetheauthor’snameintothesentenceitself—thisisknownasa“signalphrase”—andprovidejusttheyearinparentheses:

Pauling(2005)positsthat…

SourcebyTwoorThreeAuthorsAuthorsshouldbepresentedintheorderinwhichtheyarelistedonthepublishedarticle.Ifyouincludetheauthors’namesintheparenthetical,usetheword“and”betweenthetwonames.Forexample:

Socialrepresentationstheorypositsthatreifiedscientificknowledgethatexistsattheboundariesofagivensocietywillbeinterpretedinmeaningfulandoftensimplifiedformsbythemajority(PaulingandLiu2005).

Youmaystillchoosetouseasignalphraseinstead,butmakesureyoukeepbothauthorsinit:

PaulingandLiu(2005)positthat…

SourcebyFourorMoreAuthorsForanarticlewithmorethanfourauthors,thefirsttimeyoucitethearticleinthetextofyourpaper,youshoulduseonlythefirstauthor’snamefollowedby“etal.”andtheyearofpublication.(“Etal.”isshortfor“etalia,”whichmeans“andotherpeople”inLatin—muchlike“etc.”isshortfor“etcetera,”whichmeans“andotherthings”inLatin.)

Socialrepresentationstheorypositsthatreifiedscientificknowledgethatexistsattheboundariesofagivensocietywillbeinterpretedinmeaningfulandoftensimplifiedformsbythemajority(Paulingetal.2005).

Usingasignalphrase:

Paulingetal.(2005)posit…

CitingMultiplePublicationsbyDifferentAuthorsIfyouneedtocitemultiplepublicationsbydifferentauthorsinthesamesentence,youshouldlistthemultiplesourcesinalphabeticalorderbyauthoranduseasemicolontoseparatethem.

…majority(Alford1995;Pauling2004;Sirkis2003).

Ifwithinthiscitationyoualsohavemultiplesourcesbythesameauthor,afterthatauthor’sname,separatethemultipledatesofpublicationwithacomma,andorderthemchronologically(earliesttolatest).

…majority(Alford1995;Pauling2004,2005;Sirkis2003).

CitingMultiplePublicationsbytheSameAuthor

Ifyouneedtocitemultiplepublicationsbythesameauthorwithinasentence,youuseacommatoseparatetheyearsofpublicationinchronologicalorder(oldesttomostrecent).

…majority(Pauling2004,2005).

Usingasignalphrase:

Pauling(2004,2005)suggeststhat…

Attributions

Chicago/Turabian(Author–Date):TheReferencesSection

“OriginalfigurebyEvaPetzinger.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”EvaPetzingerCCBY-SA3.0.

Chicago/Turabian(Author–Date):HowtoReferenceDifferentTypesofSourcesChicago/Turabian(Author–Date):In-TextReferencesandParentheticals