ED 260 336

AUTHORTITLE

INSTITUTION

REPORT NOPUS DATENOTEAVAILABLE FROM

PUB TYPE

EDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORS

IDENTIFIERS

DOCUMENT RESUME

SE 045 976

Bybee, Rodger W.Human Ecology: A Perspective for Biology Education.Monograph Series II.National. Association of Biology Teachers, Washington,D.C.ISBN-0-941212-04-18464p.National Association of Biology Teachers, 11250 RogerBacon Dr. #19, Reston, VA 22090 ($10.00 members,$12.00 non-members).Reports - Descriptive (141) -- Guides General (050)

MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS.*Biology; Curriculum Development; *Ecology;*Environmental Education; Program Descriptions;*Science Activities; Science Education; ScienceInstruction; *Science Programs; Secondary Education;*Secondary School Science; Surveys; TeachingMethods*Human Ecology; Science Education Research

ABSTRACTThis monograph provides a framework for biology

teachers who are rethinking and redesigning their programs. The majorfocus is on the human ecology perspective in biology programs. Thefirst chapter attempts to define and clarify human ecology throughhistorical review. The second chapter provides support, based on asurvey of citizens (scientists, engineers, general public, andstudents), for including human ecology in biology education. Policiesfor programs and practices are outlined in the third chapter. Aconceptual framework for a human ecological perspective in biologyeducation is included. The framework provides (in table format) alist of topics with related concepts and teaching examples. Thefourth and fifth chapters are both the major portioa and the mostpractical components of the monograph. An exclusive revieu ofcurriculum materials is provided in the fourth chapter. Thesematerials, from 16 publishers, include such programs as "The HumanSciences Program," "Energy, Resources, and Environment," and "HealthActivities Project (HAP)." Each curriculum review includes thefollowing: (1) program director/publisher; (2) program objectives anda description; (3) methods of instruction; (4) specific subjecti,grade, age, and ability levels; (5) materials offered; (6) programimplementation; and (7) teacher preparation. The fifth chapterconsists of seven teaching/learning activities focusing cn populationgrowth, age structure of population, air quality and automobiles,thermal pollution, vegetations and soils, supply and &nand ofresources, and a tragedy of the commons (communal pasture). Eachactivity includes background information, objectives/conceptsfostered, and recommended instructional strategies. (JN)

Human Ecology:A Perspective

For Biology

Education

cr

MonographSeries II

U S DEPARTMENT DF EDUCATIONNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

RESO, !RC( .NFORM.11:0tJ t ENTER

),0 e e t tAPn frvfolj,ed J.oh. 0,4,d 400n 04. n

yt0m10.4

%I , n I. 4e% t 0,110 N., npeo,rpol .1. r.r Ty

P0 00 . , ..,e4to1 .0 ,t,s do, 0

"et`e tr ^0? ".' y .I, r,ef

",'

'PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL IN MICROFICHE ONLYHAS BEEN GRANTED BY

8T-Mytco. z" Wert11

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOI'RCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)

Rodger W. Bybee

Human Ecology:A Perspective for Biology Education

Monograph Series II

Rodger W. BybeeCarleton College

Northfield, Minnesota

National Association of Biology Teachers1984

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Bybee, Rodger. W.Human ecology.

(Monograph series ; 2)Bibliography: p.1. Human ecologyStudy and teachingUnited States.

I. Title. II. Series: Monograph series (NationalAssociation of Biology Teachers) ; 2.GF27.B9 1984 304.2'07'1 84-29595ISBN 0-941212-04-1

Copyright © 1984 by the National Association of Biology Teachers. No part of thisbook may be reproduced by any mechanical, photographic, or electronic process, orin the form of a photographic recording, nor may it be stored in a retrieval system,transmitted, or otherwise copied for public or private use, without written permis-sion of the publisher (11250 Roger Bacon Dr. #19, Reston, VA 22090).

Printed in the United States of America

Human Ecology:A Perspective for Biology Education

Monograph Series II

5

Contents

Preface 6

A Personal Perspective 7A Survey of Global Problems and Public Education 13

Policies for Biology Education 20

A Curriculum Review .Acti% sties for biology T.tachers 42

About the Author 63

6 5

Preface

Reports have been written and recommendations have been made for the reform of American education.The last decades of this century promise to be .1 period of substantial change in education. While there havebeen suggestions that ultimately influence every aspect of the educational system, they have been broadmore time on task, improved programs, effective instruction, and the goal of excellence. In the midst of therhetoric there is a need for some concrete suggestions. Human Ecology. A Perspective for Biology Education is aconcrete contribution for biology teachers who are rethinking and redesigning their programs.

There are many perspectives that might be taken in the dev elopmeni. of new biology education programs.Human ecology is one. It is, I believe, a very crucial perspective congruent with long standing aims vi educa-tion and especially important at this time in history. This monograph moves from awareness to action relativeto a human ecology perspective in biology programs.

The first chapter attempts to define and clarify human ecology through ,,istorical revie' v . The second chapterprovides support, based on a survey of citizens, for including human eccogy in biology education. Policies forprograms and practices are outlined in the third chapter T1-e r,nal chapters are both the major portion and themost practical components of the book. One chapter is an exclusive review of curriculum materials and theether is a set of activities for biology teachers.

Human Ecology. A Perspective for Biology Education grew out of interest in the September 1984 issue of theAmerican Biology Teacher The theme for this issue was human ecology, and it is recommended as a complementto this monograph.

I wish to acknowledge Carleton College's Science, Technology and Public Policy Program, the Alfred P.Sloan Foundation, and the National Association of Biology Teachers for support of this project. There are sev-eral individuals who desene special recognition for their work on various aspects of this publication. NancyGustafson, Eric Johnson, Vicki Miller, Cyndy Rosso and all the students in courses on "Science, Technologyand Public Education."

67

Rodger W. BybeeOctober, 1984

A Personal Perspective

!his essas is a personal perspectise ot humanecology I have tried to answer three basic ques-tionsWhat is human ecology' Is human ecologyimportant' .Nnd, assuming that It is important, sshsis it important at this tome in histors'

Early Perspectives in Human E«,logv

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) and es olutionars biol-ogy provided the intellectual origins 01 Isunsan ecol-ogy. The appearance of On the Orrgni c t Speciesestablished the relationship between organisms andenvironments 'n their natural selection of trams hatenhance the o.eanisms' ability to sums,: and r t,ro-duce 1111. ins are included in this ongoing biolog-ical dyt.aaa.c Also, during the late 1800s the Gor-man bisaicgist, Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919), t,rst identi-fied ecology as a separate held of study in his 1869text, General :,,lorphdloNu of Organisms I suggest thatDarwin's theory and the emergence 01 ecology as aheld 01 study in late 19th and early 20th centuryestablished the mita! perspectives 'or human ecolo-gy While the biologists were developing the basicconcepts or ecology they Usti Illy implicit's includedhum.-.r.:a ssitho,ut evils:ads developing a humansa.ology 'molos,sts, bound by their discipline, hatebeen :osx to recognize humans in their study (ex-cept perhaps in genetics, anatomy, and physiology)Tne primary contribution of biology was the intellec-tual birth of ecology and the early developmeo andsynthesis of a conceptual foundation (Young 1974)

The early developers o, human esologv as a disci-pline were pnwanly sociologists Robert F Park, Er-nest Burgess, and Roderick McKenzie are usuallyrecognized as the tounding lathers of human eLology Park and Burgess first used the term "humanecology" in their 1921 book, Introdiudum to the Stokeof Sociology These men drew heavily on the work ofbiologists such as C R Darwin, F F Clements andC.S. Elton. It may be instructive to briefly reviewsome early writings in human ecology. For readersinterested na more somprehensis e collections otwritings in human ea.ologs , i rotor you to GeorgeTheodorson s ,t it alias in Human EcoLisii (196 1 ) andGerald Young's Origins of thonan 1 coloo (1983).

In a 193h article entitled [Email Ecology,Robert Park elaborated the classical positron of hu-man ecology Park s is (ark had a t ologisol base is ohsociological applications I quote Park s summonstatement.

Human ecology is an attempt to apply to the interre-lations of human beings a type of analysis prectouslcapplied to the interrelation s ot plants and animalsThe term symbiosis liV ribt'd a type ot social rola-

hip that is biota rather than cultural This bioticsocial order comes into existence and is maintainedby competition In plant and animal societies com-petition is unrestricted by an institutional or moralorder Human society is a consequence and effect setthis limitation of the 51, mbloth. social older by the salrural Different social sciences are concerned with theforms %shah this Imitation of the natural or ecologi-cal social order assumes on (1) the economic, (2) thepolitical, and (3) the moral les el (p 1)

The summary reveals Park's biological and so-ciological orientation. [he central organizing conceptis competition, a restatement of Darwin's idea of"the struggle for existence For Park, human soci-eta' was organized on two levels. the biotic, based oncompetitive cooperation, and the cultural. based oncommun. -anon and consensus. The biotic level in-fluenced human adjustments and spatial distribu-tions of populations. Human ecology studied theprocesses that maintained and ch-nged the bioticbalance and social equilibrium.

R.D. Mckenzie broadened the scope of humanc.raogy tc, be even more distinctly sociological. ForMcKenzie, human ecology was concerned with thespatial grouping and sustenance relations of humansoccupying a geographical area. The interaction ofhumans around space and sustenance resulted insociological changes in the population, such as mo-bility, employment, segregation, and dispersion. Iquote a summary from one ot McKenzie's early arti-cles on "The Scope of Human Ecology."

Human ecology concerns the process of spatialgrouping of interacting human beings of interrelatedhuman institutions. Ecological distribution is tho resultant of competing forces and changes in distribu-tion are measurable by the rate of mobility, of changeof residen.e, of employment ur of any utility Manyfactors of general or local significance affect ecologicalorganization and may be classed as geographical,economic, cults,ral and technical and political (p

McKenzie continues sLith a discussion of specialforms of groups and institutions and the reasons fortheir formation. One should note the distinctly so-oological tone of the definition and the lack of anysuggested problems for study

Other social science disciplines also adopted thec.ologiaal perspectix e For example, early paperswith a human ecological perspectixe were publishedin geography (Barrow 1923, Thornthwaite 1940), an-thropology (Sayce 1938), and psychology (Lewin1944) More recently the social science literature hasincluded the human ecological perspective in eco-nomics (Boulding 1950, 1966), political scionce(Pfaltzgraft 1968, Rodman 1980), cultural anthropolo-

8

7

gy (Or line 1980) and em ironmental psychology(Crack 1973).

Three points emerge from this historical reviewOne, early development ot human ecology was pri-marily in the social sciences Two, there was a con-spicuous absence of biological ecologists contribut-ing to the emerging study ot human ecology Andthird, while the social scientists were using the termhuman ecology, there was a great deal ot conflictover academic territory and little study of significantproblems.

By the late 1930s human ecology was being criti-cized. Milla Alihan's 1938 book, Social Ecology ACritical Approach, was central to the reassessmentShe criacited the sociologists' use ot the term en-% ironment as too elastic, the o% er extension of bio-logical concepts to social situation, too much accre-tion ot social concepts with ecological concepts, andthe inappropriate use of competition as the centralprocess in human relationships She also had diffi-culty with an apparent incomplete understanding ofuniquely human qualities, such as purpose and de-sire, and the role these may play on interactionswith the environment.

I was particularly impressed with a 1944 criticismby Amos H. Hawley entitled "Ecology and HumanEcology." Hawley lists the "aberrant intellectual ten-dencies" which have dominated human ecology.

The most dominant of these may De described as (I)the tailure to maintain a close working relationshipbetween human ecology and genciai or bioecologc,(2) an undue preoccupation with the concept cowpetition, and (3) the persistence in definitions of thesubject of a misplaced emphasis on "spatial rela-tions " 399)

Hawley then elaborated on these deficiencies, atask we need riot pursue here. Later in the articleHawley makes a particularly insightful statement.He is discussing the matter of dcfinitions of a discipline w hen he suggests the following

Probably few will deny, however, the problem withwhich study is to be concerned must not only be sig-ndtcant but must also be a problem that is not alreadypreempted by other disciplines It is no easier to defend a needless duplication of effort than it is a prem.cupation with irrelevant issues Unless human ecolo-gy has a problem of its own, then, it is nothing andmay well be forgotten (p. 402)

I think Hawley's 1944 assessment was correctAnd, indeed, It was not until the 1969s when pupu!anon, resource, and environmental problems be-came dominant and not preempted by other disciOnes that human ecology became an importantarea of study I shall return to this point Hawleylater describes human ecology.

In simplest terms, human ecology is the descripto, estudy of the adjustment of human populations to the

8

onditions of their respectwe physical encironments(p 404)

I conclude this discussion with a final quotation inwhich Hawley describes problems ot human ecologi-cal study In the following quotation, Hawley pointsout how problems of human ecology are basicallypopulation problems, and broadly how the popula-tion adjusts to resource shortages and other physicalchanges in the environment. Hawley continues todescribe human ecological problems.

This (population adjustment to resources and en-vironment) resolves itself into a number of relatedproblems, such as (I) the succession of changes bywhich an aggregate passes from a mere polyp -likeformation into a community of inteidependencies, (2)the ways in which the developing community is oftected by the size, composition, and rate ot growth ordecline of the population; (3) the significance of mi-gration for both the development of the communityand the maintenance ot communal structure, to-gether with the factors which male for change in theemsting equilibrium and the was in which suchchange occurs (p 405)

Amos Hawley's discussion of population, re-source and environment interactions anticipatedvery well the 1960s, when human ecology becamean important field of study.

Contemporary Perspectives in Human Ecology

There have always been some individuals whounderstood the relevance of ecology and its relationto the human condition. But it was not until the1960s that ecology became a science with personalmeaning for the general population. Why did thisoccur? My contention is that population, environ-ment, and resource problems became importantenough to demand attention. These were human ec-ological problems, and they were thrust into socialprominence not by academics arguing the disciplinebut by individuals describing the problems. In thenext paragraphs I review some of the people andworks that brought human ecology to the forefrontas a relevant science.

It one person and publication were used to identi-ty the recent significance of human ecology, Itwould have to be Rachel Carson's Silent Spring,pub-lished in 1962. Silent Spring was a book that immedi-ately drew national attention. Simply, clearly, andforcefully written, it carried the message that the useof chemicals, particularly chlorinated hydrocarbons,had grave consequences. Chapters provide the sci-entific background and examples of chemical effectson soil, on plants, to birds and fish, and on humans.In the opening paragraph of Silent Spring, RachelCarson provides the human ecology context.

The history of life on earth has been a history of in-teraction between lasing things and their surround-

ings 10 a Itrge extent, the physical tom and thehabits of the earth's %egetation and it animal lifehate been molded by the en% ironment Consideringthe whole span of earthly tune, the opposite effect, inwhich hie actually modifies its sum undings, hasbeen relatively .,light Only within the moment oftime represented by the present centurx has one +pc-CICSman----acq,ared signiticant puss et to alter thenature of his world (p 16)

The message of Silent Suring N, as hotly debatedBut time has provided support for most of RachelCarson's arguments. More importantly, environ-mental problems came to the public s attention, anda human ecological perspective was presented

Tice Po/ill/atm?, Bonn', written in 1968 by PaulEhrlich, is another significant book in the recent de-velopment of human ecology. Elulich's book, Ilcopowerfully cc ritten, demonstrated how populationgrowth was related to numerous otner problemssuch as food shortages, environmental degradation,and economic growth Ehrlich summarizes the pop-ulation problem.

In summary, the worlds population will continue togrow as long as the birth rate exceeds the death raft,its as simple as that. When it stops growing or startsto shrink, it will mean that either the birth rate hasgone down or the death rate has gone up or a combi-nation of the two. (p 16.17)

He continues by making the point that we mustfind ways to implement the "birth rate solution, orthe traditional "death rate solutions," such aspestilence, famine, and war may previal. This hookwas one of the first of several that Paul Ehrlich haswritten. He and his wife, Anne Ehrlich, who is a INologist, have written other books, such as The End ofAffluence (1974) and Extinction (1981) that presentglobal problems in a human ecological perspective

Garrett Hardin's 1968 essay, "The Tragedy of theCommons," is a classic statement in human ecologyThis article continues to be insightful and infor-mative about the relationship among populations,the physical environment, and cultural issues relat-ed to carrying capacity. 1- le argues using an analogyto a New England town commons, summarizing.

The tragedy of the commons develop in this wax'Picture a pasture open to all It is to be expected thateach herdsman will try to keep as many cattle as pussable on the commons Such an arrangement matwork reasonably satisfactorily for centuries becausetribal wars, poaching, and disease keep the numbersof both man and beast well below the carrying capaci-ty of the land Finally, however, comes the day ofreckoning, that is, the day when the long desiredgoal of social stability becomes a reality At this point,the inherent logic of the commons remorselessly gen-erates tragedy (p. 1245)

The tragedy occurs because herdsmen askWhatis the utility to me of adding one more animal?aquestion of personal gain, not social responsibility or

en' ironmental accountabilitk Of course, theherdsman adds an animal. He will reterte all Etcprofit from the extra animal, but the effect of oxer-grazing will be shared by all herdsmen. Hardin alsoconfronts the difficult problem of avoiding the trag-edy . He concludes that "mutual coercion mutuallyagreed upon by the malority of the people affected"is the only reasonable solution. This position clearlyis not a strictly biological one Hardin is suggestingchanges in things such as takes to avoid exceedingthe carrying capacity of air, land, and water

The list of significant contributors to human ecolo-gy has to include Barry Commoner As early as 1963he published Science and Siirzwal as warning of envi-ronmental problems. Probably his most notable con-tribution was The Closing Circle published in 1971Where Ehrlich focused on population and Hardin oncarrying capacity, Commoner directed his attentionto the environmental crisis In a chapter on "Man inthe Ecosphere" he confronts the interrelationship ofhumans and the environment.

En%Ironmental deterioration is caused by humanthin and exerts painful effects on the human condi-tion The ens ironmental crisis is therefore not onl% anecological problem, but also a social one ibis adds tothe intrinsic complexity of the ecosphere the turthercomplications of human activities the number of peo-ple supported by the earth's natural system, the so-en.es that tell us what cc.: knots about nature, thetechnolog% that comerts this knowledge to practicalaction, the resultant industrial and agricultural pro-duction that extracts new wealth from the earth'sskin, the economic systems that govern the distribu-tion and uses of wealth, the social, cultural, and polit-ical processes that shape all the rest (pp 109-110)

Here is the holistic understanding required of hu-man ecology. While it is not easy, it is essential Bar-ry Commoner's other works include The Poverty ofPower (1976) and The Politic; of Energy (1979)

Ten years atter Silent Suring, a Club of Rome re-port entitled The Emits to Growth (1972) was pub-lished I quote the conclusions of the study.

It the present grow th trends in v. urld population, industrialization, pollution, food production and resource depletion continue unchanged, the limits togrowth on this planet will be reached sometime with-in the next one hundred years. Me most probable re-sult will he a rather sudden and uncontrollable detine in both population and industrial capacit%It is possible loaner these growth trends and to es-tablish a condition of ecological and economic sta-bility that is sustainable far into the future 1 he stateof global equilibrium could he designed so that thebasic material needs of each person on earth are satis-fied and each person has an equal opportunity to re-alize his individual human potential. (p 29)

The Limits to Growth was innovative in its ap-proach, using computer modeling, and tar reachingin its conclusions. A great debate around N. anous as

10

9

pects of the study immediately emerged While thecriteria found faults with aspects of the studs, thesymbolic value ot the title and the fundamental find-ings of the study remain significant in the develop-ment of human ecology.

The Global 2000 Report to the President Entering theTwenty-First Century (Barney 1980) was publishedeight years after The Limits to Growth, during the ad-mimstrahon ot jimmy Carter. The Global 2000 Reportwas a massive undertaking by several United Statesgovernment agencies to assess probable changes inthe world's population, natural resources, and en-vironment through the end of the century. PresidentCarter's intention was to use the result in long-term

...-planning and policy development. Some of the findingsings from this study include:

Rapid growth in world population will hardly hatealtered by 2000 The world's population will growfrom 4 billion in 1975 to 6 35 billion in 2000, an in-crease of more than 50 percent

The large existing gap between the rich and pournations will continue to widen

World food production is projected to increase 90percent between 1970 and 2000 Most of the in-crease will go to countries with an already high percapita food consumption,

Arable land will increase only 4 percent by 2000, soincreased output will be from higher yields

----World oil production will approach geological estimates of maximum production capacity in the1990s.

Potential prcblems surround the world's finite tuelresourcescoal, oil, gas, oil shale, tar sands, anduraniumsince they are ones t nly distributed,pose difficult economic and environmental prob-lems and vary greatly in their amenability to expluitation and use

The quarter of the world's population in industnalcountries will continue to use three fourths of theworld's mineral production

Regional water shortages will become severe by theyear 2000there well be significant losses of world forests doeto use for forest products and fuelwood.

Agricultur./ soils will deteriorate due to erosion,loss of organic matter, desertification, sahnization,alkalinization, and waterlogging.

Atmospheric changes due to carbon dioxide andozone-depleting chemicals could alter the world'sclimate and upper atmosphere by the year 2050

Extinctions of plant and animal species will in-crease by the year 2000

The Global 2000 Report generally confirmed whatmany had been saying for years. There is an urgentneed to recognize the earth s carry ing capacity whilemaini,rining a decent quality of life for humanity .There are still many global challenges One conelodJag statement summarizes well the human ecologicalview.

Vigorous, determined new initiatives are needed itworsening poverty and human suffering, environ-mental degradation, and international tensions and

10

conflicts are to be pre. clued I here arc no quitfives the kInIi solutions to the protil.nis of popula-tion rest. lutes and ens ironment arc loMplu andlong-term these problems are in linked tosome ot the most perplexing and persistent problemsin the world poverty, injustice, and social konthit(p 4)

I have referred to Hie Global 2000 Report at somelength because the conclusions generally supportthe positions of others, such as the authors and pub-lications reviewed here One must also note withsome concern that the Reagan Administration haspaid little attention to the essential message ot TheGlobal 2000 Report.

This review would be incomplete without refer-ence to the work of Lester Brown and the World-watch Institute. One of Lester Brown's first impor-tant iv orks was The Twenty-Ninth Day, published in1978, The book begins with the dimensions and con-sequences of ecok'gical stress. Brown then expertlypresents the biological and social means of accom-modating human needs and numbers to the earth'sresinuces. 1 behesi Lester Brown's most significantconceptual contribution is in his 1981 book, Building ASt:tamable Society. !'he concept of sustainable societyis an idea and a . r ion that other authors had butdid not articulc.t.: Bross n has discussed sus-tamability in a recent book entitled State' of the 1Norld(1984), the first in a series of yearly reviews of prog-ress toward a suz.tainable society.

Sustamability is ar. ecological concept with economicimpb awns. It recognizes that economic growth andhuman well-being depend on the natural resourcesbase that supports ell living systems. technology hasgreatly expanded the earth's human carrying capaci-ty, most obviously with advances in agriculture, Butwhile the human uigenurty embodied in advancingtechnology can raise the natural limits on human eco-nomic activity, it cannot entuely remove them (p I)

Brown continues with a definition of sustainable so-ciety,

A sustainable society is one that shapes its economicand social systems so that natural resources and lifesupport systems are maintained (p 2)

Observations and Reflections on HumanEcology

I developed this essay as a personal exploration otthree questions. What is human ecology' Is humanecology important? And, assuming it is important,why is it important at this time in history Actually,these questions are r elated to a larger and moreimportant question concerning biology educationWhat is the place of human ecology as a perspectivein biology education?

What is human ecology' As 1 wrote the essay, Iincluded various defintions offered by different au-

thors to develop a general conception of humanecology. rery broadly, human ecology considers theinterrelationship of human beings and their environ-ments One observation was that authors tended toslant their definition of human ecology toward theirdiscipline I concluded that human ecology s!'iouldnot be set apart from the general discipline of ecolo-gy. This point was also recently made by EdwardKormandy (1984).

The noted ecologist Eugene Odum has suggestedthat ecology may emerge as a new integrative disci-pline. He summarizes.

The new ecoloby, tnen, is nut an interchscipline, buta new intcgratice discipline that deals with the supraindicidual levels of organization, an arena that islittle touched by other disciplines as currently bound-edthat is, by disciplines with boundaries estab-hshet1 and strongly reinforced by protessional so-cieties and departments or curriculums ofuniversities Among academic sub)ects, ecologystands out as being one of the feu dedicated to ho-lism (p 1291)

Odom st-esses the ecosystem level of study anduses a holistic methodology. Humans are as much apart of the integrato e approach as other organisms.In tact, Odum (1975) points out that the new ecologylinks the natural and social sciences. This position,the integrative !ink between natural and social sci-ences, seems to me an excellent as to think of ecology, and it clearly includes human aspects of ecolo-gy without positing human ecology as a new orunique discipline The term human ecology suggeststhat both the human sciences and the natural sci-ences are important in the study of local to globalproblems

Is human ecology important' The reading andthought that went into this essay only served to con-firm what I suspected. Yes, human ecology is impor-tant At this time in history it is more than impor-tant; it is vital that citizens have a fundamentalunderstanding of human ecology. If one thinks for amoment about any of the major global problems,they are almost without exception human and eco-logical.

Why is human ecology important at this time inhistory' For millennia humans lived in a benign rela-tionship with their environment. Their numbers andtechnologies had little effect on the air, land, andwater In the 20th century this changed, The manyproblems of population, environment, and resourcesare warnings that ice are reaching the limits togrowth on planet Earth. Since the problems are soclosely interconnected with the growth and develop-ment of populations and the natural environment,the emergence of human ecology seems like a natu-ral outgrowth of the preser,t global situtaion if weare to begin understanding and subsequently solv-

ing the problems Indeed, necessity as the mother ofinvention seems a good, brief answer to the ques-tionWhy is human ecology important now'

There is a second reason that human ecology hasbecome important, especially in the last quarter cen-tury. There were people like Rachel Carson. Pauland Anne Ehrlich, Garrett Hardin, Barry Commonerand Lester Brown wino had the courage to step outof strict discipline boundaries and address problemsthat threatened the human future

Conclusion

I now turn to the question of human ecology as aperspective in biology education. The first, and per -hips tnost important, conclusion is that human ecol-ogy does Indeed have a place in biology education.All of the reasons reviewed for human ecology's im-portance Justify including human ecology as a partof the biological education of future citizens-

Throughout the essay, several points have arisenthat begin forming the educational framework forhuman ecology. The human ecological perspectivein biology education would include:

study of significant problems such as populationgrowth, ens ironmental degradation, and resourceuse

using an ecosystem level of studybalancing holistic and reductive methods of studyusing an integrative approach that presents human

ecological study as the linkage between natural andsemi sciences

Human ecology is too important to be left out ofbiology education. The courage demonstrated by in-dividuals who developed the field of human ecologynow has to be shown by biology educators. As biol-ogy educators we can and must do something, evenif it is a small step toward including human ecologyin biology education.

References

Alihan, M (1939) Social ELologio A Critical Approach NewYork Columbia University Press

Barney, G. (1980). The Global 2000 Report to the PresidentWashington, D.C. U.S Government Printing Office

Barrows, H.H (1923). Geography as Human Ecology As-,00ation of Anzeritan Geographers, 1, 1-14.

Boulding, K (1950) An Ecological Irdrodualon A Reconstruction of Economics. New York Wiley and Sons

Boulding, K (1966) Economics and Ecology In Dorling,F , and Milton, J (Ecis ) insure Liwironments of NorthAmerica New York. Doubleday,

Brown, L. (1981). ButhioIN A Sustainalne &met,' Nei% YorkW W, Norton

Brown, L. (1984) State of the World 1984 New York W WNorton

Brown, L. (1978). The Twenty Ninth Day New York, W W.Norton

Carson, R (1962) Silent sprinN Greenwich, CT FawcettCrest Books

i211

Commoner, B (1971) The Closing Cif-de Nei, Nod. Ban-tam Books

Commoner, B (1979). The Polishes of Energy New York Al-fred A. Knopf.

Commoner, B (1976) The Povertv of Power Nei York Al-fred A Knopf.

Commoner, B (1963) Sucnce and Survival New York. Vi-king Press

Craik, K. (1973). Environmental Psychology Annual Re-view of Psgliottvy 21, 403-422

Darwin, C (1850) On flu Origin of Seaes Neu York Ap-pleton

Ehrlich, P. (1968). The Population Bomb New fork Ballan-tine Books. (Revised Edition 1978)

Ehrlich, P and Ehrlich, A (1974) The End of Aff fumeNew York Ballantine Books

Ehrlich, P and Ehrlich, A (1981) Extoktion New YorkBallantine Books

Hardin, G. (1968, December) The Tragedy of the Com-mons Science, 162, 1243-1248.

Hawley, A (1944) Ecology and Human Ecology Soua1Forces, 22, 398-405

Kormandy, E J (1984, September) Human Ecology AnIn, Auction for Biology Teachers The Amman BiologyTeacher 46(6) 325-329.

Lewin, K (1944). Constructs in Psychology and Psychological Ecology. In Lewin et al Authority and FrustrationIowa City University of Iowa Press

McKenzie, R.D (1926) The Scope of Human Ecology Papers and Proteeding! .4meruan Sotiologikal Society, 20th An-nual Meeting Washington, D.0

Meadows, L t al. (1972). The Limits to Growth New %'orkUniver,,e Books.

12

Odom, E (1975), Lio/osy The I n, Between the Naomi! andthe Social Scienie. New York Holt, Rinehart andWinston

Odum, E.P (1977, March 25) 1 he Emergence of EcologyAs A New Integrative Discipline Silo:L, 195, (4284).

Orlove, B (1980). Ecological Anthropology Annual Reviewof Anthropology 9, 235-273

Park, R (1936), Human Ecology. American Journal of So-ciology, 42, 1-15

Park, R and Burgess, E (1921) Introduction to the Science ofSA:ow:0 Chicago. University of Chicago Pres .

Plaltzgraff, R (1968) Ecology and the Politic I System.American Behavioral Science, 11, 3-6.

Rodman, J (1980) Paradigm Change in Political Science.An Ecological Perspective. Amerika Behavioral Sc m, 24,49.51, 64-74.

Sayce, R.V. (1938, May). The Ecological Study of Culture.Scientia, EMI, 279-285.

Theodorson, G. (Ed.) (1961) Studies in Human EcologyNew York Harper and Row

Thornthnalte, C W. (1940). The Relation of Geography toHuman Ecology, Ecology Monographs, 10, 343, 347-348.

Vay da, A and Rappaport, R (1968). Ecology, Culturaland Non Cultural In Clifton, J. (Ed.), buteductwil fe Cul-tural Anthropology Boston Houghton Mifflinming, G (1974) Human Ecology As An InterdisciplinaryConcept A Critical Inquiry. Ativanio nn Liologual Re-search, 8, 1-40.

Young, G (Ed ) (1983) Origins of Human E,ologY,Strouclsburg, PA Hutchinson Ross Publishing Co

13

Rodger W. Bybee

A Survey of Global Problems and Public Education

Does human ecology have a place in public educa-tion? Specifically, to what degree does the publicidentify human ecological problems as important as-pects of study for students in K-12 science pro-grams? To the first question I would respond yes.And to the second I would say that the public duesthink the study of human ecology related problemsis important and would support such programs,with an increasing emphasis from elementarythrough high school. While these are my responses,I thought it may be best to find out how the publicwould respond.

In tall 1983, students and colleagues in the Sci-ence, Technology and Public Policy Program* atCarleton College designed and conducted a surveyof citizens on the content and emphasis of public eu-ucdtion programs. The survey was directed towardspecific global problems related to science and tech-nology and their place in school programs. Thischapter reports the results for all respondents 18years of age and older. My purpose is to clarify theplace of human ecology topics in biology educationthrough answers to general questions posed by sci-ence teachers. These questions concern priorities,importance, support, and emphasis relative to teach-ing about global problems related to population, re-sources, and environment.

The Survey

The project aimed to identify and rate importantglobal problems and to establish a linkage of theseissues to education. Twelve broad categories ofproblems were used in the survey (See Table 1) Thefirst survey item had responuents rank the 12 prob-lems from most to least important Following the ini-tial ranking we asked how people thought the globalproblems would change by the year 2000, how muchthey knew about the problems, and what are theirtypic.: sources of information concerning the globalproblems.

The next series of questions was directed towardteaching about the global problems Specifically, wewanted to know about the importance of studyingthe problems at different levels of education, hovmuch schools were already teaching about the problems, the support for including global problems in

The Science, rechnology and Public Policy Program at Carle-ton is partly supported by funds from The Alfred P. Sloan Foun-dation. I would like to acknowledge the contnbutions of the fol-k,:ving individuals tut their work un this pruje.t Enc Johnson.Kann Brakke, Katherine Mac Millen, Ten Mau, Mary McMillan,Vicki Miller, Kevin Najaf'', Mike O'Connell, Alejandro Riera,Andy Smith and James White

school programs, how much emphasis should begiven to these issues at different grade levels, howthe issues should be taught, and who should takethe courses in which global problems were present-ed.

The survey was conducted during late 1983 andearly 1984. Several different groups were included inthe survey. scientists and engineers, general public,and students. One hundred (100) scientists weresurveyed, including 84 men and 16 w omen of agesranging from 20 to 81, with the majority between theages of 30 and 50. Ninety-seven percent had com-pleted graduate work. The remaining 3 percent wereengineers w ho had not completed work bey ondtheir initial undergraduate educate m The sampleincluded 24 engineers and 76 scientists Of the totalsample, the majority (62) were in higher educationFifty-five percent of respondents were from the Mid-west with 13 percent, 16 percent and 8 percent fromthe East, West and South respectively The remain-ing 3 percent were from other countries (See Bybee1984).

One hundred and three adults from the generalpublic were surveyed, 49 were men and 54 werewomen. The ages ranged from 20 to 90, with themajority between 24 and 30. However, 22 re-spondents were over 60. Most (45.6 percent) hadcompleted some college, with 37.6 percent havingdone some work beyond their undergraduate de-gree. Just over 16 percent had completed only highschool. The majority, 77 percent, were from theMidwest with 2 percent, 15 percent and 3 percentfrom the East, West and South respectively. Most ofthe general public surveyed were in business ur pro-fessional occupations (53 percent), and clerical orsales positions (15 percent). The remaining re-spondents were in the noniabor force (mostly re-tired). In general, the population represented a biastoward middle class, the Midwest, and above aver-age education.

Two hundred college students were surveyed onfive different college and university campuses. Thesample of college students represents a typical stu-dent population .elative to age (18-23), sex (103women and 97 men) and distribution of majors.Both public and private schools were represented.

There were 48 high school students included inthe survey. These students were selected from alarger sample of pre-college students included as apart of the study. The basis of selection for this re-view was age In all cases the survey was admin-istered directly, either as an interview or part of aclass. The number of nonrespondents was negligi-ble.

14

13

Which Global Problems are Most Important?

Individuals ranked 12 global problems from mustimportant to least important Table 1 presents the fi-nal rankings and the mean scores for each item.

War technology', air quality, world hunger, waterresources, and population grow th are the top fieconcerns Notice that sun iv al and basic humanneeds are the value systems underlying the rankingMost citizens agree that war technology, particularlynuclear war, threatens human survival on earth. Re-cent scientific reports also support these perceptions(Turco et al. 1983, Ehrlich et al 1983) The next threeitemsair, food, and waterare essentials to long-term human existence.

Population growth was ranked fifth. But therewere differences in rankings by different group".Scientists ranked population grow th first, othergroups ranked the item much lower. While therewas agreement between scientists and other groupson most items, population grow th represented thegreatest disagreement There are a couple of impor-tant points to be made al:Jut this disparity One ,sthat population growth has received very little me-dia coverage This seems to be a plausible accountfor the low ranking by groups other than scientistsand engineers The second point s probably moreimportant for biology educators. The high rankingby scientists and engineers reveals their understand-ing of population grow th as fundamental to many

other global problems This ev aluation has impor-tant educational implications; namely, that under-standintr, the dynamic causes and consequences ofpopulation growth should be central to biology pro-grams including human ecology topics.

For the items ranked from 6 to 12 there are, I be-lie% e, understandable explanations. Those rankedhighesthazardous substances and energy snort -ages hay e been covered by the media and have animmediacy for the public. Other problems such asland use, extinction of plants and animals and min-eral resources have not been in the news or topics ofspecial programs. Likewise, they are not perceivedby tne average person as having any immediate rela-tionship to his or her life or living. As you will see inthe next table, all citizens perceive human healthand disease as improving by the yea' 2000. Ad-vances in medical technology do receive significantmedia coverage. This may explain the low ranking.Finally, ` suggest that nuclear reactors received alow r inking because they are perceived as a greatlydiminished issue for one of two reasons. rhere havebe n no new reactors ordered since 1976, and almost90 reactor orders have been cancelled (Brown 1984).Caio.ersely, the public may think that all problemshave been eliminated in the nuclear energy indus-try, and they, along with the present administration,support development in this areathus, a lowerranking With either explanation nuclear reactors arenut perceived as significant problems.

TABLE 1. Citizens Ranking of Twelve Science Relate.1 Global Problems (N 451)

Problem Rank Mean

WAR TECHNOLOGY (nerve gas, nuclear developments, nuclear arms threat) 1 4.94AIR QUALITY AND ATMOSPHERE (acid rain, CO,,, depletion of ozone, global warming) 2 4.95WORLD HUNGER AND FOOD RESOURCES (food production, agriculture, cropland

conservation)3 523

WATER RESOURCES (waste disposal, estuaries, supply, distribution, ground watercontamination, fertilizer contamination)

4 5 88

POPULATION GROWTH (world population, immigration, carrying capacity, foresightcapability)

5 601

HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES (waste dumps, toxic chemicals, lead paints) 6 6.21ENERGY SHORTAGES (synthetic fuels, solar power, fossil fuels, conservation, oil

production)7 6.34

LAND USF (sod erosion, reclamation, urban development, wildlife habitat loss,deforestation, desertification)

8 649

HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE (infectious and noninfectious disease, stress, diet andnutrition, exercise, mental health)

9 7.45

NUCLEAR REACTORS (nuclear waste management, breeder reactors, cost of construction,safety)

10 792

EXTINCTION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS (reducing genetic diversity) 11 8 07MINERAL RESOURCES (non fuel minerals, metallic and nun metallic minerals, mining,

technology, low-grade deposits, recycling, reuse)12 9.06

14 15

I would note that the rankint,s of problems ri thissurvey are somewhat paralleled by those reportedby George Gallup Jr. In Foraast 2000 (1984). He tooincluded "the voice of the people,' expert opinion,and youth. The Gallup report included a broaderrange of topics than the survey reported here. I wasmainly interested in human ecology or science andtechnology related problems. Still, here are the prob-lems reported by Gallup: Wars, Terrorism and theNuclear Threat, Overpopulation, Economic Pres-sure, Technological Progress, EnvironmentalEmergencies, Crime, Family, Health and Politics.The parallel between the science and technology re-lated items of the two o surveys provides some sup-port for the items and rankings of the survey re-ported here.

Virtually all respondents revealed difficulty inranking the twelve problems. In part, this may havebeen a methodological problem related to thenumber of items. I think, however, methodologywas secondary. Individuals consistently indicatedthe difficulty was due to the importance and interre-lated nature of the problems. Awareness of the wrenplexity and interrelatedness of the global problems,particularly by nonscientists, is an important obser-vation not recorded on the survey. It also suggestsanother important theme for educational pro-gramsthe interrelated and interdependent natureof human and natural systems. Based on these ob-servations, I would suggest human ecology as animportant unifying conceptual organization for biol-ogy education.

How Will Global Problems Change By 2000?

Will the global problems get better or worse by theyear 2000? Respondents were asked to indicatechanges toward "much better," "better," "about the

me," "worse," "much worse," and "don't knowTable 2 summarizes the results Over 50 percent ofthe respondents thought war technology, air quali-ty, water resources, population growth, hazardoussubstances, energy shortages, and extinction ofplant., and animals IA ould be worse or much worseby the y ear 2000 The parallel to the initial ranking ofproblems is quite consistent The only exceptionIA 'thin the top five is IA orld hunger and food re-sources, almost halt (48 9 percent) of the re-spondents Viought it would he worse by the year2000.

When one realizes that the next highest rankingon all items, except the one which a majoritythought would improve, was "about the same,"there is certainly some cause for concern. In all, cit-izens do not have a very optimistic view of the fu-ture if this ranking represents their true opinions

Hur..an health and disease stands out as the onearea where a majority (62 8 percent) of respondentsthought there would he improvement As men-tioned earlier I would attribute this high rating tomedia coverage of recent advances and new techaol-ogies in the health professions Clearl-, the majorityof people surveyed think that most gi ibal problemswill get worse, not better, by the ye- r 2000 The taskof education is central to understanding the natureand dynamics of these global problems Educationcan contribute to the actual improvement of globalproblems, and it can contribute to correcting anymisperceptions of science and technology as theyare related to the global problems. Biology educatorsmust act on the essential message of Paul Ehrlich'saphorism that "pessimism has no survival value."To understand global problems and learn aboutways and means of reducing the problems could hea powerful antidote to the prevailing public pessi-mism.

TABLE 2. Citizens' Indication of Change for Global Problems by Year 2000 (N =451)

Global Problems(Listed ut Pank Order fromMost to Least Important)

Better About(Includes Much the

Better and Better) Saute

el(

Worse(Include; Worse

and Much Worse)Don'tKnow

e/(

WAR TECHNOLOGYAIR QUALITY AND ATMOSPHEREWORLD HUNGER AND FOOD RESOURCESWATER RESOURCESPOPULATION GROWTH

17 719 316 812 216 6

18421 930 625 524 5

54 856 048 957454,0

9.12.83.74.94.9

LAND USE 19.3 38.7 36 4 5.6

HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES 17.7 27.4 51.6 3.2

ENERGY SHORTAGES 17 8 27 9 51 3 3.0

HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE 62 8 26.0 90 2.2

NUCLEAR REACTORS 29.3 31 9 30 7 81EXTINCTION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 88 33 0 C 5.4

MINERAL RESOURCES 9.8 34.8 48 1

15

16

TABLE 3. Citizens' Indication of Their Knowledge about Global Problems (N =451)

Global Problems(Listed ni Rank Order fromMost to Least Important)

QuiteA Lot

%Some

Very LittleOr Nothing

WAR TECHNOLOGY 20.9 50.4 28.7AIR QUALITY AND ATMOSPHERE 16.5 60.3 23.2WORLD HUNGER AND FOOD RESOURCES 18.9 59.7 21.4WATER RESOURCES 15.7 51.8 32.5POPULATION GROWTH 24.9 54.0 21.1HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES 16.4 52.7 30.9ENERGY SHORTAGES 21.9 67.4 10.7LAND USE 15.2 47.3 37.5HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE 24.7 51.2 24.1NUCLEAR REACTORS 19.9 48.5 31.6EXTINCTION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 14.6 45.1 40.3MINERAL RESOURCES 7.2 38.9 53.9

What Do Citizens Know About GlobalProblems?

Respondents were asked to indicate whether theyknew "quite a lot," "some," "very little," or "noth-ing at all" about the global problems. Citizens indi-cated knowing most about population growth, hu-man health and disease, and war technology.Population growth ranked very high probably dueto the high ranking by scientists and engineers. Thisquestion provides a general estimation of how muchpeople think they know, but it does not help muchto know that people generally know "some" aboutglobal problems. Perhaps a more fundamental ques-tion is-What about the quality of their knowledge?

The survey included a question designed to evalu-ate the sources, and subsequently quality, of knowl-edge about the problems. The results of the questiondisplayed in Table 4 should be of interest to scienceteachers. The public gains information about sciencerelated global problems by reading-in newspapers,weekly magazines, and books. Television is the sec-ond most important source .if information. For pre-college students, television waz, ranked number one,but second were teachers and schools. There was aqualitative difference between the scientists' andother citizens' sources of information. There is agreater depth and breadth of information in sources

TABLE 4. Citizens' Sources of Information ConcerningGlobal Problems (N=451)

Rank Source of Information

1

2345

16

NEWSPAPERSTELEVISIONWEEKLY MAGAZINESBOOKSTEACHERS/SCHOOLS

listed highest by scientists. For example, scientistsand engineers ranked professional journals andbooks above newspapers and weekly magazines.They also ranked personal expenence among the topfive. Also, as science educators we simply must rec-ognize that individuals learn about topics such asglobal problems from the media. Inclusion of teach-ers/schools in the top five is a result of including stu-dents in the survey. A similar ranking for only scien-tists and the general public did not include teachers/schools. Finally, if it is necessary to educate citizensin systematic examination and critical analysis of hu-man ecological issues such as these, then school pro-grams, and particularly biology classes, would be agood time and place for such education. Recogni-tion, inclusion and evaluation of various media assources of information during pre-college educationcould contribute to a continued, lifelong science ed-uca don.

Global Problems and Public Education

A connection between global problems and educa-tion is developed in this section. Questions on thesurvey included the importance of studying globalproblems and support for teaching about globalproblems.

On the question of how important the study ofglobal problems is at different educational levelsthere was a consensus supporting its inclusion at alleducational levels. The importance of studyingglobal problems at different levels increased acrossgrade levels. For the elementary level, 64.5 percentthought it important. At middle/junior high school,87.7 percent rated it important. At the high schoollevel, 78.2 percent thought study of global problemsvery important, while another 19.6 percent thoughtit fairly important.

Respondents were asked to indicate how much

17

TABLE 5. Citizens' Indication of Importance of Studying Global Problems at Educational Levels (N = 451)

Level

VeryImportant

%

ELEMENTARY SCHOOLMIDDLE SCHOOL/JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLHIGH SCHOOLCOLLEGE

28.642.578.282.4

FairlyImportant

%

Not TooImportant

%

Don'tKnow

35.9 33.9 1.645.2 11 1 1.219 6 2.0 2

14.7 2.7 2

their local schools actually teach about global prob-lems. The dominant response for elementary schoolwas very little ur nothing (45.3 percent). At the mid-dlequmor high school about ;3 indicted some (32.8percent) and another i3 indicated very little ur noth-ing (33.0 percent). Fur high school, the prominentresponse was some (46.6 percent). In general thereis an increase from very little to some across theK-12 continuum.

This question had another revealing and imporcant response for teachers. Notice that significantnumbers of individuals indicated that they dun tknow how much their schools are teaching about lo-cal problems. I suspect the results would have beensimilar for any topic except the basics." More im-portantly, the results shown in Table 6 are inflatedby inclusion of high school students and college stu-dents in the survey. As part of the data analysis, Iran the statistics for this item with only scientistsand the general public. The number indicating"don't know" was above 50 percent for all pre-col-lege levels. Based on these data, one can reasonablyconclude that citizens generally do not know what isbeing taught in science programs. There is an im-plied public relations mission fur science teachersand school administrations.

While it appears there is support for teachingabout global problems in public education, we askedan even more probing question. The question wasposed as support for a tax increase for textbooks andcurriculum matenals to teach about global problems.Even though this is still a -free ride- questiu and itwas recognized that taxes are not increased for spe-afic school programs, the question did reveal publicsupport for education in global problems.

A remarkable 79.6 percent indicated they wouldvote to increase taxes fur textbooks and curriculummatenals. The maturity (41 6 percent) would favor ayearly tax increase up to $20, the response beingeven higher (32.1 percent) among only the scientistsand general public. I think it is understandable thathigh school and college students would not contrib-ute as much of their money, but still the support forthe issue and their agreement to contribute somemoney is clear.

In review, citizens do think it is important tostudy global problems in education, the schools areapparently teaching very little about global prob-lems, and citizens clearly support the inclusion oftopics such as these in school programs. We alsofound that citizens generally do not know what isbeing taught about science topics like global prob-lems. This Implies a need for communication andpublic relations between school personnel and citizens.

Teaching aboi: Global Problems

Information Was gathered about some fairly con-crete aspects of science teaching relative to globalproblems. How much time should be devoted toglobal problems? Who should take classes which in-clude global problems? Now should the classes betaught?

Table 8 displays results of the survey question onhow much time should be spent un global problemsAt the elementary level over half (57.6 percent) indi-cated that 10 percent or less time should be spent onthe study of global problems In actual time perweek this percent is quite small. At the K-3 level the

TABLE 6. Citizens lndiLatton of How Much Their Luca! St.houls are Teaching About Global Problems (N = 451)

Level

QuiteA

Lot SonicVery Littleor Nothing

Don'tKnow

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 1.4 17.8 45.3 35.5MIDDLE SCHOOL/JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 3.2 32.8 33.0 31.5HIGH SCHOOL 8.4 46.6 19.1 25.2

COLLEGE 30.6 41.2 6.6 21 6

18

1011111110MININIMMEMOIIM

17

TABLE 7 Citizens' Indication of Their Willingness to Vote an ln.rease in Taxes to 5,.pport Edutatiun in Global Problems(N=451)

PERCENT FAVORING YEARLYTAX INCREASE

PERCENT OPPOSED TO ATAX INCREASE

PERCENT INDICATING THEYDID NOT KNOW

79.6

98

10.5

$5.00 510.00 515.00 520.00%

8.0 18.3 11.7 41.6

average time per week on science is less than 100minutes (in 1978, Weiss reported 95 minutes perweek), so the recommended emphasis at this gradelevel is about 10 minutes per week. In grades 4-6 theaverage number of minutes per week is 175 (Weiss1978), so the recommended time spent on globalproblems is about 18 minutes per week. Especially itincksion of global problems were combined with so-cial studies lessons, the recommended emphasiswould be easily achievable. At the middle,juniurhigh school the recommended amount of time isaround 20 percent. This translates to the equivalentof one class period per week or about 10 minutes perday for 50-minute classes. The amount of time forhigh school classes is slightly more. A review ofTable 8 indicates about 25 percent of instructionaltime is the minimum recommendation for highschools. So slightly more than one class a week or 15minutes per day is recommended for 60-minuteclasses.

The question was asked, Who should take cours-es in which the glubal problems are presented?" Aclear majority (70.3 percent) said the courses shouldbe required of all students, while about a quarter(25 7 percent) indicated they should be electivesOnly three percent indicated cullebe bound studentsshould take the courses, and only one percentthought students planning to major in science andengineering should be requi.:d to take the courses.

Many global problems are related to current politi-cal, economic, and social policies. Such situationspresent the problem posed in one of the surveyquestions-"How do you suggest the scientific and

111=ralmMI.,

social aspects of these problems be presented?" Un-fortunately, the response gives little direction for ed-ucators. Just over 40 percent (41.2 percent) indicatedthat science and social studies should be taught sep-arately. Just over 45 percent (45.7 percent) recom-mended incorporating the science and social studiesinto one course. The difference was not significant.Another 13.1 percent did not know how the coursesshould be taught. On this item the survey results areof little help. Perhaps this is as it should be since thepracticality and specificity of different instructionalapproaches should be a function of professionaljudgment by school personnel.

Summary and Discussion

Results of this survey provide support for a hu-man ecology approach in education. In addition, thearticle presents information concerning the views ofcitizens on topics and issues of specific interest toscience teachers. This study was intended as a pre-liminary survey, and other similar studies are rec-ommended Based on the present data we can statethe following:

-Global problems can be prioritized for study. Basedon citizens ranking the most to least important top-ics for study are listed below It should be noted,however, that respondents consistently indicatedthat all problems listed were important.

-war technology-air quality and atmosphere-world hunger and food resources-water resources-population growth

TABLE 8. Citizens' Indication of How Much Stnools Should be Teaching About Global Problems (N=451)OMIN111.1.111.

Level 0-5% 6-10%

Reported as Percent Indicating Minimum InstructwnalTime in a Science or Social Studies Class

11-15% 16-20% 21.25% 26-30% 31% or more

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 26.9 30.7 17 4 12.6 8.0 3.0 1.4MIDDLE SCHOOL/

JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 4.3 18.8 22.0 24.5 17.2 9.8 3.4HIGH SCHOOL 1.3 7.3 12.6 20.6 22.9 22.0 13.3

13

--...--..

19

1111M1111.11.11

hazardous substancesenergy shortagesland use--human health and diseasenuclear reactors

extinction of plants and animalsmineral resources

Citizens indicate these probli.ms is dl be i Last.: orabout the same by the year 2000 The exception tothis statement is human health and disease, whichthey thought would be betterCitizens indicate they know -some' about theseproblems. These sources of information are news-papers, television, weekly magazines, books andteachers.Citizens indicate that global problems should bestudied at all educational levels There is, however,indication of increasing importance across gradesK-12.

From K-12 there are increasing amounts of instruc-tion concerning global problems However, the in-dication varies trom very little or nothing to someat higher grade levels.

Citizens said they do not know what is beingtaught about global problems in local schoolsCitizens do support teaching about global problemsin schools.Recommendations for the minimum amount of in-structional time devoted to global problems in sci-ence and technology education programs increasesfrom 10 percent in elementary school, 20 percent inmiddielumor high school to 23 percent in highschool

Citizens indicate that courses which include globalproblems should be required of all students,

There is widespread interest in and support forteaching about science and technology related globalproblems. Many important decisions are still left forscience teachers and school personnel, but the con-nection between human ecology and biology educa-tion has been made and it is time to beg:n strength-ening the connection through curriculum programsand instructional practices in the schools

References

Brim n, L. et al (1984), State of the world 1984 New YorkW W Norton

Bybee. R Global problems and science education policy(1984) In Bybee, R., Carlson. J & McCormack, A(Eds ) Redesigning teme and technology ednuition 1984

NSTA Yearbook Washington, D C National ScienceTeachers Association,

Lhrlich, P et at (1983, December 23) Long term biologicalconsequences of nuclear war Some, 222 (4630)

Gallup, G , Jr (1984) Forecast 2000 New York WilliamMorrow

Turco. R et al (1983, December 23) Nuclear winterGlobal consequences of multiple nuclear explosions So-ewe. 222 (4630)

20

Rodger W. Bybee

19

Policies for Biology Education

My purpose in this chapter is to establish a frame-work for a human ecological perspective in biologyeducation. Earlier discussions in this monographand elsewhere serve as background for these pol-icies (See, e.g., Bybee 1979; Bybee et al. 1981; Bybee1982, 1983, 1984). Here my aim is to provide briefguidelines, recommendations, a conceptual frame-work, and resources for biology teachers who are re-designing their programs.

Educational Goals of Human Ecology

Biology education programs and teaching shouldinclude appropriate objectives to meet the generalairn of:

(1) fulfilling basic human needs and facilitatingpersonal development;

(2) maintaining and improving the physical andhuman environment;conserving and efficiently using natural re-sources; and

(4) developing community at the local, regional,national, and global levels.

This aim includes the fundamental relationship ofindividuals to the environment and to each other incommunities. Additionally, the gcal can be appliedconcretely to students. That is, as a result of biologyeducation they should be able to fulfill their basicneeds, maintain and improve their environment,conserve and use their resources wisely, and contrib-ute to their community. More abstractly, this goalprovides an orientation for the knowledge, skills,and understandings as they relate to the broaderpicture of humanity.

On a slightly more specific level, a human ecologi-cal perspective should contribute to a functional sci-entific literacy of students in the following ways:

(3)

(1)

(2)

(3)

through the use of the knowledge, valuesand skills of ecological science and technology in their personal lives;through an understanding of ecological sci-ence and technology related to social issues;through an understanding and appreciationfor ecological science and technology as ahuman endeavor with both limits and possibilities for imprcving the quality of life,

(4) through an introduction, in the context ofhuman ecological problems, to the waysthey can participate in the democratic process

20

Emphasis on Human Ecology

Human ecology should be included at all gradelevels, kindergarten through college Developmentalcharacteristics of students provide a guide for theamount of time and orientation on human ecologicalissues Here are my recommendations for the mini-mum amount of instructional time:

Elementary School 10% of the time spent on sci-ence instruction. Accordingto national averages of 100minutes per week at theK-3 level and 180 minutesat 4-6 level, this means 10to 18 minutes per weekacross the K-6 continuum.Emphasis should be to-ward the child as a curiousnaturalist.

Middle School 20% of the time in life sci-ence. This equates to oneseven-week unit, oneclass a week or 10 minutesa day (50-minute classes).Emphasis should be to-ward the student as an in-quiring adolescent.

High School 25% of the time in biologyclass. Again, this is aboutone nine-week unit, oneclass a week or 15 minutesa day (60-minute classes).Emphasis should be to-ward the student as a con-cerned citizen.

Courses, units or lessons with an emphasis on hu-man ecology should be required of all students. Nei-ther a,e these advanced placement, accelerated, orsecond level programs, nor are these programs ex-clusively for slow learners, low track, or vocationalstudents.

Curriculum Perspective for Human Ecology

The orientation of curriculum and instruction witha human ecological perspective would include thefollowing approaches:

Problem Centered. The program should includeimportant problems of a human ecological nature.

21

Based on my earlier work, 1 would suggest the fol-lowing problems (listed here in alphabetical ordei)

AIR QUALITY AND ATMOSPHERE (acid ram,CO2, depletion of ozone, global Y.-arming)

ENERGY SHORTAGES (sy nt het iv Wets, solarpower, tossil tuels, Lonstry anon, 1)11 produvtion)

EXTINCTION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS (re-ducing genetic diversity)

HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES (waste dumps, toxicchemicals, lead paints)

HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE (infectious andnoninfectious disease, stress, diet and nutrition,exercise, mental health)

LAND USE (soil erosion, reclamation, urban de-velopment, wildlife habitat loss, deforestation,desertification)

MINERAL RESOURCES (nontuel minerals, metal-lic and nonmetallic minerals, mining, tech-nology, low grade deposits, recycling, reuse)

NUCLEAR REACTORS (nuclear waste manage-ment, breeder reactors, Lost of construction,safety)

POPULATION GROWTH (world population, im-migration, carry ing Lapacity, toresight ca-pability)

WAR TECHNOLOGY (nerve gas, nuclear devel-opments, nuclear arms threat)

WATER RESOURCES (waste disposal, estuaries,supply, distribution, ground water contamina-tion, fertilizer contamination)

WORLD HUNGER AND FOOD RESOURCES(food production, agriculture, cropland conser-vation)

Integrative Approach Human ecology would bepresented as a link between the natural, social andhealth sciences. Rather than a multidiscipline or in-terdisciplinary approach, the program would inte-grate any discipline appropriate to understandingand resolving global problems.

Holistic Approach. Holistic methods develop theability to recognize various interacting parts ot a sys-tem (subsystems) and understand the behavior otthe whole system. Ecological science has shownthere is a synergy of system, that the whole systemcharacteristics are greater than the sum of the partsA holistic perspective is an important complement tothe reductive methods usually presented in scienceprograms.

Broad Perspectives of Spike and Tone. Biology educa-tion should enlarge the students' perspectives ofspace and time. Across the grades a human eLolugi-cal emphasis should extend the students' perspeL-live of time trom past to present to the tuture The

future orientation will wry with the deYelopmentalley el of students, so av l)SS the elementary gradesperspectives may be extended trom today to tomor-row, this week to next week, this year to next year,and the next 5-10 y ears. At the middle junior highschool les el, the students' litetime could be ex-tended to their children's lifetime and to natal: gen-erations. Similarly, students' perspectives of spacecan be expanded from self, family, Ind neigh-borhood in the elementary years and to state, re-gion, and nation in middle,' junior high ,chool Atthe high school level students should develop aglobal perspective for the tuture ot humanity

Hunan Inquiry Biology education has traditionallyheld the development of, and ability to use, themethods of scientitic investigation as an importantgoal. An orientation toward human ecology wouldextend this traditional goal to include decision mak-ing. For example, there would be problem identifica-tion, observation, collection, analysis and evaluationot data, and a decision made about the problem. En-vironmental impacts and technology assessmentsare examples ot this idea. Of vuurse, students at pre-vollege levels would not Lomplete such detailed re-views, but they could develop the idea that the ac-tivity of suentifiv inquity can lead to action Whilethe early part of the inquiry includes scientific pro-cesses such as observing, measuring, describing, in-ferring, desig.ling investigations, forming hypoth-eses, and synthesizing knowledge, the latter part ofthe inquiry would include human processes such asdecision making, ethical discussions based on cost,risk, and benefits to present and future generationsand environments.

Developmental Perspective The actual structure andteaching of human ecology should reflect an under-standing and appreciation of the students' develop-mental level. I have tried to 'how this in the variouspolicies outlined so far Obviously, a global perspec-tive is too large for elementary students, but localproblems related to larger problems are not toolarge This policy applies to the next section on aconceptual framework Recognition must be given tothe level of students' development in iII dimensions(cognitive, motor, emotional, social, physical) in theteaching of human ecology After all, this is an ap-plication of human ecology to the study of humanecology!

Conceptual Framework for UnderstandingHuman Ecology

In this seLtion I hine outlined some key conceptsfor human ecology programs Anyone who hasdune this realizes the enormity an difficulty of thetask. Trying to include Lncepts and examples forK 12 and the spectrum of natural, health, and social

2221

sciences only makes the task more difficult. in theend, however, I elected to make the framework asbroad and general as possible I make no claim thatthis is a complete list of concepts, but I do belieL e itis a good beginning for any biology teacher imple-menting a human ecology approach

Several points are worthy of note concerning theoutline in Table 1. As I worked on the concepts, alogic to the sequence developed First, I think thatunderstanding the general concept of systems Lanprovide students at ..nv level with a world view andvocabulary that is essential for human ecologicalstudy Second, since I believe that one should un-derstand basic scientific concepts as they are applied

to various problems, the structure generally empha-sizes bask. staentifit. concepts. Third, human ecologyis iewed as an applied dimension of ecology, soeLosy stems are the primary level of investigationand humans serve as the primary examples. Severalhuman dimensions are presented early. I decidedthis was the best way to set the human context forecological study.

Without question there are other concepts or a dif-ferent organization that could be suggested. Withthe understanding and background established bythis basic conceptual framework, students should beable to pursue further inquiry into local issues andglobal problems related to science and technology.

TABLE 1. A Conceptual Framework for a Human Ecological Perspectne In Biology Education

Outline and TopicsTeuluns Example. for

Human Ecology

Introduction to SystemsSystem

Subsys.em

Interact:on

Characteristics of SystemsBoundaries

Components

Flow of Resources

Feedback

Open System

22

CONCEPTS

A group of related objects that form a whole Ele-ments of a system often are interrelated, interdepen-dent and interactive A system also is a collection ofmaterial isolated for the purpose of study

A system that is entirely within another system

The ways systems act on one another. There is usu-ally evidence of the interaction Characteristics ofsystems are a function of the ways components in-teract

That which encloses a system's component partsBoundaries help to identify the system from the en-vironment and to differentiate the system from othersystems Boundaries vary along a continuum frombeing open (permeable) to being closed (impermea-ble) Boundaries are regions of great activity for sys-tems

Parts of the system existing within the boundarieswhich Interact with one another in a mutually inter-dependent manner.

The movement of matter, energy, information, orother resources among the system components, be-tween systems and between the system and its en-vironment The latter depends on the permeabilityof the system's boundaries

Signals sent back to a self-regulating sy stem. Feed-back may be positive which tends to amplify In-ferences, or negative which tends to nullify errorsand establish equilibrium.

A system in which matter, energy, information, etc.,can flow between the system and other systems andor the environment

23

Human bodyCarPersonEarth

Person in familyClass in schoolCirculatory systemEngines of cars

Students talkingFamily life patternsSchool systemAthletic games

raCIrsist,Yclub, "our group""Closed discussions"Cell wallTown/CommunityState/NationPlanet Earth

Members of familyParts of a cellAdministration, teachers, custo-dians, students, etc., in schoolFood in familyCommunityMovement of material throughall membranes

Grades on schoolworkThermostatAutomobile odometer and speedlimitBody's response to heat (sweat-ing) and (shivering)

Living organismsHumans as biological beings

TABLE 1 Continued

Teaching Examples for

Outline and Topics Human Ecology

Closed System

Diversity

System of Organization

Levels of Organization

Organism

Population

Community

Ecosystem

Atmosphere

Hydrosphere

Lithosphere

Ecosphere

Ethosphere

Change in Systems

Immediate

Delayed or Displayed

Cycles

Linear Growth

A system in which some things do nut flow betweenthe system and other systems and or the en iron-ment Energy bui not matter or information maytlow between a s) stem and the environment orother systems

The complexity of a phyqcal, biological, or humansystem. Diversity can result in stability.

All matter can be viessed as organized in identifiablepatterns, as a hierarchy of organization from sub-atomic particles to galaxies.

A single living thing

A group or collection of organisms of the same spe-cies.

Populations of plants, animals, and humans livingand interacting in an identifiable locality.

A biotic community Interacting with its abiotic(physical and chemical) environment. This is alsoknown as an ecological system. Ecosystem is thebasic level of study in ecology (and human ecology).

The realm of air surrounding the earth.The realm of water (including vapor in air) on earth.

The realm of rock and soil on the earth's crust

The total of all ecosystems and their interactions unearth This is the largest unit of life on earth. It issometimes referred to as the biosphere.

The systems that mauita Ji and change the humancultural ethos (dispositions, attitudes, beliefs, val-ues)

The direct, undelaved change in a system.

When new material is inserted a change in systemsis sometimes not immediately apparent. Systemschange slowly to the accumulation of new material.

Systems that change in a regular sequence in timeand/or space

A growth rate that changes by a constant amountover a time interval

24

EarthNeed for recycling matter inclosed systemsHumans who are not literateHumans who have "closedminds" on certain topicsCell vs. humanPond vs. hydrosphereBicycle vs. car

Atoms, moleculesCells, tissue, organs, organ sys-temsEarth, planets, stars, galaxies

A personA deerAn elephantAll humansAll deerAll elephantsPeople, plants and animals inyour town, state, nation

School yardPondThe planetOceanAir local to global levels

Water, local to global levels

Rocks, local to global levels

Life support systems of earthoxygen/carbon cycles, H2O cycle

Interrelated systems created byhumanslibraries, schools, laws

Beginning of school dayBalloon exploding

DDT in organismsDevelopment of automobile andlife stylePollutionSmoking and cancerAcid rain and pond ecosystem

SeasonsLifetime of organismsWater cycleRock cycleLife cycles of plants, animals, hu-mans (or subcultures)Addition (or subtraction) ofyears, miles, people, money, etc.Adding the number 2 is an ex-ample. 2+2=4+2=6+2=8+2=10

23

TABLE 1 Continued

Teaching Examples forOutline and Topics Human Ecolok,

Exponential Growth

Limits

Basic Scientific Concepts

Matter

Energy

Conservation of Matter

Conservation of Energy

Degra .ation of Energy

Equilibrium

24

A geometric grow th rate. The growth incurs by anincreasing rate at a constant percentage for identifia-ble periods of time.

Built-in bounds that constrain the behavior of sys-tems Systems show resthences and accommoda-tionwithin their limits. At limits, a system is lesscapable of sustaining itself or restonng itself to nor-mal functioning. Systems can change within limitsand still maintain the structure and function. Whenthe limits to change are exceeded the system is de-stroyed.

Anything that has mass and occupies space.

The ability to do work or bring about change in mat-ter There are two types of energy Kinetic energy isthe result of movement of matter. Mass and velocityof matter determine the kinetic energy of matter. Po-tential energy is energy due to the position, condi-tion, or composition of matter. Potential energy is"stored."

Matter is neither created nor destroyed in commonphysical and chemical changes. Matter is simplychanged from one form to another.

Energy is neither created nor destroyed. It is onlychanged from one form t" another. For example, theenergy lost by a system is equal to the energy gainedby the environment. All systems, living and nonliv-ing, are subject to this law. This is also known as thefirst law of thermodynamics.

Considered as a whole, any system and its sur-roundings will tend toward an increase in disorderor randomness For example, in conversions of ener-gy to work, some energy is dispersed to less usefulforms. This is also known as the second law of ther-modynamics.

Cunper.ids of a system acting with "ne another inways that maintain a balance of the system. This issometimes referred to as aynamic equilibnum.

25

Multiplication (or division) ofyears, miles, people, money, etc.Continually multiplying by thenumber 2 is an example 2 x 241x2=8x2=16x2=3'Rules in classroom, schoolHuman physical structureBody temperature range between89 -107Pollution of pond

Rockof coal

Wood

Food/DigestionFalling rockBurning coalSunburning woodElectricalNuclearCar (gasoline)Battery

Burning coalEating peanutsBurning wood or gasolineWe don't consume matterWe don't throw waste and gar-bage "away"Recycling matter is possible

Falling ballBurning coalEatingBurning woodIt takes energy to get energyoil, coal, etc.

Burning coalEatingHigh to loiv quality (concentra-tion) of matenal for energyConversion of energy in car en-gineConversion of solar energy inphotosynthesis, eating plantsand converting chemical energyto mechanical energyRecycling energy is not possible

Natural cycles of waterCO2 and 02 exchange betweenplants and animalsSeasonsChanging positions of players onsports teamsIdeal balance of executive, legis-lative, and judicial branches ofgovernment

TABLE 1. Continued

Outline and Topics

Teaching Eramples forHuman Ecology

Structure of Ecosystems

Abiotic The nonliving parts of an ecosystem. This includesan energy source (sun), physical factors, e g., wind,moisture, heat, and chemical factors, e.g., carbon di-oxide, nitrogen.

Biotic The living parts of an ecosystem. This includes foodproducers and food consumers, (including decom-posers)

Limiting Factors An organism has a certain degree of tolerance to var-iations in physical and chemical factors. Too muchor too little of a factor can limit or destroy growthand distribution.

Function of Ecosystems

Energy Flow

Food Chain

Blogeochenucal Cycles

Succession

Steady State

Synergy

Biological Magmficatfon

The transfer of energy through an ecosystem ThisIncludes the conversion and loss of energy at differ-ent levels of the ecosystem.

The senes of energy transfers in the form of food be-tween trophic levels of an ecosystem. This occurswhen organisms eat or decompose each other Thereis a grazing food chain and a decomposer foodchain.

The process by which carbon, oxygen, phosphorus,nitrogen, and water move through the ecosphere.

Change in the structure and function of an eco-systam.

The state of an open system where flow of energy andcycling (recycling) of chemicals within the systemmaintains a balanced system.

The interaction of system components in which thetotal effect is greater than or less than the sum of in-dividual effects.

The increase in concentration of certain substances,at successively higher trophic levels in the foodchain.

26

Energy, soil, wind, heat

P ants - animals - human -r ucro-organisms

C imate and soil limits for organ-ismsChemical factors-availability ofCO2, 02, etc.Human rangeGrowth of plants and nitrogenRange of animals on earth

Students' energy sourcesFlow of matter and energy inperson (breathing, eating, drink-ing)Ecosystems as closed require re-cycling of matterSSTsFertilizerFluorocarbons

Plant - animal - human -decomposersProduces herbivores (primaryconsumers) carnivores (second-ary consumers) decomposersApply second law of ther-modynamics to food chains

CarbonOxygenNitrogenPhosphorusHydrogenSulfurWaterProblems of synthetic chemicals

Vacant lotCoral reefTropical forestCommunity developmentChanges in Planet Earth

Mature ecosystemsEarthSustainable societySimplification of ecosystems byeliminating or introducing spe-cies

Some causes of cancer (particu-lates and chemicals such as SO2)

DDT in food chainHazardous substances in soils,organisms, humans

25

TABLE 1. Continued

Teaching Examples frrOutline and Topics Human Ecology

Carrying Capacity

Adaptations in Human SystemsHuman Adaptation

Economic Adaptation

Political Adaptation

Social Adaptation

Technological Adaptation

Biological Adaptation

Sustainable Society

The maximum population an e osystem can supportindefinitely uncier a certain set of environmentalconditions

Changes due to interactions with the environmentand other people so humans can improve their con-dition. Changes in thinking, valuing, and behavingare attributes of human adaptations Critical prob-lem solving, assessments of cost nsk benefit, and, fi-nally, decision-making underlie human adaptation.All of this is done in response to cultural or environ-mental modifications.

Market and prices adjust the demand to the supply.Adaptation comes from changes in price, and pricevariance is a function of whether goods and servicesare available and needed.

Policies, standards, and laws are enacted to providebroad frameworks of individual and organizationalbehaviors and decisions. As perceptions of problemsand issues change, the political system adapts.

Social institutions such as family, school, peergroup, church, media, and work develop individualbeliefs, attitudes, and va:aes that influence decisionsand shape human behavior. Collectively, social ad-aptations can occur through changes in world views,consciousness, or ways of perceiving the world.

The application of existing knowledge to solvingproblems. New inventions and techniques contril-ute to changing boundanes, flow or resources, com-ponents, and feedback relative to systems.

Living systems have processes for adjustment in re-sponse to environmental changes. Evolution is thelong-term adaptation by populations to environmen-tal change.

A group of people at local, national, or global levelthat share the same biological and cultural systems.A sustainable society has adapted its economic andsocial systems so that natural resources and eco-systems are maintained.

Tragedy of commonsLimits to growth for Earth

Clothing, buildngsNew rules, policies, standards,or lawsChanges in behavior in differentsituations, e.g., school, home

Increasing price for scarce mate-rialPnce increases are negative feed-back resulting in using less andsubstituting

School rules, policiesLocal laws concerning driving,drinkingLegislation about environmentalproblemsEPA standardsFDA standards

Family rulesCodes of dress, behaviorReligious valuesWork ethicAmerican dream

Medical technologies for life sup-port systemsComputersTV and informationAppropriate (soft) technologyHigh technology

Sweating and shivenngMutationExtinctionUse of fossil fuelsUse of DDT and survival of someorganisms, elimination of others,and deleterious effects on others

Investigating Global Problems and HumanEcology

Table 2 lists the 12 global problems related to hu-man ecology Additionally, these are listed as abackground resource for the teacher and a referenceto curriculum materials, which are reviewed in thenext chapter, and to lessons in tine Anal chapter of

26

this book. In some caF.,' e curriculum programscover a number of different topics. 1 have tried toidentify the major topics related to the global prob-lems listed. Please note that some of the curriculumprograms and activities provide a broad backgroundor synthesis of topics so they are not listed with thespecific problems.

The teacher interested in teaching from a human

27

TABLE 2. Specific Resource Bibliography

Global Problems Relatedto Human Ecology Background Resource's Curriculum Materwls

AIR QUALITY AND ATMOSPHERE Committee Report. AtmosphereBiosphere Interactions. Wash-mgton, D.C.: National AcademyPress, 1481.

The American Biel Ivy T eacher Ap &/May, 1983.

Acid Preopitation Awareness (seeABT, April/May, 1983)

Investigating Your Environment(BSCS)

The Class Project (NWF)Global 2000 Countdown (ZPG)Project"Air Quality and Automobiles"Investzgatmg Our Ecosystem

Energy & Society (BSCS)Energy Resources & EnvironmentThe Class Project (NWF)Global 2000 Countdown (ZPG)

ENERGY SHORTAGES

EXTINCTION OF PLANTS ANDANIMALS

HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES

HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE

LAND USE

MINERAL RESOURCES

NUCLEAR REACTORS

T. Energy at d Enotronment.2nd, Belmont, California:Wadsworth, 198n.

Barbour, I. et al. Lnergy and Amerycan Values. New York: Praeger,1982.

Ehrlich, P. & Ehrlich, A. Extinc-tion New York: RandomHouse, 1981.

Brown, M. Laying Waste The Poi-wrung of America by Toxic Wastes.New York: Pantheon, 1979

Purcell, A. The Waste Watchers: ACitizens Handbook for ConservingEnergy and Resources. New York:Anchor I'ress, 1980.

Eckholm, E. The Picture of Health.Environmental Sources of Disease.New York: W.W. Norton, 1977.

Eisendud, Merril. EnvironmentTechnology and Health: HumanEcology tit Historical Perspective.New York: NYU Press, 1979.

Carter, M. Dynamics of Health andDisease. New York: Appleton-Century-Croft, 1972.

Eckholm, E. Losing Ground. NewYork: W.W. Norton, 1976.

Ward, B. The Home of Man NewYork: W.W. Norton, 1976.

Abelson, P. & Hammond, A. Ma-terials. Renewable and Non-Re-newable Resources. Washington,D.C.: AAAS, 1976.

Barnet, R. The Lean Years: Politicsm An Age of Scarcity. New York:Simon & Schuster, 1980.

Inglis, D. Nuclear Energy. Its Phys-ics and Social Challenge. Reading,Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1973.

Hayes, D. Nuclear Power: The FifthHorseman Washington: WorldWatch Institute, 1976.

Hoyle, F & Houle, G. Common-sense in Nuclear Erergy SanFrancisco: W H. Freeman, 1980

28

Genes & Surroundulgs (BSCS)The Class Project (NWP)C!obal 2000 Countdown (ZPG)Project Wild

The Class Project (NWF)

Human &tours Program (BSCS)Health Activities Project (HAP)Basic Genetics. A Human Approach

(BSCS)

Land Use (BSCS)Investigating Your Environment

(BSCS)The Class Project (NWF)Global 2000 Countdown (ZPG)Project Learning TreeOutdoor Biology Instructor Strategies"Vegetation and Soil" (this volume)Investigating Our Ecosystem

Energy Resources & Environmenti:lobal 2000 Countdown (ZPG)Project Learning TreeProject Wild

Global 2000 Countdown (ZPG)"Thermal Pollution" (this volume)Investigating Our Ecosystem

27

TABLE 2 Continued

Global Problems Relatedto Human Ecology Background Resources Curriculum Material::

POPULATION GROWTH Salk, Jonas dt Salk, Jonathan Energy Resources and Er:aro:urgentWorld Population and Human Val- I nvest :gat ing Your Environmentlies New York: Harper do Row,1981

(BSCS)Global 2000 Countdown (ZPG)

Reining, 1 dt Tinker, I. (Ed.). Pop- ZPG Education Materialselation Dynamics, Ethics and Pal- "Population Growth" (this volume)icy Washington, D.0 AAAS,1975

"Age Structure of Populations" (thisvolume)

WAR TECHNOLOGY Ehrlich, P , Sagan, C., Kennedy,D. and Roberts, W The Cold andthe Dark New York W W. Nor.ton, 1984.

Schell, J. The Fate of Earth. NewYork: Alfred A. Knopf, 1982.

WAFER RESOURCLS Hunt, C. and Garrets, R. Water Investigating Your EnvironmentThe Webb of Life New York (BSCS)W.W. Norton, 1972. The Class Project (NWF)

McCa ul I, J. and Crossland, J. Global 2000 Countdown (ZPG)Water Pollution. New York: Har- Project Learning Treecourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1974. Project Wild

Investigating Our EcosystemWORLD HUNGER AND FOODRESOURCES

Lappe, Frances and Collins,Joseph. Food Firit Boston

Global 2000 Countdown (ZPG)

Houghton Mifflin, 1977.Scientific American. Food and Agri-

culture. San Francisco: W.H.Freeman, 1976.

ecological perspective will also need set eral generalresources These are provided in Table 3

Conclusion

Contemporary problems require a new social per-spective if they are to be resolved. Human ecology is

TABLE 3. General Resource Bibliography

Gerald 0 Barney. The Global 2000 Report to the President.Vol. 1, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government PrintingOffice, 1980.

Lester Blown. Building A Sustainable Society.New York:W W. Norton, 1981.

Lester Brown, et al. State of the World 1984 New York.W W. Norton, 1984.

Rodger W Bybee (Ed ) The American Biolc:::y Teacher, 46(6),September. 1984. This is a theme issue on human ecolo-gy.

Erik Fckholm. Down to Earth. New York. W.W. Norton,1982.

Paul Ehrlich, et al Ecoscience San Francisco, CA W.H.Freeman, 1977

Eugene Odum Ecology One Link Between the Natural andthe Social Science,: New York Holt, Rinehart andWinston, 1975

G. Tyler Miller. Living in the Environment Belmont, CA.Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1982

28

the perspective that seems to be appropriate. To thedegree this assertion is true, education programs,particularly biology education, should reflect the hu-man ecological perspective. In this chapter I haveoutlined policies that wil. provide a framework forthose biology teachers wishing to teach using a hu-man ecology perspective. The next chapters reviewcurriculum programs and provide some introductoryactivities dealing with population, resources, andenvironment.

References

Bybee, R. (1979). Science education for an ecological soci-ety. The American Biology Teacher, 41(3).

Bybee, R., Hurd, P., Kahle, J. dt Yager, R. (1981). Humanecology. An approach to the science laboratory. TheAmerican Biology Teacher, 43(6).

Bybee, R. (1982). Citizenship and science education. TheAmerican Biology Teacher, 44(6).

Bybee, R. (1983). Human ecology: Acid rain and publicpolicy. The American Biology Teacher, 45(4).

Bybee, R. (1984). Global problems and science educationpolicy In Bybee, R., Carlson, J. dt McCormack, A.(Eds.). Redesigning J( rue and technology education, 1984NSTA Yearbook. Washington, D.C.: National ScienceTeachers Association.

29

Rodger W. Bybee

Curriculum Review

This review answers the biology teacher's ques-tion, 1/chat can I use to teach about human ecolo-gy? As it turns out, this question is appropriate,but nevertheless difficult to answer. Biology teacherswho ask this question have a unique set of criteriaby which to judge their answer. There is not onebalanced, thorough, or complete human ecologyprogram. There are materials that can be used invarying degrees and in different ways. Biologyteachers will have to decide exactly what they need,how much they wish to implement a human ecologyprogram, and also which concepts, instructional ap-proaches, and curriculum designs they will useThese are decisions that they will have to make.

Each program reviewed represents one aspect or aportion of the human ecology theme. All programsare available commercially Finally, each programwas evaluated as excellent, given the focus and ori-entation of the materials. Any weaknesses were neg-ligible and often associated with factors beyond thecontrol of curriculum developers and publishers

Authors of the reviews were participants in theScience, Technology and Public Policy program atCarleton College, Northfield, MN 55057 Reviewswere developed as part of a course entitled "Science,Technology and Public Education" taught by RodgerBybee. The following individuals contributed re-views: Ket;n Najafi, Mike O'Connell, Ten Mau, LizGronen, Mark Hibbs, Karen Brakke, MaryMcMillan, Andrew Smith, Kate MacMillen, JaneWoodwell, Ben McLuckie, James White and StuartGrubb.

The Human Sciences Program

Program Director/Publisher: Biological SciencesCurriculum Study, The Colorado College, ColoradoBrings, CO 80903. National Science Programs,P.O. Box 41, 908 W. Wilson St., Batavia, IL 60510.

Program Support: Funding: The National ScienceFoundation.

Program Objectives:1. Overall Program Purpose: Through a modular,activity centered, personalized, interdisciplinary andflexible approach, to tailor science curriculum mate-rials more closely than other such materials to thedevelopmental characteristics of the emerging ado-lescent.2. Specific Objectives. The program is designed toprovide the means to help students enhance their:

a) curiosity about and motivation to explore thenatural and social worlds around them,

b) appreciation of the scientific method of gain-ing knowledge about the natural and social en-vironment, and understanding of these worlds,c) science process skills and logical thinking, aswell as basic skills of reading and foilowing writ-ten instructions, communicating orally and inwriting, and gathering, displaying, and inter-preting quantitative da a,d) (realm e thinking and decision making skills,including responsibility for their own learningand classroom resource management,e) knowledge and acceptaace of themselvestheir bodies, minds, feelings, aptitudes, interests,and values;f) knowledge and acceptance of and empathyfor others. other students, teachers, parents, andthose older and younger than themselves,g) self-esteem, dem ed through success in theprogram, in addition to general affective andcognitive development.

Description of Program: The life, physical, earth,and behavioral sciences serve as the sources for, in-stead of the structure of, the curnculum. Studentschoose and perform activities which draw from atleast two of the aforementioned disciplines. Stu-

QUICK REFERENCEGUIDE

Reviews for the following programs are included:

TITLE PAGE

The Human Sciences Program 29

Energy, Resources and Environment 30

Health Activities Project (HAP) 31

Investigating Your Environment 32

Energy and Society 33

Genes and Surroundings 33

Basic Genetics. A Human Approach 34

The Conservation Learning Activitiesfor Science and Social Studies Project 35Science and Society Teaching Was 36

Global 2370 Countdown Kit 37Project Learning Tree 37

Projec! Wild 38

Outdoor Biology InstructionalStrategies (OBIS) 38

Zero Population Growth. PopulationEducation Program 39

Investigating Our Ecosystem 40

Investigating the HumanEnvironment: Land Use 41

3029

dents learn tc observe, describe, record andorganize data, compare, interpret, and infer, whilepracticing the three R's. Rather than a purely con-ceptual orientation, this program stresses hands-onexperience with phenomena In thiE context, stu-dents learn other personal skills, such as phy sicalconstruction and manipulation, detnsion making,creative thinking, aesthetic appreciation, and mak-ing vale', judgments. The teacher is more facilitatorthan lechirer.

Methods of Instruction: Students pertorm acas tieseither individually, in small groups, in large groups,or as a class. Completion of a particularmay require .sod either in the classroom, some-where else on school grounds, or elsewhere in thecommunity. Methods include discussion, lecture,presentation, use of audiovisual equipment or cas-sette recorders, construction projects, plus work withvarious plants and animals.

Specific Subjects, Grade, Age and Ability Levels:This program is composed ot 15 six to nine weekmodules designed for 10- to 14-year-olds. Eachmodule contains 30 to 30 activities, which take fromone to three hours apiece (some require a smallamount of hme each day for several weeks), andmodules are grouped into three levels according todifficulty. Because students choose their own activi-ties, some of which are harder than others, manyability levels are accommodated within a single agegroup or classroom.

Materials Produced:I Moduleslevel 1 is easiest and level 3 is hardest.

a) Level 1. Learning, sense . . . or Nonsense?,Motion, Surroundings, Growing, Behaviorb) Level 2: Perception, Rules, Survival, Re-production, What Fits Where?c) Level 3- Knowing, Invention, Change, Feel-ing Fit.

2. Accessories.a) Teaching Human Sciences, orientation manual,paper.b) Extra Teacher's Guides, one per module, pa-per.c) H.S.P. Cart, to display and house printedmaterials and accessories for one complete mod-ule.d) H.S.P. Display Rack, to display printed mate-rials for twenty-five activities.e) Detailed construction drawings for H.S.PCart, to be made in school shop or by a localtradesman.

Materials Purchasable. There are four purchase options. individual activities, clusters of activities (related problem areas), complete modules, and tio.essories

30

Frogram Implementation: The flexibility ot thisprogram allows teachers to experiment v ith specificactivities or clusters of aLtl\Itles before, or ratherthan, whole modules. It is necessary to procure theappropriate curriculum components, have standardmaterial and equipment found in most schools orhomes, and handle administrative and parental ar-rangements for out of classroom activity.

Teacher Preparation: The teacher, or interdiscipli-nary ream of teachers, should possess general knowl-edge of the scientiic disuplines pre\ iously men-tioned, and make use of the helpful Teacher'sGuide that accompanies each module. In addition,a may be advantageous to devise a system of formalel. aluation The orientation manual is a good em-barking point for preparation.

Financial Requirements: Besides the necessary cur-ncuIum materials, there are a number ot consuma-ble paper forms that must be copied in sufficientquantities, and there are additional materials notprovided with a given module (each moduleTeacher's Guide contains a list of these items) thatare required for completion of the activities. Ar-rangements should be made with the school orcommunity library to house the supplementary lit-erature suggested in tne Teacher's Guide. Modulesrequiring out of class activity may incur transpora-On cow,

Energy, Resources and Environment

Program Director/Publisher: John W. Christensen,Teacher of Resources Sciences, Cherry Creek HighSchool, Englew-oad, CO. Kendall-Hunt PublishingCompany, Dubuque, IA.

Program Funding and Support: Colorado section ofthe American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical andPetroleum Engineers; United States Department ofEnergy; The Colorado Institute on Population Prob-lems; (Harvard) Project Physics, Inc.

Program Objectives:1 Overall Program Purpose. To introduce humanecology through study of energy, resources, and en-vironment.2 Specific Objectives. The materials are designedto:

a) give the student a fur damental kifowlidge ofthe engineering, economic, and environmentalaspects of resources and energy.b) show how these principles relate to global is-sues.c) enable students to use this knowledge to de-cade which problems are the must vital and for-mulate ideas about the solution e,t these ideas.d) demonstrate basic. suentific prinuples andtheir relationships through laboratory activities.

Description of Program: The eurneulum consists ofa textbook and accompanying :ab manual. Studentsread chapters in the textbook and are given ques-tions at the end of each chapter The questions arecomprehensive and encourage students to reflect onthe material presented.

The program begins with basic concepts of theearth and biosphere as well as energy and resourcesSucceeding chapter:, incorporate these principlesinto study of specific world problems. The text alsocontains appendices on conversion factors, suentthenotation and International System units The labmanual presents 33 activities including classroom ex-ercises, individual student activities, and demonstra-tions. The activities correspond to sections of thetext.

Methods of Instruction: This program is fairlystandard in its format of readings, questions, andlaboratory activities. However, there remains muchopportunity for class discussions, as well as flexibilityfor an individual instructor's knowledge and teach-ing style.

Specific Subjects, Grade and Ability Levels:This science course presents scientific principles in re-lation to social studies concepts concerning compli-cated world problems. The text is ideal for a nine-week schedule, with an excess of lab activities forsuch a period Laboratory activities could be se-lected according to student or instructor preferenceMaterials are designe,i for high school students withaverage or above average abilities

Materials Produced and Purchasable:1. Energy Resources and Environment, student andteacher editions (paper).2. Energy, Resources and Environment, lab manual(spiral bound).

Program Implementation: In addition to the textand lab manual, the instructor %vill need standardlaboratory equipment available in most schools, andsome materials which can be brought from home.One activity requires transportation to and from thestudy site.

Teacher Preparation: The instructor should haveknowledge of basic geological, chemical, economic,and ecological principles. In addition, familiaritywith global issues is important. Knowledge of labo-ratory technique is also essential.

Financial Requirements. A well equipped but basicclassroom laboratory is vital to the program.

Health Activities Project (I-1AP)

Program Director/Publisher: Lawrence Hall of So-

enee, University of California, Berkeley, CA Hubbard, 1' 0 Box 104, Northbrook, IL 60062

Program Support: Funding Agency: Robert WoodJohnson Foundation through the Association of Sci-ence Technology Centers.

Program Objectives:1. Overall Program Purpose To create a positive attitude toward health by providing students with asense of control over their own bodies and impart-ing specific understanding about their potential forchange2. Specific Objectives Through HAP, studentslearn:

a) how the body works and changes,b) how the body can be controlled to increaseperformance, improve skills, and developstrength;c) how one can make decisions that result in ahealthier, higher quality of life;d) how technological devices are used to evalu-ate health;e) how to look at the preventative aspects ofhealth.

Description of Program: HAI' consists of 64 student-centered activities grouped into 13 modules andcovers important areas of health, safety, and nutri-tion. Students become involved with their ownhealth and safety thr nigh discovery activities. Theyperform tests as well as collect, analyze, and com-pare data with other students. By investigating theirown bodies, the students learn firsthand how theirbodies function. Most importantly, the students dis-cover that they can make changes in the way theirbodies perform and their overall health.

Methods of Instruction: HAP uses hands-on investi-gations as opposed in style to the passive instructionof many health education programs The teacherintroduces the activity, demonstrates any specialprocedures and equipment, and presents the stu-dent with the activity. From then, the teacher hasthe opportunity to work with individuals orgroups. The majority of time is allotted for activeand productive student activity.

Specific Subjects, Grade, Age, and Ability Levels:HAP is a modular curncelum program designed forfourth through eighth grade students that supple-ments current health, science, and physical educa-tion programs, or can be the entire program. Eachmodule represents .approximately six to eight weeksof classroom activity.

Materials Produced:1. Modules: Eadi module contains teacher mate-nals, charts, and the apparatus and supplies neces-sary to conduct the activities

32

31

a)b)c)

d)e)

f)

g)

Breathing Fitness h) Flexibility and StrengthSkin Temperature i) Personal HealthSight and Sound DecisionsHeart Fitness j) Consumer HealthAction/Reaction DecisionsBalance in k) Nutrition/DentalMovement HealthGrowth Trends I) Your Heart in Action

m) Environmental Health and Safety

2. Teacher Materials. The Teacher's Guide is in-tended to be a source book and reference forteachers using the HAP activities and equipment.The guidt includes a i overview of the program,the HAP pnilosophy, helptul teaching strategies,ways to manage and maintain HAP equipment,grade lev, I sequencing, articulation scheme withothe, .ommercially available health curricula, anda hi.,tory of HAP.3. Charts and Labellue Supplies. Large, durable, re-usable, plastic etarts with 'pedal "write on-wipeoff" surfaces to record c ass at tivitie- tt ,ults.4. Apparatus and Gam?s. Specially designed appratus such as grip testers, breath cc,ntr11 devices,IL:Aber gauges, etc , are included in t modulesThe apparatus is simple, functional, vet has a de-gree of sophisticatior an a reliabili:v factor thatstudents and teachers respf ct

Program Implementation: The teacher t II: need tohave the aforementioned materials.

Teacher Preparation: -The instructor should possess ageneral knowledge of health, safety, and nutrition.Each module comes with an activity folio writtenconcisely so that teachers can quickly introduce theactivity. All topics represent an assumed awarenesslevel for adults so additional training is avoided.However, workshops are held which provide inser-vice and preservice teacher training for the entireHAP program.

Financial Requirements. The only financial re-quirement is the purchase of the modules Each onecontains sufficient materials for a class i t students.For the most part, the HAP materials are noncon-sumable. Therefore, a 27 student kit of any HAPmodule can be shared by more than one class androtated with other modules, thus reducing the lostper student.

investigating Your Environment

Program DirectorPublishen Biological SciencesCurriculum Study, The Colorado College, ColoradoSprings, CO 80903/Addison-Wesley Publishing Com-pany. Menlo Park, CA!Reading, MA.

Program Support: United States Office of Educa-tion, Department of Health, Education and Welfare, and the National Institute of Education.

32

Program Objecti, es:1. Overall purpose. To provide the students withan opportunity to investigate important questionsabout their environment.2. Specific objectives: The materials will help stu-dents:

a) familiarize themselves with and discuss goals,responsibilities about investigating their environ-ment,b) identify those things which they believe to bevaluable and essential for a meaningful and de-sired lifestyle,c) use their list of "valued things" to identifypotential questions for an environmental studiesproject;d) choose a question for investigation,e) plan projects and then conduct research,f) analyze and interpret data;g) choose an audience to which they present re-sults;h) evaluate their personal experience of conduct-ing an independent investigation.

Description of Program: Investigating Your Environ-ment is an instructional module which requires stu-dents to choose an aspect of the environment whichis important to them and to formulate and to com-plete an investigation relative to their topic.Human problems, populations, water and air quailty, noise, and land use are examples of researchtopics.

Methods of Instruction. Teacher acts as a "fellowinvestigator" and facilitator. Discussion sessions,problem identification, survey methods, field work,and laboratory investigations all form part of in-struction.

Specific Subjects, Grade and Ability Levels: Thismodule emphasizes "learning how to learn," in-quiry, and personal experience in making decisions.The level of sophistication of an investigation is afunction of the student's background, interest, andLognitive development. The materials are appropn-ate for a wide spectrum of students, ranging from9th grade to college.

The module requires a minimum of six weeks, anoptimum of nine. It could be adapted for a 12-wick semester. The module is adaptable to situa-tions such as individual investigation projects, minicourses, and summer programs.

Materials Produced and Purchasable.1. Investigating Your Environment (Student hand-book).2. investigating Your Environment (Teachers hand-book).

Project Implementations. Little is needed bey ondthe student workbook. Few special facilities or ma-

33

tenals are required beyond those tound in must su-ence classrooms. The biggest problem for teaLherswill be an adjustment in teaching style.

Teacher Preparation: 1 be teacher's role is differentfrom that of the typical program. The teacher actsas a facilitator and fellow investigator For the mod-ule to be successful, it requires a thorough under-standing of goals and objectives of the curriculumand an ability to work closely with and to under-stand a variety of students who have different inter-ests and cognitive abilities.

Financial Requirements: The cost is minimal asthere are few financial requirements beyond pur-chase of the books.

Energy and Society: Investigations in DecisionMaking

Program Director/Publisher: Biological SciencesCurriculum Study, Colorado College, ColoradoSpnngs, CO- Hubbard, P.O. Box 104, Northbrook,IL 60062.

Program Support: Funding Agency: U.S. Office otEducation, Department ot Health, Education, andWelfare.

Program Objectives:1. Overall Program Purpose: To develop skills inself-direction, questioning, problem solving, and de-cision making, while the student examines contem-porary energy questions.2. Specific Objectives. The program is designed to,

a) reflect the interdisciplinary nature of energyquestions, and promote an understanding of thecomplexity of energy problems and the trade-offsassociated with various solutions.b) encourage the development of skills and abili-ties needed to separate relevant from irrelevantinformation, recognize bias in interpretations ofinformation, and judge the validity of data;c) develop the understanding and use of prob-lem solving models and techniques, and fosterdevelopment of skills in data gathering;d) encourage autonomous and competent deu-sion making, balanced with an understanding ofthe interdependence of living things in both en-vironmental and social contexts,e) recognize and capitalize on the diversity otstudent backgrounds, interests, talents, experi-ences, and abilities in classroom-related activities,andf) promote development in both cognitive andaffective realms of activity.

Description of Program: In their study of energyproblems, students are encouraged by the activitiesto become active in inqqiry and the use of problem

sok ing skills Students observe, estimate, predict,hypothesize, question, design tools, collect,organize, interpret, and analyze data Studentslearn to recognize multiple alternative conclusionsand to check the validity and reliability of conclu-sions. The student is also encouraged to recognizeand respond to questions where values must bechosen on principles arising from sources other thanscience and where decisions must be made andbased on these value criteria.

Methods of Instruction: Discussion sessions, inde-pendent investigations, and varied activities includ-ing a simulation game, and an activity in whichthe student traces direct and indirect use energy.

Specific Subjects, Grade, Age and Ability Leiels:This program is a nine-week instructional moduledesigned for high school, college, or adult students.The program could be used as a supplement to ei-ther a science or social studies course

Materials Produced:1. Energy and Soirety. Investigations in Decision Nlak-

nig, Student Edition (paper).2 Energy and Society: Investigations in Decision Mak-ing, Teacher's Edition (paper)3. Man and the Biosphere. Energy Uses and Re-serves, set of Daylight Blackboard Projection Slides.4 Energy: Back to the Source, film loop (silent,Super 8mm).5. Alternative Energy Sources card set.6. Energy Management Game.

Program Implementation: The teacher will need tohave the aforementioned materials, standard mate-rial and equipment available in most schools orhomes, and will need to have made the necessaryarrangements with parents and the administration,to facilitate student access to school and communityresources.

Teacher Preparation: An understanding of the sci-entitic principles pertaining to energy is essential.1 he teacher should also possess general knowledgeof energy issues and related disciplines.

Financial Requirements; In addition to the curricu-lum components previously mentioned, a classroomlibrary composed of good reference materials is es-sential to the success of many activities, especiallythe independent investigations While many mate-rials may be obtained from the school or public li-brary, several books aie recommended and wouldrequire additional funds.

Genes and SurroundingsProject Director/Publisher: The Center for Educa-tion in the Human and Medical Genetics Study,

34

33

The Colorado College, Colorado Springs, CO80903/Kendall-Hunt Publishing Company, Du-buque, IA 52001.

Project Support: Health ServiLes Administration,Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Healthand Human Services.

Project Objectives:1. Overall Program Purpose. To provide informa-tion about human genetics that is absent or inade-quate in existing curriculums for emerging adoles-cents.2 Specific Objectives This program will enable stu-(.4 -its to:

a) .., ,,ly their knowledge of genetics to personaland societal aspects of their lives and the world.b) understand the interdisciplinary nature of ge-netics and many activities that relate genetics tothe environment.

Description of Project: Genes and Surroundings in-cludes 25 activities, each of which stresses at leastone of the five following themes. individuality,continuity, variability in relation to others, vari-ability in time, and adaptation Some activities pro-vide case histories as illustrations; in others, studentshave the opportunity to examine and measurecharacteristics of themselves and others The activi-ties require only the published materials or equip-ment, which are commonly found in the scienceclassroom.

Methods of Instruction: Each lesson consists of amain activity in which the students participate ei-ther in teams or individually Discussion questionswith each lesson stimulate thought and relate genetics to the world of the student. A class discussionfollows each activity and students are asked to takea short self quiz at the completion of each less(The program has activities for students to do 1 ntheir own.

Specific Subject, Grade, Age and Ability Levels:Genes and Surroundings is designed for middle schoolor junor high students (11 -14- year - olds). It shouldbe taught either as part of a science or a social stud-ies class. Most of the lessons are designed to occupyone class period. The curriculum may be presentedin its entirety or certain sections may be taughtalone. Activities are designed for average-ability stu-dents, and "Going Further" sections are intendedfor advanced students.

Materials Produced:1. Genes and Surroundings, student edition (paper,147 pages).2. Genes and Surroundinz,s, teacher edition (paper,107 pages).

Project Implementation: The project requires the

34

above mentioned materials and equipment com-mon') found in the classroom. Parental permissionslips must be distributed for out-of-classroom activi-ties Tearsheets of some of the activities, provided inthe teacher's manual, will have to be photocopiedand distributed.

Teacher Preparation: Familiarity with the basicprinciples of genetics and how heredity interactswith the environment are Important.

Financial Requirements. Other than the manualsthemselves, only a few materials must be speciallypurchased for the activities. Most materials can beused repeatedly.

Basic Genetics: A Human Approach

Program Director/Publisher: The Center for Educa-tion in the Human and Medical Genetics, A Con-tinuing Program of the Biological SciencesCurriculum Study. (BSC.5),The Colorado College,Colorado Springs, CO 80903,Kendall-Hunt Publish-ing Company, Dubuque, IA 52001.

Program Support: National Science FoundationProgram for Development in Science Education,and the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation, Rockville, MD.

Program Objectives:1 Overall Program Purpose. To develop students'awareness of how genetic conditions may affectthem as individuals and as members of society.2. Specific Objectives. The materials are designedto:

a) replace traditional genetics units, and includemoral and ethical questions in a study of basichuman genetics;b) strengthen the links between facts and theirapplications, by providing concrete and relevantexamples to the students;c) facilitate an understanding of mathematicalprobability, and encourage the ability to analyzesituations in which probability and statistics areused;dl increase a student's familiarity with technicalterms which are used frequently;e) encourage students to express their own opinions, and recognize the possible implications ofmany commonly-held attitudes.

Description of Program:The students begin by reading a case study aboutcystic fibrosis which is presented in a magazine for-mat Topics to be studied are highlighted and ex-plained in boxed-in sections of text (e.g., proba-bility, i,echgree charts) This format helps to preventstudents from skipping over new words and un-familiar contexts. The unit is designed to be veryflexible, so that after the first section, students and

35

teachers may select parts of the text as they wishAlthough concepts between sections are linked,they need not be studied sequentially. Emphasisupon human genetics is maintained throughout thebook. The authors have covered the usual genetictheory, but placing it in a human context mayhelp to make it more meaningful for the students.

Methods of Instruction: The pnmary method is dis-cussion, supplemented by a simulation game, work-sheets, crossword puzzles, questions, a pedigreechart, and calculations of probability. The teacher'sedition includes guidelines for discussion, outlinesfor particular lessons, and instructions for planningthe unit as a whole. Flexibility in this course is cer-tainly possible because certain concepts are treatedin several different sections of the book. One could,however, use tne entire book without any lessonbecoming repetitive.

Specific Subjects, Grade, Age, and Ability Levels:This book was designee to be used by ninth andtenth graders in an introductory biology course Itis a replacement for traditional chapters on genetics,not merely a supplement. It would also be interest-ing for students in second-year biology courses, be-

cause some of the later "articles" are more challeng-ing. Book reviews and reference lists will also makethis a good starling place for juniors and seniorswho may want to do independent projects andreading.

Materials Produced:1. Basic Genetics. A Human Approach (student edi-tion).2. Basic Genetics A Human Approach (teacher's edi-tion).

Program Implementation. This program Lontains in-teresting Information on cystic fibrosis which Louldsupplement any general biology course. Althoughthe program was designed to replace the geneticscurriculum in already existing classes, it could sereequally well as a separate genetics course, a sourceof one- and two-day activities, or as part of ahealth education class.

Teacher Preparation: Background information onthe topics is provided in the teacher's edition, as arereference lists and addresses of many organizationswhich provide supplies for basic genetics labs andadditional information.

Financial Requirements: Because the texts are pa-per-bound and there is only one volume in theunit, expense should be minimal. Purchase of ped-igree charts, some reference books, and blood-typ-ing kits is recommended. This program would stillbe of value even if some of the additional resourcescould not be purchased.

The Conservation Learning Activitiesfor Science and Social Studies Project.(The Class Project)

Publisher: National Wildlife Federation, 1412 Six-teenth St., N.W., Washington, DC 20036.

Program Support: National Science Foundation

Program Objectives:1. Overall Program Purpose. To help students de-velop an environmental ethic and to help them usetheir acquired skills and concepts in takingthoughtful, positive action to protect and enhancethe natural environment.2. Specific Objectives: The materials are designedto.

a) help students achieve understanding of envi-ronmental concepts and skills;b) help students develop and practice the skillsof observing, measuring, data collecting, classify-ing, hypothesizing, predicting, making valuejudgments, communicating, and problem solv-ing;c) aid in the development and use of studentskills in investigating and solving environmentalproblems;d) invulve students in community action projects,e) give students experience in observation, classi-

fication, data collection, record-keeping, predic-tion, communication, and decision-making.

Description of Program: There are nine sections inThe Class Project. The first section is an introductionand overview. Then there are six content sectionswhich are: Energy Use; Environmental Issues; Forest/Watershed Management, Hazardous Substances,Wetlands, and Wildlife Habitat There is a uniquesection :raffled, "You Can Make It Happen " Thissection describes class projects that have been com-pleted by other teachers. The addresses and phonenumbers of the teachers are listed, and they haveagreed to act as consultants The last section, en-titled "Digging Deeper/Glossary," is a resource bibli-ography.

Each content area begins with an introductionthat provides background information. Then thereare four or five activities. Content and process ob-

jectives are provided for each activity. Among thesuggestions for each content area is a list of commu-nity action projects. These can become a classroom'scommunity action project, which is an importantgoal of The Class Project.

The Class Project activities are designed to be usedas supplementary to an existing program There isnot a prescribed order for the content areas or theactivities within te areas.

3635

Methods of Instruction: A variety of approachesare used Methods of instruction used in The ClassProject include surveys, experiments, simula dons,discussions, debates, field trips, and library research.

Specific Subject, Grade, Age and Ability Levels:The subjr cts are interdisciplinary including biology ,

earth science, chemistry, and physics There ,re alsoparts that Include social studies They may be usedin either science or social studies classes The mate-rials are designed for use in grades 6 through 9,though they could be easily adapted to highergrades.

The Class Project materials will work with a widerange of ability levels.

Materials Produced:1 The Class Project binder (containing Activitiesand Poster Packet).

Program Implementation: Workshops are providedby the National Wildlife Federation. Materials areprovided through a grant from the National Sci-ence Foundation Names avid addresses of teacherswho have used The Class Project are provided inthe reference section Nothing more than standardscience facilities and equipment are required

Teacher Preparation: The materials do not requirespecialized background. Science teachers should feelcomfortable with the content areas. There may besome adjustment to new instructional methods suchas simulation activities, and incorporating socialstudies concepts. Background information is pro-vided with each activity.

Financial Requirements: The first 10,000 sets of ma-terials will be distributed free through NationalWildlife Federation workshops.

Science and Society Teaching Units

Program Director/Publisher: Douglas A. Roberts,The University of Calgary/The Ontano Institute forStudies in Education, 252 Bloor St W., Toronto,Ontario, M55 1V6.

Program Support: The Ontario Institute for Studiesin Education.

Program Objectives:1. Overall Program Purpose. To provide materialswith a curriculum emphasis on science and society.2. Specific Objectives. The materials are designedto:

a) introduce an understanding of the rela-tionship between scientific knowledge and thedecision making processes used by society in deal-ing with practical affairs;b) teach students that they can us: science incertain aspects of their lives;c) enable students to discuss the social conse-

36

quences of a tew of the decisions they mightmake in the future regarding energy consump-tion, environment, and other problems relatedto science and society.

Description of Program. In completing one ofthese units, students will learn that they can under-stand vanous complex problems such as energy use,pollution, and variables influencing the growth anddevelopment of plants. Students will learn to takesocial as well as environmental values into consid-eration before making a decision on problems thatwill affect their lives in the future. Furthermore, Itshow s the students the importance these decisionsmay have on their quality of life.

Methods of Instruction: Discussion sessions, simple,but effective laboratory experiments, role-playing.

Specific Subjects, Grade, Age and Ability Levels:Each of these units is designed to take approx-imately twenty 40-minute periods to complete. Al-though the modules are designed for middle andjunior high school students, they would also be ef-fective for use with advanced elementary schoolstudents. These units would be most effective whentaught as supplements to an existing science course.With some work they could he used as a total cur-riculum.

Materials Produced:I. Force and Energy: A Teacher's Manual jor GeneralLevel Program Development, Grade 8.2. Separation of Substances A Teacher's Manual forGeneral Level Program Development, Grade 9.3 Green Plants. A Teacher's Manual jor General LevelProgram Development, Grade 9.4. Heat. A Teacher's Manual for General Level 1 rogramDevelopment, Grade 9.

Program Implementation. Some of the units re-quire extra equipment The Heat and Force andEnergy units require little, if any, extra material be-sides the teacher's general knowledge of the subjectmaterial. The Green Plants unit requires "basic"gardening supplies plus a small amount of chemistryequipment. The required materials are generallywithin those found in the average science class-room. Advanced planning is advised to assure thatthe plant growing segment of the program runssmoothly The Separation of Substances unit re-quires that the students have access to a fullyequipped chemistry laboratory. The teacher mayalso wish to have on hand reference materials onwater purification and water quality.

Teacher Preparation: The teacher should be famil-iar with the subject matter of the unit before start-ing the class. However, the units require little un-usual knowledge. Excellent resources are listed forupdating one's background.

37

Financial Requirements. Besides the materials menhoned for each at the units, no additional materialsare required.

Global 2000 Countdown Kit

Program Director/Publisher: Zero PopulationGrowth, 1346 Connecticut Ave N W , Suite 603,Washington, DC 20036

Program Support: Not specified

Program Objectives:1. Overall Program Purpose To demonstrate theinterrelationships and interdependence among population, resource, and env ironmental concerns2. Specific Objectives. the materials are designed to

a) help students understand ecology on a worldscale.b) take a global approach to decision-making.c) prepare themselves to be socially and scien-tifically informed, politically effective citizens.

Description of Program: The Global 2000 CountdownKtt consists of 14 units (atter the 14 issues addressedby the Global 2000 Report) designed to be used indi-vidually or in sequence. Each unit includes: a briefintroduction to the major findings on that issue aspublished in the Global 2000 Report, a main ac-tivity incorporating the views of different sectors atthe public or difterent cultures in making decisionsand discussing their possible consequences, sug-gestions for ways to become involved in the localcommunity's actions in that area or to increase com-munity awareness, and tinally, a list of relatedprinted and audio/visual matenal available with ad-dresses of their publishing companies.

Methods of Instruction: The program uses a varietyof methods, including research papers; simulations;board and classroom games (one of which is studentcreated); calculations, charting and graphing, de-bates; mapping; experiments; home investigations;and always a culminating class discussion.

Specific Subjects, Age and Ability Levels: TheGlobal 2000 Coutztdoun Kit addresses 14 subjects pop-ulation; income; food; fisheries; forests; water; non-fuel minerals; energy; species extinctions; and theimpacts of agriculture, water resources, forest losses,world's atmosphere and climate, and of nuclear en-ergy It is a teaching supplement applicable to bothscience and social studies courses taught from the8th through 12th grade levels. Its basic informationand activities can easily be simplified or expandedto apply to both younger and older age rangesMaterials Produced and Purchasable:1. The Global 2000 Countdown Kit

Project Implementation: Each activity can be im-plemented almost immediately with a 10-minute re-

view by the teacher. Occasionally, ordinal) schoolmaterials such as rulers, yarn, scissors, photocopy ingaccessibility, a die, etc. are needed.

Teacher Preparation: The Kit is designed to allowstudents to use it with minimum teacher supervi-sion Each introduction gives necessary informationto students and teachers alike; teachers may wish toresearch certain, topics further to be able to answerprobing questions. The Global 2000 Report would bea valuable resource for this.

Financial Evaluation: The Kit itself is inexpensive-515, prices at related materials me not listed, butaddresses at the companies that would hav e theprices are Ordinary school matenals and library ac-cess should fall within the school's budget.

Project Learning Tree

Program Director:Publisher: American Forest In-stitute, Inc.Program Support: Western Regional EnvironmentalEducation Council and American Forest Institute,1619 Massachusetts Ave N.W , Washington, DC20036.

Program Objectives:1 Overall Program Purpose. For the student to de-velop an awareness, concern, knowledge, and skillwith respect to his or her environment2 Specific Objectives:

a) for the student to explore the interre-lationships between living and nonliving things;b) to involve the student in engaging his or herprimary senses;c) to display the diversity of natural re5oui:.es inthe immediate environment;d) to display how human life is dependent uponthe existence of renewable and nonrenewable re-sources;e) to help the student develop skills in evaluat-ing information and in making thoughtful deci-sions.

Description of Program: This program is interdisci-plinary and emphasizes student interaction with thenatural and social environment. The outdoors, par-ticularly trees, are used in vanous activities to exer-cise the student's senses and to encourage a self-ex-amination of emotions along with the developmentof personal attitudes. The program aims to increaseenvironmental awareness with respect to both aes-thetic values and concern for resources.

The lessons, therefore, are based on activity anddiscussion which require the student to go out intothe environment and observe, use his or her senses,describe, analyze, and conclude. Hence, the stu-dent gains personal experience with the environ-ment Each lesson lists principles, concepts and skills

38 37

gained so the teacher can easily skim through andchoose an apnropriate activity.

Methods of Instruction: Laboratory investigation,outdoor observations, and inquiry.

Specific Subjects, Grade, Age, and Ability Levels:The program is interdisciplinary. Activiaes rangenom grades K-12, and it a specific subject, grade,or ability level is required, it is stated before eachactivity.

Materials Produced:1. Two textbooks with activities for grades K-7 and7-12.

Materials Purchasable:1. Two paperback textbooks.

Program Implementation. No outside reading orworkshops necessary. Books contain background in-formation. Materials for activities are simple andeasily obtained from the outdoors or schoolroomenvironment.

Teacher Preparation: Some activities require pre-vious preparation but preparation is tast and simpleas activities are geared towards personal observationand conclusion.

Financial Requirement: Teacher's activity guide isthe only book necessary Students do not need indi-vidual books.

Project WildEarth is Home For Us All

Program Director/Publisher: Dr. Cheryl Charles,Project Wild. Salina Star Route, Boulder, CO80302. Western Regional Environmental EducationCourcil.

Program Support: Western Association of Fish andWildlife Agencies; Western Regional EnvironmentalEducation Council.

Program Objectives:1. Overall Program Purpose. To develop awareness,knowledge, skills, and commitment that producesinformed decisions, responsible behavior, and con-structive actions towards wildlife and the env iron-ment2. Specific objectives: Project Wild helps studentslearn:

a) an awareness that humans and wildlife havesome things in common;b) that wildlife is a valuable resource;c) the dynamic processes in ecological scstemsand their importance for wildlife.d) about wildlife conservation and what it re-quires of humans;e) the past and present effects of cultural and so-cial interaction with wildlife;

38

f) consequences and alternatives to current wild-life issues and trends;g) responsible human actions towards wildlifeand their systems.

Description of Program: The curriculum unit con-sists of activities designed for integration into exist-ing courses of study, or the entire program can beused as the basis for a course of study. Activities arearranged in a thematic order to assist the students intheir development from awareness and appreciationto responsible actions concerning wildlife.

Each activity includes: a statement of the instruc-tional objective; backgrourd information for the in-structor; a list of materials needed, procedures, sub-jects from which concepts are drawn; skills,duration, and other information Also included arespecific suggestions for extending the curnetiluin asa whole.

The appendices include a useful glossary of terms,an outline of the curriculum's conceptual frame-work, and cross-references by subject area, skills,and topics for use in creating instructional units

Methods of Instruction: The teacher takes full re-sponsibility in presenting, trading, and concludingthe activity. The activities for the most part are anactive experience for students (observing, coloring,pasting, etc.) followed by a teacher directed class-roomdiscussion.

Specific Subjects, Grade, Age, and Ability Level:The unit is most suited for the average elementarystudent and can easily be integrated into mostschool subjects, especially science, social studies, lan-guage arts, mathematics, and art.

A unit geared for grades 7-12 is also available anduses the same format and curriculum framework.

Materials Purchasable:1 Project Wild Elementary (K-6) Guide2. Project Wild Secondary (7-12) Guide

Teacher Preparation: The teacher needs to collectthe materials for the activity and have a workingknowledge of the background information andprocedure given in the unit guide

Financial Requirements: The project guide andmiscellaneous supplies that are commonly stocked inthe school.

Outdoor Biology Instructional StrategiesOBIS

Program Developer'Publisher: Outdoor Biology In-structional Project, Lawrence Hall of Science, Uni-versity of California, Berkeley, CA. Delta Education,Box M, Nashua, NH 03061.

Program Support: National Science FoundationGrant No. SED72-05823.

39

Program Objectives:I. Overall Program Purpose. To provide a base setof expenences in the knowledge of outdoor biologyand to foster a positive outlook on science andlearning in general.2. Specific Objectives:

a) by better understanding the biological world,children can better understand the interrelated,complex world they live in;b) in realizing dependence and interrelationwith the biological world, children can make in-telligent decisions on environmental issues;c) to make learning more enjoyable;d) to encourage discovery by the studentthrough exploration ar.d experience.

Description of Program: This program is based on atheory that experience and exploration are validand preferable educating forces to other forms oflearning. Therefore all of the lessons in OBIS havestudents playing an active role in investigating theenvironment. As a result, the students' input deter-mines the outcome and success of the lesson.

The program is made up of 27 independentmodules covering a gamut of topics Within eachmodule is from five to ten folios (lesson plans). Ineach folio there is:1) Overview. A one sentence overview describingwhat the students do and what the students will getfrom the activity;2) Background: Information for the instructor :norder to run the activity;3) Challenge: A sentence setting forth the assign-ment for the students;4) Materials: A list of equipment that an instructorwill need to get ready for the activity,5) Preparation. This lists any preparation needed bythe instructor, the type of site needed and the bestgroup size This section also gives an estimation oftime required;6) Action: A procedure list for carrying out the ac-tivity;7) What Do You Think? A set of questions tospawn discussion and g;...e added insight into theAction;8) Branching Out: Additional ideas for other activi-ties and actions which are related to the topic. athand.

Methods of Instruction: Go through the action.This may involve an exploiation of a specific habtat, playing a game, performing an experiment, orbuilding a creature ( which simulates what une findsin the natural world on the topic of the folio). Dis-cussion should be generated. All actions involve anoutdoor setting.

Specific Subjects, Grade, Age and Ability Level.OBIS is designed for students ten to 15 years of age.

t 40

Any outdoors education program could adopt OBISas a supplement or total curriculum In addition togro..11.,a such as scouts, nature centers, famii.es, andschools will find OBIS useful.

Materials Produced: OBISOBIS SamplerAdaptationsAnimal BehaviorAquatic Animal BehaviorBackyardBio-craftsBreakwaters and BaysCampsiteChild's PlayDesertForestFor Eight- to

Eleven-year-oldsFor Large GroupsFor Small Groups

and Families

Modules:Games and SimulationsHuman ImpactLawns and FieldsNeighborhood WoodsNighttimeOutdoor Study

TechniquesPavement and ParksPonds and LakesSchoolyardSeashoreStreams and RiversTrailWintertime

Materials Purchasable:I. The modules above and most of the equipmentlisted in the matenals list can be purchased throughOBIS, Delta Publishing, Nashua, NH.2. The remainder of the materials needed could bepurchased inexpensively in lok..11 stores or acquiredfrom home.

Program Implementation: The leader of an activitynecd tne materials listed in the material list

gathered and a site appropriate to the activity pick-ed out and cleared for use. The time necessary foreach folio varies from 40 to 60 minutes.

Teacher Preparation: No other preparation neededother than gathering materials.

Financial Requirements: Along with the cost of themodules used, there may be additional costs for ma-terials used in the activities. This will vary withmodules used.

Zero Population GrowthPopulation Education Program

Program Director. Publisher. Zero PopulationGrowth, 1346 Connecticut Ave., N.W , Wash-ington, DC.

Program Support: The ZPG population educationproject began in 1975 with funding from the U SOffice of Environmental Education and privatefoundations.

Program Objectives:I. The overall program purposes of ZPC are: to ed-ucate teachers and students about the dynamics ofpopulation growth.

39

2. Specific objectives the student matenals are de-sign:3d to:

a) introduce population growth a id associatedproblems;b) study depleted natural resourcesc) evaluate the impacts of popul; tion on land,water, and air;d) study species extinction;e) examine human social problems.

Program Description: ZPG's Population EducationProgram will help educators and, ultimately, stu-dents understand the relationships between popula-tion growth and a wide range of scientific and so-cial issues. The Population Education. Programprovides training and classroom materials for teach-ers of grades K-12 who are interested in introducingpopulation studies to their classrooms.

Methods of Instruction: Activities simulating realworld problems sometimes prefaced by short textand followed by discussion.

Materials Produced:I. Elementary Population Activities Kit, 515.00.2. Global 2000 Countdown Kit. 515.00.3. Population Education Resource Kit. S4.00.4. Population Education Leaders Kit. 55.00.5. ZPG Population Education Program: Description andEvaluation. 55.00.

Materials Purchasable: From Population EducationResources, Zero Population Growth, 1346 Connecticut Ave., N.W., Washington, DC 20036.

Specific Subjects, Grade, and Ability Levels: Ele-mentary Population Activities Kit is designed toteach all students in grades K-6 about basic popula-tion dynamics and environmental concepts Global2000 Countdown Kit is designed to teach all studentsin secondary classrooms about 14 multidisciplinarytopics dealing with the earth's population, environ-ment, and resources.

Teacher Preparation: ZPG sponsors workshops rang-ing from one hour to several days. These are usu-ally presented at major teacher's meetings includingthe National Association of Biology Teachers andNational Science Teacher's Association annual con-ventions. Careful examination and study of thePopulation Educatior Resources Kit will probablybe sufficient introduction to teach the program

Financial Requirements: Besides the original investment for students' kits, the lesson plans generally require no extra equipment. A few lessons may usecommon it, ms found in science classrooms or easilypurchased materials.

Investigating Our Ecosystem

Program Director:Publisher: The matenals were au

40

thored by Irma Greisel and Peter lensch, HoughtonMifflin Company/Boston, MA.

Program Objectives:1) Overall Program Purpose: To introduce studentsto the complex interactions of humans and eco-systems.2) Specific Objectives: The program is designed to:

0 provide relevant and useful science experi-ences for students who do not wish to pursueone of the cony entional science courses in seniorhigh school.b) introduce students who are nut scientificallyoriented to the scientific method, and its use inthe identification and solutiun of environmentalproblems.c) provide a course of study in which scientificand technical concepts are realistically integratedwith social and economic concerns.d) develop in students an "environmental con-science," and to equip students with the meansto translate their concern into practical action.e) enable students to generalize from local condi-tions to global problems by identifying and inves-tigating local fauna, flora, and other environmen-tal factors.0 enable students to identify the natural eco-system and to assess the effects of human de-mands on the total ecosystem.g) permit students to evaluate environmental de-terioration and to formulate practical solution,. forenvironmental problems.

Characteristics of this Program: The program fostersthe student's curiosity about the environment. Be-cause it is intended for nonscience-oriented stu-dents, it deals v ith qualitative ideas and a minimumof specialized vocabulary.

Specific Subjects, Grade, Age, and Ability Levels:Investigating Our Ecosystem is designed for studentsin grades 10-12 who have little or no science back-ground. However, those who have had other highschool science courses may use the program.

The program is designed as a 32-week coursebased on 10 char ers of one to six weeks each. Ex-cept for the first three introductory chapters, any ofthe chapters may be deleted or others may be addedto adjust for time limitations. Study includes: theecosystem, human ecosystem, field survey, water,soil, the earth's crust, nuclear energy, interre-lationships, and environmental conscience.

Materials Produced:1) Investigating Our Ecosystem, Student Edition,Houghton Mifflin Company/Boston, MA S4.752) Investigating Our Ecosystem, Teacher's Manual,Houghton Mifflin Company/Boston, MA 55.25

Program Implementation: There are three areas

41

which are frequently visited for collecting lab sam-ples and therefore should be near the classroom:1) A pond or other body of water.2) A small area relatively unchanged by humans.3) An area of high human impati, such as a busystreet corner in a city.

Teacher Preparation: The teacher needs no specialtraining unique to this course but should have basicknowledge of biology (in particular ecology), chem-istry, and physics. Laboratory experiments requirehandling of chemicals and maintaining small biolog-ical specimens.

Financial Requirements: This program requires onlybasic science supplies, instruments, and equipment.Each student or small group of students must beequipped with items such as beakers, test tubes,thermometers, and ring stands. A supply of about50 simple chemical compounds is required. Most ofthese use less than 200g of the substance for a year.A list of matenals, supplies, and equipment neces-sary for the program is listed in the Teacher's Man-ual.

Investigating the Human Environment. LandUse

Project Director/Publisher: Biological Sciences Cur-riculum Study, The Colorado College, ColoradoSprings, CO 80903, Kendall-Hunt Publishing Com-pany, Dubuque, IA 52001.

Program Support: United States ()flux of Education,Department of Health, Education and Welfare.

Program Objectives:1) Overall Program Purpose: To introduce the stu-dent to the complexity of deusion making, bringingabout an understanding of the issues and considera-tions involved.2) Specific Objectives: The students will:

a) receive an introduction to the science of pol-itics and public opinion. Thzy will learn how factsmay be separated from value statements andlearn to recognize biases and their origin as wellas determine the pros and cons of a case.b) obtain a brief introduction to biological com-munities, studying population and growth rateand the principle of carrying capacity.c) learn the basics of economics, studying con-cepts of supply and demand, productivity, andbudget planning.d) investigate ecosystems, learning the concepts

of food webs and organism-environment relations.e) obtain exposure to situations in which initsgra-tions of the economics, sociology, political sci-ence, biology and geology they have learned areutilized to solve a particular problem throughcase studies.f) write a research report/Environmental ImpactStatement at the end of the program, testing theircomprehension of the above exercises and allow-ing them practical experience in research gather-ing and report writing.

Description of Program: The program is not a com-prehensive study in any one traditional fieid of sci-ence; rather, the instruction provided for all disci-plines is kept at an introductory level. The emphasisfor this program lies in the integration of the severaldisciplines for the purpose of decision-making rela-tive to land use. Topics include: public opinion,looking at land use, factors influencing land use, In-dependent investigation.

Methods of Instruction: Students participate insmall group discussions and debates, reference andrecord searches, data table/graph reading and con-struction, map reading and possible construction,some data collection/observation at home and withinthe local community.

Specific Subjects, Grade, Age, and Ability Levels:Little science background is necessary, yet, stronganalytical skills are required. The program is best forgrades 8 10, the material usable either as supple-mental study in a political science:social studies classor a one-term (10-15 week) elective study.

Materials Produced:1. Investigating the Human Environment. Land UseStudent Manual.2. Investigating the Human Environment: Land UseTeacher's Manual.

Teacher Preparation: Appendix A of the manualsupplies titles of contacts necessary for student in-quines, yet addresses of specific offices in the com-munity or state must be located by student or teach-er. Other appendices supply library researchinformation and guidelines for report writing. If de-sired, the teacher could supplement science over-views in the text with additional lc.isons.

Financial Requirements: There is little required be-yond purchase of books and standard clasiroomsupplies, facilities, and equipment

42 41

Eric JohnsonTeri MauMary McMillan

Activities for Science Teachers

This chapter represents themost practical aspects of a humanecological perspective. We havedeveloped seven activities thatserve as examples and first activi-ties for science teachers who wishto include human ecology in theirprograms. While we tried to in-clude lessons for grades 7-12,some activities are conceptuallyand methodologically difficult.Science teachers will have to re-view the activities and decide onthe appropriateness of the lessonsfor their students. Activities areorganized to introduce -onceptsof population, environment, andresources in the context of humanecological problems.

The activities are:

1) Population Growth2) Age Structure of Populations3) Air Quality and Automobiles4) Thermal Pollution5) Vegetations and Soil6) The Supply and Demand of

Resources: A Simulation7) The Tragedy of he Com-

mons: An Invitation to In-quiry in Human Ecology

Each activity begins with anoverview, followed by scientificbackground and societal implica-tions. Major concepts, objectives,and vocabulary are next. Thenthere are materials needed andsuggested procedures. Finally,there are questions, discussions,and extensions for the activity.

Activity 1:Population Growth

Overview

In this activity students investi-gate exponential and arithmeticgrowth with the use of cal-culators. The activity introduces

42

Rodger Bybee

concepts basic to the dynamics ofpopulation growth.

Science Background and SocietalImplications

Exponential growth is an in-crease by a constant percentagefor identifiable intervals of time.The increase over a certain timeinterval is directly related to theamount with which the intervalstarted. An exponential curve hasbeen described as a J curve. In thesame way that the letter "J" startslow on the bottom and then sud-denly becomes vertical at thebend, an exponential growthstarts slowly but quickly turns to-ward infinity. It should be notedthat when one is doubling, the in-crease in one doubling is greaterthan total previous increases.

Investment of money is a sim-ple and good example of expo-nential growth. If you could dou-ble your money in one week,then, starting with two dollars,you will have four dollars afterone week. But in the next week,the four dollar investment will be-come eight dollars, and so on.

Here is an illustration:

week total

1 1*2=2

2 *2 = 4

3 2=84 *2=16

5 *2=32

6 2=647 *2=128

total after 7 weeks: $128.00

Arithmetic is an increase by aconstant amount over a time in-terval. Allowance is an example.Let a person be given two dollars

43

Kevin NajafiMike O'ConnellJames White

a week allowance. If that personputs the money away on the dayof receipt, then the amount willincrease by a constant amount(two dollars) for a certain time in-terval (one week).

Here is an illustration:

week 1 2

increase 2+2=4 +2=

week 3 4

increase 6 +2=8 +2=

week 5 6

increase 10 +2 =12 +2=

week 7

increase 14 +2 =16

Many natural phenomena con-form to exponential and zrith-metic growth. A major social is-sue confronting the world todayis the fact that population growthis exponential. And the increasein population is the origin ofmany human ecological problemsranging from depletion of finiteresources to use (and misuse) ofland, air, and water. Additionally,human health and disease are di-rectly related to populationgrowth.

Concepts

Exponential growth is an in-crease in number propor-tional to a number alreadypresent.

Present human birth rate inmany countries is an exampleof exponential growth.

Various factors affect the rateof increase, such as deathrate or medical technology,but the only variable whichchanges is the -number ofgenerations needed to reach alarge population.

Objectives

At the completion of this ac-tivity, students should be able to:

recognize an arithmeticgrowth curve and describe itsproperties.recognize an exponentialgrowth curve and describe itsproperties.relate the growth curve to hu-man birth rate and the effectsthat different factors have onthe curve.

extend their knowledge to arealization of the implicationsthat an exponentially increas-ing population has on theearth.

analyze examples of naturalgrowth and determine if theyfolloW an exponential orarithmetic growth curve.

Vocabulary

arithmetic curveexponential curvegrowth

rate of increasebirth ratedeath rate

Materials

The materials needed for thisactivity are:

a straight edge rulera pencilstandard graph papercalculators

Procedures

Part I

1. Divide the class into sixgroups of five students each(number the groups). Distributecalculators to each group.2. Begin by having everyone inthe class (or if you have onlyone calculator per group, thenone person in each group)punch the number "1" intotheir calculators.3. Have group one punch in"+ 1 =" and have them recordtheir findings in a chart. Thenrepeat "+ 1 =" and recordingfor five trials.

For example:

trial 1 2 3 4 5findings 2 3 4 5 6

4. Have each group do thesame five trials using

5. Have each graph their find-ings either on graph paper oron a chalk board, the trialnumber being the x-axis andthe data findings being they-axis.

Part II

1. Tell the class that a graph ofbirth rate over successive gener-ations is going to be made,starting with the class as thetotal population of generation I.Have them consider for a mo-ment, and then record howmany children they wish tohave in their family. Add thetotal number of children, andcall this Generation II. Recordthis number on the chalkboard.2. Have the students repeatstep 1, but this time have themestimate how many offspringeach of their own children willhave (i.e. the class' grand-children). Call this GenerationIII. Again, record the total onthe board. Repeat this proce-dure at least two more times,until five generations have beenestimated. These will be thetotal theoretical descendantsfrom this one class.3. Have each student graph theresults, with the horizontal axisas the number of generations,and the vertical axis as thenumber of children per genera-tion. At this point, you shouldmake sure that the students re-alize that this is an exponentialcurve because birth increase isproportional to the populationalready present.4. Emphasize that what hasbeen created is an actual birthrate increase as estimated bythe class. This becomes a very

44

large number when the point ismade that there are many morepeople who will have childrenthan simply this class.5. In the next section of the ac-tivity, tell the students to thinkabout the birth rate curve as itrelates to population increase.Ask them if they think it is anaccurate graph of the popula-tion, and if not, what are someof the things not taken into con-sideration by the graph. Someof these are: death rate, medicaltechnology, immigration, andwar. Ask the students what ef-fects they think each of thesewould have on their curve. Toillustrate an example of medicaltechnology or death rate, havehalf the class make anothergraph, this time with a 10 per-cent death rate per generationsubtracted from the numbers al-ready estimated. The other halfshould construct a graph with a15 percent "health care for sickbabies" increase per generation.Each generation on the newgraphs should be 10 percentless or 15 percent more. What isimportant for the students torealize in comparing the graphsis that the same number ofbirths will always be reached;the only factor which changes isthe number of generations ittakes to reach that total.

Exte,tsion

Now that the class has a notionof the escalating effects of birthrate, it is possible to considersome of the implications on theearth. Some effects to considerare:

1) Finite resources. What hap-pens to the world oil supplywhen all these children begindriving cars? 2) Food production.How can we produce enoughfood to feed all the new chil-dren when we have such a lim-ited area to do it in? 3) Disease,health and overcrowding. Whatabout the spread of a disease

43

through a large crowded popu-lation' Or the effects of a largepopulation on available livingspace? The class should discussthese and other questions

Evaluation

Have the class group some ofthese common growths

1) The amount of water in adish for every drip from theleaky faucet.2) The spreading of a rumor (itA tells two friends and they telltwo friends, and so on, and soon).3) The time of day for everyminute that goes by.4) If for every quarter you lendto a friend he gives you backthirty cnets.5) The amount of interest youget in a five percent interestbank account for every yearthat goes by.6) Population growth.

Activity 2:Age Structure and Population

Overview

Students investigate the topic ofage structure, one of the four ma-jor factors in human populationdynamics. After an introductionto the four major types of agestructure diagrams, students com-pare the graphs of three differ-ent countries and examine thechanges in the graph of a singlecountry over a period of time.

Science Background and SocietalImplications

The number of persons in a cer-tain population at each age levelis the age structure, or age dis-tribution, of the population. Animportant force in populationgrowth is the number of womenin childbearing age (15 to 44), es-pecially those in the prime re-productive years (20 to 29). Thereis a latent momentum to sustainpopulation growth that exists in apopulation with a relatively large

44

percentage of persons below age29, and particularly below age 15.That is, even when, on the aver-age, women tear fewer ciuldren,the number of births can still in-crease in a population if there isan increasing number of womencapable of bearing children. In1977, about 36 percent of the peo-ple on earth were below age 15Unless death rates rise sharply,the present world age structureforetells continued populationgrowth for 50 to 100 years. TheGlobal 2000 Report to the Presidentpredicts an increase in world pop-ulation from 4.1 billion people in1975 to 6.35 billion in 2000, a 55percent increase.

Jumps in population growth,such as the U.S. "baby boom,"tend to affect the future grolvthand structure of society for 20 to40 years, as the population bulgepasses through a whole genera-tion. Thus, although Americancouples in the recent past haveopted for smaller families, thegreater number of women able tobear children will likely result in aconsistent increase in birthsthroughout the 1970s and 1980s.

The basic age structure diagramfor the world, a certain country orregion, includes the percentagesof the total population in threeage categories: preproductive(ages 0 to 14), reproductive(15-29), and post productive (45 to75) (See Figure 1).

The distinctive shape of the agestructure graph indicates whethera population will increase, de-crease, or remain about the samein number. A rapidly expandingpopulation characteristically has avery broad base, which means arelatively high percentage of per-sons in the reproductive categoryand a still higher proportion inthe preproductive years soon toreplace them during the next 15years. The shape of a stable popu-lation approaching a zero growthrate (net death rate equals netbirth rate) is closer in shape to arectangle than a pyramid. Genera-

45

tions as well as age groups are ofroughly equal size in a stable agestructure. Therefore, there areabout as many persons of age 10as there are of age 20, 40, or 60. Adeclining population, finally, ischaracterized by a small base.

People of ages 20 to 65, thework force, must support childrenand retired people in addition tothemselves. The "dependencyload" is the ratio of old andyoung dependents (the top andbase of the graph) to the workforce. Because about 43 millionbabies, or approximately one-sixth of the present U.S. popula-tion, were born between 1947 and1957, a problem of the 1960s wasthat a relatively small work forcehad a large dependency load. Ex-trapolating present U.S. trends,this problem will likely reoccur by2030, when a relatively smallwork force born in the 196Js, 70s,and 80s will shoulder a large de-pendency load of retired people.The dependency load should de-crease, in comparison, during theperiod from 1975 to 200D, as thebaby boom generation movesthrough the work force.

While the 1980s and early 1970sin the U.S. marked the youth gen-eration, the years 1975 to 2005 willbe the period of young adults. As-suming no increase in death rates,older persons should arrive attheir highest proportion of thepopulation in U.S. history from'000 to 2030 or so Hence the term"aging population." In sum, abulge or indentation in the agestructure graph of a populationrepresents a potentially potentforce for social, political, and eco-nomic changes during a span ofsome 70 years.

Concepts

The shape of the age struc-ture diagram suggests wheth-er a given population mightgrow, con traLt, or stay thesame.

The dependency load of apopulation is the ratio of the

45.75

15-44

20-29AG 0-14E

CL.

ASS

60-75

45.59

30-14

15-29

0-14 :;:::.'-: .':%MALE %FEMALE

Rapid PopulationGrowth Doublingtune: 20-40 yrs

%MALE %FEMALE

Moderate to SlowPopulation GrowthDoubling tune: 41.120yrs

%MALE %FEMALE

Very Slow Growth orStable PopulationDoubling time:121-693 yrs

%MALE %FEMALE

Declining Population

45.75

15-14

20.29

0.14

60-75

45.59

3044

15-29

0.14

FIGURE 1. Four main types of age structure diagrams for human populations CIAI represent preproductive years (0-14). CM repre-sent reproductive years (15-44). 122 represent postproductive years (45-75). Dotted lines denote prime reproductive years (20-29)(Adapted from Miller, G. Tyler, Jr., Living in the Environment. Second edition, 1979, page 112.)

46

Very Fast GrowthMEXICO

b.....--1---i__Ty.-JI---448 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8

%MALE %FEMALE

age class

85+804475.79

70-74

65-69

60-64

55.59

SO-54

45-59

404435.39

30-34

25-29

20-24

15-19

10-14

5-9

0-4

6

Slow GrowthUNITED STATES

years of birth

before 1890

1890-94

1895-99

1900-04

1905-09

1910-14

1915-19

1920-24

1925-291930-341935-39

1940-44

1945-49

1950-541955.59

1960-64

1965-69

1970-74

4

4 2 0 2 4 6

%MALE %FEMALE

Very Slow GrowthSWEDEN

ii

6 4 2 0 2 4 6

%MALE %FEMALE

FIGURE' Age structure diagrams for Mexico, the United States, and Sweden. (Source. adapted from Miller, page 113.)

47

AGE

CLAS

S

85 +180-84

75.79

70-74

65-6960-64

55-59

50-5445.4940-4435-3930-34

25-29

20-2415-19

10-14

5.90-I

1960

Babies born 1955-1959

6 4 2 0 2 4 6

%MALE %FEMALE

85+80-84

75-7970-74

65-69

60-64

55-59

50-5445-49

404435-3930-34

25.29

20-24

15-19

10-14

5.90-4

1970

Babies born 1955-1959

6 4 2

%MALE

2 4 6

%FEMALE

as +80-84

75.79

70-74

65-69

60-64

55.59

50-54

45-49

404435-3930-34

25-29

20-24

15-19

10-14

5-90-4

1990

Babies born 1955-1959

4 2 0 2 4

%MALE %FEMALE

FIGURE 3. The age structure of the U.S. population in 1960, 1970, and 1990 (projected) Follow the gradual upward movement of thepopulation bulge of the bulnes born in 1955 to 1959. (Sauce: adapted from Miller, page 114.)

48

young and old dependents tothe size of the work force.

Objectives

At the completion of this ac-tivity the student should be ableto:

Define age structure and de-pendency load.

Identify the four main kindsof age structure diagrams forhuman populations.

Interpret an age structuregraph.

Compare different populationdiagrams.

Describe the basic effects of abulge or indentation in anage structure graph on thedependency load of a nation.

Materials

Transparencies and trans-parency projector.

ChalkboardConsumable paper in suli-

dent quantities.

Vocabulary

Age structure, or distributionPreproductiveReproductiveDependency loadBaby boomPostproductive

Procedures

1. Preparation for the lesson(a) Reproduce on a trans-

parency Figure 1 andmake four paper hand-outs corresponding tothe four graph typestherein.

(b) Reproduce four copies ofFigure 2 below, givingone copy to each group.

(c) Reproduce on a trans-parency Figure 3 below.

2. In the classroom.(a) Introduce the activity by

asking the student to an-swer the following ques-tions, then discuss thembriefly.1Do you think world

population is grow-

48

ing, declining, orstaying the same?(Ans.: Growing)

2Do you think theU.S. population isgrowing, declining,or staying the same?(Ans.: Growing)

3For a population toincrease in number,do you think it ismore important tohave more older peo-ple than youngerpeople, or moreyounger people thanolder people? (Ans.:More younger peo-ple)

(b) Utilizing a chalkboard il-lustration of a simplepyramidical structuregraph, define for the stu-dents the terms agestructure, dependencyload, preproductive, re-prodLctive and postpro-ductive. Hint at the im-portance of the shape ofthe diagram and clearlyexplain the axes. Com-pare the relative sizes ofthe pre-, re-, and post-productive age groups inthe four graphs. Taketime to let the studentsbecome acquainted v, ithand ask questions aboutthis unusual graphicform.

(c) Divide the students intofour equal groups with aone to one sex ratio ineach group if possible.Then, distribute one setof handouts to eachgroup, so that eachgroup has just one of thefour diagrams in Figure1. After a few minutes toexamine their graph, thegroups should in turn re-port to the class whetherthe population might ex-pand, decline, or staythe same. Write theseconclusions on the chalk-

49

board. Then, do thesame in reference to therelative sizes of the de-pendency load. Next,using the transparencyso that all students cansee all four diagrams,evaluate their conclu-sions, emphasizing theimportance of the per-centage of people belowage 29, especially below15, to populationgrowth.

(d) Hand out the sheet withthe more complex dia-grams of Figure 2, andallow a few minutes forthe students to digestthe diagrams. Using thetransparency of Figure 2,discuss with the stu-dents how the conceptsjust learned apply to realworld situations. Beforecomparing the three dia-grams, explain the axes,and the way the ageclass percentages sum to100 percent. Mexico is anexample of rapid popula-tion growth, the U.S. isslowly growing, whileSweden is growing veryslowly and is approach-ing ZPG. As of 1977,Mexico's population of66.9 million was growingat a rate of 3.4 percentper year, with a dou-bling time of 20 years,and will continue in thisregard due to its verybroad base. The U.S.had 218 million people in1977, growing at .6 per-cent yearly, for a dou-bling time of 116 years.Sweden, with only 8.3million, was growing ata .1 percent yearly rate,doubling itself in 693years.

(e) Finally, using the trans-parency of Figure 3,demonstrate the slowmovement of a given age

class up through thevarious age levels. Ex-plain what is meant bythe "baby boom," thenshow how the bulge,once it reaches the 30-34age class, has helped in-stigate another suchbulge. Compare the de-pendency loads in eachcase, and how it de-creases while the babyboom adults movethrough the work force.Explain that the popula-tion might rise evenwhen the average num-ber of children per fami-ly decreases, simply be-cause there is an increas-ing number of fertilewomen.

Extension

Divide the students into groupsof three to four. Ask that eachgroup provide a list of direct orindirect effects on the ale struc-ture of a population, and whatthese effects might have on theage distributions. Direct effects in-clude changing death, birth, orfertility (average number of chil-dren born yearly per woman aged15 to 44) rates, or change in theaverage age of first marriage. In-direct effects, which workthrough the direct effects, includewar, famine, disease, sanitation,nutrition, and medicine. Alter-natively, this might be a home-work exercise.

Evaluation

Ask or give a quiz containing afew factual questions about theage structure diagrams. For exam-ple, how much greater is the30-34 age group projected for theU.S. in 1990 than that of 1970?Also, encourage students to re-veal any dissenting opinions inprocedures 2. (d) and 2. (e). Final-ly, ask that students define orallythe vocabulary terms listed above

Resources/ReferencesChristensen, ).W. (1981). Energy, Resources

and Environment Dubuque, IA Kendall/Hunt. Chapter 4.

Council on Environmental Quality and theDepartment of State. The Global 2000 Re-port to the President. Volume 1, p 9

Miller, G T , Jr (1979) Living in the En-vironment. 2nd edition. Belmont, CA:Wadsworth. Chapter 7.

Activity 3:Air Quality and Automobiles

Overview

Students are introduced to theeffects of automobile exhaust onair quality. Students collect, ana-lyze, and describe particles in au-tomobile emissions. They test andcompare pH levels for the atmos-phere and automobile emissions.

Scientific Background and SocietalImplications:

It is generally assumed that theworld possesses an unlimitedsupply of air. Unfortunately, thisis not the case. The atmosphere isa gaseous envelope, consisting ofseveral layers, that surrounds theearth. Five to seven miles abovethe earth's surface is the tro-posphere. This layer contains 95percent of the earth's air. Thestratosphere extends above thetroposphere to about 30 milesabove the earth. From there, themesosphere exists until 53 milesabove earth. After that, the re-maining air in the atmosphere isreferred to as the thermosphere.Any pollutants added to the at-mosphere mix with each other orwith the natural components andoften result in chemical reactions.The formation of acid rain is anexample. Eventually, most ofthese pollutants and the chem-icals that they form are returnedto the land or water through pre-cipitation or fallout. While allsuch pollutants may not have anegative effect on ecosystems,certainly many do, especiallywhen one also considers the typ-ical rate of deposition and theability of ecosystems to absorband degrade the material throughnatural processes.

50

Periodic alterations in the com-position of the atmosphere arenormal. However, pollutants add-ed to the atmosphere as a resultof human activity can drasticallychange the atmospheric composi-tion. An altered world climate(through increased CO2 in the at-mosphere) and detrimental effectson life (including human) wouldresult.

The automobile is the majorsource of air pollution. Manytypes of pollutants are found inautomobile exhaust. The majorones are carboy monoxide (CO),hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides(N0x), particulate matter, andsulfur oxides (SO,c). Of these, car-bon monoxide is the number oneair pollutant. It is produced by theincomplete burning of carbon-containing substances.

There are two categories of airpollution: visible and invisibleBecause some exhaust gases areinvisible doesn't mean they areharmless. For example, carbonmonoxide is dangerous because itis an invisible, tasteless, andodorless grs. The effects of carbonmonoxide cn humans are: re-duced oxygen carrying capacity ofblood; impaired judgment; ag-gravation of heart and respiratorydiseases; headaches and fatigue atmoderate concentrations; anddeath Ly asphyxiation at pro-longed high concentrations.

Concepts:

Automobile exhaust pollutesthe atmosphere.

Emissions affect variousforms of life.

--Ways exist to improve airquality through technologyand life style changes.

Objectives:

At the completion of this ac-tivity the students should be ableto:

Describe the various productsof automobile exhaust.

Explain the various effects of

49

pollutants on our environ-ment.

Identify solutions to the carpollution problem.

Materials:

Every group of students shouldhave each one of the followingmaterials:

dean, white handkerchiefrubber band

dean, glass slidesmagnifying lens or micro-

scopelitmus paper

Vocabulary:

carbon monoxidehydrocarbonsnitrogen oxideparticulate mattersulfur oxideemissions (exhaust)

Procedures:

1. Introduce the activity byshowing the class contrastingpictures of air quality found inmagazines (heavily pollutedcity vs. clean one). Explain tothe students that they will bestudying the products found inautomobile exhaust. In order tovisually observe the products, itis necessary to collect someemissions. Have the studentsdo this as an experiment. Talkabout the varying charac-teristics of cars and assign eachindividual student or group ofstudents to measure a represen-tative sample. Distribute hand-kerchief and rubber band toeach with instructions that theyare to be used to cover the ex-haust pipe of a car. Tell them toput this over the pipe opening,warning them to keep their faceaway from exhaust fumes andnot to touch the pipe of an al-ready idling car. Leave it on forfive minutes while the car isrunning. Remove fixture andplace in a bag to bring back toschool the next day. Have thestudents record the model, en-

50 ,

gine size, year, and type of fuelused. Also explain that a com-parison will be made betweenthe pH level of the atmosphereand of the emissions. Place astrip of pH paper outside on aflat surface for 24 hours to accu-mulate dust particles. In thelaboratory moisten with a fewdrops of recently boiled dis-tilled water.2. Have students make obser-vations about the density ofparticles on their handkerchief.Scrape off the particles onto dif-ferent slides. Have the studentsexamine the particles under amagnifying lens or a micro-scope. Describe the color, size,and shape of the particles.3. Allow the students individu-ally to determine the pH of theexhaust gases. Rinse exposedportions of handkerchiefs with10 ml. of distilled water. Place afew drops of this rinse on astrip of pH paper. Make a com-parison between the atmo-spheric value and that for eachcar.4. Lead a discussion on theproblem of air pollution.

What accounts for the dif-ference, if there is any, inthe pH levels?

Recognizing that we areonly measuring a few carsfor a short period of time,what are the implicationswhen all the cars in theworld are accounted for?

Why are measured particlelevels different for differ-ent cars?

Point out environmentalimplications for living be-ings (acid rain, health con-sequences) as well as thedetrimental aesthetic ef-fects (accumulated filth).

Explain also the ethicalchoices involved in forcingchanges.

Now ask students to thinkof methods for controllingemissions from automo-biles.

51

Possible responses:Input approaches1. Reduce automobile use.

How?a) place taxes on gas-

oline, engine size, andcar weight.

b) banning cars in down-town areas.

c) modifying life-stylesand the design of citiesto require less auto-mobile use.

7.. Develop mass transit (rail-road, subway, bus) whichmoves large groups ofpeople and paratransit(carpools) which movessmall groups of people.Who should pay for this?Federal, state, local taxes?

3. Develop less pollutingand more energy efficientengines.

4. Use a cleaner fuel for theinternal combustion en-gine. i.e. natiral gas, bat-teries. Note: gasohol mayor may not be cleaner. Itsdevelopment is in re-sponse to the energycrisis not atmosphericpollution.

5. Improve fuel efficiency.This can be accomplishedby reducing the size,weight, wind resistance,and power of cars and byimproving the energy effi-ciency of transmissions,air conditioning and otheraccessories.

6. Modify the internal com-bustion engine to controlemissions and improvegas mileage. Such modifi-cations include carburetoradjustments, fuel injec-tion, and diesel and strat-ified-charge engines.

Output Approaches1. Control emissions from

the internal combustionengine more strictly, i.e.afterburners and catalyticconverters.

2. Treat urban air with

chemicals in order to re-duce the formation ofsmog.

Discuss the feasibility of each.Then ask the students:

What actually has been done?Discuss emission standards inparticular. Then ask:

Did it make a difference basedon observations?

Extension

Have the students consider thelong term effect of pollution cycleand implications for living organ-isms (including humans).

Evaluation

Comparing all the different dataof each student, have the stu-dents write a statement explain-ing the differences in emissionsfrom various cars and the desiredpolicies to follow.

Resources /References:Biological Sciences Curriculum Study

(1975). Investigating Your Environmenti'alo Alto, CA: Addison-Wesley Publish-ing Company.

Greisel, I. and Jensch, P. (1976). Invest:gattug Our Ecosystem Boston. HoughtonMifflin Company,

Miller, G.T., Jr. (1979). Living to the En-vironment. (2nd ed.) Belmont, CA.Wadsworth.

Activity 4:Thermal Pollution

Overview

The students are told a story ofdrastic changes in a lake eco-system. The students identifypossible causes for the changes.The activity ends with the teacherexplaining thermal pollution asone possible cause.

Science Background and SocietalImp lications

Though it is clear that tem-perature rises in a water environ-ment can change associated plantand animal communities, contro-versy arises around the conse-quences of the changes. There areboth beneficial and detrimental ef-fects of a rise in water tem-

perature in rivers, lakes, andocean coast lines.

Possible effects resulting fromwarming waters are:

Detrimental

a) Initial death of aquatic lifethat cannot adapt to rapidchanges in temperature.This can happen when apower plant first opens andagain when it closes for re-pairs.

b) Many aquatic species areless resistant to disease andother forms of pollution inwarm waters.

c) Less oxygen remains dis-solved in warm water.

d) Aquatic life in generalneeds more oxygen to livein warm water.

e) A lowering of species diver-sity due to the lack of heatsensitive species.

f) A change in type of speciespresent. (Example: increasein blue-green algae).Due to a lowering in keyspecies, the food chain maybe disrupted.

h) A change in time of laketurnover.

g)

Beneficial

i) In some areas a bolsteringof fishing and aquatic agri-culture industry. This mayresult due to introductionsof warmer water species tothe area. (Example: catfish,carp, lobsters, oysters,shrimp.)Decrease in winter ice cov-er.Increase potential for recreational uses.

I) Increase use for irrigation.m) Possible use for heating

buildings and industrialprocesses.

Electrical power plants, run onfossil fuels or nuclear reactions,release large quantities of excessheat. A typical cooling method in-volves piping cold water fromrivers, lakes, or oceans to the

1)

k)

52

heated portions of the plant. Thiswarmed water is often releasedback into its natural source. Theeffects of the hot water dependson the amount of heat added andthe quantity or flow of the naturalbody of water.

It was estimated by Murray andReeves in 1977 that close to 38percent of all water used in theUnited States was for cooling elec-tric power plants. The NationalWater Commission reported in1973 that it takes 1.23 billion gal-lons of cooling water per day tooperate a 1,000 megawatt nuclearpower plant. Most predict thatthe demand for electricity will in-crease by the turn of the century.If present trends persist, then, aproportional amount of cool waterwill be needed.

Many alternatives to the ther-mal dumping have been present-ed. Many suggest using the heat-ed water to heat homes and of-fices. To do this it would be nec-essary to place the power plantsin very close proximity of densepopulation regions. In this waytransportation of the heat wouldbe minimal in heat loss and cost.But this would put the public inclose proximity to additional airpollution and possible radioactiveleakage. A commonly used alter-native is large cooling reservoirs,either in the form of large towers,lakes or canals.

Concepts

Changes in the temperatureof water can change eco-systems.

Thermal changes may haveboth negative and positive ef-fects on a community.

There are costs, risks andbenefits related to the loca-tion and operation of powerplants.

Objectives:

After completing this activitystudents should be able to:

Describe causes of thermalpollution

51

Describe beneficial and detri-mental effects of thermal pol-lution on ecosystems.

Use inductive skills to ana-lyze a change in environ-ment.

Vocabulary

Thermal PollutionNuclear reactor

Materials

Chalkboard

Procedures

1. Introduce the students to theday's activitya story. Ask thestudents to make a list of allchanges that take place in thestory.2. Read or tell the story to thestudents. (If you are a good sto-ry teller then telling the story isfar preferable to reading it.)

My name is James D. White. Ileft my home ten years ago tosearch for fame and fortune andto get an education in college.My home town was built along alake. I remembered fondly how I.ised to fish in the lake. The oldmen that fished always laughedat me as they came running tohelp me with my line, for theyalways feared that the fishwould pull my pole and me withit right into the lake. I was al-ways very glad that they helpedfor I feared that if I did fall inthat I would freeze right up likean ice cube and never be able toget out. I loved fishing in thatlake over any other lake becauseI could often see all the way tothe rocky bed as the fish nibbledon my line.

I returned to my home townlast fall for the first time to findmany changes. Many new in-dustries, a new power plant,new stores and many more peo-ple had come to the town. Thetown even built a large publicswimming area beside the lakewhich I thought was crazy re-membering h'w cold the waterwas.

I decided that I would go fish-ing while I was there. But I firsthad to get a state fishing license.

walked to where I rememberedmy favorite small bait shop wasbut when I got there I found that

52

it had closed down. I askedsome people about it, they said Itclosed about eight years ago.They claimed that there was nodemand for a bait shop, and thatit was losing too much money. Ithought this was crazy. It hadbeen the best shop in town,every fisherman went there. Butthe people I talked to said thatall the bait shops in town closed,and that nobody in their rightmind fishes in that river any-more. I thought ar this point thatthey were really stupid, for I re-membered clearly how great thefishing was in the lake.

I went to the city hall, boughtmy fishing license, and went outto the lake To my dismay, in-stead of finding the lake spar-kling clear I found it dark and al-gae filled. I tasted and waited inexpectation. After a few minuteswithout luck I moved to a newspot Cast after cast, hour afterhour went by without a singlenibble.

Finally I moved out on a littlejetty of stones to cast from.Though I was very careful Islipped on what turned out to besome kind of green slime. As Istarted to fall I had flashbacks ofhow cold the water was when Iwas a child. But crashed Into thechest-deep water, I found that itwasn't cold at all. In fact it wasvery comfortable as lakes go.

As I headed back to town tochange my clothes, I thought ofall the changes that my hometown had gone through. I won-dered what happened that madethese changes.

3. On a chalkboard make a listof what the students wrote aschanges that occurred. Exam-ples:

a) new industries, newstores

b) new power plantc) more peopled) public swimming areae) bait shop closed, fishing

turned badf) blue-green algae rather

than clear waterwater warmedg)

4. Go through the list ofchanges and ask the students toclassify the changes as "bene-ficial," "undesirable," or both.

53

Example:BENEFICIAL - swimmingUNDESIRABLE - algae andslime, bad fishingBOTI -I - new industries,power plant, more people,water warmed

5. Turn to the first two catego-ries and ask the class whatchanges in the communitycould produce this effect.

Example:The students may say that

due to the increase in popula-tion of the area, a recreationfacility became necessary.Then you could add thatwouldn't the warming of thewater also have an effectsince it would have been im-practical to have a swimmingarea due to the water tem-perature previously? Thenask where the warmingmight come from.

Each change leads to pollutionof some sort from the new indus-tries or power plant, in particular,the warning from the thermal pol-lution of the power plant.

6. Explain that great amountsof heat are byproducts of powerplants, and that thermal dump-ing is a common method of dis-posal.

Extension

Ask the students if they canthink of any other beneficial ordetrimental effects of thermaldumping in other situations. Gothrough some ideas listed in thebackground material. Use theReader's Guide to Periodical Liter-ature to find current informationon uses for thermal wastes.

Evaluation

Have students complete a half-page rPper assignment on waysto d;spose of or use the heat with-out dumping it into waterways.

Resource; References:Andrews, W (1972) Environmental Pol-

lution Englewood Cliffs, New JerseyPrentice-Hall.

Cairns, J. Jr. (1971). 'Thermal Pollution. A

Cause tor Concern, Journal of the VaterPollution Control Federation, 43 55.66

Cairns, J Jr. (1970) "Ecological Manage-ment Problems Caused by HeatedWaste Water Discha,6e into the AquaticEnvironment," Water Resources Bis Ilein,6868.878.

Coutant, C.0 (1970). "Thermal Pollution.Biological Effects," Journal of the WaterPollution Control Federation 42 1025-1027

Miller, G T Jr. (1979) Living in the Environ-ment Belmont Wadsworth PublishingCompany.

Activity 5:Vegetation and Soil

Overview

Students predict, observe anddiscuss laboratory results. Over aperiod of days, they weight twodifferent soil samples, and plotthe results on graphs. For eachstudent, one container has baresoil and one has soil covered withlitter. Discussion questions focuson the importance of vegetationto soils.

Scientific Background and SocietalImplications

Vegetation shades soil andholds moisture and nutrients in anetwork of roots. When vegeta-tion prevents a soil from becom-ing dried out, it inhibits wind ero-sion because moist soil particlesadhere to each other. When clay-rich soil is dried out by the sun, itbecomes even more difficult fornew plants to take root because ahard crust forms at the surface.This hard crust can be softened byrain, but the bare soil is more like-ly to erode. Raindrops falling onbare soil can loosen particleswhereas soils with vegetation andlitter (dead leaves, twigs Of stems)slows the speed of falling rain andprotects soil from water erosion.

Soil loss has both environmen-tal and economic consequences.Because vegetation can fertilizeand stabilize soil, it is importantthat students understand the fun-damental connection betweenplants and soils. If students graspthis idea, they may gain a greaterappreciation of the need for soil

conservation practices, both onfarms and in urban areas.

Concepts

Litter from vegetation slowsthe rate of evaporation from asoil.

The a, ,ount of water lost toevaporation can be measuredby systematically weighingsamples before and afterwater has been added.Soil is a resource which needsto be preserved.

Objectim

At the completion of this ac-tivity a student should be able to.

weigh samples quickly andaccurately, and record thedata on a bar graph;

explain the role of vegetationin maintaining soil moisture;

discuss several causes for var-iations in the rate of evapora-tion (e.g., various types ordepths of litter).

Materials

Two 250 ml. beakers for eachstudent

Grease pencil or marking penLocal soil (a clay-rich typeis bestit holds waterinwater-tight containers to beused when soil is returned tothe collection site)

Stir ring rods or woodensticks

WaterGraduated cylinders

BalancesGraph paperVarious types of vegetation-

based litterleaves of trees,twigs, grasses

Vocabulary

water content bar graphwater erosion saturationevaporation rate soil

Procedures

Before classdetermine howmany milliliters are needed to sat-urate 200 f of the local soil. Usethis amount in Step 3 of the stu-dent procedure.

Before beginning the laboratoryactivity, the teacher can presentstudents with an idea exploration:

1 What do the students al-ready know about vegeta-tion? (Types, places it grows)

2. How might different types ofvegetation affect the soil dif-ferently? (e.g., soils undergrasslands are often very fer-tile, but soils are less fertileunder forests, because morenutrients are stored withinthe trees themselves.)

3. If we simulate vegetation byshading soil, what other var.

FIGURE ISHADED AND UNSHADED SOILS

Beaker #1 shaded Beaker #2 unshaded

Weight of empty beaker:

#1

Weight of beaker and dry soil:

#1

Volume of water in graduated cylinder:

Weight of beaker + water + soil.

Day 1

Day 2

Day 3

Day 4

Day 5

#2

#2

Day 1

Day 2

Day 3

Day 4

Day 5

54

yEINP.1.1,0

53

iables are we leaving out?(No roots)

4. Decomposing plant material,whether leaves in fcrests orstems and leaves in prairies,aids in protecting soils fromwind and water erosion.

Preparation of Soil Samples:

1. Have each student weightwo empty beakers, recordthe weights, label one beaker"shaded" and the other "un-shaded" and write his or hersame on each beaker.

2. Ask each student to add 200g. of soil to each beaker. Be-fore measuring, studentsshould try to approximate.

3. Have each student addenough water just to saturatethe soil in each beaker.

4. Form groups of 4. Chooseone type of litter and withineach group decide whichstudent will test these litterdepths. 1 cm., 2 cm., 3 cm.,4 cm.

5. Identify the bare soil con-tainer for each student as thecontrol, each littered con-tainer as the experimentalone.

6. Have students weigh and re-cord control and experimen-tal containers.

7. Place containers in a windowexposed to the drying effectsof the sun.

8. Weigh both containers daily.

Preparation of Graph:?repare an overhead or draw

on the board:

1 A sample of what should berecorded in the st'.dent's labnotebook, like the one in Fig-ure 1.

2 A sample of a bar graph,with beaker + soil + waterweight on the vertical scaleand day 1, day 2 .. . on thehorizontal scale. Studentsshould prepare two graphs,one with the data for shadedsoil, and one for the un-shaded Ask students to use

54

the same scale, so that theycan compare their graphsmore easily. Leave weekenddays numbered but withoutmeasurements.

Post-Laboratory Questions:

1. Does litter reduce soil dry-ing? Which type seems mosteffective?

2. Before measuring after aweekend, mark on eachgraph where you expect thenew data to appear. Testyour hypothesis with meas-urements.

3. What places around us haveno vegetation? (parking lots,streets, fields during winter)

4. Which ones have vegetationduring some part of theyear? (farms)

5. At what time of year mighterosion and drying be worst?(during dry months, whenthere is no vegetation, winderosion may be the worst)

6. What are some of the rea-sons that vegetation is cut?

7. If we were to use vertationmore effectively and not cutas much, how might that af-fect the soil?

8. If soils need to be quite dry(and sandy, for wind erosionto have much of an effect,then how might vegetationbe important?

9. Litter in home gardens iscalled mulch. How might avegetable garden benefitfrom straw or leaf mulches?

Extension

Students may experiment withdifferent types of soils, e.g. verysandy or clay-rich ones, to seewhich ones can absorb more wa-ter, beginning with equal weightsof soil.

The teacher may show pho-tographs of areas where severewind erosion has taken place, e.g.the Dust Bowl of the 1930's, orareas which are becoming desertstoday. Desertification may also bean appropriate paper topic, espe-

55

daily as it applies to agriculturalland.

Resources/References

Brown, Lester. (1981). Building A Sustaina-ble Society. New York W W Norton lcCompany. (See Chapter 1 )

Soil Conservation Service, U S Depart-ment of Aviculture

Actin ity 6:The Supply and Demand ofResources

Overview

Students are introduced to theconcept of supply and demandthrough a simulation about re-source allocation. S' _dents playthe role of rt.gulatory commissionmembers in charge of the alloca-.ion of a specific nonrenewable re-sourcesoil----and the role of rep-resentatives of societies thatrequire oil to survive and to de-velop. Students learn that re-sources are finite and, conse-quently, societies must sharethem. Resource constraints arepart of the reason why variouspopulations, far from being inde-pend nt, are interdependent.

Scientific Background and SocietalImplications:

The amount of a commodity,e.g., oil, that individuals (coun-tries) wish to purchase is calledthe quantity demanded. This quan-tity is determined by the com-modity's own price, the prices ofrelated commodities, average in-come, personal tastes, income dis-tribution and the size of the popu-lation. The fundamental law ofdemand states that the lower theprice of a commodity, the largerthe quantity that will be de-manded. The relationship be-tween quantity demanded andprice is represented graphically bya downward sloping demandcurve that shows how much willbe demanded at each market price(See Figure 1).

The amount of a commoditythat firms (countries) wish to sellis called the quantity supplied. This

5

4.6

O 3l'I

.za. 2

1

Figure 1 Demand

I I I i

50 100 150 200 250

Quantity of oil

quantity depends on the com-modity's own price, the prices ofother commodities, the costs ofproduction factors, the goals ofthe firm, and the state of tech-nology. In the case of a finite re-source the supply is fixed. Thebasic law of supply states that thehigher the price of the com-modity, the larger the quantitythat will be supplied. The rela-tionship etween quantity sup-plied and price is representedgraphically by an upward slopingsupply curve (See Figure 2). Inthis simulation of a natural re-source, the supply curve will bevertical, illustrating fixed supplyat any price.

5

4=0O 38a.

2

1

Figure 2 Supply

r 1 1 I 1

50 100 150 200 250

Quantity of oil

The equilibrium price is the oneat which the quantity demandedequals the quantity supplied (SeeFigure 3). At any price below the

equilibrium there will be excessdemand. Graphically, equilibriumoccurs where demand and supplycurves intersect.

5

15 3

1

Figure 3 Equilibrium

50 100 150 200 250

Quantity of oil

Price is assumed to rise whenthere is a shortage and to fallwhen there is a surplus. Thus theactual market price will be pushedtoward the equilibrium price, andwhen it is reached, there will beneither a shortage nor surplus.

Natural resources are com-modities. Actually, the com-modity is the "reserves" or thetotal amount of a given resourcein known sites that is profitablyextractable at present prices andtechnology. For nonrenewable re-sources, such as metals and min-erals, which may be used up or atleast depleted until further recov-ery is technologically and/or fi-nancially unfeasible, the term re-serves connotes limitation. Allnations face resource constraints;none can boat of self-sufficency.Subsequently, countries, far frombeing independent in their con-sumption of many renewable aswell as nonrenewable resources,are made more interdependent bythe natural limitations imposedon them. If one country, with suf-ficient power, sees fit to consumea relatively high proportion ofavailable oil, for example, othersmay be unable to develop as theywish, or, at the extreme, to sur-vive in their present state.

How should a resource be dis-

56

tributed? On what criteria shouldthis decision be based? Whoshould decide? One solution tothese policy-related problems ofethics is to let the marketplace al-locate, eventually reaching anequilibrium between supply anddemand. If the free market dis-tribution is for some reason con-sidered unequitable, however, analternative is to oversee the alloca-tion of the resource via a regulato-ry commission. This commissionworks toward the goal of an op-timal allocation in not only aneconomic sense, but also in a so-cial sense, taking into account jus-tice as well as economic power.

Concepts:

Resource constraints add tothe interdependence of na-tions.

The demand of a resource isgreater than its supply.Resource allocation is an eth-ical, and thus political, prob-lem.

Objectives:

After this activity studentsshould be able to:

Describe the relationship be-tween the supply of and de-mand for a resource.Discuss some factors that in-fluence resource allocation.

Distinguish between theamount of a resource neededfor the nation's survival, andthe amount necessary for de-velopment.

Materials:

40 3" x 5" notecards with thewords "25 units of oil"printed on them.Eight different handouts asdescribed below.

Vocabulary

SupplyDemandResource

ReservesInterdependenceEquilibrium

55

Procedures:

Prior to class:

1. Prepare four different paperhandouts in the following man-ner. On the first, for Group 1,print, "You are the chosen rep-resentatives of a country thatneeds 100 units of oil resourcesto survive, and 500 additionalunits to develop your economyto a more advanced state. Thereare 1,000 available units to beallocated amongst variouscountries by a commission. Youare to petition the commissionon behalf of your country." Dothe same for the remaininggroups but with these figures.For Group 2, use 0 units forsurvival (perhaps indicate thatthey burn wood for fuel) and400 unite to develop. Group 3needs 400 units to survive and100 more to develop. Group 4needs 200 units to survive butnone to develop. Do not informthe students of the entire totaldemanded.

Total survival units required:700Total development unitsneeded: 1000Total oil units available for al-location: 1000

2. Print or type four differentnotecards with the following:

Group 1: "Your country isoverpopulated and rapidlygrowing. You have no pollu-tion."Group 2: "Your country hasmoderate population growthand overpopulation but nopollution."Group 3: "Your country hasstable population and moder-ate pollution."Group 4: "Your country hasstable population but is pol-luting heavily. Pollution lev-els are hazardous to health."

In class:1. After briefly introducing thetopic of the day's activity (simu-lation game on resource policy),divide the class into five

56

groups. Designate one as theregulatory commission, withthe other four as different coun-tries. Distribute the differenthandouts to the four groups,asking that each group's hand-out remain confidential. Statethat your role will not be as theteacher but rather as an eco-nomic consultant to the reg-ulatory commission and thismeans periodic reports to betterinform the commission on vari-ous problems.2. Announce the first report ofthe consultant. As the commis-sion members are entrustedwith the notecards, tell themthat they are to decide how toallocate 1,000 units of oilamongst these four countries.Tell them to distribute the note-cards with a brief explanation oftheir reasons. (They will proba-bly give 10 notecards to eachgroup). In order for the consult-ant to gather data for researchask the commission members torequest pertinent informationthe country might have on oildemand.3. After careful consideration ofhow the initial allocation meetstheir demands (needs andwants), have each group, inturn, present to the commissionthe information on their hand-out. The other groups as well asthe commission should recordthe demands of their neighbors.4. Let the commission recon-sider its initial distribution andmake an oral report suggestingchanges to the group. Imple-ment their decisions by re-distributing the notecards.5. Announce the consultant'ssecond appointment with thecommission. Ask the commis-sion why they reallocated asthey did especially if one groupdoes not have enough survivalunits. Then the consultantshould expaain that the mainproblem is how to allocate the300 nonsurvival units. Point outthe underlying problem of "de-

57

mand" greater than "supply"and that ethical problems re-sult, i.e. who gets to develop.Tell the commission that it hascome to the attention of theanalyst through scientific inves-tigation that the countries In-volved have one of two prob-lems. Hand out to each grouptheir respective cards on pollu-tion and population providingthe commission with the infor-mation at the same time. Theconsultant should advise thecommission to reevaluate itssecondary findings and carryout a reallocation of oil, takingadvantage of the opportunity toalleviate the population andpollution problems.6. In a confidential meetingwith the commission, the ad-visor suggests, for instance,that Group 4 might be asked toclean up their pollution if theywant all of the necessary sur-vival units. Also, Group 1might be awarded their shareonly if population growth iscontrolled through policies. Thekey is to realize the increasedcomplexity associated with real-locating the oil. Let the commis-sion reconvene.7. After the commission hasannounced their new realloca-tion decisions and reasons, letthe groups take turns respond-ing to the new policies of thecommission.8. The teacher, in the role ofconsultant, summarizes theevents. Point out that countriesdo not consume resources with-out having some effect on othercountries, i.e. nonrenewable re-sources are finite and must beshared. Define interdependencein the context of the activitydone and describe how re-source constraints snake coun-tries more interdependent. Askthe groups why this might betrue? The reason is that the pro-gression from groups 1 to 4constitutes a transition fromless to more advanced societies.

That is why Group 1 needs somuch to develop and Group 4none. Explain the fact thatsome coutries, like Group 3 and4, might have more buyingpower than others. Note thatthis buying power ofter, worksagainst the commission's aim toallocate oil in an equitable man-n er.9. On the blackboard, repre-sent graphically, using the re-source units for the X-axis, howsupply was fixed in this case.Then, on a separate graph,show how the demand wouldlook if price was included.Combine the two graphs intoone, stressing the intersectionas an equilibrium point. Showhow excess demand in this casenecessitated the commiss'on toration supply, since price wasimplicitly held constant.

Extension:

As a homework exercise, askeach group, including the com-mission, to prepare a writtensummary of its actions and howthe allocations changed duringthe course of the activity. Includeany suggestions as to a better fi-nal distribution.

Evaluation:

To make sure that the groupsare paying attention to eachother, ask specific group membersat various times if they can de-scribe the present situation of an-other group. Conversely, askwhat are the possible conse-quences of not getting all the de-sired development units (distribu-tion is not necessarily an all ornothing process). Also, in step 9pick out specific points on the de-mand/supply graphs and askwhat they represent.

Resources/References:Lipsey & Steiner. (1981). Economics. (6th

ed.) New York: Harper and Row Pub-lishers, 190492.

Miller, G.T. Jr. (1979). Living in the Environ-ment. (2nd ed.) Belmont, CA: Wads-worth. Chapters 12, 14 and 19.

Activity 7:A Tragedy of the Commons:An Invitation to Inquiryin Human Ecology

Overview

Through art invitation to in-quiry, students are presented con-cepts from the tragedy of thecommons. Being applicable tocurrent local, national and globalsituations, the entire activity pro-vides a good interdisciplinary in-troduction to human ecology.

Scientific Backgrounds and SocietalImplications:

This activity is based on GarretHardin's classic article The Tragedyof the Commons (Hardin 1968). Thefollowing quotation from thiswork summarizes the essentialmaterial of this lesson.

The tragedy of the commons de-velops in this way. Picture a pas-ture open to all. It is to be ex-pected that each herdsman willtry to ke..:p as many cattle as pos-sible on the commons. Such anarrangement may work reasona-bly satisfactorily for centuries be-cause tribal wars, poaching, anddisease keep the numbers ofboth man and beast well belowthe carrying capacity of the land.Finally, however, comes the dayof reckoning, that is, the daywhen the long desired goal ofsocial stability becomes a reality.At this point, the inherent logicof the commons remorselesslygenerates tragedy.

As a rational being, eachherdsman seeks to maximize hisgain. Explicitly or implicitly,more or less consciously, heasks, "What is the utility to meof adding one more animal tomy herd?" This utility has onenegative and one positive com-ponent.1) The positive component is afunction of the increment of oneanimal. Since the herdsman re-ceives all the proceeds from thesale of the additional animal, thepositive utility is nearly + 1.2) The negative component is afunction of the additional over-grazing created by one more ani-mal. Since, however, the effectsof overgrazing are shared by all

58

the herdsmen, the negative util-ity for any particular decision-making herdsman is only a frac-tion of 1.

Adding together the compo-nent partial utilities, the rationalherdsman concludes that theonly sensible course for him topursue is to add another animalto his herd. And another; andanother. But this is the conclu-sion reached by each and everyrational herdsman sharing acommons. Therein is the trag-edy. Each man is locked into asystem that compels him to in-crease his herd without limitina world that is limited. Ruin isthe destination toward which allmen rush, each pursuing hisown best interest in a societythat believes in the freedom ofthe commons. Freedom in acommons brings ruin to all.(Hardin 1968, p. 1243-44)

Notice the assumption withinthe body of this synopsis whichpoints to a tragic conclusion.Hardin assumes uniform, ra-tional, profit maximizing behaviorby each individual, All herdsmenseek to keep as many cattle aspossible in order to maximizetheir personal gain. This is con-sidered rational behavior.

There are many scientific con-cepts included in the tragedy.Commons is defined as a naturalresource which has no acknowl-edged ownership. This may bepasturelands, woodlands, theocean, space, water, or the air. Inthis case, the commons refers toan open pasture. Another impor-tant topic concerns carrying ca-pacity. The maximum populationsize that a given ecosystem cansupport indefinitely under a givenset of environmental conditions iscalled the ecosystem's carrying ca-pacity. Here the ecosystem refersto the commons and the popula-tion is represented by the cattle.

The limiting factors that tend toregulate the maximum allowablesize of a population (carrying ca-pacity) are collectively called thepopulation's environmental re-sistance. If the cattle continuallyremove more palatable vegetation

57

in a year than the commons canregenerate, either unpalatableweeds take over or all vegetationslowly disappears, leaving se-verely eroded land that can be-come barren In either case, over-grazing causes the carryingcapacity of the commonstheamount of grazing that can besupported on a sustained basisto decrease.

Externalities, effects on partiesnot directly involved in the pro-duction or use of a commodity,and the associated problems arealso important. When oneherdsman raises one too manycows, he affects every otherherdsman's herd Yet this effecta cost to someone elsedoes notplay a role in the herdsman's pri-vate calculation of the cost of rais-ing that cow. He accrues the en-tire gain from the additional cowwhile all the herdsmen bear afraction of the overgrazing costWith these conditions, it becomesdesirable for every herdsman toraise as many cattle as possible.

We exist in a finite world withlimited land and resources. Afinite world can support only afinite population Eventually pop-ulation growth must equal zero. Ifthis doesn't occur, the demandfor resources exceeds the supplyand a deterioration in living con-ditions, quality of life, resultsQuality of life, like beauty, is inthe eye of the beholder, meaningmany different things to differentpeople Consider the case ofbank-robbing The robber acts asif the bank was a commons, Fromhis viewpoint, his quality of lifeincreases; however that of all thecustomers decreases.

Additional issues from thisquotation arise later. One impor-tant concept to understand is thatthis problem does not have atechnical solution (supply), butrather concerns values (demand).In order to remedy the situation,social stability (sustainability)must be given higher prioritythan personal freedom in land

58

use The commons can remain assuch only with low density of thecattle population.

These concepts can be appliedto real world conditions. Considerthe case of human population.The projected world population isestimated to be 6.35 billion in theyear 2000 A decision might bemade as to whether the personalfreedom to decide our family sizeshould be left to each family unitor regulated through governmentpolicies. Even if the birth rate isstable in a country, as in the U.Simmigration, if greater than em-migration, causes the populationto increase. Legal and illegal im-migrants total about one millionpeople per year and comprise alarge fraction of the total employ-ment in the U.S.

Pollution, even if population .sstable, can generate the tragedybut in a reverse way. Instead ofdepleting the commons, negativewastes are added. It is cheaper topollute the free resource ratherthan purify the discharges. Aslong as everyone behaves in thismanner, destruction of the com-mon results.

There are two types of solutionsto the problem. increase supply ordecrease demand. Reducing de-mand will require a reassessmentof values and, namely, the subor-dination of personal freedom tosocial necessity. In other words,the commons can no longer existas such.

Various alternatives exist to in-crease supply. The most obviousanswer is to increase the size ofthe commons. Understand that inorder to do so, other uses of landare foregone, i.e. parks, farmland.Assuming that the herdsmen con-tinue to act rationally, in a fewyears the cattle population onceagain meets environmental re-sistance. The soil and carrying ca-pacity are again exceeded. Nowthe town is faced with the sameproblem.

Another possible solution is totry to get more palatable vegeta-

59

tion out of the territory provided.This response is similar to the"Green Revolution." But, sup-pose that hybrid grasses increaseproduction. In a short time periodthe herdsmen will reach the carry-ing capacity limit by adding morecattle to the extra grass. They areback where they started. Theproblem has been merelypostponed, not solved. In addi-tion, benet lc diversity is reduced,meaning that exchanging all dif-ferent vanehes of grass for a moreproductive strain increases vul-nerability to plant disease and cli-mate extremes. Even with goodweather, these strains tend to re-quire much more water and fertil-izer which is costly.

Another solution might behybrid cattle. The same numberof cattle exist but provide morefood than previously. Again theproblem of a reduction in geneticdiversity arises. As the biggc,cows use more food it is the sameas adding more cows.

Several options pertaining to re-ducing demand are available. Onehas to do with educating theherdsmen about the conse-quences of overpopulating thecommons. This can be accom-plished thr Hugh the media,schools, or a town meeting. Thegoal is to persuade the herdsmento act differently, changing theirvalues. Merely appealing to theherdsmens' consciences will notremedy the problem. Those thatdo comply end up paying forthose who don't, losing sales. Thenoncomplying herdsmen are notpaying the full cost of their con-tinual overgrazing, shifting partof the cost to the socially con-scious citizens.

Laws could be enacted control-ling the cattle population. This isthe solution Hardin suggested,"mutual coercion, mutuallyagreed upon." Coercion is morepowerful than an appeal to con-science and would force the cit-izens to take responsibility fortheir actions. If they refuse to

obey the law, they are punished.At this juncture, the commonscease to be free to all. The landcould be divided up and parceledout as private property or a cattlelimit may be specified.

The optimal solution is to taxthe individual herdsman. A spe-cific tax per cow above a certainnumber, increasing in cost themore cattle added, would shiftthe cost on to the shoulders ofthat herdsman. This maintainspersonal freedom, the herdsmencart decide what is best for them,but it tends to favor those withmoney. The tax should be set upso that the carrying capacity is al-most exceeded, the tax on anothercow would be higher than theprofit it might generate.

Concepts

Exceeding land's carrying ca-pacity results in the tragedyof the commons.

To avert crisis and possibleruin, social and/or technicalsolutions are needed.

The relationship between in-dividual freedom and socialstability must be balanced inany sustainable solution.

Objectives:

After this activity studentsshould be able to:

Describe the problem of car-rying capacity in the com-mons in terms of supply anddemand.

Define carrying capacity andenvironmental resistance.

Explain how the problem ofcarrying capacity requires so-cial, not technical, solutions.

Propose and justify possiblesolutions to the commonsproblem.

Apply the problem of carry-ing capacity in the commonsto the real world.

Materials:

chalkboardfilm

Vocabulary:

supply hybriddemand tragedycommonscarrying capacitypopulation densityenvironmental resistenceexternalityquality of life

Procedures:

I. Provide the students withessential preliminary informa-tion through the following sto-ry:Imagine a designated area ofprairie land adjacent to a colonialtown where the townspeople al-low cattle to graze. This area wascalled a commons. The commonswas of a fixed size, about as bigas several city blocks, and wasused freely by anyone. Gradu-ally, herdsmen, the townmem-bers who worked in the com-mons, added more and morecattle to the commons. For atime everything was fine.Adding more cattle brought ex-tra money to the herdsmen be-cause they sold more beef anddairy products. There seemed tobe no problems, only profit, byadding more cattle.

But, after a while the towns-people started to observechanges in the cattle and in thecommons. They found out thatless milk and meat was beingproduced per cow and collec-tively than previously. Theynoticed many more hoof printson the soil, and a greater amountof dung than before. Moreover,they saw that the grass didn'tappear as tall, full-grown, andlush as before. In fact, some ofthe edible vegetation was beingreplaced by indigestible weeds.Also, in some areas of the com-mons, but by no means every-where, vegetation was slowlydisappearing. They observedthat land erosion had started tooccur, leaving behind some bar-ren soil patches. The cattle didn'tweigh as much as before either.

2. At this point stop the story lineto ask the students some questions.

What is happening in thecommons?Is something wrong?If so, what are the problems?

60

Note that the remarks aboutfootprints and manure were in-cluded to challenge the stu-dents to sift through the infor-mation they were given. List onthe chalkboard the suggestionsmade by the students. Possibleresponses included:

1. The cattle were losingweight because they weren'tgetting enough food.2. Less milk and meat is evi-dence of not enough food.3. Too many cattle eating atonce caused a reduction oflush pasture.4. Too many cattle were eat-ing the good vegetation fasterthan it could grow back.5. Overgrazing was causingweed replacement and soilerosion.

Confirm the correct responsesas being plausiP0.3. If available, show the film onthe Tragedy of the Commons. Af-terwards, compare the answersin this film to those listed onthe board.4. Continue the story again bytelling the students that thetownspeople decided to form agroup to suggest some ways toreduce the problem of the com-mons. They feel that unlessthey act, the situation will getonly worse and there may be acrisis.5. Stop and ask the students:

If you were a member of thatgroup, what are the optionsthat should be considered?What could be changed?

List student suggestions onthe chalkboard next to the pre-vious list.

1. Make the commons big-gerenclose another parcelof land to increase its area.2. Grow better grass to suffi-ciently feed the cattle.3. Limit the number of cattle.

6. Incorporate the students'ideas into the story. Start with

59

the solution to increase the landarea. Say that the committeedecided to try that first so theyannexed enough land to makethe commons 50% larger. Butafter a few years the same prob-lem cropped up. This was be-cause the herdsmen took ad-vantage of the extra land to addmore cattle and make moremoney.

Address the suggestion touse better grass. Suppose thecommittee decides to try thissoiution next. They planted atype of grass that grows higher,is more compact, and has betternutritional value. Theherdsmen, adhering to theprinciple of freedom in thecommons, added more cattle toeat the mo e plentiful grass.Within a few years, the sameproblem arose again.

The final alternative was tolimit the number of cattle. At-tempts to leave the commons asa free area were not working.They concluded that, instead oftrying to change the land, theywould change the people's be-havior. The committee realizedthey needed to act in social andpolitical arenas.7. Stop here and pose the question:

How could the committeelimit the herdsmen's use of thecommons? To answer this ques-tion, divide the students intogroups of 4 or 5, giving them 15minutes or so to do two things:discuss possible answers to thequestion and choose one ofthem to report to the class, in-cluding the pros and cons oftheir choice. Visit each group tofacilitate the quality of life dis-cussion. Reconvene the class,and list the various suggestionson the chalkboard. Possiblegroup responses inclt de:

1. Informally persuade boththe herdsmen and townspeo-ple that the cattle populationmust be maintained belowcarrying capacity.

60

2. Prohibit by force from hav-ing too many cattle.3. Charge the herdsmenmoney if they add too manycattle.

This first answer implies publiceducation Develop with thegroup this line of thought. Edu-cation may occur on several lev-elsschools, media (town ga-zette), public lectures, townmeetings, or peer pressure.

Which measures should betaken?Is it enough to educate theyoung, future herdsman?Should there be a compre-hensive effort?

Indicate the possible problemswith this approach. Those whoare conscientious may find theirreduced cattle numbers refilledby those who are more immuneto guilt, causing the same prob-lem to exist all over again. Thistime, however, the ones whoare conscientious are paying theprice for those who aren't, inboth lost sales and soil erosion.

The second answer is to enacta law. Again, develop the solu-tion of the group with them,recognizing that the law maytake various forms: a specifiedlimit on the number of cattle;the division of the commonsinto private property, or limiton the number of cattle dividedequally between the totalnumber of herdsmen. The pointis that penalties result for thosewho break the law in the formof a fine, prison sentence, or re-voking of cattle grazing priv-ileges. In the case of privateproperty, personal injurywould fall on the culprit, with-out direct harm to others sincethe lot is fenced in.

The final response is to taxherdsmen for use of the com-mons. This method doesn'tprohibit, it just gives biased op-tions. Perhaps the tax will beper additional cattle over a cer-

61

.t

tam limit, with possibly a :ugh-er tax as mere cattle are added.The tax may be high enough sothat adding another headwould cost more than it wouldsell for. Herdsmen are still ableto add cattle, but they pay theprice for exceeding their limit.Conclude the exploratory partof this activity by emphasizingthat at last the committee hadfound a viable and rather per-manent solution. The goal,however, is to get all townspeo-ple to understand and desire alimit on cattle so that law-breakers and tax evaders areminimized.8. Stop at this point.

Shift the explanation of thetragedy of the commons froman intuitive, qualitative ap-proach to one based on scien-tific concepts. Now present twoways to view the problem.First, start by defining carryingcapacity and describe how theproblem of overgrazing, causedby overpopulation, meant thatthe carrying capacity was ex-ceeded. Stress that sus-tainability is a major objectivefor the commons. Explain howthe cattle population met envi-ronmental resistance by defin-ing the term. Use the first listput on the board to relate theseconcepts to the story. Definewhat supply and demand referto in the context of this activity.Add that the committee wasnecessary to bring the two inequilibrium. This was accom-plished by decreasing demandbecause increasing supply cre-ated a vicious circle. increasedsupply always led to increaseddemand. Looking at the secondlist on the board, explain whyeach supply side solution was atechnical solution. Yet, theproblem at hand was not per-manently soluable by tech-nology.

Now refer to the third boardlist, talking about each sug-gestion in turn. Explain that the

solution had to be made by lim-iting demand which means avalue change. Explain how theherdsmen received all the salesbut paid only a fraction of thecost to the environment untilpublic sanctions were taken.

Elaborate on the conflict ofvalues; add the subordinationof individual liberty to use hecommons to social necessity,well being, and stability. Thepexists a loss but also a big socialgain. Give the bank robber ex-ample to clarify this concept.Propose that some freedomsmay not be desirable. Introducethe quality of life concept in re-lation to the story and the ex-ample just given.9. Challenge the students withthis question:

Is there any way in which thecommons could have beenleft as it wasfree to all?What had to be true for thisto occur?After a few minutes, definepopulation density and ex-plain how a low populationdensity averts the tragedy.

10. Finish the activity with the

important point that the abovediscussion applies to the realwort,;. Describe the analogy be-tween the cattle and humans,and the commons and theearth. Show how the conceptslearned can apply to the globalcvmmons for the case of pollu-tion, human population, etc.Concerning human population,the issue is: the freedom tobreed versus birth control pol-izies. Furthermore, taxes, edu-cation, laws, and technologyare all solutions to real worldproblems.

Extension:

Introduce a new variable intothe analysis: pollution Describehow this might generate the trag-edy even if population is stable.Explain the effect of excessive pol-lution, caused by population, onthe carrying capacity. Do this inthe context of the real world sothat current problems are dis-cussed. Optional: Note the weak-ness of the private property solu-tion in this context and theresulting externalities.

Introduce another variable to

62

the analysis immigration to theU.S.

Ask the students What do youpropose to do?

Evaluation:

In order to evaluate the stu-dents' understanding of the ideasbrought out in the story of TheTragedy of the Commons, ask thefollowing question as a writtenhomework °xercise or quiz.

The seas and ocean may be con-sidered a commons just likeland. Fishermen trying to catchtuna thought so. Unfortunately,as time has passed, the numbersof fishermen have increased yetthey have less and less tuna tocatch even though technologicalsolutions have been sought to in-crease the tuna supply. What ishappening here? Why?

Resources/ReferencesEnthoven, A.0 & Freeman, A.M., Ill.

(1973). Pollution, resources, and the en-vironment. New York. W.W. Norton &Company, Inc.

Hardin, G. (1968). "The Tragedy of theCommons," Science, 62:1243-1248.

Mayer, W.V. (1978). Biology !cockers' hand-book. New York: John Wiley and Sons

Miller, CT., Jr. (1979). Living in the en-vironment. (2nd ed.) Belmont, CA.Wadsworth

61

About the Author

Rodger W. Bybee recently served as guest editor of a special issue of the American

Biology Teacher journal that focused on human ecology. An associate professor ofeducation, he is chair of the Education Department at Carleton College in North-field, Minnesota. He holds a Ph.D. in science education from New York Universityand B.A. and M.A. degrees from the University of Northern Colorado. Bybee hastaught at the elementary, high school, and college levels and has written threebooks on science teaching, including, must recently, Violence, Valises and Justice in the

Schools, (Allyn and Bacon, 1982), and Piaget for Educators, (Charles E. Merrill, 1982).He was a coauthor of New Directions in Biology Teaching, (NABT, 1982). Bybee serveson the Ethics in Biology Committee and the Editorial Board for the American BiologyTeacher for the National Association of Biology Teachers.

6363