236 SECTION 2 Consumers as Individuals

As the technology to track where we go online continues to improve, so too does marketers’ ability to send very specific messages to us based upon the other places we’ve surfed. Increasingly we will see ads for categories of products we have shown interest in before, whether these are tennis rackets or bank loans. The advertising industry refers to this technique as personalized retargeting . This is a form of behavioral targeting, but unlike other techniques that just serve up messages based on general interests (e.g., if you visit an NFL team’s site you might get an ad for Under Armour workout clothing), retargeting provides messages that refer to the exact product you checked out. It’s almost starting to feel as if companies are sitting right behind us as we move from Web site to Web site. What’s really happening is that when you visit an e-commerce site like Zappos and check out a pair of Steve Madden shoes, a cookie gets inserted in your browser that links to that item. When you use your computer again, the advertising system creates an ad for that same item. Google introduced this technique in 2009, and now the company makes it available to all advertisers who use its AdWords network. 61

The Dark Side of Consumer Behavior

In late 2008, a crowd assembled for a big holiday sale at a Wal-Mart store in New York. When the doors opened, the crowd trampled a temporary worker to death as people rushed to grab discounted

merchandise off the store shelves. A lawsuit filed on behalf of the man’s survivors claimed that in addition to providing inadequate security, the retailer “engaged in specific market-ing and advertising techniques to specifically attract a large crowd and create an environ-ment of frenzy and mayhem.” 63 Just how far will people go to secure a bargain?

Despite the best efforts of researchers, government regulators, and concerned indus-try people, sometimes consumers’ worst enemies are themselves. We think of individuals as rational decision makers, calmly doing their best to obtain products and services that will maximize the health and well-being of themselves, their families, and their society. In reality, however, consumers’ desires, choices, and actions often result in negative con-sequences to individuals and the society in which they live.

Some of these actions are relatively harmless, but others have more onerous con-sequences. Some harmful consumer behaviors, such as excessive drinking or cigarette smoking, stem from social pressures, and the cultural value many of us place on money encourages activities such as shoplifting and insurance fraud. Exposure to unattainable ideals of beauty and success can create dissatisfaction with ourselves. We will touch on many of these issues later in this book, but for now let’s review some dimensions of the “dark side” of consumer behavior.

Consumer Terrorism

The terrorist attacks of 2001 were a wake-up call to the free-enterprise system. They revealed the vulnerability of nonmilitary targets and reminded us that disruptions of our financial, electronic, and supply networks can potentially be more damaging to our way of life than the fallout from a conventional battlefield. These incursions may be deliberate or not—economic shockwaves from “mad cow” disease in Europe are still reverberating in the beef industry. 64 Assessments by the Rand Corporation and other analysts point to the susceptibility of the nation’s food supply as a potential target of bioterrorism . 65

Even before the anthrax scares of 2001, toxic substances placed in products threat-ened to hold the marketplace hostage. This tactic first drew public attention in the United States in 1982, when seven people died after taking Tylenol pills that had been laced with cyanide. A decade later, Pepsi weathered its own crisis when more than 50 reports of syringes found in Diet Pepsi cans surfaced in 23 states. In that case, Pepsi pulled off a PR coup de grace by convincing the public that the syringes could not have been introduced during the manufacturing process. The company even showed an in-store surveillance video that caught a customer slipping a syringe into a Diet Pepsi can while the cashier’s

As online tracking meth-ods proliferate, your surfing choices become part of a broad network

of data that specialized companies buy and sell. These operations embed a code called a beacon in people’s hard drives that cap-tures what they type on Web sites, such as their comments on music, clothes, or even their interest in getting pregnant or buying a treatment for erectile dysfunction. They pack-age that data into anonymous profiles, then sell these profiles to companies that want to reach just those kinds of people. For example, a typical deal for a buyer that wants to locate movie lovers is about $1.00 per thousand names.

How widespread is this practice? A Wall Street Journal study found that the nation’s 50 top Web sites, on average, installed 64  pieces of tracking technology onto the computers of visitors, usually with no warning. Profiles are bought and sold on stock- market-like exchanges. For example, a company called BlueKai sells 50 million pieces of information like this about specific individu-als’ browsing habits, for as little as a tenth of a cent apiece. The auctions can happen instantly, as a Web site is visited.

When the researchers at the newspaper used their company computer as a guinea pig, they found that major Web sites such as MSN.com and Yahoo’s ad network placed numerous tracking files filled with data that enabled the programmers to predict a user’s age, Zip Code, gender, income, marital sta-tus, presence of children, and home owner-ship, as well as lifestyle interests such as concerns about weight loss. 62

The Tangled Web OBJECTIVE 3 Consumer activities can be harmful to individuals and to society.

MyMarketingLabVisit www.mymktlab.com to test your understanding of chapter objectives.

CHAPTER 6 Personality and Psychographics 237

head was turned. 66 Pepsi’s aggressive actions underscore the importance of responding to such a crisis head-on and quickly.

More recently, a publicity campaign for a late-night cartoon show backfired when it aroused fears of a terrorist attack and temporarily shut down the city of Boston. The “guerrilla marketing” effort consisted of 1-foot-tall blinking electronic signs with hang-ing wires and batteries that marketers used to promote the Cartoon Network TV show Aqua Teen Hunger Force (a surreal series about a talking milkshake, a box of fries, and a meatball). The signs were placed on bridges and in other high-profile spots in several U.S. cities. Most depicted a boxy, cartoon character giving passersby the finger. The bomb squads and other police personnel required to investigate the mysterious boxes cost the city of Boston more than $500,000—and a lot of frayed nerves. 67

Addictive Consumption

Although most people equate addiction with drugs, consumers can use virtually any product or service to relieve (at least temporarily) some problem or satisfy some need to the point that reliance on it becomes extreme. Though addictions of course include alcoholism, drug addiction, and nicotine addiction, it seems we can become dependent on almost anything—there is even a Chapstick Addicts support group with 250 active members! 68 Consumer addiction is a physiological or psychological dependency on products or services. Many companies profit from selling addictive products or from sell-ing solutions for kicking a bad habit.

This ad from Singapore discourages young people from using ketamine, an animal tranquilizer. Source: Used with permission of Saatchi & Saatchi of Singapore.

238 SECTION 2 Consumers as Individuals

Addiction to Technology Even technology can be addicting, as anyone with a BlackBerry can attest: Some people call this little device by the nickname of “CrackBerry” because it’s so hard to stop checking it constantly. Some psychologists compare social media addiction to chemical dependency, to the point of inducing symptoms of withdrawal when users are deprived of their fix. As one noted, “Everyone is a potential addict—they’re just waiting for their drug of choice to come along, whether heroin, running, junk food or social media.” 69 The country with the largest number of social media addicts today? According to a Nielsen survey, it’s Italy, which has the highest per capita use of Facebook of any nation. Psychologists there report that addicts are ignoring the real world as they choose to stay connected to their virtual worlds day and night. The country’s 16 million Facebook users spend an average of 6 hours and 27 minutes on the site per month. 70 The problem continues to grow as more of us “drink the Kool-Aid”; you may have spent that much time on your Facebook page before you came to class today!

Internet addiction has been a big headache for several years already in South Korea, where 90 percent of homes connect to cheap, high-speed broadband. Many young Koreans’ social lives revolve around the “PC bang ,” dim Internet parlors that sit on prac-tically every street corner. A government study estimates that up to 30 percent of South Koreans under 18 are at risk of Internet addiction. Many already exhibit signs of actual addiction, including an inability to stop themselves from using computers, rising levels of tolerance that drive them to seek ever-longer sessions online, and withdrawal symptoms such as anger and craving when they can’t log on. Some users have literally dropped dead from exhaustion after playing online games for days on end. 71

Other problems arise when people become overly involved in playing online games. Consider these two tragic cases:

• In the UK, a 33-year-old widowed mother let her two dogs starve to death and ne-glected her three kids after becoming hooked on the online game Small World . A judge banned her from going on the Internet. The woman slept only two hours a night as she played the virtual reality game (in which dwarves and giants battle to conquer the world) almost nonstop for six months. Her children—aged 9, 10, and 13—had no hot food and “drank” cold baked beans from tins because there were no spoons. When the family’s two dogs died from neglect, she left their bodies rotting in the din-ing room for two months. 72

• An American woman pled guilty to a charge of second-degree murder in the death of her three-month-old son. The 22-year-old mother lost her temper when her child began crying while she was playing FarmVille on Facebook; she shook the baby until it died.

Compulsive Consumption

Some consumers take the expression “born to shop” quite literally. They shop because they are compelled to do so rather than because shopping is a pleasurable or functional task. Compulsive consumption refers to repetitive and often excessive shopping per-formed as an antidote to tension, anxiety, depression, or boredom. 73 “Shopaholics” turn to shopping much the way addicted people turn to drugs or alcohol. 74 One man diag-nosed with compulsive shopping disorder ( CSD ) bought more than 2,000 wrenches and never used any of them. Therapists report that women clinically diagnosed with CSD outnumber men by four to one. They speculate that women are attracted to items such as clothes and cosmetics to enhance their interpersonal relationships, whereas men tend to focus on gadgetry, tools, and guns to achieve a sense of power.

One out of twenty U.S. adults is unable to control the buying of goods that he or she does not really want or need. Some researchers say compulsive shopping may be related to low self-esteem. It affects an estimated 2 to 16 percent of the adult U.S. population. 75 In some cases, like a drug addict the consumer has little or no control over his or her con-sumption. Whether it is alcohol, cigarettes, chocolate, diet colas, or even Chapstick, the products control the consumer. Even the act of shopping itself is an addicting experience

CHAPTER 6 Personality and Psychographics 239

for some people. Three common elements characterize many negative or destructive consumer behaviors: 76

1 The behavior is not done by choice. 2 The gratification derived from the behavior is short-lived. 3 The person experiences strong feelings of regret or guilt afterward.

Gambling is an example of a consumption addiction that touches every segment of consumer society. Whether it takes the form of casino gambling, playing the “slots,” betting on sports events with friends or through a bookie, or even buying lottery tickets, excessive gambling can be quite destructive. Taken to extremes, gambling can result in lowered self-esteem, debt, divorce, and neglected children. According to one psycholo-gist, gamblers exhibit a classic addictive cycle: They experience a “high” while in action and depression when they stop gambling, which leads them back to the thrill of the action. Unlike drug addicts, however, money is the substance that hard-core gamblers abuse.

Consumed Consumers

Consumed consumers are people who are used or exploited, willingly or not, for com-mercial gain in the marketplace. The situations in which consumers become commodi-ties can range from traveling road shows that feature dwarfs and midgets to the selling of body parts and babies. Check out these consumed consumers:

• Prostitutes —Expenditures on prostitution in the United States alone are estimated at $20 billion annually. These revenues are equivalent to those in the domestic shoe industry. 78

• Organ, blood, and hair donors —By one estimate, you could make about $46 million if you donated every reusable part of your body (do not try this at home). 79 In the United States, millions of people sell their blood. A lively market also exists for organs (e.g., kidneys), and some women sell their hair to be made into wigs. Bidding for a human kidney on eBay went to more than $5.7 million before the company ended the auction (it’s illegal to sell human organs online . . . at least so far). The seller wrote, “You can choose either kidney. . . . Of course only one for sale, as I need the other one to live. Serious bids only.” 80

This Brazilian ad is part of a campaign to combat cigarette addiction. It looks like we’re actually ahead of schedule! Source: Courtesy of ADESF Association for Smoker Awareness; Neoqama/BBH.

As the song says, “one is the loneliest num-ber.” A German print ad campaign for one-calorie

PepsiMax depicts a lonely calorie trying to kill himself in a variety of grisly ways, such as slitting his blue wrist with a razor blade. Suicide prevention groups reacted angrily. In the United States, General Motors encoun-tered similar protests when it aired a Super Bowl commercial that showed a lonely robot considering suicide. 77

Marketing Pitfall

240 SECTION 2 Consumers as Individuals

• Babies for sale —Several thousand surrogate mothers have been paid to be medically impregnated and carry babies to term for infertile couples. A fertile woman between the ages of 18 and 25 can “donate” one egg every 3 months and rake in $7,000 each time. Over 8 years, that’s 32 eggs for a total of $224,000. 81 In one case in Germany, po-lice arrested a couple when they tried to auction their 8-month-old son on eBay. The parents claimed that the offer, which read “Baby—collection only. Offer my nearly new baby for sale because it cries too much. Male, 70 cm long” was just a joke. 82

Illegal Activities

In addition to being self-destructive or socially damaging, many consumer behaviors are illegal as well. Analysts estimate the cost of crimes that consumers commit against busi-ness at more than $40 billion per year. A survey the McCann-Erickson advertising agency conducted revealed the following tidbits: 83

• Ninety-one percent of people say they lie regularly. One in three fibs about his or her weight, one in four about income, and 21 percent lie about their age. Nine percent even lie about their natural hair color.

• Four out of ten Americans have tried to pad an insurance bill to cover the deductible. • Nineteen percent say they’ve snuck into a theater to avoid paying admission. • More than three out of five people say they’ve taken credit for making something

from scratch when they have done no such thing. According to Pillsbury’s CEO, this “behavior is so prevalent that we’ve named a category after it—speed scratch.”

Consumer Theft and Fraud Who among us has never received an email offering us fabulous riches if we help to re-cover a lost fortune from a Nigerian bank account? Of course, the only money changing hands will be yours if you fall for the pitch from a so-called advance-fee fraud artist . These con men have successfully scammed many victims out of hundreds of millions of dol-lars. However, a small but intrepid group of “counterscammers” sometimes give these crooks a taste of their own medicine by pretending to fall for a scam and humiliating the perpetrator. One common strategy is to trick the con artist into posing for pictures hold-ing a self-mocking sign and then posting these photos on Internet sites. Both online and off-line, fraud is rampant.

Stealing from stores is the most common. Someone commits a retail theft every 5 seconds. Shrinkage is the industry term for inventory and cash losses from shoplifting and employee theft (it does not refer to the condition George experienced in a famous episode of Seinfeld ). This is a massive problem for businesses that gets passed on to consumers in the form of higher prices (about 40 percent of the losses can be attributed to employees rather than shoppers). Shopping malls spend $6 million annually on secu-rity, and a family of four spends about $300 extra per year because of markups to cover shrinkage. 84

Indeed, shoplifting is America’s fastest-growing crime. A comprehensive retail study found that shoplifting is a year-round problem that costs U.S. retailers $9 billion annu-ally. The most frequently stolen products are tobacco products, athletic shoes, logo and brand-name apparel, designer jeans, and undergarments. The average theft amount per incident is $58.43, up from $20.36 in a 1995 survey. 85 The problem is equally worrisome in Europe; retailers there catch well over 1 million shoplifters every year. The United King-dom has the highest rate of shrinkage (as a percent of annual sales), followed by Norway, Greece, and France. Switzerland and Austria have the lowest rates. 86

The large majority of shoplifting is not done by professional thieves or by people who genuinely need the stolen items. 87 About 2 million Americans are charged with shoplift-ing each year, but analysts estimate that for every arrest, 18 unreported incidents occur. 88 About three-quarters of those caught are middle- or high-income people who shoplift for the thrill of it or as a substitute for affection. Shoplifting is also common among adoles-cents. Research evidence indicates that teen shoplifting is influenced by factors such as

CHAPTER 6 Personality and Psychographics 241

having friends who also shoplift. It is also more likely to occur if the adolescent does not believe that this behavior is morally wrong. 89

And what about shoppers who commit fraud when they abuse stores’ exchange and return policies? Some big companies, such as Guess, Staples, and Sports Authority, use new software that lets them track a shopper’s track record of bringing items back. They are trying to crack down on serial wardrobers “who buy an outfit, wear it once, and return it”; customers who change price tags on items, then return one item for the higher amount; and shoppers who use fake or old receipts when they return a product. The retail industry loses approximately $16 billion a year to these and other forms of fraudulent behavior. Retail analysts estimate that about 9 percent of all returns are fraudulent. 90

Anticonsumption Some types of destructive consumer behavior are anticonsumption , events in which people deliberately deface or mutilate products and services. Some of these actions are relatively harmless, as when a person goes online at dogdoo.com to send a bag of dog manure to a lucky recipient. This site even lets customers calibrate the size of the “gift” by choosing among three “Poo Poo Packages”: Econo-Poop (20-pound dog), Poo Poo Special (50-pound dog), and the ultimate in payback, the Poo Poo Grande (110-pound dog). 91 The moral: Smell your packages before opening.

Anticonsumption ranges from relatively mild acts like spray-painting graffiti on buildings and subways to serious incidences of product tampering or even the release of computer viruses that can bring large corporations to their knees. It can also take the form of political protest in which activists alter or destroy billboards and other advertise-ments that promote what they feel to be unhealthy or unethical acts. For example, some members of the clergy in areas heavily populated by minorities have organized rallies to protest the proliferation of cigarette and alcohol advertising in their neighborhoods; these protests sometimes include the defacement of billboards promoting alcohol or cigarettes.

Now that you have finished reading this chapter you should understand why:

1. A consumer’s personality influences the way he responds to marketing stimuli, but efforts to use this information in marketing contexts meet with mixed results.

The concept of personality refers to a person’s unique psychological makeup and how it consistently influences the way that person responds to her environment. Market-ing strategies based on personality differences have met with mixed success, partly because of the way research-ers have measured and applied these differences in per-sonality traits to consumption contexts. Some analysts try to understand underlying differences in small samples of consumers by employing techniques based on Freudian psychology and variations of this perspective, whereas others have tried to assess these dimensions more objec-tively in large samples using sophisticated, quantitative techniques.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

2. Psychographics go beyond simple demographics to help marketers understand and reach different consumer segments.

Psychographic techniques classify consumers in terms of psychological, subjective variables in addition to ob-servable characteristics (demographics). Marketers have developed systems to identify consumer “types” and to differentiate them in terms of their brand or product pref-erences, media usage, leisure time activities, and attitudes toward broad issues such as politics and religion.

3. Consumer activities can be harmful to individuals and to society.

Although textbooks often paint a picture of the consumer as a rational, informed decision maker, in reality many consumer activities are harmful to individuals or to soci-ety. The “dark side” of consumer behavior includes terror-ism, addiction, the use of people as products (consumed consumers), and theft or vandalism (anticonsumption).

242 SECTION 2 Consumers as Individuals

80/20 rule, 231 AIOs, 231 animism, 226 anticonsumption, 241 archetypes, 218 beacon, 236 behavioral targeting, 235 bioterrorism, 236 brand personality, 223 compulsive consumption, 238

consumed consumers, 239 consumer addiction, 237 Doppelgänger brand image, 225 ego, 215 geodemography, 234 id, 215 motivational research, 216 personality, 213 personality traits, 220 personalized retargeting, 236

pleasure principle, 215 PRIZM NE, 234 psychographics, 229 reality principle, 216 serial wardrobers, 241 shrinkage, 240 superego, 215 The Values and Lifestyles System

(VALS2™), 232

KEY TERMS

REVIEW

1 Describe the id, ego, and superego and tell how they work together according to Freudian theory.

2 What is motivational research? Give an example of a marketing study that used this approach.

3 Describe three personality traits relevant to marketers. 4 List three problems that arise when we apply trait theory

to marketing contexts. 5 Define a brand personality and give two examples. 6 Define psychographics, and describe three ways marketers

can use it.

7 What are three specific kinds of AIOs? 8 What is VALS2™, and how do marketers use it? 9 Alcohol drinkers vary sharply in terms of the number of

drinks they may consume, from those who occasionally have one at a cocktail party to regular imbibers. Explain how the 80/20 rule applies to this product category.

10 Define consumer addiction and give two examples of it. 11 What is an example of a consumed consumer? 12 What is shrinkage, and why is it a problem? 13 Define anticonsumption, and provide two examples of it.

1 The Chinese culture has a unique way of dealing with shop-lifters: When a merchant catches one, he demands a stiff fee as a penalty. Some storekeepers post a traditional slogan: “Steal one, fine 10.” Some Chinese shopkeepers have ad-opted this practice, though it’s not clear that this deterrent would be legal in the United States. For example, in a Chi-nese grocery store in New York City, suspected shoplifters caught by the store’s security guards or staff members have their identification seized. Then, they are photographed holding up the items they are accused of trying to steal. Finally, workers at the store threaten to display the photo-graphs to embarrass them, and to call the police—unless the accused thieves hand over money. Some store owners share their photographs with other stores, or post them in other store branches they own. 92 Is this an effective and ethical response, and is it likely to deter shoplifting?

2 Geodemographic techniques assume that people who live in the same neighborhood have other things in common as well. Why do they make this assumption, and how accurate is it?

3 Behavioral targeting techniques give marketers access to a wide range of information about a consumer when they tell

them what Web sites he visits. Do you believe this “knowl-edge power” presents any ethical problems with regard to consumers’ privacy? Should the government regulate ac-cess to such information? Should consumers have the right to limit access to these data?

4 Should organizations or individuals be allowed to create Web sites that advocate potentially harmful practices? Should hate groups such as al-Qaeda be allowed to recruit members online? Why or why not?

5 An entrepreneur made international news when he set up a Web site to auction the egg cells of fashion models to the highest bidder (minimum bid: $15,000). The site was targeted to people who wanted to have very attractive ba-bies because they believed this would maximize their off-springs’ chances of succeeding in our society. Is the buying and selling of humans just another example of consumer behavior at work? Do you agree that this service is simply a more efficient way to maximize the chance of having happy, successful children? Should this kind of marketing activity be allowed? Would you sell your eggs or sperm on a Web site?

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CHALLENGE

■ DISCUSS

CHAPTER 6 Personality and Psychographics 243

ZIPCAR CREATES A RENTAL CAR CULTURE U.S. travelers have been able to rent cars since 1946, when Avis offered three cars for hire at a small Michigan airport. Today the rental car industry is a mature business that is fiercely competi-tive in terms of price and service levels. But, about a decade ago a new company shook up the market with a brand-new busi-ness model. Zipcar was a Cambridge, Massachusetts, start-up with a radical concept: Rent cars by the hour. Along with the motto, “Wheels when you need them,” Zipcar eliminated trips to car rental centers, extended contracts, and confusing insur-ance options. It was a godsend to people in urban areas or on large college campuses who just needed a set of wheels to run errands or go out for an evening.

Mention Zipcar to any driver in the 50 cities or 100 col-lege campuses where the company operates, and odds are they know the name. Beyond simple awareness, though, they most likely have a sense of the brand’s unique personality. That’s be-cause Zipcar works hard to establish its service as simple and fun. A customer can get a car in minutes by reserving online or through a mobile app, or simply by walking to the nearest Zipcar lot. Fast Company describes the company’s Web site as “fun, conversational and clever.” Instead of a boring corpo-rate video on how a business works, when you visit the site you watch a retro geeky guy talking about Zipcar in what feels like a homemade video.

Zipcar works hard to build a culture around the brand and its loyal users. It doesn’t call its customers renters; they are Zip-sters . The company defines a Zipster as:

One who uses Zipcar. A gender neutral term for a person (or peo-ple: Zipsters) who believe in cost-effective transportation solu-tions that are good for the planet and easy on the wallet.

Zipcar’s goal is not only to rent cars, but also to transform urban life by making it more rewarding, sustainable, and af-fordable for individuals. As of April 2011, it seems that investors also believe in Zipcar: The upstart had an IPO (initial public of-fering) of $174 million and a stock price that jumped 66 percent right after the IPO. With plans to expand internationally, watch for Zipcar and Zipsters to pop up around the globe.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1 Compare the brand personality of Zipcar to that of Avis or Hertz.

2 How would you describe the psychographic profile of a typical Zipster?

Sources: Jeff Cram, “Web Sites with Personality: What Marketers Can Learn from Zipcar.com ,” Fastcompany.com (August 3, 2010), ac-cessed June 22, 2011; Kathy Marquardt, “5 Keys to Zipcar’s Success,” U.S. News and World Report.com (June 5, 2008), accessed June 22, 2011; “Zipcar IPO Soars 66% Out of the Gate,” www.wsj.com (April 14, 2011), ac-cessed June 22, 2011; www.zipcar.com , accessed June 22, 2011.

■ APPLY

1 Construct a brand personality inventory for three different brands within a product category. Ask a small number of consumers to rate each brand on about 10 different per-sonality dimensions. What differences can you identify? Do these “personalities” relate to the advertising and pack-aging strategies used to differentiate these products?

2 Compile a set of recent ads that attempt to link consump-tion of a product with a specific lifestyle. How does a mar-keter usually accomplish this goal?

3 Political campaigns may use psychographic analyses. Con-duct research on the marketing strategies a candidate used in a recent, major election. How did the campaign segment vot-ers in terms of values? Can you find evidence that the cam-paign’s communications strategies used this information?

4 Construct separate advertising executions for a cosmetics product that targets the Believer, Achiever, Experiencer, and Maker VALS2™ types. How would the basic appeal dif-fer for each group?

Case Study

My Marketing Lab Now that you have completed this chapter, return to www.mymktlab.com to apply concepts and explore the additional study materials.

1. www.jettygirl.com , accessed May 29, 2011. 2. For an interesting ethnographic account of skydiving as a voluntary

high-risk consumption activity, see Richard L. Celsi, Randall L. Rose, and Thomas W. Leigh, “An Exploration of High-Risk Leisure Consumption Through Skydiving,” Journal of Consumer Research 20 (June 1993): 1–23.

3. www.roxy.com/home/index.jsp , accessed May 29, 2011. 4. See J. Aronoff and J. P. Wilson, Personality in the Social Process (Hillsdale,

NJ: Erlbaum, 1985); Walter Mischel, Personality and Assessment (New York: Wiley, 1968).

NOTES