David A. Aaker -

BUILDING STRONG BRANDS

f.~ n US INE SS

CONTENTS

Preface vii

1. What is a Strong Brand? 1

The Kodak Story 2 What Is Brand Equity? 7 Brand Awareness 10

Perceived Quality 17 Brand Loyalty 21 Brand Associations 25

Objectives of the Book 25 Building Strong Brands-Why Is It Hard? 26

2. The Saturn Story 37

Saturn-A Strong Brand? 38 How Saturn Built a Brand 42 Challenges Facing Saturn and General Motors 61

3. The Brand Identity System 67

What Is Brand Identity? 68 Brand Identity Traps 69 Four Brand Identity Perspectives 78 The Identity Structure 85 Providing a Value Proposition 95 Providing Credibility 103

iii

iv CONTENTS

The Bottom Line: A Brand-Customer Relationship 103

Worlting with Multiple Brand Identities 104

4. Organizational Associations 107

The Body Shop Story 108 The Story of Branding in Japan 110 The Brand as Organization 114 Organizational Associations 117 How Organizational Associations Work 130

5. Brand Personality 137 The Harley-Davidson Story 138 Measuring Brand Personality 142 How a Brand Personality is Created 145 Why Use Brand Personality? 150 The Self-Expression Model 153 The Relationship Basis Model 159 The Functional Benefit Representation Model 168 Brand Personality versus User Imagery 170 Brand Personality as a Sustainable Advantage 173

6. Identity Implementation 175

The Brand Position 176 Achieving Brilliance in Execution 186 Traclting 189 A Strategic Brand Analysis 189 The Power of Brand Identity and Position 201

7. Brand Strategies Over Time 207

The General Electric Story 208 The Smirnoif Story 211 Why Change Identities. Positions or Executions? 216 Why Consistency (If Done Well) is Better 218 Consistency Over Time: Why Is It Hard? 224 The Search for the Fountain of Youth 230

8. Managing Brand Systems 239

Toward a System of Brands 240 Driver Roles 243 The Endorser Role 245 Strategic Brands 247

CONTENTS V

Subbrand Roles 248 Branding Benefits 257 Silver Bullets 261 How Many Brands? 264

9. Leveraging the Brand 269 The Healthy Choice Story 270 The Kingsford Charcoal Story 273 Line Extensions 275 Moving the Brand Down 278 Moving a Brand Up 287 Brand Extension Decisions 291 Creating Range Brands 292 Co-Branding 298 The Brand Systems Audit 300

10. Measuring Brand Equity Across Products & Markets 303 Young & Rubicam's Brand-Asset Valuator 304 Total Research's EquiTrend 309 Interbrand's Top Brands 313 Why Measure Brand Equity

Across Products and Markets? 314 The Brand Equity Ten 316 Loyalty Measures 319 Perceived Quality and Leadership Measures 323 Associations/Differentiation Measures 326 Awareness Measures 330 Market Behavior Measures 331 Toward a Single Value of Brand Equity 333 Adapting the Measures to a Brand's Context 337

11. Organizing for Brand Building 339 Brand-Building Imperatives 340 Adapting the Organization for Brand Building 342 The Role of the Agency 348 A Parting Word 357

Notes 359 Index 367 About the Author 381

INDEX

Aaker, David, 280, 283, 297 Absolut vodka, 155, 212 Advantage, sustainable

with brand personalities, 173-74

organizational associations as,136

Advertising agency brand strategy role, 348-57 Saturn's choice, 59

Agres, Stuart, 97,303 Alba, ]oseph w., 297 American Express, 230 Apple Macintosh

personality of, 154 softening strong association,

254 Aristotle, 239 Asahi Breweries, 111, 113-14 Assets, brand

brand loyalty as, 8, 21 brand name awareness as, 8 perceived quality as, 17-21 See also Brand Asset Valuator;

Brand equity; Personality, brand

Associations as asset in brand equity, 8 meaningful pattern of, 93- 95 measures of Brand Equity Ten,

318-19, 326-30 Saturn creation of, 41 using subbrands to augment or

modify, 253-55 Associations, organizational

with brand as organization, 116-17, 130-31

in brand identity, 117 changing, 253 concern for customer, 125, 127 corporate brand, 116-17 impact on credibility, 134-35 innovation, 124-25 in measurement of brand

associations, 326-29 perceived quality, 123-24 presence and success, 127-28 SOCiety/community orientation,

118-23 timing of use, 135-36 See also Credibility; Value

Attributes, organizational, 82-83

367

368 INDEX

Attributes, product effect on brand personality, 146 identity trap with fixation on,

76 Attributes, product-related

associations, 80-82 organizational, 82-83

Audience, target, 179-80 Awareness. See Brand name

awareness

Barkey, Stephen, 283 Belk, Russell, 99, 157 Benefits

in brand system, 257-61 in brand value proposition,

95-103, 131 customer, 179 relation of price to, 102 See also Emotional benefits;

Functional benefits Ben & J erry' s

Heath Bar Crunch, 259 society/community orientation,

118-19 Betty Crocker, 154, 260 Bhat, Subodh, 280 Black & Decker

high-end DeWalt brand, 287 upscale Quantum subbrand, 193,

289 Black Gold brand identity, 350 Blackston, Max, 161-62 Black Velvet

brand identity, 92 consistent brand strategy, 219,

221-22 position statement, 185

BMW subbrands, 284 Body Shop

brand identity, 108-10

organizational values, 115-16 Brand as organization, 82-83,

115-17,130-35,329 See also Associations, organiza-

tional; Identity, brand Brand Asset Valuator, 304-9 Brand awareness, 330-31 Brand behavior, 165-66 Brand-bridging, 246 Brand building

adaptation of organization for, 340-42

in Japan, 113 organization and coordination for,

340-42 Saturn Corporation, 38-39 strong brands, 26-36, 354-55

Brand company role, 343-44 Brand concept

broadening, 76-79 identity traps, 69-76

Brand equity advantages of measuring,

314-15 Brand Equity Ten measurement

criteria, 316-17 brand personality to create, 151,

153 creating Saturn, 60-61 creation by brand personality,

153-74 defined, 7-8 measurement, 304, 333-36

Brand Equity Ten measures, 318-33

Brand extension. See Extended identity; Product class extension; Range brands

Brand goodness, 19 Brand image

difference from brand identity, 69-71

as reflection of current percep-tions,180

Branding benefits, 257-64 Brand managers, 344-48 Brand name

dominance, 15-16 in updating brand identity, 232

Brand name awareness as asset in brand equity, 8 creating brand awareness,

16-17 measures of Brand Equity Ten,

318-19,330-31 relative strength ofbrand,

10-16 Saturn creation of brand aware-

ness, 41 strategic awareness, 17

Brand Personality Scale, 143-44

Brand position advantage over competitors,

182-83 attainability, 185 defined, 71, 176 identity trap, 71-72 power of, 201-5 as reflection of desired percep-

tions, 180-82 role of, 176-85

Brand positioning statement, 183-85

Brand relationship quality (BRQ), 166-67

Brands creating upscale version, 287-91 as descriptor, 249-51 distinct from product, 72-73 expression of personality with,

155-57 idea of relationship with person,

159-67

INDEX 369

management with complexity, 241-42

moving toward high end, 287-91

moving toward low end, 278-86 as organization, 130-31 as person, 83-84 as personal statement, 156 presence and success, 127-28 roles in brand system, 243-47 strategic analysis of, 189-201 as symbol, 84-85 top brands (Interbrand), 313-14 See also Brand building; Co-

brands; Corporate brand; Driver brand; Identity, brand; Leveraging the brand; Loyalty, brand; Personality, brand; Strategic brands

Brands, strong building, 26-36,356-57 factors conflicting with

building, 26 Brand strategy

complexity and relationships, 27, 31-32

in Japan, 110-14 Brand strength

brand dynamics model, 307 Interbrand criteria, 313-14 Saturn, 38-39

Brand system audit, 300-301 benefits of branding features of,

257-61 goals of. 241-42 bierarchies in, 242-43 managing, 241-42 role of subbrand in, 248-57 See also Identity, brand

Brand system audit, 300-301 Bronizrczyk, Susan M., 297

370 INDEX

Burger King, 213, 216 Competition Butterfinger, 148, 150 in development of Healthy

Choice, 270-73 C effect of brand loyalty on, 21-22 C

Calvin Klein range brand, 293-94, effect of new, 278 -79 297 effect of product line extensions

Canon on,277 R&D facility, 112, 133 effect on building brands, 27, Rebel camera, 151-52,235 29-30 C

Caples, John, 67 vodka market, 155,211-16 Carpenter, Gregory S., 259 Competitors Category brands analysis in strategic brand analy-

defined, 298 sis, lOO, 193-96 C manager of, 345 influence on brand bUilding,

Chief executive officer (CEO) 26-27, 29-30 role in brand identity, 344 in measuring price premium, role in corporate identity, 127 320,322

Clausewitz, Karl von, 175 Component brands, 259-60 Clinique brand position, 181 Composite brands, 299-300 Clorox Computer market subbrands, 283

development of Kingsford ConAgra, 270-73 Charcoal,273-74 Consistency (

Hidden Valley products of, 117 in brand strategy, 218-30 ( Clubs and usage programs, 187 forces influencing changes in Co-brands brand identity, 224-30

in brand leveraging, 298-300 with multiple-brand identities, in brand system audit, 301 104-5

Coca-Cola of top brands (EquiTrend), alternative advertising teams, 310-11 (

186 Consumers ( using symbols as link to heritage, choices with product class

235 extension, 278 Collins Radio, 236 perceived quality in choice of, Communication 123-24

achieving brilliance in execution, segmentation by brand relation-186-89 ship, 164-65

advertising agency role in, See also Customers; User 349-57 imagery

of brand position, 180-82 Contadina, 76 coordination of, 346 Coordination Saturn integrated focus, across company businesses,

58-61 345-46

in brand building strategy, 341-42

Coors, 288 Core identity

of brand identity, 68-69, 85-95 in brand position, 178 with move to high-end market,

288-89 Core values

customer first, 125 in Harley-Davidson ownership,

138-40 Corporate brand

brand-as-product, 116-17 in brand system hierarchy, 242 credibility of, 131-32 development ofGE, 208-11 in Japan, 114 organizational associations,

116-17 permanence, 114

Cosby, Bill, 147 Credibility

attributes of credible organiza-tion, 132-35

endorser role in, 103 Japanese strategy to establish,

111-12 Crull, Timm, 339 Cultural meaning

in brand personality, 153-54 cultural stereotypes, 170

Customer clubs, 23-24 Customer relationship

benefits in value proposition as basis for, 131-32

with brand, 103-4 with Saturn, 51-56

Customers analysis of, 190-93 benefit to, 179 brand awareness, 10-17

INDEX 371

core value of customer first, 125 loyalty, 5, 21-25, 319-23 loyalty segmentation; 22-23 perception in Brand Equity Ten

measures, 318-19 perceptions of, 47-51 satisfaction, 322-23 segmented by brand relation-

ships, 164-65 trend toward value, 278-79 value of brand equity for, 8-9 See also Consumers; User

imagery

Database marketing, 24-25 DDB Needham, 122 Differentiation

brand, 114-17, 150-51 brand dynamics model, 306 market, 104-5 perceived quality position in, 19 subbrands, 285-89 summary measure of brand

associations, 329-30 Direct response marketing, 187 Divestment candidate brand,

247-48 Dollar metric, 320 Downs, Bob, 37 Downstream enhancement, 290-91 Driver brand, 243-45 Dron, Bob, 137 DuPont user imagery, 234

Eastrnan, George, 2 Economies of scope (range brands),

294 Edison, Thomas, 208 Emotional benefits

as product attributes, 97-99

372 INDEX

Emotional benefits (cont.) relation to seU-expression, 101

Endorser brands in brand systems audit, 300 parent brands as, 103 relation to driver brand, 245-47

Energizer rabbit, 168 EquiTrend

brand equity research, 309-12

financial performance research, 18

Esteem concept, 325-26 Event sponsorship. 187 Evian.97-98 Extended identity

of brand identity. 68-69 in identity structure. 85-86.

87-92

Federal Express. 232 Financial performance

driven by perceived quality. 17-18

short-term focus. 34-35 Fluke.lohn.261.263 Ford Motor Company. 133 Forte Hotels Group subbrands.

252-53 Fournier. Susan. 165. 166 Frequent-buyer programs. 23-24 Functional benefit representation

model. 168-73 Functional benefits. 95-96. 99. 326

Gallo. 289. 290-91 Gates. Bill. 127. 147 General Electric

development of corporate brand • image. 208-11

updating of brand identity. 232-33

General Motors brand names. 264 managing market success. 61-63 relationship with Saturn Corpo-

ration. 63-65 role in Saturn brand building

strategy. 43. 46 Gerstner. Lou. 19 Gestalt psychology, 93-95 Gillette range brand strategy. 294 Glazier, Rashi. 259 Goldberg. Marvin E .• 128 Graveyard brands. 11-13. 15

Haas. Robert. 107 Halloway. Steve. 37 Hanlin. Russell L .• 1 Harley-Davidson. 138-41 Harper. Mike. 270 Hartwick. 10hn. 128 Healthy Choice. 76

development of product brand. 270-73

identity with range brand. 293 Heinz

ketchup. 76 perceived as local brand. 129

Heritage brands challenge in updating. 230-36 links to identity of, 235

Herman Miller, 122 Hewlett -Packard

credibility. 133 innovation. 125 linking brand to product class. 80

Hidden Valley dressing. 197-99.249-50 energizing a product line •

276-77

parent company, 117 Hitachi, 112 Holiday Inn high-end addition, 288 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 269 Honda range brands, 296 Hyatt branded services, 260-61

IBM image, 148 stand-alone brand, 281

Identity, brand adaptation to different markets,

104-5 augmenting, 233-35 avoidance identity traps, 76-79 in brand building, 340-41 in brand differentiation, 115 brand equity manager for,

342-43 brand manager for, 342 brand personality to differentiate,

150-51 brand position in, 176 -77 changing, 32 competitive advantage, 204 core and extended identity,

68-69, 85-95 corporate brand association with,

. 116-17 definition and function, 68 dimensions of, 68-69 effect of creating new, 223-24 employee perspectives, 200 global or local, 128-30 limitations of product attributes

as basis for, 75-76 in multiple markets, 104-5 organizational associations as

part o( 130-35 power o( 201-5 product thrust, 78-82

INDEX 373

range brand decisions, 293 relation of perceived quality to,

19 strategy in Japan, 110-14 updating challenge, 230-36 when brand moves down or up, .

279-91 See also Brand position; Core

identity; Extended identity Identity/execution

different rationales for changing, 216-18

effect of consistency in, 218-24 effect of misconceptions, 226-28 forces influencing change in,

224-30 Identity traps

brand concept, 69-76 release from, 77-78

Ingredient brands (in co-branding), 298-99

Innovation corporate brand association with,

124-25 Japanese corporate brand associ-

ation, 111-12, 124 line extensions as channel for,

277 organization bias against, 32-33

Intel Intel Inside campaign, 12-14 price premium measurement,

321 Interbrand brand equity analysis,

313-14

JackDaniel's,169,l71 Jell-a, 233 John, Deborah R., 280 Johnson & Johnson

core identity, 123

374 IND EX

Johnson & lohnson (cont.) credibility, 133

loyner, Florence Griffith, 1

Kao Corporation, 111-12, 130 Keller, Kevin, 134, 280, 297 Killian's Red, 169 King,Stephen, 107 Kingsford Charcoal, 273 Kodak

camera modernization (1888), 2-3

early distribution strategy, 3 future strategy, 5, 7 role of George Eastroan in, 2-3 society/community orientation,

122-23 as strong brand, 2-7

Kraft/General Foods range brands, 295-96

Lasser, Stuart, 37 Leadership

measurement, 325 relation to perceived quality,

324-25 LeFauve,Itichard,37 Leverage points (in brand

position), 178-79 Leveraging the brand

brand extension, 291-92 co-branding, 298-300 line extension, 274-77 moving the brand down,

278-86 Levi Strauss

brand-bridging, 246 credibility, 133 society/community orientation,

119

user imagery to augment identity, 233-34

user imagery to change personality, 172

Ught, Larry, 175 Linchpin, 248 Loblaw's, 124 Loken,Barbara, 280 Lone Star beer, 128 Loyalty, brand

as asset in brand equity, 8 maintaining Saturn, 62-63 measures of Brand Equity Ten,

319-23 price premium as indicator of,

320-22 Saturn performance, 40-41 value of, 21-25

McCarty, Michael S., 297 McCracken, Grant, 153-54 McDonald's

brand identity, 90, 93 brand posi lion leverage points,

178-79 Ronald McDonald, 222-23 society/community orientation,

120-21 McKenna, Regis, 75, 261 Management

of brand equity, 8 of brand identity, lOS, 240 of Saturn by General Motors,

61-65 by Saturn of brand equity, 39-41 of strong brands, 16-17 See also Total quality manage-

ment(TQM) Managers

in brand building, 344-48 forces influencing brand

identity/execution, 224-30 gl8intenance of brand identity

and position, 224-30

.,arJceting database, 24-25 dUeCtresponse, 187 relationship, 113

Market price, 332-33 Market research

for price premium, 320-21 in product attributes, 73-76

Saturns,40 Markets

coordination in brand building across, 340

differentiation, 104-5 fragmentation effect on building

brands, 27, 30-31 measures ofbehavior, 318-19,

331-33 measures of behavior in Brand

Equity Ten, 318-19 moving brand to high end,

287-89 subbrand opportunities,

255-56 Market share, 332-33 Marlboro, 78

consistent brand strategy, 218, 222

strategy to move brand down, 282

Marriott core identity, 104 May tag, 218-20, 222-24 Mazda, 112-13 Media

brand building coordination across, 339-40

fragmentation effect on building brands, 27, 30-31

Megabrands ability to extend, 298

INDEX 375

defined, 292 Mercedessubbrands,284 Metaphors

brand as ship, 21 with brand-as-symbol concept,

85 in brand personality. 150 in execution of communication,

188 MetLife

image, 148-49 symbol, 134, 148

Michelin, 168-69 Milberg, Sandra J., 297 Miles, Michael, 207 Milker brand, 248 Miller Lite

effect of identity change, 229-30, 231

use of reference groups, 172 Mitsubishi, 114

Nakamoto, Kent, 259 Nestle

augmenting Contadina products, 234

revival ofButterflngers, 148, 150 Nike

brand identity, 91 brand position leverage points,

179 as a person, 154-55 self-expressive brand benefits,

99-100 strategic opportunism, 256

Nissan, 213

Oral-B branded feature concept, 257-58 range brand strategy, 294

376 INDEX

Organization Peters, Tom, 346 adaptation for brand building, Pillsbury dougbboy image, 148-49,

342-48 168 attributes of credible, 132-34 Pogo, 339 brand company role in, 343-44 Posner, Fred, 161 coordination in brand building, Power grid, 309 I

339 Price influence on brand building, in brand identity, 102

27-28,32-35 reduction in moving brand down, presence and success, 127-28 281-82 role in brand identity differentia- Price competition

tion, 114-17 effect on building brands, 26-27, Saturn Corporation, 43, 46 28-29 self-analysis in brand identity effect on Kodak, 7

development, 196-20 Price premium, 320 See

limitations, 96 relation of price to benefits, 102 seU-expressive benefits,

99-102 Product category, 298 Product class

corporation involvement with, 116-17

linking brand to, 80 perceived quality meaured

across, 324 range brand identity across,

292-98 Product class extension

effect on consumer choices, 278 subbrand use in, 256-57

Product line in brand system hierarchy, 243 identity within range brand, 293 range brand applied to several,

293-98 product shows, 187 Promotions, 187 Publicity stunts, 187 Public relations, 187

Quaker Oats fusing functional and emotional

benefits, 99 new products to update brand

identity, 233 Quality

actual, 20 brand relationship, 166-67 Saturn goal of, 42-43 in strategy to move brand down,

281-82 Quality, perceived

as asset in brand equity, 8, 17-20 brand association as, 17-21

INDE X 377

creating, 19-20 differences from real quality,

20 as dimension of brand equity,

323-24 in EquiTrend brand equity

analysis, 310-11 measures of Brand Equity Ten,

318-19, 323-25 retail brands, 123-24 Saturn perfonnance, 40 Saturn's need to maintain, 62

Range brands advantages, 294-95 as alternative to brand extension,

292-98 in brand system audit, 300 in brand system hierarchy,

242-43 development of,

296-98 role of manager, 343 See also Category brand

RCA heritage link, 235-36 Recall

brand, 11-13, 15 difference from recognition,

11-15 Saturn product, 46

Recognition brand, 10-13 as part of brand awareness,

10-11 Reebok, 122 Reeves, Rossor, 228 Reinhard, Keith, 351 Relationship

brand-customer, 51-56, 103-4, 131, 159-67

378 INDEX

Relationship (cont.) customer segmentation by,

164-67 Relationship basis model,

159-67 Relationship marketing, Japan, 113 Relevance (brand dynamics model),

307 Retailers

effect oflower cost environment, 278-79

retail brand name products, 123-24

of Saturn as brand builders, 53-57,63

Return on investment (ROI),17-1B Rice-A-Roni

fusing functional and emotional benefits, 99

upscale move, 290 Roddick. Anita, 10B-10, 127 Romeo, Jean B., 2BO

Salience, 309-10 San Jose Sharks, 262 Saturn,7B

brand identity, 89 brand position, 178 local opposed to global identity,

129 organizational values, 115 society/community orientation,

119 Schaefer, Steve, 38 Schultz, Howard, 67 Schwab, Charles, 147 Segmentation

of customers by brand relation-ship, 164-67

loyalty, 22-23

Self-analysis, lOO, 196-97, 200-201

Self-expression model, 153-59 Self-identity brands, 153 Service cluster, 351-52, 355 Shakespeare, William, 207 Shocker, Allan, 254

. Silver bullets, 261-64, 300 Sinclair, Jeffiey. 239 Slogans

function of, 58 in updating brand identity,

232-33 Smirnoff vodka, 211-16 Smucker's, 253-54 Stand-alone brands

competing with range brands, 295

in lower-price market, 281 in upscale market, 291

Stolichnaya vodka, 155, 212 Strategic brands

analysis, 189-201 in brand system audit, 300 role in brand system, 247-48 See also Competitors;

Customers; Self-analysis Strategic intent, 70 Strategic opportunism, 255-56 ·Strategy

advertising agency role, 346-55

consistency in brand strategy, 218-30

coordination in brand building, 339-40

Japanese, 110-14 to move brand down or up,

281-91 range brand, 294 Saturn brand building, 42-61

of Satum to build strong brand, 42-61

See also Brand strategy Subaru, 181 Subbrands

to augment identity, 235 in brand system hierarchy,

243 in brand systems audit,

301 descriptive, 249-51 differentiation as lower-priced

entry,285-87 in entry low end market,

283-84 in mOve to high-end market,

288-89 signaling of value positioning,

284 structure and clarification,

251-53 See also Silver bullets

Sung Youl Jun, 254 Suntory, 114, 130 Swatch,l33 Symbols

brand-as-symbol, 84-85 in execution of communication,

188 influence on brand personality,

148 as links to heritage identity,

235-36 range brands as spanning,

292-98 role in reinforcement of brand

attributes, 168-69 role in updating brand identity,

232 Synergy

with brand system, 241

INDEX 379

of co-branding. 300 with range brands, 294-95

Talgo,Scott,99,137 Taster's Choice, 75, 234-35 Tauber, Edward, 269, 296 Team approach, 43-46, 186

See also Coordination Technological change, 279 Tesco supermarkets' quality,

124 Tests for communications impact,

188-89 3~innovation, 124-25 TImberland boots, 259 Toothpaste companies range brand

strategy, 294 Toshiba, 114 Total quality management (TQ~),

18-19 Tukey, John, 303

User base expansion, 276 User imagery

in augmenting brand identity, 234

creating and using, 170-73 effect on brand personality, 147

User satisfaction (EquiTrend evaluation), 310-11

Value of brand equity assets, 8-9 created by brand identity and

position, 201-5 in measurement of brand

associations, 326-27 organizational, 115

380 INDEX

Value (cont.) in organizational association,

130-35 See also Core values; Loyalty,

brand Value proposition

brand--eustomer relationship as, 103- 4

defined,95 functional benefits, 95-96, 326 organizational association

conbibutionsto, 130-31 organizational attribute

contribution to, 83 . product-related attribute can

create, 80-81

relation to brand position, 176-78

See also Brand position

Walton, Sam, 127 Weigbt Watchers, 76, 146 Wells Fargo Bank, 77-78, 93, 151,

168

Xerox, 33-34

Zimmer, Mary R., 280

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