Day 4

• Wheat

• Flour milling

• Grains

Words, Phrases, and Concepts

• Endosperm• Germ• Bran• Whole grain• Gluten, glutenin, gliadin• Dietary fiber• Whole wheat flour and

wheat flour• Hard and soft wheats

• Soaker• Bleaching and

maturing agents• Amylase and falling

number• Malting• Patent, clear, straight

flours• Aleurone• Absorption value

Introduction

Wheat: – Is a cereal grain.– Most widely grown grain in world.

• Thousands of varieties available, adapted to different climates.

– Most popular grain in baking.• Forms gluten.• Mild, nutty flavor.

Wheat Kernel

• Also called:– Wheat grain – Wheat berry

• Three main parts: – Endosperm– Germ– Bran

Wheat Kernel

Whole wheat flour:– Is ground from entire

wheat kernel.– Is a whole grain.

White flour: – Is ground from white

endosperm.– Also called “wheat

flour”

Wheat Kernel

• Whether cracked, crushed, rolled, or ground, whole grains have the same amount of bran, germ, and endosperm as the original grain.

• Whole grains can reduce risk of certain diseases.

Wheat Kernel

Endosperm• Contains mostly starch.

– Starch is tightly packed inside granules. – Embedded in chunks of protein.

• Two important proteins: glutenin and gliadin.– Form gluten when flour is mixed with water.– Gluten network is important in structure of baked

goods.

Wheat KernelWheat germ:• Is the embryo of the

wheat plant.• Sprouts, or germinates,

into new plant.• High in nutrients.• Can be purchased

toasted.– Nutty flavor.– Less likely to oxidize

and turn rancid.

Wheat Kernel

Bran• Protective outer layer of kernel. • High in dietary fiber.

– Mostly insoluble fiber.– Good for health.

• Softens and swells when wet.• Can be purchased as flakes.

– Adds appealing rustic appearance to baked goods.– Valuable source of dietary fiber.

Makeup of Flour

White flour:• Ground endosperm. • Also called wheat flour.

– Do not confuse wheat flour with whole wheat flour.

• Key components: – starch– gluten-forming proteins

Makeup of Flour

White flour (cont.):• Also contains:

– Enzymes (proteins)– Moisture– Pentosan gums– Lipids – Ash– Carotenoid pigments

Classifying Wheat

• Wheat kernels: classified as hard or soft. • Additional ways of classifying: color of kernel,

planting time, botanical species.

• Six major classes of wheat in U.S.:– Hard red winter– Soft red winter– Hard red spring – Hard white– Soft white– Durum

Classifying WheatHard kernels are hard to mill.• Starch granules are damaged during milling.

– Absorb water more easily.• Flours are coarse and gritty.

– Do not pack well when squeezed in fist.– Good for dusting bench.

Classifying Wheat Flours

Hard Wheat Flours Soft Wheat Flours

Bread and high gluten flour

Cake and pastry flour

Form strong gluten Form weak gluten

Gritty to touch Soft and silky

Do not pack well Pack when squeezed

Yeast-raised breads Cakes, cookies

Particle Size

From largest to smallest in size:• Wheat berries• Cracked wheat and rolled wheat flakes• Farina and durum semolina• Flours, coarse and fine

Particle Size

Large grain particles: – Absorb water slowly.– Require gentle heating or overnight soaking

• Soaked, softened grains called “soakers”• Can be good source of enzyme activity

Additives and Treatments

• Vitamins and minerals– Added to enriched flour- by law! – Removing the bran and germ removes nutrients– Iron, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, folic acid added

• Natural aging (Maturing proteins)– Air (oxygen) is the “additive”

• Bleaching and maturing agents (Chemical)– Potassium bromate– Ascorbic acid and other bromate replacers– Benzoyl peroxide– Chlorine

Additives and Treatments

Additive Carotenoids Gluten Starch Use

Air (oxygen)

Whitens Strengthens --------- All flours

Potassium bromate

--------- Strengthens --------- High-gluten flour

Ascorbic acid

--------- Strengthens --------- High-gluten and some

bread flours

Benzoyl peroxide

Whitens --------- --------- All flours

Chlorine Whitens Weakens Increases ability to absorb water

Cake flour

Additives and Treatments

• Amylase– Enzyme; breaks down starch into sugars

• Most active on damaged starch granules (from milling)

• Activity increases during early stages of baking

– Has multiple functions• Provides food for yeast fermentation• Increases brown color and flavor from baking• Softens crumb and slows staling

– Falling number: measure of amylase activity in flour

Additives and Treatments

• Amylase– Good sources:

• Sprouted wheat berries • Soakers• Diastatic malt syrup• Rye flour• Untoasted soy flour• Malted flour• Dough conditioners

Additives and Treatments

• Amylase activity decreases when:– Amount of salt in dough is increased.– Baking temperature is increased.– Dough is retarded (refrigerated during

fermentation).

Additives and Treatments

• Malted flour– Grains of barley are malted, or sprouted,

before drying and pulverizing.– Used for its enzyme activity.

• Amylase and protease

– Also called dry malt, or simply malt.– Commonly added:

• By miller to bread and high gluten flour. • By baker to yeast doughs.

Additives and Treatments

• Dough conditioners– Also called dough improvers– Added to yeast doughs– Multi-functional; most common benefit:

• Strong gluten; for high volume and fine crumb.

– Uses• Large-scale bread bakeries• Frozen yeast doughs • To eliminate bulk fermentation of yeast dough

– Saves time, but flavor is sacrificed

Additives and Treatments

• Vital wheat gluten– Mostly gluten (up to 75 percent)– Creamy yellow powder– Added to yeast-raised doughs

• Improves flour quality• Increases water absorption

– Starting point: add 2-5 percent of flour weight

Commercial Grades of Flour

Patent flour: from heart of endosperm• Whitest in color, lowest in ash.• Most expensive.• Most white flours are patent flours.

Commercial Grades of Flour

Clear flour: from outer part of endosperm• Contains aleurone layer

– Nutrient rich– High in enzyme activity

• Used in rye and multi-grain breads

Commercial Grades of Flour

Straight flour: from entire endosperm• Not commonly used in U.S.

Milling

• In U.S. flours are milled based on separation of endosperm from bran and germ

• For whole wheat flour- recombined

• Distinct difference between milling of whole grain

Patent Wheat Flours

Bread flour• From hard red spring or hard red winter wheat• High in gluten-forming proteins• Unbleached or bleached• Often contains malted barley flour• Uses: breads, rolls, croissants, sweet yeast

doughs

Patent Wheat Flours

Artisan bread flour• From hard red winter wheat• Compared with regular bread flour:

– Lower in gluten-forming proteins (for irregular crumb) – Less water absorption (for crisper crusts)– Usually no added bleaching or maturing agents

• Uses: crusty lean baguettes, flat breads (tortillas, pita)

Patent Wheat FloursHigh-gluten flour• Generally from hard red spring wheat• Highest in gluten-forming proteins• Compared with bread flour:

– Higher water absorption– Requires more mixing to fully develop– Sometimes bromated

• Like bread flour:– Unbleached or bleached– Often contains malted barley flour

• Uses: bagels, thin crust pizzas, hard rolls

Patent Wheat Flours

Pastry flour• From soft wheat• Low in gluten-forming proteins• Usually unbleached• Low water absorption

– High spread in cookie dough

• Uses: cookies, pie pastry dough, muffins, cakes

Patent Wheat Flours

Cake flour• From soft wheat• Also called chlorinated or high-ratio flour• Stark white – highly bleached • Chlorine treatment:

– Increases water absorption, for thicker batters and stiffer doughs

– Weakens gluten

• Uses: high-ratio cakes, cookies

Patent Wheat Flours

All-purpose flour• From hard wheat, soft wheat, or blend• Also called H&R (hotel and restaurant) flour• Unbleached or bleached • Substitute with 60/40 or 50/50 blend of bread

flour and cake flour• Uses: breads, cakes, cookies, muffins, pastries

Other Wheat Flours

Whole wheat flour• From hard red wheat

– Whole wheat pastry flour is milled from soft wheat

• Also called graham or entire wheat flour• A whole grain• Many granulations available, from fine to coarse• Compared with white flour:

– Has higher absorption value; is a better drier– Forms less gluten– Baked goods are: denser, darker, stronger in flavor

Other Wheat Flours

Whole white wheat flour• From white wheat; hard or soft• Golden (not white) in color• A whole grain• Compared with regular (red) whole wheat flour:

– Lighter in color– Milder in taste– Same amount of dietary fiber

Other Wheat Flours

Durum flour and durum semolina• From endosperm of durum wheat

– Not whole grain

• Durum flour is fine; also called semolina flour.• Durum semolina is coarse; looks like cornmeal.• Compared with white flour:

– Yellow in color (high in carotenoids)– Very high in protein– Very hard kernel; hard to mill

• Uses: pasta, semolina bread

Functions of Flour

1. Providing structure– Essential in many baked goods and pastries

• Holds size and shape of leavened baked goods; prevents collapse.

• Provides thickening in pastry creams, pie fillings.

– From gluten, starches, and pentosan gums• Gluten is important in pie crusts and crisp, dry

cookies.• Starch is important in high-ratio cakes, muffins,

and cake-like brownies and cookies.• Both important in yeast-raised breads.

Functions of Flour

2. Absorbing liquids– Is a drier

• Absorption value of flour: amount of water absorbed by flour when forming bread dough.

– From gluten, starches, and pentosan gums• High-protein flours have higher absorption value

than low-protein flours.– From protein, damaged starch granules, and pentosan

gums.

• Chlorinated cake flours have high absorption value because of chlorine’s effects on starch granules.

Functions of Flour

3. Contributing flavor– Wheat: mild, nutty flavor

• Flours differ in flavor.• Whole wheat flour: strongest flavor.

Functions of Flour

4. Contributing color– From three sources

• Pigments in bran layer– Red wheat bran is brown in color; white wheat is gold.

• Carotenoids in endosperm– Durum wheat is highest in carotenoids; yellow in color.– Carotenoids whiten when bleached.

• Maillard browning during baking– High-protein flours typically brown more when baked

than low-protein flours.

Functions of Flour

5. Adding nutritional value– Contribute starch, vitamins, minerals, and

protein.• Protein in flour is low in lysine, an essential amino

acid.

– Whole wheat flour is better nutritionally than white flour.• Contains dietary fiber and many unidentified

health-promoting substances.• Offers protection against certain diseases.

Storage of Flours

Flour has limited shelf life. – Six months maximum.– Oils oxidize when exposed to air.

• Develops rancid, cardboard-like off flavors,

– Whole wheat flour most susceptible.• Bran and germ contain most of the oils in flour.

Storage of Flours

When storing flour: – Rotate stock: practice FIFO (first in, first out).– Do not add new flour to old.– Cover bins and store in cool, dry area.

• Ideally, store wheat germ and bran under refrigeration.

– Watch for infestation from insects and rodents.• Silky cobwebs are a sign of flour moths.

– Be especially vigilant with whole grains.

Words, Phrases, and Concepts

• Triticum grains• Cereal-free grains• Pumpernickel• Fermentation

tolerance• Phytonutrients• Degerminated• Limewater

• Masa harina• Groats• Hull or husk• Lignan• Phytoestrogen• ALA omega-3 fatty

acid• Mucilage

IntroductionMany variety grains are available to bakers.

– They vary in protein content.

– Most cannot form gluten.• Exception: triticum grains

Introduction

Classification of variety grains and flours:– Cereal grains and flours

• High in starch.• Rye, corn, oats, rice, pearl millet, and teff

– Alternative wheat (triticum) grains and flours• Spelt, Kamut, triticale, einkorn, emmer

– Cereal-free grains and flours• Amaranth, buckwheat, flaxseed, potato, quinoa,

soy

Cereal Grains

Rye– Traditionally grown in cold climates

• Russia, Eastern Europe, Scandinavia.• Rye bread consumption high in these regions.

– Characteristically strong flavor.– Oils oxidize easily, shortening flour’s shelf life.– High in pentosan gums.

• Increases absorption value of flour.• Important source of structure in rye dough.

– Rye bread formulas:• Traditionally are sourdoughs.• In North America, often include white (wheat) flour.

Cereal GrainsRye

– Limited ability to form gluten.– Bread doughs are easily overmixed and have

poor fermentation tolerance.• Breads tend to be dense and gummy.

Cereal Grains

Rye– Commercial grades:

• Light (white) rye: patent flour• Medium rye: clear flour• Dark rye: straight flour• Pumpernickel: whole rye flour

Cereal Grains

Corn– Also called maize.– Sold as flour, meal, or grits.

• The coarser the grain, the denser and crumblier the baked good.

– White, yellow, or blue in color.– Degerminated corn has oil-rich germ

removed.• Milder flavor.• Longer shelf life; less likely to oxidize.• Enriched, to replace valuable vitamins and

minerals lost in germ removal.

Cereal Grains

Corn– Forms no gluten.– White (wheat) flour added to baked goods, to

provide structure and fermentation tolerance.

Cereal Grains

Corn– Masa harina:

• Used in making corn tortillas.• Dried corn is soaked in limewater (alkali).

– Softens corn kernels; easier to grind.– Removes bran layer.– Yellows the color and changes the flavor.– Increases availability of nutrients.

Cereal GrainsOats

– Several products available: all are whole grain.

• Made from dehulled whole oat kernels (groats).

– Quick-cooking rolled oats are cut thin; regular rolled oats are coarser and chewier.

Cereal Grains

Oats– Rolled oats are steamed, then flattened

between rollers.• Softens and precooks oats.• Prevents rancid oil off-flavors from developing.

– Inactivates lipase enzymes.

– Contain the gum beta-glucan.• Gluey, gummy consistency.• Source of soluble dietary fiber.

– Commonly used in cookies, streusel toppings, muffins, breads.

Cereal Grains

Rice– Different varieties and types

• Long-grain rice– Holds its shape well, especially if par-boiled.

• Medium or short grain rice – Cooks into creamy, clingy texture.

• Brown rice is a whole grain– Takes longer to cook; has a chewy texture.

– Use: rice puddings, custards, pies

Cereal Grains

Rice flour– Uses: gluten-free baked goods; Middle

Eastern and Asian cakes and cookies.– Medium and short-grain white or brown:

• Best for gluten-free baked goods.

– Long grain:• Best for dry, sandy cookies, like shortbread.

– Also available: rice starch flour.• Purified rice starch (protein, etc. removed),

pulverized into flour.

Cereal Grains

Pearl millet– Grown in Africa and India. – Tiny tear-shaped grains that pop like popcorn. – Must be cooked in water to soften.– Millet flour used in India in roti (flatbread).

Teff– Grown in Ethiopia (in Eastern Africa)– Tiniest of cereal grains.– Teff flour used in a sour, spongy pancake

called injera .

Alternative Wheat Grains

Spelt– Like all triticum (wheat) grains, not appropriate

for wheat-free or gluten-free diets.– Ancestor of modern wheat. – Has close-fitting protective inedible husk (hull).

• Difficult to harvest: kernels do not fall out easily.• Easier to grow organically: kernels are protected

from insects and microorganisms.

– Grown as specialty or health food.– Forms weak gluten that is easily overworked.– Use in place of soft wheat flour.

Alternative Wheat Grains

Kamut– Ancestor of modern durum wheat; high in

protein. – Name is trademarked; licensed to those

growing the grain organically.– Large kernels.

• Two-three times size of regular wheat kernels. • Mild-tasting.

– Uses: whole grain pasta, bread, bulgur, couscous.

Alternative Wheat GrainsTriticale

– Cross between wheat and rye – Superior nutritional quality compared to

wheat.– Use instead of soft wheat.

Einkorn and Emmer (Farro)– Ancient; over 10,000 years old.– Close-fitting inedible husk; easy to grow

organically.– Einkorn: soft, sticky dough; Emmer: heavy-

textured bread.

Cereal-Free Grains and FloursAmaranth

– Small, light-brown seeds from herb grown in Central and South America.

– Unlike wheat and most cereal grains, high in lysine, an essential amino acid.

– Uses: multi-grain breads; pops like popcorn.

Cereal-Free Grains and Flours

Buckwheat– Not wheat; forms no gluten.– Has strong flavor and dark color; often

blended with white (wheat) flour.– Sold as:

• Coarse grits.• Finely ground flour, whole grain or not.• Whole kernels, roasted; called kasha.

– Uses: Russian pancakes (blini), Breton crêpes from north of France, Japanese soba noodles.

Cereal-Free Grains and Flours

Flaxseed– Small, hard, dark oval oily seeds.– Prized for its nutritional benefits:

• Soluble dietary fiber from gummy mucilage.• Lignan, an antioxidant phytoestrogen.• ALA omega-3 fatty acid

– Grind in blender or food processor before use.• Nutritional benefits available only when ground.• Refrigerate ground seeds, to minimize rancidity.

– Uses: add to batters and doughs for health benefits.

Cereal-Free Grains and Flours

Potato– Tuber (root), not grain. – Cooked and dried, then cut into flakes or

milled into flour.• Cooked (gelatinized) starch is easily broken down

into sugars by amylase.• Increases water absorption of doughs; improves

fermentation.

– Uses: soft, moist yeast breads.– Also available: potato starch flour.

• Highly purified; protein, etc. removed.

Cereal-Free Grains and Flours

Quinoa– Small, round seeds.– High in healthful unsaturated fatty acids.

• Oxidizes easily; refrigerate ground quinoa.

– Like amaranth, • Grows in South America.• High in lysine, an essential amino acid.

– Uses: multi-grain breads.

Cereal-Free Grains and Flours

Soy– Oily legume; not a cereal grain or seed.– Very high in protein and fat, low in starch.– Defatted (fat removed) for use in baking.– Two types:

• Untoasted; acts as a bleaching and maturing agent from active enzymes.

• Toasted; excellent source of nutritionally high-quality protein and other nutrients.

– Uses: yeast doughs; milk and egg substitutes in various products

Lab

• Exercise 1 and 2

• Identify various grains/flours by sight and touch- answer questions- pg. 102 and 127

• Hydration comparison

Lab• Each Group- Follow directions on pg. 104

for Flours as driers

• Gr 1: Bread/ Semolina

• Gr 2: Whole wheat/ Soy

• Gr 3: Cake/ Rye

• Gr 4: High gluten/White whole wheat

• Pg. 104- use 6 qt. mixer- ½ formula- 250 g flour etc.