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JOHN D. FAIR* Georgia College & State University. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Oscar Heidenstam,The Mr Universe Contest,and the Amateur Ideal inBritish Bodybuilding

AbstractDuring Britain’s so-called ‘golden age of bodybuilding’ during the 1950s and1960s, Oscar Heidenstam, through his National Amateur BodybuildersAssociation (NABBA) and Health and Strength magazine, elevated the annualMr Universe Contest in London into the world’s most prestigious physiquecompetition. What made this achievement so remarkable was Heidenstam’scommitment to the Victorian ideal of the gentleman amateur. Eventually,however, this outmoded approach prevented him from staying abreast withthe times and resisting countervailing societal forces that were commercial,American and modern. Tradition and parochialism prevailed as NABBA, theMr Universe Contest, and British bodybuilding went into ‘relative decline’ in the1970s. And California, home of the rival Weider organization and ArnoldSchwarzenegger, displaced London as center of the bodybuilders’ universe.

Rum things go on. Or, one as might say, the multifarious activitiesof our fellow men are inexhaustibly surprising. The professions theyget themselves into are startling enough—taxidermy, lexicography,quantity surveying, but the occupations of their leisure, if only weknew them, would probably have us open-mouthed.1

Deeply rooted in the ethos of British sport in the nineteenth century isthe concept of the gentleman amateur, whose competitive endeavoursled not to commercial gain but to the enrichment of the mind, body

* [email protected] J. B. Boothroyd, ‘Came the Brawn, ‘‘Mr Universe’’ Contest, 1951’, Punch,

12 September 1951, 286.

doi:10.1093/tcbh/hwl023

Twentieth Century British History, Vol. 17, No. 3, 2006, pp. 396–423� 2006 Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For permissions, please email: [email protected]

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and spirit. ‘Natural grace and talent,’ according to sport historianRichard Holt, were major manifestations of this Victorian ideal.‘Gentlemen were not supposed to toil and sweat for laurels.’ Thusleisurely pursuits, stressing all-round talents and fair-play andeschewing the industrial-capitalist world, were important attributes ofamateurism. In his social history of British sport, Dennis Brailsfordidentifies the public schools, which catered to the upper middle class,as the primary agency for transmitting these values, producing menwho could foster continued prosperity at home and administer theworld’s largest empire. They sought to mold character by inculcatingqualities of ‘manliness, strength, loyalty, discipline and powers ofleadership’. But Brailsford insists that the division between amateursand professionals was more than a rejection of the notion of financialgain from sport—‘it was an assertion of the immutability of the classsystem’.2 Indeed the so-called Corinthian (strictly amateur) codeexcluded not only professional athletes but anyone who earned aliving from manual labour.

Nowhere were these distinctions more evident than in cricket where,by the 1850s, socially ambitious members of the upper middle class,employing the rubric of gentlemen and players, implanted theirexclusivist values under a veneer of aristocratic respectability. Withinthe Marylebone Cricket Club, observes Holt, ‘the rapidly growingcohorts of successful professional men along with bankers, citymerchants and industrialists did not just want to climb the socialladder; they wanted to pull it up behind them and set themselves apartfrom the massed ranks of the clerks, the managers and the shopkeeperswho made up the rest of the middle classes’.3 Soon this classconsciousness, accompanied by a north–south geographical divide,permeated other sports, especially rowing, rugby and athletics. By the1870s the Amateur Athletics Association was defining an amateur as‘any person who has never competed in any open competition or forpublic money or for admission money or with professionals for a prizeand who has never taught or assisted in the pursuit of athletic exercisesas a means of livelihood’. Members of the nascent Amateur Rowing

2 Richard Holt, Sport and the British, A Modern History (Oxford, 1989), 100, andDennis Brailsford, British Sport: A Social History (Cambridge, 1992), 97–8. See especiallyHolt’s chapter on ‘Amateurism and the Victorians.’ Also see Neil Wigglesworth, TheEvolution of English Sport (London, 1996), 85–107; Wray Vamplew, Pay Up and Play theGame, Professional Sport in Britain, 1875–1914 (Cambridge, 1988), 183–203; John Lowerson,Sport and the English Middle Classes, 1870–1914 (Manchester, 1993), 154–90; Derek Birley,Playing the Game, Sport and British Society, 1910–45 (Manchester, 1995); John MacAloon,This Great Symbol (Chicago, 1981), 43–112; and Randy Roberts, and James Olson, Winningis the Only Thing, Sports in America since 1945 (Baltimore, 1989), 2–11 for other perspectiveson the development of British sporting traditions.

3 Holt, Sport and the British, 113.

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Association, meeting at Putney in 1878, went even further inestablishing the so-called Henley rules for engagement.

An amateur oarsman or sculler must be an officer of her Majesty’sArmy, or Navy or Civil Service, a member of the Liberal professions,or of the Universities or Public Schools, or of any established boat orrowing club not containing mechanics or professionals; and must nothave competed in any competition for either a stake, or money, orentrance fee, or with or against a professional for any prize; nor haveever taught, pursued, or assisted in the pursuit of athletic exercises ofany kind as a means of livelihood, nor have ever been employedin or about boats, or in manual labour; nor be a mechanic, artisan,or labourer.4

Officials in other sporting endeavours, such as tennis, cycling, bowls,horse racing, sailing, angling, golf, fencing, boxing and wrestling, alsodriven by class interests, eventually adopted similar restrictions. Theirunderlying aim, in defence of the amateur ethic, was to institutionalizesocial prejudice, the most visible manifestation of which was theexclusion of those who played for pay.5

Defending the ideal of Corinthianism and combating the evils ofprofessionalism were also assumptions on which Pierre, Baron deCoubertin, established the modern Olympic movement.6 Weightlifting,though devoid of any established amateur tradition or regulatory body,was contested in the first (1896) Olympiad in Athens. With increasedinterest in this activity, the British Amateur Weight Lifters’ Association(BAWLA) was founded in 1901, re-founded in 1911, and latercomplemented by a separate professional association. Under the aegisof the International Weightlifting Federation (IWF), founded at the 1920Olympics in Antwerp, weightlifting remained in the games overthe next century and never strayed far from its amateur origins.7

4 Wigglesworth, Evolution of English Sport, 95, and Lowerson, Sport and the EnglishMiddle Classes, 159.

5 R. J. Moore-Colyer and J. P. Simpson define the Corinthian amateur ideal as a‘dogged indifference to the realities of social and economic change and a high degree ofinstitutional social exclusiveness’ and view its post-war decline as metaphoric to Britain’s‘loss of Empire’ in ‘High-Case Corinthians: Amateurism and the Bloodstock Industry,1945–75,’ The International Journal of the History of Sport, 21 (2004), 278.

6 Wigglesworth, Evolution of English Sport, 92. A social and political context for theOlympic movement is provided by Allen Guttmann, The Olympics, A History of the ModernGames (Urbana, Illinois, 1992) and Games & Empires, Modern Sports and Cultural Imperialism(New York, 1994) and by W. Lindsay Adams and Larry R. Gerlach in The Olympic Games,Ancient and Modern (Boston, 2002).

7 David Webster, The Iron Game (Irvine, Strathclyde, 1976), 31, 74, and Gottfried Schodl,The Lost Past, A Story of the International Weightlifting Federation (Budapest, 1992), 42–47,74–76.

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But bodybuilding, a 1930s offshoot, was unique. Like weightlifters,physique competitors did not directly encounter each other, but unlikevirtually any other sport, emphasis was placed on the displayrather than exertion of muscles—form over function. In their posingroutines, athletes were judged on muscularity, symmetry and generalappearance, ideals that originated with the ancient Greeks.8 Asmuch art and entertainment as an athletic activity, bodybuilding hadgreater audience appeal (spectatorism) than weightlifting and was moresusceptible to commercial exploitation and encroachments ofmodernism.

Although the British bodybuilding tradition can be traced to theshowmanship of the inimitable Eugen Sandow in the 1890s, amateurismemerged as a regulated endeavour with the inception of the Mr BritainContest in 1930.9 Not unlike other sports, the amateur ideal persisted inbodybuilding for the remainder of the century. It was most exemplified,however, by Oscar Heidenstam and the National AmateurBodybuilders Association (NABBA) that he headed from the early1950s until his death in 1991. ‘Nobody has done more for Europeanbodybuilding than this man,’ observed iron game historian DavidWebster. ‘Indeed it might be said that OSCAR HEIDENSTAM madeBritish Bodybuilding.’10 Such accolades are well deserved. Heidenstamgreatly enhanced the sport by transforming the Mr Universe Contest,NABBA’s centerpiece, into the world’s foremost physique show by the1960s.11 Success, however, brought imitators for whom amateurism wasnot so sacred. Rival organizations, mainly in North America, sought tocapitalize on the popularity and market potential of bodybuilding,offering an impressive array of magazines, products, and competitionswith cash prizes. It was an approach that Heidenstam neitherunderstood nor tolerated. Although he remained a respected figurefor his pioneering efforts, Heidenstam failed to stay abreast of thetimes. Tradition and parochialism prevailed as his Mr Universe Contestand British bodybuilding went into relative decline during the 1970s.And California, home for the commercially driven Weider organizationand Arnold Schwarzenegger, displaced London as centre of thebodybuilders’ universe.

8 See David Webster, BarbellsþBeefcake, An Illustrated History of Bodybuilding (Irvine,Scotland, 1979) and Arnold Schwarzenegger, The New Encyclopedia of Modern Bodybuilding(New York, 1998).

9 See David L. Chapman, Sandow the Magnificent, Eugen Sandow and the Beginningsof Bodybuilding (Urbana, Illinois, 1994).

10 See David Webster, ‘The ‘‘Oscar’’ of Physical Culture,’ Bodypower (1991), 62.11 While David Webster and Alan Radley integrate the Mr. Universe Contest into their

respective general works, Barbells þ Beefcake, and The Illustrated History of Physical Culture(Preston, England, 2001), no separate scholarly study exists for this phenomenon.



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Actually the Mr Universe Contest was an import from theUnited States, first staged in Philadelphia with the 1947 worldchampionships under the International Weightlifting Federation andconducted by Bob Hoffman, President of York Barbell Company andthe most important force in American weightlifting. That the eventcame to England the following year owes much to Oscar State, secretaryof British Amateur Weight Lifters’ Association, who seized the initiativeto hold it with the Olympic Games in London. Contestants in fourheight divisions were judged on symmetry, muscularity, posture,physical ability, personality and general health. Sanctioned by theInternational Weightlifting Federation, the Mr Universe Contest waspromoted by Health and Strength, Britain’s major physical culture (PC)magazine, and conducted by D. G. Johnson, its editor and State.12 Theshow, held in August at the Scala Theater in Bloomsbury was aresounding success, owing mainly to two Americans who stole theshow. York employee John Grimek, widely regarded as having theworld’s best physique, was for a decade unbeatable. After he defendedhis Mr America title in 1941, a rule was passed forbidding anyone towin it more than once. Steve Reeves, Mr America of 1947, was a relativenewcomer. Stunningly handsome and possessing a perfectly propor-tioned physique, he would become a major film star in the 1950s.On this occasion, however, Grimek’s massive muscularity, experienceand reputation triumphed. ‘The popularity of this man is amazing,’noted a British observer. The spectators seemed

almost out of control. John had literally stood them in the aisles, andon the completion of his act by a full split the audience wasdeafening. I could hardly believe this was an audience of ‘‘reserved’’British people, and wondered if there was any justifiable swooningas is the wont in America when a chap with a little less muscle thanGrimek, ‘‘Their Frankie,’’ [Sinatra] appears.13

Reeves might have had the better body, but he was competing withan iron game idol and master showman. He conceded gracefully,declaring, ‘I think that John Grimek is the greatest body-builder whoever lived.’14

12 ‘British Empire Championships and Mr. Universe Contest,’ Health and Strength, 77,1 July 1948, 475; George Walsh, ‘How We Selected Mr. Universe,’ ibid. 77, 2 September1948, 664; D. G. Johnson, ‘The Story of Mr. Universe 1948,’ 1949 ‘Health and Strength’Annual (London, 1949), 62; and D. G. Johnson, ‘World-wide ‘‘Mr. Universe’’ Contest,London, Aug. 1948,’ Health and Strength, 77, 25 March 1948, 221.

13 Ron Chifney, ‘World’s Greatest Physique Show,’ Weightlifting and Bodybuilding,September 1948, 288.

14 Interview with David Webster, 23 July 2004, Irvine, Scotland, and George Walsh,‘The Mr. Universe Contest,’ Strength & Health, 16, 1948, 10.

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It was truly a triumph for Grimek but also for amateurism and theMr Universe Contest. That Americans proved so dominant, particularlyin light of European preferences for slender lines and less heavilymuscled physiques, seemed surprising. But Europe had suffered greatlyfrom the war, and Britain was still on rationing. Grimek recalledhow he had forgotten about ‘the restricted diet available to visitors’when he arrived in London. ‘I couldn’t sleep because I was so hungry.’Such deprivations only enhanced the impact on audience and judges ofthe well-fed Americans. ‘At that time Britons had never seen suchbulk,’ commented spectator Ian McQueen. ‘The war altered things quitea lot.’15 Henceforth the trend would be towards bulkier American-stylephysiques.

The Americans, however, did not have it all their own way. At a‘stormy meeting’ after the Olympics, the International WeightliftingFederation debated an American proposal that future contests be stagedwith world weightlifting championships. It was defeated, accordingto Oscar State, ‘on the grounds that physique contests do not comeunder the control of a weight-lifting federation’.16 Thus the Mr UniverseContest was cast adrift. But it was not Hoffman, whose interests wereprimarily weightlifting, who took advantage of it. D. G. Johnson, onbehalf of his magazine and its Health & Strength League, a massmovement founded in 1906 to promote healthful living, stepped intothe void by organizing the National Amateur Bodybuilders Associationin early 1949. In addition to promoting health and fitness, NABBAwould hold national and regional physique shows.17 Membershipswelled to 500 by the end of the year. NABBA’s presence was obviousat the 1949 Mr and Miss Britain contests, staged annually by theLeague. At the London Palladium in October, Reg Park, arguably thegreatest British bodybuilder of all time, won the Mr Britain title,and Grimek showed up, as guest performer, to wow the audience withhis physique and feats of strength. Capitalizing on this interest, theNational Amateur Bodybuilders Association soon announced plansto stage another Mr Universe competition in London during thesummer of 1950.18

15 ‘Grimek, John, ‘‘Mr. Universe,’’ Comments,’ ibid. (November 1948), 48, andInterview with Ian McQueen, 14 December 2003, Martinsburg, West Virginia, USA.

16 Oscar State, ‘The World of Weights,’ Weightlifting and Bodybuilding, September1948, 269.

17 D. G. Johnson, ‘The New Body-Builders’ Association,’ Health and Strength, 78, 2 June1949, 13.

18 D. G. Johnson, ‘It Was a Magnificent Show,’ ibid., 78, 1 December 1949, 32–35, 60;Ken Webster, ‘NABBA in 1950,’ ibid., 49–50; and Malcolm Whyatt, ‘The History of theMr & Miss Britain Contests,’ 122, July 1996, 17.



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However bright the prospects for British amateur bodybuildingmay have appeared, trouble loomed. In assembling the five-memberexecutive committee for NABBA, Oscar State, who was primarilyresponsible for staging the weightlifting events at the 1948 Olympicsand the Mr Universe Contest, was excluded. What led to his omission isuncertain, but a growing rift between weightlifters and bodybuilders—BAWLA and NABBA—was at least a factor.19 Most likely, however,it was State’s association with the International Federation ofBodybuilders (IFBB), established in 1947 by Joe and Ben Weider inMontreal as a rival to the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU). The latterorganization, founded in 1888 to foster amateurism in the United States,sanctioned the annual Mr America Contest. Much of the spiritunderlying this signature event and American amateurism wasestablished by Avery Brundage who had served the AAU in multiplecapacities since 1928 and was president of the International OlympicCommittee (IOC) from 1952 to 1972. He visualized the Olympics and allamateur sports as ‘a revolt against Twentieth Century materialism . . . adevotion to a cause and not the reward’. To Brundage the amateurathlete was an ‘artist’ who ‘does not accept the standards of the mass’or ‘follow the crowd. He is not primarily interested in dollars, he isinterested in quality’.20 As the foremost international proponent ofamateurism for over four decades, Brundage’s unbending stanceagainst the encroachments of professionalism would serve as a templatefor budding leaders such as Oscar Heidenstam.

Unlike other organizations, however, the International Federation ofBodybuilders was open to professionals, and in 1949 the Weiders stagedtheir own Mr America Contest. ‘Cash for Mr America, Money! Money!Money!’ headlined an article in Muscle Power, a Weider magazine,criticizing the Amateur Athletic Union for its ‘old fogy ways’ andchallenging it ‘to come out of its shell and be modern’.21 An IFBB offerof $1 000 to the winner of its own (1949) Mr America Contest elicitedharsh words from Grimek, who criticized the Weiders for ‘running their

19 ‘Is This Sense?’ ibid., 79, 9 March 1950, 5–7. Though excluded from the executivecommittee, State was included among the four elected honorary officials. But in 1953he was dismissed even from this more perfunctory role, according to Oscar Heidenstam,‘for carrying tales’ and ‘has always had a grievance against us’. Presumablywhat Oscar meant by ‘carrying tales’ was that State was sharing NABBA secrets withWeider. Heidenstam to Terpak, 15 February 1972, Hoffman Papers in the author’spossession.

20 Benjamin Rader, American Sports, From the Age of Folk Games to the Age of Spectators(Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1983), 309, and Adams and Gerlach, The OlympicGames, 146.

21 Earle Liederman, ‘Cash for Mr America, Money! Money! Money!’ Muscle Power, 5,May 1948, 16.

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own phony Mr America contests’. He especially resented politicallymotivated ‘attacks’ the Weiders had made on his amateur status whichhad kept him out of the 1947 Mr Universe Contest and the 1948Olympics. ‘J.E.W. will reap the distorted stories he sowed!’22 Therelevance of this racial reference remains unclear, but Joe E. Weider andOscar State were Jewish. And just as Grimek and Hoffman’s AAUbecame more closely affiliated with NABBA, State’s association with theWeiders and the more professionally inclined International Federationof Bodybuilders increased. By the end of 1952 State was authoringa monthly weightlifting column for Muscle Power. The impact ofthis division on the future of British amateur bodybuilding cannot beoverestimated.

Meanwhile Steve Reeves returned to London in 1950 in even bettercondition to win the Mr Universe title over Reg Park. Johnson remarkedthat Reeves had ‘the most outstanding physique the world has everseen’. It was also a ‘Proud Day for NABBA,’ for despite ‘attempts byrivals to sabotage our efforts,’ it was able to stage ‘the greatestphysique contest ever held’.23 The 1951 event, coinciding with theFestival of Britain, featured an opening ceremony with contestantscarrying flags of twelve nations and the NABBA emblem (asilhouette of Grimek) draped over the British flag. Reg Park’s victoryswelled the pride of Britons and made them feel that at least inbodybuilding their country was first. While none of the English entrantsshined in 1952, the contest thrived with 69 contestants from suchcorners of the world as Poland, Burma, South Africa, Brazil and Egypt.Other signs of maturity included the elimination of physical proficiencycriteria, the substitution of a ranking (over points) judging system,and the addition of a category (and title) for professionals who wouldbe judged separately from amateurs. Johnson called it the ‘greatest-evercontest’.24

At this juncture the National Amateur Bodybuilders Association wassubjected to the influence of Oscar Heidenstam, who would determinethe course of British bodybuilding for the next four decades. His oldworld outlook reflected aristocratic origins. A descendant of Swedishnobility (once styled von Heidenstam), Oscar had a grandfather whowas educated in England, became a British subject, and served as amedical officer for the Ottoman Empire on Cyprus. After the change ofsovereignty, Oscar’s father became a British civil servant on Cyprus,

22 ‘Grimek, John, ‘‘Mr. Universe,’’ Comments,’ 47.23 D. G. Johnson, ‘Reeves is Mr. Universe!’ Health and Strength, 79, 13 July 1950, 5, and

ibid., ‘A Proud Day for NABBA’, 27 July 1950, 14.24 Ibid., 80 20 September 1951, 11, and D. G. Johnson, ‘Six Countries Share

Mr. Universe Titles,’ The Weightlifter & Bodybuilder, 6, September 1952, 6–8.



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where Oscar was born in 1911. Educated at a French convent in Nicosiaand Victoria College in Jersey, he excelled in gymnastics, swimming,and rugby. In pursuing all-round physical excellence, Oscar trainedwith weights, held several physical culture positions, and won suchphysique titles as Mr Britain (1937) and Mr Europe (1939). After servicein the Army Physical Training Corps in the Middle East during WorldWar II, he became one of NABBA’s first enrollees and ranked highin several Mr Universe contests. In early 1953 Oscar joined the Healthand Strength staff.25

Heidenstam’s commitment to amateur ideals and the traditionalslender, more functional, physique was evident from the outset. ‘Whenthe bulk vogue came into being, measurements became the be-all andend-all of many a young bodybuilder,’ he protested. ‘Shape and qualityof muscle are also very important.’26 The trend towards big muscles, ofcourse, was epitomized by previous Mr Universes—Grimek, Reevesand Park—and Oscar could hardly have been pleased with the sizeand muscularity of Californian Bill Pearl, the 1953 winner. It was theinvasion of the Americans after the war that was responsible for thisplight, and no one seemed to promote muscle size more effectively thanJoe Weider, whose magazines featured articles entitled ‘Gain 15 Incheson Your Chest’ and ‘Get Massive Biceps Size’.27 The 1900 arm wasbecoming the ideal for neurasthenic youth and a necessity for topbodybuilders.

Heidenstam, however, had only praise for Enrico Tomas and JimPark, Americans who had won the amateur and professional titles for1954. Both displayed clean lines and symmetry. Although Tomaspossessed an 18½00 arm (cold), it was ‘so perfectly shaped and inkeeping with the rest of him, that it did not appear all that massive’.Oscar also appreciated his natural manner. Not unlike a sportinggentleman, Tomas

walked straight from a three day [overseas] journey on to the posingrostrum looking superb, without any sort of warm up, and Jim Parknever touched a weight for at least a week before the contest.

25 For biographical information on Heidenstam see ‘Oscar Frederick JeffreyGore Heidenstam,’ Health and Strength, 122, April, 1996, 19–20; W. A. Pullum, ‘Oscar:A Great Bodybuilder,’ ibid., 82, 8 January 1953, 32–33 and 49; David Gentile, ‘The everchanging face of Health and Strength,’ ibid., 108 (1979), 21; David Webster, ‘OscarHeidenstam,’ Iron Game History, 1 (1991), 14–15; and Colin Sheard, ‘If It Hadn’t Been forOscar,’ Health and Strength, 96, 12 October 1967, 10–11 and 14.

26 Oscar Heidenstam, ‘This Bulk Business Can Be Overdone,’ The Weightlifter &Bodybuilder, 4, July 1951, 14.

27 See George Eiferman, ‘Gain 15 Inches on Your Chest,’ Muscle Power, 14, August 1952,21, and Barton Horvath, ‘Get Massive Biceps Size,’ ibid., 15, January 1953, 22.

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Enrico Tomas was photographed a week after the show lookingexactly the same as he did at the contest—in other words noneof this two hour PUMPING UP business was necessary to looktheir best!28

Heidenstam’s views coincide with Richard Holt’s maxim that ‘hardtraining was bad form’ for amateurs, who ‘were above all gentlemen’.Too much practising was to be avoided.29 With Heidenstam on board,Health and Strength assumed a more amateur tone and supportive rolefor the National Amateur Bodybuilders Association. By 1953 there were5000 members, and ‘the association had now climbed out of debt andwas showing a small profit. But as you know, it is no part of NABBAaims to make money’. Its only purpose was to ‘serve bodybuilders’.30

At the 1955 contest David Webster reported that ‘all judges wereamateurs’ and none was tainted by commercial ties. He also noted that‘most of the winners had physiques which looked functionallyefficient’.31 Most striking was amateur titlist Mickey Hargitay, whosephysique was well-balanced, athletic, and not heavily muscled, just thetype Heidenstam preferred.

The 1956 event, the first one staged by Oscar, rose to new heights.Held at the London Palladium, it featured the highest quality physiquesever, including three Mr Americas. An official dinner and dance and avariety of physical culture acts enlivened the festivities. ‘Oscar was agood organizer, but not a good businessman,’ is the assessment ofassociate Norman Hibbert.32 Herein lay a major difference betweenNABBA shows and those of commercially motivated Americanpromoters. Furthermore, the integrity of Heidenstam’s contests wasnever questioned. ‘The judging was always very fair,’ claims Webster.But respectability came at a price. Unlike others, Heidenstam seemedoblivious to any profit incentive. Arguably the greatest missedopportunity was his failure to gain the support of Paul Getty, theworld’s richest man and a bodybuilding enthusiast who startedattending Mr Universe contests in the 1950s. Perhaps it was expectingtoo much for a man so tight-fisted that he had a pay phone in hismansion and used a taxi rather than a private chauffer to becomeNABBA’s guardian angel, but Oscar’s friend Malcolm Whyatt can recall

28 Oscar Heidenstam, ‘Talking about Bodybuilding,’ Health and Strength, 83,2 September 1954, 35.

29 Holt, Sport and the British, 100.30 ‘Show Us Your Muscles!’ Health and Strength, 82, 26 November 1953, 25, and

‘A Statement from NABBA,’ ibid., 83, 18 March 1954, 5.31 David Webster, ‘How We Judged the Mr Universe Contests,’ ibid., 84, 21 July 1955,

9, 46.32 Interview with Norman and Sylvia Hibbert, 24 July 2004, London, England.



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only token instances of Getty’s largess.33 There is no evidence thatHeidenstam, ever the gentleman, even asked for support.

Much to Oscar’s chagrin, bulk continued to characterise leadingMr Universe contestants, mostly from the United States.34 It wasencouraged by Hoffman’s practice of sending Mr America winners toLondon. Therefore when Briton John Lees won the amateur title in1957, Oscar was exuberant. ‘There are those who think the Americansmust always win,’ he observed. ‘Why, I do not know.’ He also criticizedthe American penchant for size. ‘Remember it’s how you LOOK thatcounts, not what your measurements are.’ Finally Heidenstam defendedhaving all British judges for an international field, noting that criticscould provide no alternatives when told that ‘it is inadvisable to haveany professionals on the panel, or those with any commercialinterests’.35 Most critical was Joe Weider, especially when an entranthe had sponsored was placed well below the leaders. In his expose ofthe 1957 contest, Weider questioned the fairness of NABBA judging.36

One of the maligned judges, Ian McQueen, defended Oscar’s approach.The ‘high honour’ of the Mr Universe title was meant for ‘someonewho has not just a good physique, but to someone who is a man also’.37

Such putdowns did not damper Weider’s spirit. In 1959 he started hisown contest. Seeking to trade off the prestige of the National AmateurBodybuilders Association, a Weider editorial claimed: ‘For the first timein Canada the famous Mr Universe contest will be held in Montreal, themecca of physical culturists.’38

Nor was Weider NABBA’s only challenge. The InternationalWeightlifting Federation decided to revive its Mr World title in 1959

33 Interview with Webster; W. A. Pullum, ‘How Rich is Paul Getty?’ Health andStrength, 86, 5 December 1957, 9; and Interview with Malcolm Whyatt, 2 July 2004.

34 Just after the 1954 contest Oscar estimated that the average British bodybuilderhardly consumed ‘one egg a day!’ But he ‘spoke to one overseas top liner who told methat he eats an average of sixty eggs a week, and ordered nine for breakfast when inLondon. The waiter stood aghast!’ Oscar Heidenstam, Health and Strength, 83, September1954.

35 Oscar Heidenstam, ‘Judging the Mr Universe Contests,’ ibid., 86, 4 December 1957,6 and 10. According to Roberta Park, what was ‘particularly objectionable’ to Britons whoadhered to the amateur ethos ‘was the blatancy of the Americans and the intensity withwhich they pursued athletic victories. A. B. George, writing a chapter entitled, ‘‘AmericanMethods’’ for his brother’s Training for Athletics and Kindred Sports (1902), stated: ‘‘TheAmerican does the thing thoroughly, and devotes all his energy toward the end in view.We take the thing more easily and do not look on the winning of a certain race as a lifeand death matter.’’’ Jack W. Berryman and Roberta J. Park, Sport and Exercise Science,Essays in the History of Sports Medicine (Urbana, Illinois, 1992), 84.

36 Joe Weider, ‘Expose—Mr Universe Contest 1957’ Muscle Builder, 1, June 1958, 36.37 ‘Viewpoint,’ Health and Strength, 87, 11 September 1958, 20.38 Sante et Force (November 1953), cited in Oscar Heidenstam, ‘He is Still At It!’ ibid.,

88, 12 February 1959, 36.

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and call it Mr Universe. Now there were three. Heidenstamresponded by organizing what one reporter called ‘the greatestphysical culture show ever’. When winners Bruce Randall and LenSell were announced, ‘the roof of the Palladium was severely tested,for the pent-up feelings of 3000 patient fans were released in a volumeof applause not likely to be forgotten’. The physique show wascomplemented by strength, hand-balancing, acrobatic and musclecontrol acts, and music by George Fierstone’s orchestra. The mostcaptivating moment was the presentation of trophies by 1956Mr Universe Mickey Hargitay and his wife, American sex goddessJayne Mansfield.39 Oscar’s achievement was to stage such a glamourousevent within a totally amateur context. Amateurism prevailed evenin the professional division, where athletes received no monetaryawards.

After 1959 the Palladium was no longer available, and NABBAsfinancial woes were increased by having to move to the Victoria PalaceTheater with 1000 fewer seats. ‘Let me assure you that the Universecontests as a commercial undertaking are a ‘‘dead loss’’’, commentedHeidenstam, but ‘they do more to enhance the prestige of NABBA andthis journal, and to maintain the interest in physical culture, than anyother event of the year.’ Oscar, now editor of Health and Strength,estimated that the annual cost of the Mr Universe Contest was neverless than £1500 and that revenue from even its largest venue was nevermore than £1300. This shortfall was offset by yearly dues of NABBAmembers. But monetary loss was ‘incidental’, argued Heidenstam. ‘Theloss in prestige and goodwill . . . if we did not run the contests cannot bemeasured by pounds, shillings, and pence.’ So popular was the 1961version that even standing room was sold out four weeks in advance.40

Even the national press showed up, asking questions, taking picturesand looking for something to ridicule. ‘And for all this NOTHING,’Oscar proudly exclaimed. ‘The photographic agencies were as usualrepresented, but not a line anywhere. . . . It was all too wholesome,sportsmanlike and calm, therefore I can only assume that it was notNEWS!’41 But the contest, won by Americans Ray Routledge (amateur)and Bill Pearl (professional) was a triumph. ‘Of Oscar’s organizingability one could become adjectival to the point of verbosity,’observed physical culturist Colin Sheard. So efficiently was theMr Universe Contest conducted, ‘it would be more aptly named

39 Norman Jelliss, ‘Show of Shows,’ ibid., 88, 5 November 1959), 4–7.40 ‘Editorial,’ ibid., 89, 20 October 1960, 3, and Oscar Heidenstam, ‘NABBA Notes,’

ibid. 90, 21 September 1961, 44.41 Ibid., 19 October 1961, 3.



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the ‘‘Heidenstam Competition’’ ’. Not surprisingly other countrieswere copying NABBAs badge, adopting its constitution and seekingaffiliation.42

All was not a bed of roses for Heidenstam, however, whose demonsseemed to grow with his greatness. ‘I vow each year that this will bemy last Universe, but somehow another comes round and here I amwith the same frustrations.’ Most worrying were the machinations ofState, now secretary of the International Weightlifting Federation andmore influential than ever. This old enemy was ‘trying to disrupt ourlong standing prestige and integrity’ by declaring to affiliates of theInternational Weightlifting Federation that NABBA was an ‘outlaw’organization and its officials were professionals. ‘This is utterly untrue,’Heidenstam declared. He reiterated that the National AmateurBodybuilders Association was ‘NOT a commercial enterprise’ and thatthe Mr Universe Contest only lost money. Unlike the Weiders, withwhom State was affiliated, ‘our parent magazine does not sell courses,equipment, supplements’. NABBA officials were ‘practicing physicalculturists’ with ‘no financial interests in PC’.43 Allies were important inthis struggle, and Oscar continuously courted Bob Hoffman, with hisAAU and international connections. Bob hardly needed reminding thatthe British Amateur Weight Lifters’ Association and Weider were partof ‘one big ‘brotherhood’ and that the International WeightliftingFederation, ‘via Oscar State . . . is well and truly immersed into Weiderplans.’ To thwart this (perhaps by implication Jewish?) conspiracy, hewanted Hoffman to use his influence to remove State from power. ‘Likeyou I object to ‘parasites’ who creep into what is virtually still a smallsport and set themselves up as experts for their own gain. . . . I waslooking to you for help and support to be rid of them.’ On a morepositive note, Oscar asked Hoffman to continue sending Mr Americasto his Universe show.44 Bob’s sponsorship of two of them, Joe Abbendaand Vern Weaver, added luster to the 1963 contest.

The spectacular proceedings, however, were dampened by remarksmade at the banquet by Reg Park, by now an immortal in the physiqueworld. In striking contrast to the many accolades and toasts,Park declared he had ‘come not to praise N.A.B.B.A. but to criticizeit.’ He believed the organization would be better served by combiningthe amateur and professional titles into an ‘overall’ Mr Universeand changing its name to the ‘International Bodybuilding Association.’

42 Colin Sheard, ‘Universe Impressions,’ ibid., 16 November 1961, 7, and OscarHeidenstam, ‘NABBA Notes,’ ibid., 19 October 1961, 34.

43 Ibid., 91, 18 September 1962, 37, and ‘Editorial,’ ibid., 92, 16 May 1963, 5.44 Heidenstam to Hoffman, 6 November 1962, Hoffman Papers in the author’s

possession.

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No doubt reflecting Heidenstam’s view, Colin Sheard voiceddisapproval. Such changes would blatantly violate the amateur ideal.But Park’s remarks were not meant to be hurtful.45 For all of Oscar’sassets, his organization was still very parochial (British) and his contesta one-man show with scant financial resources. Park had the foresightto know that unless the National Amateur Bodybuilders Associationdeveloped a greater international presence and adhered less stringentlyto its amateur roots, it would be relegated to a lesser place in thephysique firmament. The world was changing, and the Weider/Stateclique had wisely positioned itself to move with it.

For the moment the physique world still seemed Oscar’s oyster.Although there were now three imitations (including a new one inFrance), the London Mr Universe had more prestige and participationthan ever. At the 1964 version, won by John Hewlett and Earl Maynard,both from England, there were 62 entrants from 22 countries.46

A significant feature of NABBA shows since the late 1950s was anincrease of black bodybuilders from the Caribbean, who greatlyenhanced the quality of competition. Maynard, originally fromBarbados, crossed the colour line by winning every top title inEngland and being the first of his race to become Mr England. At the1964 Universe, he won acclaim by beating the toughest competition.Heidenstam was ‘certain for the first time ever we pleased every singleperson of that packed and vociferous audience, a great triumph for amagnificent Earl’.47 Such a lucrative commodity could not long remainbeyond the grasp of eager promoters. Joe Weider quickly laid claimto Earl, heralding him a ‘100 percent Weider-Trained Champion’ andluring him to the 1965 IFBB show in New York where he won a secondMr Universe title.48 Thereafter Maynard figured prominently, as didNABBA stars Serge Nubret (Guadeloupe) and Rick Wayne (St Lucia)in promoting Weider products.

Heidenstam was deeply offended by these defections and bybodybuilders promoting the commercial interests and stature of hisenemies. ‘Earl Maynard is now working against us for Weider in everypossible way,’ Oscar confided to Peary Rader, editor of Iron Manmagazine in Alliance, Nebraska. ‘How do these people do it? By moneyI suppose?’ Also unnerving to Oscar were wavering relations with his

45 Report by Sheard, Colin, Health and Strength, 92, 14 November 1963, 8–9.46 John O’Farrell, ‘The Greatest PC Show in the World,’ ibid., 93, 12 November 1964, 6.47 Oscar Heidenstam, ‘Detailed Coverage of NABBA’s 1964 Universe Judging,’ ibid., 29

October 1964, 8.48 Joe Weider, ‘Here’s the Lowdown,’ Muscle Builder, 15, March 1965, 5, and ‘The 1965

IFBB Mr. Universe—Mr. America—Mr. Olympia—Miss Americana Muscle/Beauty Show,’ibid., 15, January 1966, 68–77.



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York allies, peeved after their 1965 Mr Universe entrant, Val Vasilieff,did not even win his height division. ‘Val went home crying,’Heidenstam observed. ‘Grimek says they will have to think seriouslyabout sending anyone in future. . . .This really hurt me.’ What irkedOscar was York’s insensitivity and weak commitment to the amateurideal. ‘I have told Grimek repeatedly and I mean it that as we sellnothing and have no commercial angles of any kind, it makes not onescrap of difference to us who wins.’49

It must have been consoling therefore that another defeated Yorkentrant, 1963 Mr America Vern Weaver, praised the NABBA Universe.He regarded it as ‘the KING of physique competitions’ and wanted tosupport it. But he echoed Park’s concern that if the National AmateurBodybuilders Association ‘is to survive and maintain its present highand undisputed standards, it must incorporate some sort of internationalexpansion programme’.50 Oscar, however, seemed oblivious to the needfor greater international ties or an underlying funding component.He resigned himself to the fact that while Weider and Hoffman wereable to fly their charges anywhere in the world, athletes attendinghis contest had to struggle. One prospective contestant fromSouth Africa who intended to enter the 1965 event, sent Oscar a ‘sadletter’ saying he had not saved enough for his air fare and was £40short. Still, he has a good start for next year. This is the true spirit of theNABBA Universe’. Another entrant sacrificed potential profits from hisMilan health studio to compete, knowing that he would be defeated byReg Park. ‘It would be an honour to be beaten by Reg’ was hissportsmanlike attitude.51 These incidents were high points forHeidenstam, but he was often depressed and bitter. Oscar complainedto Rader that he had received a lucrative job offer. ‘I could have retiredinto peace and oblivion and been happy and let Weider and his gangtake over what we have built up over 35 years . . . . How I wish I wasable to continue in PC [physical culture] with some peace of mind justto do that and stay out of all this back biting, commercialism anddownright rat race!’52 He could not understand that although heconducted the world’s most prestigious physique contest, the sportitself was being shaped by forces beyond his control.

At least he had to concede that the bulk craze instigated byAmericans was now an accepted norm. This trend towards muscularity

49 Heidenstam to Rader, 1 November and 8 October 1965, Rader Papers, Todd-MacleanCollection, University of Texas at Austin.

50 Vern Weaver, I’ll Be Back to Win the King of Physical Culture Contests,’ Health andStrength, 93, 12 November 1964, 46.

51 Oscar Heidenstam, ‘Judging the Universe,’ ibid., 94, 28 October 1965, 7.52 Heidenstam to Rader, 1 November 1965, Rader Papers.

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was accelerated in the 1960s by two new size-related developments,fostered in America—anabolic steroids and powerlifting which utilizedthe same basic movements for chest, legs and back as bodybuildersused.53 More than any other bodybuilder, this emphasis on supersizewas exemplified by Austrian teenager Arnold Schwarzenegger whowas the sensation of the 1966 Mr Universe Contest. Schwarzenegger’simpact on Oscar was immediate, recalls Whyatt. ‘When Arnold firstwalked in, Oscar said, ‘‘I wonder what he’ll look like with his coat off.’’Oscar was in awe of him.’ Although American Chester Yortonultimately won the ‘Battle of the Giants,’ it was Arnold who had thegreatest impact. He was the only contestant called for an encore.54 Theexcitement generated by Schwarzenegger was even more evident whenhe returned in 1967 and easily outclassed Mr America Dennis Tinerino.‘Once in generations do we get someone of the caliber of Arnold,’observed Heidenstam. At twenty he was not only the ‘youngest everUniverse winner’ but at 60 200, 248 pounds, with 2100 arms and a 5700

chest, ‘must also be the biggest ever.’ In a pose-down between Tinerinoand ‘the German whose proportions beggar description’, Sheard notedthat the former received ‘applause far less generous than his physiquedeserves, then, SCHWARZENEGGER. It has to be in capitals. And, atlast, the audience ‘‘let go’’. . . .Arnold’s size has elected him winner’.55

But Arnold was not the only dazzling element of the contest. It alsofeatured Diane Bennett’s Glamour Girls and a Miss Bikini Contest,won by winsome Kathleen Winstanley of Wigan. There was plenty ofsex appeal to complement Arnold’s size appeal.

For the next three years Schwarzenegger returned to cop theprofessional title. In 1968 and 1969 he had little competition. Still hecontinued to improve and wow audiences. It was ‘Pandemonium’ in1969, according to Sheard’.56 But the ultimate showdown came in 1970when Arnold encountered Reg Park and a Weider-sponsored muscularsensation from California, Dave Draper, whose massiveness rivaledArnold’s. It was ‘pandemonium’ again ‘when the three giantsassembled,’ noted Oscar. ‘I have never seen such scenes at anyUniverse. Three men who belong to a class of their own.’ Even against

53 On the advent of steroids and powerlifting see John D. Fair, Muscletown USA,Bob Hoffman and the Manly Culture of York Barbell (University Park, Pennsylvania, 1999),195–98, 214–16.

54 Interview with Whyatt and John C Grimek, ‘Posing at the Mr. Universe Contest,’Muscular Development, 4, January 1967, 41.

55 Oscar Heidenstam, ‘International Judges for the World’s Best Physiques at NABBA’sUniverse,’ Health and Strength, 96, 26 October 1967, 10 and 13; and Colin Sheard, ‘Curtainup on the Universe Show you don’t see,’ ibid., 96, 9 November 1967, 11.

56 Colin Sheard, ‘Twenty-One To-day,’ ibid., 98, November–December, 1969, 7, andOscar Heidenstam, ‘Judging the 1969 NABBA Universe Contests’, ibid., October 1969, 24.

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such competition, Arnold won a sweeping victory. To Ivan Dunbar thetwo years Arnold spent training in America had produced ‘a maturityextending far beyond his physical development. . . .Here was thefinished product, complete with his now famous brand of ‘‘way out’’humour. ‘‘Come along and meet some of my skinny friends’’, he said,leading the way to the lounge.’ Arnold’s ‘skinny friends’ were DaveDraper, Frank Zane, Boyer Coe and Reg Park, four of the greatestbodybuilders of all time!57

Yet Heidenstam failed to realize that Arnold, who had brought somuch glory to his contest, could be a continuing asset. Reflecting hisamateur outlook, he believed that Schwarzenegger should retire andallow others a chance to win. ‘This man could well be invincible foryears and I hope he will not try and prove it.’ In the absence of anydesire by Oscar to capitalize on his fame, Schwarzenegger committedhimself to his enterprising arch-enemy. Just after winning his secondNABBA title, Arnold agreed to come to America to work for Weiderand compete in IFBB contests. ‘Business fascinates me,’ wrote Arnold.‘I get caught up in the whole idea that it’s a game to make money andto make money make more money. Joe Weider is a wizard at it, and Iliked being able to watch him operate’.58 Once ensconced with Weider,Arnold won two IFBB Mr Universe titles and reeled off six Mr Olympiavictories. Schwarzenegger’s unprecedented achievements became acritical factor in the rise of Weider and the Mr Olympia Contest todominance in the physique world and served as a springboard for hisown movie career.

By the same token, Arnold’s defection was a loss for NABBA, theMr Universe Contest, and British amateur bodybuilding. No lessserious was the Weiders’ ability to gain acceptance into the GeneralAssembly of International Sports Federations (GAIF), a Swiss-basedbody with 73 national affiliates. The International Federation ofBodybuilders now seemed poised for recognition by the InternationalOlympic Committee which could elevate bodybuilding to an Olympicsport.59 Heidenstam was furious and attributed this Weider triumph tothe intrigues of State, who was soon elected general secretary of GAIFand honoured with an Order of the British Empire award. He urgedJohn Terpak, Hoffman’s chief aide, to ‘use your powers and contactsagainst this wretched man’ who was a ‘fly in the ointment and doing

57 Oscar Heidenstam, ‘The Factual Story of the Judging,’ ibid., 99, November 1970, 15,and Ivan Dunbar, ‘All Roads Led To The Palace,’ ibid., December 1970, 14.

58 Heidenstam, ‘The Factual Story,’ 15, and Arnold Schwarzenegger, and Douglas KentHall, Arnold: The Education of a Bodybuilder (New York, 1977), 94–95.

59 Official Minutes, I.F.B.B. International Congress, Baghdad, Iraq, 20 November 1972,3–4, and Report to All National Federations, No. 5, Montreal, 1–3.

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all in his power to get Weider any recognition possible.’ Oscar hardlyunderestimated his adversaries.

I imagine that State and the Weider brothers are of the same politicaland [Jewish] racial fraternity. I am surprised that you in USA toleratethis in State. . . .Weider really wants to isolate us in Europe and istelling everyone this. Ourselves and the French are the onlybodybuilding bastion in Europe and a stumbling block to Weidertaking over.

Oscar was especially frustrated that GAIF seemed unconcerned thatthe International Federation of Bodybuilders was a commercialenterprise. Unable to pry the International Federation of Bodybuildersfrom its privileged position, he secured NABBA affiliation with aninternational body that was hastily formed by the French Federation ofPhysical Culture and Sport to counter Weider moves in Europe. Soonbodybuilding associations from Belgium, Switzerland and Luxembourgalso joined, and Oscar became its president.60

On the surface all appeared well for National Amateur BodybuildersAssociation. Even without Arnold, the 1971 Mr Universe Contest wasone of the best ever, featuring Reg Park, Bill Pearl, Frank Zane, SergioOliva, Ken Waller and Paul Grant—all among the best physiques of theday. Waller, the amateur titleist, ‘seemed to have everything,’ observedOscar. Although very big, his proportions and muscularity weremagnificent’. Oliva, a Mr Olympia winner in the 1960s, was a standoutin the professionals, according to Sheard. ‘Sergio Oliva! . . .That suchmuscularity is possible—on any man. For rumour didn’t lie. He’ssensational. Phenomenal! Not as tall as expected. But SIZE!’61 WhenPearl won the title, however, Oliva smashed his trophy backstage. Later,according to pundit David Gentle, when fans outside the venue heckledhim about his third place, Oliva ‘slammed the taxi door so hard thatit nearly broke off’.62 It was back to the Weider camp for Oliva.Yet Oscar’s contest seemed as popular as ever. ‘Our Universe has gonemad even before the tickets have been printed, he told Terpak in 1972.Six months before the contest he had ‘sold over 1000 of the 2000. Yetlast year we were told by IFBB we would not have another Universe.They have gained no ground at all in Britain’.63

Still there were signs of trouble. In 1969 Oscar had to be hospitalizedthree months before the contest, then the parent company of Health and

60 Heidenstam to Terpak, 15 February and 7 April 1972, Hoffman Papers.61 Oscar Heidenstam, ‘Judging the 1971 Mr. Universe,’ Health and Strength, 100,

October 1971, 8, and Colin Sheard, ‘What A Universe!’ ibid., November 1971, 18.62 Interview with David Gentile, 3 July 2004, Romsey, Hants.63 Heidenstam to Terpak, 7 April 1972, Hoffman Papers.



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Strength went bankrupt and publication ceased. ‘I was well and trulydepressed,’ he admitted. The magazine and contest were rescued byOscar’s generous friends and by his mortgaging his house. NowHeidenstam, as owner of Health and Strength, was even more deeplycommitted to an organization that was a financial liability. But Oscar’sidealism always lifted him above worldly concerns. He was ‘totallydedicated to the contest,’ observed Ian McQueen. ‘It was like areligion.’64 His dedication was recognized at the 1969 contest (the 21stin England) with an orchestral rendition of ‘For He’s A Jolly GoodFellow’ and a huge birthday cake with 21 candles, signifying maturity.French photographer Gregor Arax recognized Heidenstam as ‘thecentral figure of international physical culture’.65

During the 1970s Oscar’s reputation as a leading promoter remainedintact, but more than ever it was identified with his struggle to preservethe amateur ideal against encroaching commercialism. His efforts weredevoted to promoting the Universe Contest and other NABBA events,editing Health and Strength, and waging war against the InternationalFederation of Bodybuilders. With regard to contests, Oscar spent mostof his weekends on the road assisting with local and regionalcompetitions, largely at his own expense. These events culminated inthe Mr Universe show in September where Heidenstam handled eventhe smallest details himself. But ‘those who think that once theUniverse is over I can put my feet up, must be joking,’ he protested toTerpak in 1972. ‘The last aftermath of NABBA Universe competitorsand officials haunted our offices until October 2, so no work was done,and late again with the mag.’ Then came a plethora of local shows—from Edinburgh to the Channel Islands—all of which required Oscar’spresence.66 More than ever, NABBA was a one-man show with anational rather than an international base.

The Mr Universe Contest was the exception, and while subsequentyears would not feature quite the star-studded line-up of 1971, theappearance of such notables as Lou Ferrigno, Boyer Coe, ChrisDickerson, Serge Nubret, Tony Emmott and Bertil Fox enhanced itsreputation through the mid-seventies. Year after year, despite endlesscomplications regarding venue, judges and contestants, the physiqueswere bigger and better than ever and complemented by shapely femalephysiques in the Miss Bikini Contest, exciting physical culture acts and

64 Oscar Heidenstam, ‘Judging the 1969 NABBA Universe Contests,’ Health andStrength, 98, October 1969, 7, and Interviews with Whyatt and McQueen.

65 Colin Sheard, ‘Twenty-One To-Day,’ Health and Strength, 98, November–December1969, 13, and Gregor Arax, ‘Honour and Tribute to Oscar Heidenstam,’ ibid., 23.

66 Heidenstam to Terpak, 7 April 1972, Hoffman Papers, and Oscar Heidenstam,‘NABBA Notes,’ Health and Strength, 101, October 1972, 32.

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enthusiastic audiences. The 1975 show attracted the largest crowd ever,a full house of 2500 fans at the New Victoria Theatre with scenesoutside that were ‘unbelievable and gratifying’. NABBA judge BillNorris noted that no other organization could ‘hope to competewith NABBA with the standard and fairness of their contests’.67 Lessenchanted with Oscar’s show, however, was 1966 Amateur Mr UniverseChester Yorton who was placed only fourth in the professional divisionin 1975. Yorton’s main claim to fame now was that he, unlike virtuallyall other major bodybuilders, was drug-free. His main complaintagainst the NABBA Universe, which he published in major musclemagazines, was that steroids had taken over the sport and thatsymmetry, beauty and health were no longer important. ‘All that mostbody-builders are interested in today is gargantuan size and extremevascularity by means of drugs.’ He asked ‘what is wrong with thejudges who pick these drug-monsters as title winners?’ Heidenstambristled at Yorton’s charges that his contest promoted size at theexpense of traditional values. Calling him a ‘poor loser,’ Oscarresponded to his accusations in a letter published in MuscularDevelopment. With regard to steroids he was less discrete in privatecorrespondence with Rader.

Gargantuan, steroid-monsters—who Coe, Duval, Emmott, andPetsas, all those who beat Yorton or nearly did. Coe the heaviestwas 200 lbs., Duval 178, Emmott 180 all at under 5 ft. 8 ins.MONSTERS?Can Yorton prove any took steroids, maybe they thought he did,even if he said he did not, so how does he prove it? I believe none ofthese did so where does that get us?68

Even if Oscar was so naıve as to believe that none of thosebodybuilders was taking steroids, he must have known that drug usewas rampant and that his contest was as responsible as any othercontest for allowing it.

A more immediate concern, no less important to the Mr UniverseContest, was the publication of Health and Strength. However proud thatit was ‘the oldest PC mag in the world,’ he found it a wearisomeresponsibility. In 1972, he even queried York about buying his share ofthe magazine.69 That Hoffman did not take the bait is not surprising.Muscle magazines were rarely paying propositions. They existed

67 Oscar Heidenstam, ‘1974—26th NABBA Universe; The Judging,’ 103/9 (1974) 6, and‘1975 NABBA Universe Contests,’ 104/7 (1975), 17 and 22.

68 ‘Mail From Muscledom,’ Muscular Development, Vol 13, November (1976), 7 and57–58.

69 Heidenstam to Terpak, 7 April 1972, Hoffman Papers.



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largely for advertising and, unlike Hoffman and Weider, Oscar hadnothing to sell. Lack of commercial hype in Health and Strengthunderscored his commitment to amateurism. Unable to attract a widermarket, Heidenstam became indebted to his printer. To pay him off,he cut corners by acquiring a new printer who, as Oscar explained toRader, provided ‘only one galley, and no page proofs, a big saving, butI have to make a gamble that I have made no mistakes. . . .This atpresent is the only way I can possibly survive. It would be a shame togo down after 82 years’!70 Few readers realized how close their belovedmagazine was to perdition. But it was vital for the British iron gameand to publicise the Universe Contest which, along with other contestsand yearly NABBA dues, should have kept the magazine flush. Insteadthe National Amateur Bodybuilders Association was a drain. In 1973Oscar reported to Terpak that it ‘lost £1800 last year and . . . I had to dipinto my personal finances to keep it going’! It hardly needed to bestated that NABBA was ‘NOT a professional organization.’ Indeed itwas ‘as near amateur as anyone can get’.71 But virtue alone could notpay the bills.

Unlike the Weider magazines that flooded British newsstands,Oscar’s publication had little of the color and glitz that appealed toyoung bodybuilders. While the former featured bomb, blast and blitzroutines and advertisements for Weider products with Arnold,Dave Draper, and Frank Zane frolicking with beautiful women on thebeaches of Malibu, Health and Strength appeared stiff, drab and old-fashioned.72 To keep his magazine afloat, Oscar started selling 25 copiesper issue of the more puritanical Iron Man. ‘I could sell many more,’he assured Rader. ‘Within days of the 25 arriving they have all gone!’But the burdens never got lighter. In 1973 his co-editor GeorgeGreenwood resigned, leaving Heidenstam solely responsible for Healthand Strength, NABBA and the Mr Universe Contest.73

Of the many challenges that Oscar faced, however, it was the Weiderrivalry that most consumed his psychic energies. He was annoyedto learn in 1972 that the IFBB Mr Europe and Mr Olympia contestswere to be held in Munich one day after the NABBA Universe inLondon. ‘Our Universe is always used for their subversive activitiesand to get contestants over after competing in ours,’ he told Terpak.

70 Heidenstam to Rader, 15 January 1976, Rader Papers.71 Heidenstam to Terpak, 14 June 1973, Hoffman Papers.72 In the early 1970s Joe Weider moved his sales (including magazine) enterprises from

Union City, New Jersey, to Woodland Hills, California. Brother Ben, as IFBB president,remained in Montreal.

73 Heidenstam to Rader, 15 January 1976, Rader Papers, and ‘Au Revoir to George,’Health and Strength, 103, January 1974, 17.

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Also annoying was the defection of NABBA athletes and the increaseof IFBB contests in Britain. But the biggest blow came in 1975 whenReg Park became IFBB chairman in South Africa and began organisingWeider’s Mr Universe Contest there. Oscar was ‘sickened’ by this news,saying ‘he has done himself little good amongst those who held him inhigh esteem.’74 No less upsetting was the Weider tactic of labellingHeidenstam a professional, thereby turning the tables on his altruisticclaims of amateurism. ‘How do these people have the audacity to saythat IFBB is the only ‘‘Official’’ amateur bodybuilding association?’he queried Terpak. ‘That vulture State . . . is tied to a 100% proorganization. How dare they criticize us.’75

Another frustration for Oscar was IFBB privileged position in theGeneral Assembly of International Sports Federations. Often expressingdespair to his York friends, he could not comprehend how State hadgained such an advantage, even to the extent that ‘no one else can getin.’ Heidenstam believed York had the clout to stop the Weiders, andwhen he heard that Ben Weider was seeking AAU affiliation for theInternational Federation of Bodybuilders in 1972 he expressed the ‘hopethat you will hit him hard and take him down many pegs’.76

Unfortunately all was not well at York. Hoffman’s weightlifting empirewas crumbling, and even Oscar noticed that Hoffman was ‘ageing’ and‘not quite ‘‘on the ball’’’. Furthermore, as increasing numbers of elitebodybuilders, lured by the prospect of financial gain, were defecting toIFBB contests, the AAU Mr America was declining. Hastening itsdemise was the National Sports Act (1978) which divided weightlifting,bodybuilding and powerlifting into autonomous bodies and enabledthe Weiders to take over the physique committee.77 Although AAUloyalists, through legal action, were able to reassert control over theMr America Contest, AAU bodybuilding was becoming a spent forceby the 1980s.

A better prospect for boosting NABBA fortunes and wrestinginternational control of bodybuilding from the Weiders lay with theInternational Federation of Physical Culture and Sport (IFPCS), thealliance with France and other countries that NABBA had joined.But it seemed stillborn. Even with Oscar as president, it remainedessentially a French organization. The annual Mr Europe Contest, runby the French since the 1930s, was little changed, and there werevirtually no other IFPCS events. Oscar remained preoccupied with

74 Heidenstam to Terpak, 18 May 1972, 23 October 1974, and 1 July 1975, ibid.75 Ibid., 14 June 1973.76 Ibid., and 18 May 1972.77 Heidenstam to Rader, 15 January 1976, Rader Papers, and ‘National Physique

Committee Minutes,’ 22 April 1977, Crist Papers, Hampton, Virginia.



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NABBA affairs in Britain. The only hope for a greater internationalpresence appeared to be Serge Nubret, a French physique star from theWest Indies. Once an IFBB vice-president, Nubret lured Heidenstaminto a new World Amateur Bodybuilders Association (WABBA), formedfor the purpose of ‘driving Weider from Europe’.78 Although Oscar wasagain president, Nubret exercised a controlling influence, much asState did in the International Weightlifting Federation. Hence the 1979Mr Universe Contest was conducted according to WABBA rules withfewer British judges and Nubret playing a leading role.79 Power wasshifting from London to Paris.

However distasteful this arrangement was to Oscar, he allowed it tocontinue for several years, hoping to present a united front against theWeiders. Another reason Oscar persisted was that he had little interestin overseeing a multi-national organization. NABBA, the UniverseContest, and his editorial duties were year-round responsibilities.Furthermore, his worries were compounded when indebtednessforced Heidenstam to relinquish ownership of Health and Strength.Then it was resold. ‘The uncertainty that I even had a job, the bouncingwage cheques, the loss of Universe ticket takings to the other company’were concerns he expressed to Grimek. But he needed to persevere andshow no signs of weakness to the Weiders. ‘The impending OlympiaContest, and the gloating over our possible demise’ was his greatestworry. By the early 1980s amateur bodybuilding was waning in fanappeal, and professionals were demanding monetary awards. Throughfund-raising by his friends, Oscar was able to offer £5000 toprofessional winners, but it was still far less than IFBB awards.80

Eventually Heidenstam’s resentments toward Nubret boiled overat the 1983 world championships in Switzerland. It was a ‘scandal’,Oscar alleged, the proceedings being ‘dominated by Serge Nubret andhis wife. . . .No wonder people write me and ask me about ‘‘Nubret’sAssociation’’’. Using ‘the worst tricks of Weider,’ Nubret hadmanipulated a victory for himself in the professional class. Likewisethe meeting of national delegates was a ‘farce’, spent mostly hagglingover money. Therefore, Oscar withdrew NABBA from the WorldAmateur Bodybuilders Association, hoping other federations wouldfollow Britain and join a new entity called NABBA International.81

78 Heidenstam to Terpak, 2 February 1976, Hoffman Papers.79 Bill Reynolds, ‘‘Interview: Serge Nubret,’’ Bodybuilding World, 1, September 1977,

5–7, and Oscar Heidenstam, ‘NABBA’s Thirty-First Universe,’ Health and Strength,108/8 (1979), 7.

80 Heidenstam to Grimek, 22 October 1982, Hoffman Papers.81 Ibid., 21 December 1983 and Oscar Heidenstam, ‘Resignation from W.A.B.B.A.—

Great Britain.,’ 15 December 1983, Hoffman Papers.

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Key to this departure was the position of Cliff Sawyer, chairman ofthe revived AAU Physique Committee. Heidenstam assumed thatthe American and most other WABBA affiliates would follow NABBAlead. According to Oscar, Sawyer even ‘told me quite emphaticallythat he would be guided by us’.82 But Sawyer had second thoughts,and by February 1984 seventeen WABBA countries were following thelead of the United States rather than Britain.

Ostensibly the reason for Sawyer’s retreat was the need for unityagainst Weider. But the underlying explanation, Oscar insisted, wasmoney, a subject he held in contempt. Indeed the recent WABBA rift‘revolved round money for the professionals’. It was ‘all Nubret everthinks of’, he told Grimek, mainly so he could ‘wangle’ a ‘cut’ fromearnings of contestants. Talks had broken down in Switzerland overNubret’s opposition to a Jugoslav bid to hold the 1984 Mr WorldContest in Belgrade ‘because they could not guarantee the amount forpros’! That prospects for personal gain also influenced Sawyer’sdecision to stay with the World Amateur Bodybuilders Associationseemed clear in a communique indicating he would receive a $1070reimbursement for his air fare to Switzerland. ‘In 1984, we have theopportunity to knock the IFBB out of GAIF and the World Gamesand put WABBA in,’ Sawyer reassured Nubret. Notwithstanding thisanti-Weider facade, it appeared to be a corrupt bargain, where Sawyer’ssupport was contingent upon a personal financial consideration.83

Thus Heidenstam had taken the moral high ground.But his staunch defence of amateur principles over so many years

was taking its toll. Although he still had support from many NABBAmainstays in Britain, he had alienated the new AAU leadership andsplit amateur bodybuilding worldwide. Ironically, by his disdain formoney, Heidenstam had fatally weakened the very cause he was mostcommitted to uphold. That Oscar continued to use Grimek as a sourceof consolation and to view York as a power shows how much he wasliving in the past. By 1984 Hoffman was on his deathbed, Grimek wasabout to retire, and the company was going into a spiral of decline,relinquishing its share of the burgeoning physical culture industry toWeider and other enterprises. Thus Oscar had to bear the consequencesalone of the schism he had brought about. In 1984 there were twoMr World and Mr Europe contests, with each amateur federationtrying to upstage the other. With all the burdens attendant uponthese new contests, added to his responsibilities for the Universe,Britain and other NABBA shows, it is hardly surprising that Oscar’s

82 Heidenstam to Grimek, 17 February 1984, ibid.83 Ibid., and Sawyer to Nubret, 28 December 1983, Hoffman Papers.



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health broke down.84 But he refused to abandon his principles andconsider options that might relieve his beleaguered state.

Such an opportunity arose in 1985 when Sawyer made a politeenquiry about the status of the National Amateur BodybuildersAssociation, hinting that his WABBA plans had not worked out as wellas expected. Though his mention of the $50 000 in prize money that hewas offering professional winners at a forthcoming Mr World Contestin Massachusetts was a blunder, his letter was clearly an olive branch.Heidenstam responded to Sawyer’s contrite gesture with a stream ofinvective that was condescending and cruel. In a seven page single-spaced screed, Oscar detailed the sins of Sawyer and the WorldAmateur Bodybuilders Association over the past six years, his corecomplaint being their preoccupation with money. ‘More than onceI have said ‘‘is it not called ‘World Amateur Bodybuilders Association’,why do we always have to pin everything on a handful ofprofessionals, when there are about 50 amateurs competing!’’’ Asfor Oscar’s inability to support the Mr World Contest, he blamedSawyer. ‘Its not a question of our NOT supporting you but a questionof our not belonging to WABBA any more. Had you come with us,as we hoped, then we would have been there.’ Beyond his grudgeover Sawyer’s betrayal, it was the emphasis being placed onprofessionalism in bodybuilding that distressed Oscar.85 It was adirect result, owing to the Weiders, of the biggest and best competitorsbeing drawn into those contests where the most money and prestigewas available.

Although NABBA physiques, owing to widespread steroid use, werebetter than ever, they received little public acclaim, and amateurs, forall of Heidenstam’s efforts to the contrary, were overshadowed byprofessionals. By the mid-1980s the impact of the InternationalFederation of Bodybuilders was evident in the absence of big-namebodybuilders in Oscar’s show. Henceforth none of the winners achievedwidespread name recognition, not to mention legendary status, inbodybuilding. Gone were the days of glory. Gone were the days ofGrimek, Park, Pearl, Maynard and Schwarzenegger; gone to the IFBB.The Mr Universe Contest, along with NABBA and NABBAInternational, became a shadow of its former self. It is easy to ascribethe demise of British bodybuilding simply to the traditionalism andlack of vision of Oscar. But there were other factors, the most importantof which was the collapse of Health and Strength, without which the

84 Ibid.85 Sawyer to Heidenstam, 28 December 1984, ibid. and Heidenstam to Sawyer,

23 January 1985, ibid.

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National Amateur Bodybuilders Association had no way to generateinterest in its contests and stars. After decades of financial woes,it degenerated from one of the world’s leading physical culturejournals to a medium largely for contest reports. In 1985 it wasabsorbed by Sport and Fitness, a German magazine. After regaining itsindependence, Health and Strength ceased publication, then re-emergedin the 1990s as a muscle magazine of modest proportions witha nostalgic appeal.

Another problem plaguing NABBA, more systemic in nature, wasfinding a suitable venue for the Mr Universe Contest. For over threedecades it was possible to hold it in central London where there werelots of hotels and restaurants and opportunities to frequent the sex densof Soho and bookshops on Charing Cross Road on contest mornings.‘London was the Mecca,’ recalls Whyatt. ‘The camaraderie was there.’But rising costs, even for matinee rentals, forced the contest toleave theaterland in 1981 for the Wembley Conference Centre in thesuburbs where there were fewer amenities. ‘People didn’t come outto Wembley,’ and attendance remained a problem in succeeding yearsas the contest was shunted round the country, from Wembley toHarrogate, Birmingham, Croydon, Southport, Newcastle andKidderminster—in an effort to cut overheads.86 Such was the legacyof parsimony left by Oscar.

By this time too a culture of lower expectations prevailed amongNABBA loyalists. Each year raising the meagre sum of £5000 forMr Universe professionals was a struggle. Contrary to hopes oforganizers, the event did not draw higher quality contestants. ‘At themoment the world’s top professionals are tied to the pro circuit run byIFBB’ concluded Ivan Dunbar in 1983. ‘It would take very substantialfunding indeed to entice them to enter, and even then I doubt if theywould risk banishment for a one-off contest. So we would probably endup with the disgruntled or the disillusioned.’87 Dunbar’s reckoningconstituted, in essence, an admission of defeat. Unlike the thrilling daysof yesteryear, the NABBA Universe could no longer attract the world’sfinest physiques. Now the IFBB ruled a bodybuilding universe that wasdominated by big money and size, especially after the inception in 1989of the Arnold Schwarzenegger Classic, an annual event in Columbus,Ohio, that would soon rival the Mr Olympia Contest. By the time JoeWeider sold his magazine empire for an estimated $350 million in 2002he was widely recognized as the undisputed monarch of muscledom.

86 Interview with Whyatt.87 Ivan Dunbar, ‘Thoughts on the Universe,’ Health and Strength, 113, December

1983, 34.



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When Oscar Heidenstam died in March 1991 with few worldly assetsthere was an outpouring of grief and tributes to the man who, as thepatriarch of British bodybuilding, had raised the Mr Universe Contestto the pinnacle of respect worldwide. Some, however, also focused onits demise. Alex McKenna, then owner of Health and Strength, related astory Oscar once told him about ‘being wined and dined’ by theWeiders in attempt to get him to work for them. ‘I think Oscar viewedtheir ideas as much too American and commercial for an amateursport, although he must have realized they would win in the end.’More self-serving were the comments of Ben Weider. He recognized theNABBA Universe as ‘once the sport’s number one contest, withthe world’s leading bodybuilders flocking to London’, but its ‘prestigeand importance’ had ‘faded’, largely because of Heidenstam’s lackof international vision. Nevertheless he played a ‘critical role . . . inthe sport’s evolution’.88

But one must ask: an evolution to what? A 1999 editorial in aNorth American muscle magazine laments the loss of ‘romanticidealism. . . .Mankind’s collective need for bigger and better has in thecase of bodybuilding been reduced to bigger and better at any cost’.Bodybuilders, having lost all sense of proportion, concern for aesthetics,and respect for human dignity, display physiques

contaminated with foreign objects, polluted by synthetic chemicals,deformed via injected oils, and degraded by the demand forand acceptance of hideous wobbling pot-bellied caricatures ofwell-muscled men. How the hell did calf implants, pec-padding,Synthol-filled biceps and triceps, roid guts and GH [growthhormone]-distended organs ever win acceptance from judges andpaying public alike?89

While all bodybuilding promoters must share responsibility for thisunhealthy state of affairs, it was larger factors in society—commercial,American and modern—that were forcing change. It could be argued,however, that Oscar was less culpable inasmuch as he spent his entirecareer fighting the evils of big money and the size complex. His failuremay be attributed to an inability to realize that NABBA could onlysucceed by having a firm financial base and keeping up with moderntastes. Oscar’s amateurism, reflecting the elitist sporting culture ofhis youth, increasingly left him in isolation from the real world ofbodybuilding. What seems remarkable is that his movement achieved

88 ‘Heidenstam, Oscar: 1911–1991, A Tribute,’ Pumping Press, 4, June 1991, 10.89 Johnny Fitness, Editorial, Musclemag International (December 1999), 98, 122.

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so much and lasted so long while clinging to an outmoded Victorianideology.

While the ideal of the gentleman amateur has withered away,the monumental achievements of Oscar have been memorialized inthe Oscar Heidenstam Foundation which supports the publication ofHealth and Strength, honours exceptional people in sport, and recognizesindividuals for outstanding contributions to bodybuilding at itsannual banquet. Oscar’s well-intentioned friends, however, couldhardly have realized the irony entailed by their decision to honorArnold Schwarzenegger in 2002 and Joe Weider in 2003, thecommercial giants whose principles were most at variance with thoseof Oscar Heidenstam and the Corinthian tradition of physical culturein Britain.



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