Daily CD Intake

8/3/2019 Daily CD Intake

1/6

J Occup Health 1998; 40: 264269 Journal ofOccupational

Health

A Review on the Cadmium Content of Rice, Daily Cadmium

Intake, and Accumulation in the Kidneys

Tomoyuki KAWADA and Shosuke SUZUKI

Department of Public Health, Gunma University School of Medicine, Maebashi, Japan

Abstract: A Review on the Cadmium Content ofRice, Daily Cadmium Intake, and Accumulation in

the Kidneys: Tomoyuki KAWADA, et al. Departmentof Public Health, Gunma University School ofMedicineThe body burden of cadmium primarilydepends on the daily intake of the element in food,and thus the geographical differences in cadmiumcontent in foods and the daily intake of cadmium shouldbe studied. There is a food chain from soil throughplant and animal foods to man. Estimation of dailycadmium intake according to the geographical regionis important for monitoring environmental cadmiumpollution and health effects. In the 1990s, the dailyintake of cadmium and accumulation in the kidney werereported. Japanese have a relatively high daily intakeof cadmium, although the percentage daily cadmium

intake obtained from rice decreased from 50% in 1970to 34% in 1994. This change is proportional to thechange in average rice consumption from 261 g/day in1970 to 182 g/day in 1994. These changes alsoindicate a reduced cadmium burden in the past twentyyears, from 3550 g/day to 30 g/day. The cadmiumlevel in the renal cortex of Japanese is the highest inthe world, but the cadmium in the kidney has beendecreasing in most Japanese.(J Occup Health 1998; 40: 264269)

Key words: Cadmium in rice, Daily intake of cadmium,Cadmium accumulation in the kidneys, General

inhabitants

In mammals cadmium is known to accumulate exclusivelyin the kidneys, and it has a long biological half-life in thehuman body, ranging from 10 to 33 years1, 2). The amountof cadmium that has accumulated in the kidneys is afunction of age and/or daily cadmium intake, and the latteris mainly from food, beverages and smoking25). Cadmiumin drinking water and in the atmosphere contributes little

Received May 22, 1998; Accepted July 7, 1998

Correspondence to: T. Kawada, Department of Public Health,

Gunma University School of Medicine, Showa, Maebashi 371-8511,

Japan

to the daily intake of cadmium6).Man is an element in an ecosystem. The cadmium

pathways to man are soil-plant-animal-man and soil-plant-man. Cadmium-rich soil generally results in cadmium-rich food, and geographical differences have been reportedin daily cadmium intake and cadmium accumulation inthe kidneys2, 4, 7, 8).

Earlier investigators reported finding that Japanesehave the highest renal cadmium levels in the world,followed by rice-eating ethnic groups such as the peopleof Thailand, Hong Kong and Taiwan, with the lowestlevels in people in the United States, Switzerland, India,Nigeria, and Rwanda-Burundi2, 9). Data for cadmiumconcentrations in the human renal cortex range from anaverage of 10 to 30 g/g wet weight for Europeans,Americans and Africans, but from 65 to 115 g/g wetweight for Japanese (Table 1)1016). Renal cadmium contentis governed by cadmium absorbed from the digestive tractand respiratory organs that comes from food, beveragesand cigarettes, which originate in the soil. The cadmiumcontent of plants varies from place to place on the earth.Baseline studies on environmental monitoring of cadmiumis needed, but the data are very limited2, 3).

Suzuki and Lu previously estimated the daily cadmiumintake in Japan, the United States and Indonesia by foodand feces analysis. The daily cadmium intake of two menin Tokyo averaged 48.2 and 46.9 g/day/person based on

a 30-day another meal method, versus 35.9 and 36.0 basedon a 30-day feces analysis17). The daily cadmium intakein Houston, Texas, ranged from 11.9 to 18.2 based onfood analysis and a market-basket survey18). The dailycadmium intake on Java Island, Indonesia, was estimatedto be 17.2 based on food analysis of a 5-day menu19).

The authors have reviewed recent data on cadmiumaccumulation and daily intake to assess geographicaldifferences, in addition the data obtained in our ownsurveys in Japan, the United States and Indonesia from1972 to 1985. The samples were mainly measured byatomic absorption spectrophotometry (flame or

flameless). The target subjects were male and female

Review


2/6


3/6

266 J Occup Health, Vol. 40, 1998

individuals and total diet method for populations. Foodsand beverages are sampled and bought in representativeretail shops in the area and analyzed for the element. The

cadmium content of the same food item is averaged andmultiplied by individual food consumption data or bythe national food balance sheet data. The third method isestimation of daily cadmium intake from daily cadmiumexcretion in feces. Daily cadmium in feces equals about95% of the daily oral cadmium intake27). Approximatedaily cadmium intake is roughly calculated from the fecesdata multiplied by a factor of 100/9528). The last methodis estimation by using a nomogram indicating the relationbetween the average concentration of cadmium in thekidneys at age 50 and the average daily cadmium intakein an area or a country.

Daily cadmium intake is reported to be low in

Germany29), Sweden30, 31), China32) and Taiwan33). The

intake values in Croatia34), Finland35) and Spain23) aremoderate. Most mean values range from 10 to 20 g/day. Data reported from Korea36) and Japan32, 37) are high,

ranging from 20 to 30 g/day/person (Table 2). This isconsistent with the moderate accumulation of the elementin the renal cortex of Japanese2, 38).

Cadmium in the renal cortex

The renal cortex is a critical organ in terms of long-term exposure to cadmium. Cadmium content data forthe renal cortex reported recently have shown the lowestvalues in Spain39) and Poland4, 40, 41) and relatively highvalues, exceeding 50 g/g, in Germany42) and Sweden43).In Japan, Koizumi et al. reported 130 and 21 g/g as GM GSD, respectively, from which a geometric mean of52.2 g/g was calculated44) (Table 3). The WHO

recommendation45) states that the critical concentration

Table 2. Geographical difference in daily intake of cadmium by duplicatemeal method published in the 1990s

Country Ref. Mean (SD) Analytical method

Spain 23 18.18 Wet ash, Flameless AASGermany 29 9.7 (8.1) Dry ash, Flame AASSweden 30 11.1 (4.2) Dry ash, Flame AASSweden 31 12 Flameless AASChina 32 9.9 (2.33)G Wet ash, Flameless AASTaiwan 33 10.1 (1.70)G Wet ash, Flameless AASCroatia 34 17.34 Dry ash, Flame AASFinland 35 14.5 (3.1) Flameless AASKorea 36 21.2G Wet ash, Flameless AASJapan 32 32.1 (1.93)G Wet ash, Flameless AASJapan 37 30.0 (2.09)G Wet ash, Flameless AAS

G; Geometric mean and/or geometric standard deviation

AAS; atomic absorption spectrophotometer

Table 3. Geographical difference in cadmium concentration in the kidney cortexpublished in the 1990s

Country Ref. Smoke Mean (SD) Analytical method

Poland 4 28.5 (1.9)G Wet ash, Flame AASSpain 39 + & 14.6 (5.9) Wet ash, Flameless AASPoland 40 16.5 (1.8)G Wet ash, Flame AASPoland 41 26.3 (23.5) Wet ash, Flame AASGermany 42 + & 55.2 (50) ICP

Sweden 43 62.8 Wet ash, Flameless AASJapan 44 + & 52.2G Wet ash, AAS*

G; Geometric mean and/or geometric standard deviation*; Flame or flameless atomic absorption spectrophotometerSome dissociation existed in daily intake of cadmium and its accumulation in thekidneys for example in Germany and Sweden.


4/6

267Tomoyuki KAWADA, et al.: Cadmium Intake and Its Accumulation

of cadmium in the renal cortex is about 200 g/g. Thestandard deviation of the data for Germany is 50, so thatthe values in under 1% of the target population exceed200 g/g.

Comments

The daily cadmium intake and renal cortex cadmiumconcentration data over the past quarter of a century are

Fig. 1. Daily intake of cadmium and its concentration in the renal cortex. Over 100 g/g of

cadmium in the renal cortex was also reported in the 1970s and 1980s in Japan.

plotted in Fig. 1. Rice eaters have been said to ingestabout a half or more of their daily cadmium intake fromrice46). The latest data in Japan show that one third of thedaily cadmium intake comes from rice. Compared with

the data for Japan in the 1970s17, 38, 46)

, which ranged from35 to 50 g/day, the daily intake of cadmium hasdecreased recently. This may be partly attributable todecreased rice consumption, which averaged 261 g/day


5/6

268 J Occup Health, Vol. 40, 1998

in 1970 and 182 g/day in 1994 47), in addition to theelimination of polluted rice from the market and increasedconsumption of imported foods.

The criteria for food being a good indicator of cadmium

intake are: large and widespread consumption, ubiquitouscultivation throughout the world, and easy sampling,transportation, and conservation2). Rice, wheat, and afew vegetables, such as carrots, are therefore the bestindicator foods for cadmium. Although the consumptionof rice has been decreasing, e.g., in Japan, daily cadmiumintake can be roughly estimated by analysis of thecadmium content in the rice people eat. Rice is the bestindicator food for cadmium monitoring in rice-eatingethnic groups. Sources of daily cadmium intake in non-rice-eaters are cereals, vegetables and potatoes, althoughnon-rice-eaters are usually not in the high-risk group forcadmium intake.

References

1) Ellis KJ, Vartsky D, Zanzi I, Cohn SH, Yasumura S.Cadmium: in vivo measurement in smokers andnonsmokers. Science 1979; 205: 323325.

2) Suzuki S, Koyama H, Hattori T, Kawada T, Rivai IF.Daily intake of cadmium: an ecological view.Proceedings of Asia-Pacif ic Symposium onEnvironmental and Occupational Toxicology, 1988:205217.

3) Friberg L, Vahter M. Assessment of exposure to leadand cadmium through biological monitoring: resultsof a UNEP/WHO global study. Environ Res 1983; 30:

95128.4) Bem EM, Orlowski C, Piotrowski JK, Januszewski K,

Pajak J. Cadmium, zinc, copper, and metallothioneinlevels in the kidney and liver of inhabitants of upperSilesia (Poland). Int Arch Occup Environ Health 1993;65: 5763.

5) Nilsson U, Schtz A, Skerfving S, Mattsson S.Cadmium in kidneys in Swedes measured in vivo usingX-ray fluorescence analysis. Int Arch Occup EnvironHealth 1995; 67: 405411.

6) Nordberg GF, Nordberg M. Biological monitoring ofcadmium. In Clarkson TW, Friberg L, Nordberg GF,Sager PR eds. Biological monitoring of toxic metals,

Plenum, New York, 1988: 151.7) Friberg L, Piscator M, Nordberg GF, Kjellstrm T.Cadmium in the environment. 2nd ed. Boca raton FL:CRC Press, 1974.

8) Lpez-Artiguez M, Camen A, Gonzlez G, RepettoM. Cadmium concentrations in human renal cortextissue (necropsies). Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 1995;54: 841847.

9) Perry HM, Tipton IH, Schroeder HA, Steiner RL, CookMJ. Variation in the concentration of cadmium inhuman kidney as a function of age and geographicorigin. J Chronic Dis 1961; 14: 259271.

10) Cherry WC. Distribution of cadmium in human tissues.In: Nriagu JO, ed. In Cadmium in the environment,

Part 2. Health effect. New York: John Willey & Suns,

1981: 69.11) Hahn R, Ewers U, Jermann E, Freier I, Brockhaus A,

Schlipkter HW. Cadmium in kidney cortex ofinhabitants of North-West Germany: its relationshipto age, sex, smoking and environmental pollution bycadmium. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 1987; 59:165176.

12) Ishizaki A, Fukushima M, Sakamoto M. Contents ofcadmium and zinc of Itai-itai disease patients andresidents of Hokuriku district. Nippon Eiseigaku Zasshi1971; 26: 268273 (in Japanese).

13) Sumino K, Hayakawa K, Shibata T, Kitamura S. Heavymetals in normal Japanese tissues. Amounts of 15 heavymetals in 30 subjects. Arch Environ Health 1975; 30:487494.

14) Tsuchiya K, Seki Y, Sugita M. Cadmium concentrationsin the organs and tissues of cadavers from accidentaldeaths. Keio J Med 1976; 25: 8390.

15) Kjellstrm T. Exposure and accumulation of cadmiumin populations from Japan, the United States, andSweden. Environ Health Perspectives 1979; 28: 169197.

16) Kobayashi S. Effect of aging on the concentration ofcadmium, zinc and copper in human kidney. NipponKoshu Eisei Zasshi 1983; 30: 2734 (in Japanese).

17) Suzuki S. and Lu CC. A balance study of cadmiuman estimation of daily input, output and retained amountin two subjects. Ind Health 1976; 14: 5365.

18) Suzuki S. unpublished data.19) Suzuki S, Hyodo K, Koyama H, Djuangsih N,

Soemarwoto O. Estimation of daily intake of cadmiumfrom foods and drinks, and from feces at threekampungs of Java Island. In: Suzuki S, ed. HealthEcology in Indonesia. Tokyo: Gyosei, 1988: 6573.

20) Rivai IF, Koyama H, Suzuki S. Cadmium content inrice and its daily intake in various countries. BullEnviron Contam Toxicol 1990; 44: 910916.

21) Masironi R, Koirtyohann SR, Pierce JO. Zinc, copper,cadmium and chromium in polished and unpolishedrice. Sci Total Environ 1977; 7: 2743.

22) Suzuki S, Djuangsih N, Hyodo K, Soemarwoto O.Cadmium, copper, and zinc in rice produced in Java.Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 1980; 9: 437449.

23) Lpez-Artiguez M, Soria ML, Camen A, Repetto M.Cadmium in the diet of the local population of Seville

(Spain). Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 1993; 50: 417424.24) Cai S, Yue L, Shang Q, Nordberg G. Cadmium

exposure among residents in an area contaminated byirrigation water in China. Bull World Health Organ1995; 73: 359367.

25) Rivai IF, Koyama H, Suzuki S. Cadmium content inrice and rice field soil in China, Indonesia, and Japan,with special reference to soil type and daily intake.Minzoku Eisei 1990; 56: 168177.

26) Suzuki S, Iwao S. Cadmium, copper, and zinc levelsin the rice and rice field soil of Houston, Texas. BiolTrace Elem Res 1982; 4: 2128.

27) Friberg L, Kjellstrm T, Nordberg GF. Cadmium. InFriberg L, Nordberg GF, Vouk V eds. Handbook on


6/6

269Tomoyuki KAWADA, et al.: Cadmium Intake and Its Accumulation

the toxicology of metals. 2nd ed. Vol II, Amsterdam:Elsevier, 1986: 140.

28) Kowal NE, Johnson DE, Kraemer DF, Pahren HR.Normal levels of cadmium in diet, urine, blood, andtissues of inhabitants of the United States. J ToxicolEnviron Health 1979; 5: 9951014.

29) Mller M, Anke M. Distribution of cadmium in thefood chain (soil-plant-human) of a cadmium exposedarea and the health risks of the general population. SciTotal Environ 1994; 156: 151158.

30) Vahter M, Berglund M, Nermell B, kesson A.Bioavailability of cadmium from shellfish and mixeddiet in women. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1996; 136:332341.

31) Becker W, Kumpulainen J. Contents of essential andtoxic mineral elements in Swedish market-basket dietsin 1987. Br J Nutr 1991; 66: 151160.

32) Zhang ZW, Moon CS, Watanabe T, Shimbo S, He FS,

Wu YQ, Zhou SF, Su DM, Qu JB, Ikeda M.Background exposure of urban populations to lead andcadmium: comparison between China and Japan. IntArch Occup Environ Health 1997; 69: 273281.

33) Ikeda M, Zhang ZW, Moon CS, Imai Y, Watanabe T,Shimbo S, Ma WC, Lee CC, Guo YL. Backgroundexposure of general population to cadmium and leadin Tainan city, Taiwan. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol1996; 30: 121126.

34) Sapunar-Postruznik J, Bazulic D, Kubala H, Balint L.Estimation of dietary intake of lead and cadmium inthe general population of the Republic of Croatia. SciTotal Environ 1996; 177: 3135.

35) Louekari K, Valkonen S, Pousi S, Virtanen L. Estimateddietary intake of lead and cadmium and theirconcentration in blood. Sci Total Environ 1991; 105:8799.

36) Moon CS, Zhang ZW, Shimbo S, Watanabe T, MoonDH, Lee CU, Lee BK, Ahn KD, Lee SE, Ikeda M.Dietary intake of cadmium and lead among the generalpopulation in Korea. Environ Res 1995; 71: 4654.

37) Watanabe T, Nakatsuka H, Shimbo S, Iwami O, ImaiY, Moon CS, Zhang ZW, Iguchi H, Ikeda M. Reducedcadmium and lead burden in Japan in the past 10 years.Int Arch Occup Environ Health 1996; 68: 305314.

38) Tsuchiya K. Cadmium in human urine, feces, blood,

hair, organs, and tisues. In Tsuchiya K ed. Cadmiumstudies in Japan: a review. Tokyo: Kodansha, 1978:3743.

39) Torra M, To-Figueras J, Brunet M, Rodamilans M,Corbella J. Total and metallothionein-bound cadmiumin the liver and the kidney of a population in Barcelona(Spain). Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 1994; 53: 509515.

40) Bem EM, Piotrowski JK, Turzynska E. Cadmium, zinc,and copper levels in the kidneys and liver of theinhabitants of north-eastern Poland. Pol J Occup MedEnviron Health 1993; 6: 133141.

41) Orlowski C, Piotrowski JK, Kubw M. The levels ofcadmium, zinc and copper in the renal cortex and liverof the inhabitants of the copper basin. Int J Occup MedEnviron Health 1996; 9: 255263.

42) Mller I, Helmers E, Barchet R, Schweinsberg F.Cadmium concentration in the renal cortex of kidney

tumor patients and controls. J Trace Elem ElectrolytesHealth Dis 1994; 8: 173176.43) Hardell L, Wing AM, Ljungberg B, Dreifaldt AC,

Degerman A, Halmans G. Levels of cadmium, zincand copper in renal cell carcinoma and normal kidney.Eur J Cancer Prev 1994; 3: 4548.

44) Koizumi N, Hatayama F, Sumino K. Problems in theanalysis of cadmium in autopsied tissues. Environ Res1994; 64: 192198.

45) Friberg L, Kjellstrm T, Nordberg GF. Cadmium. In:Friberg L, Nordberg GF, Vouk V, eds. Handbook onthe toxicology of metals. 2nd ed. Vol II. Amsterdam:Elsevier, 1986: 166169.

46) Iwao S. Cadmium, lead, copper and zinc in food, fecesand organs of humans. Interrelationships in food andfeces and interactions in the liver and the renal cortex.Keio J Med 1977; 26: 6378.

47) Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. FoodBalance Sheet, Ministers Secretariat, 1995. (This tableis based upon FAOs preparation guide. Period is oneyear from April 1st to March 31st of the following year.Total population used in calculating supplies per capitais 125 034 thousand (as of Oct. 1st, 1994) estimatedby Statistics Bureau, Management and CoordinationAgency).

Documents

Daily CD Intake