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Report of Cycling Infrastructure Challenges in India
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EMBARQ IndiaThe World Resources Institutewww.embarqindia.org
Cycling Infrastructure in IndiaProblems & Strategies for the Implementation of Cycle Networks in Indian Cities Joseph swain | india ResouRces TRusT | wRi india | BangaloRe | summeR 2012
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents
I. Introduction
Acknowledgements
II. Challenges to Cycle Planning in India Design Challenges Administrative Challenges Cultural Challenges
IV. Strategies for the Design & Implementation of Successful Cycling Infrastructure Design Strategies Administrative Strategies Cultural Strategies
III. Indian Case Studies Pune Delhi
V. Conclusion
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I would like to thank Srikanth Shastry for his knowldge and guidance in this project, as well as the entire team at the EMBARQ India Bangalore office for their support and hospi-tality during this internship.
I would also like to acknowledge the integral support from India Resources Trust (IRT) towards the project and I would like to thank IRT for providing me this opportunity to work on this project.
Acknowledgement
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Introduction
Many Indian cities, including Delhi, Indore, Pune, Bangalore, and Chennai, have implemented
cycling plans since Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNRUM) made provisions
for them in 2005. However, none has achieved a level of success so as to become a model for
others. Why is this the case? This report suggests there are certain factors in Indian culture and
city administration that present obstacles to the adoption of a typical cycling plan from Holland,
Amsterdam, or the United States. Although proven in Western countries, such plans lack the Indian-
specificity that will allow them to be successful in Indian cities.
This report is intended to supplement an international cycling infrastructure design guide like
NACTO with strategies for city administrators and designers that will ensure the project will get
the support and use it requires, as well as a design that is relevant and effective in Indian culture.
The report will first identify specific challenges designers and planners face when implementing
a cycling plan in an Indian city. Then the report will look at case studies in Pune and Delhi, with
supplemental information from Mexico City and other international examples. It will identify the
successes and failures of those projects. Finally, it will synthesize the information from the cases and
offer answers to the India-specific challenges.
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I. Challenges to Cycle Planning in IndiaWhat has impeded the success of cycling projects (thus far)?
The following case studies, interviews, observations, and literature by both Indian and international
organizations have identified several challenges to cycle planning that are unique to India. These
fall into three categories: Design, Administrative, and Cultural challenges. Many of the challenges
are interrelated, and a solution to a design problem may be effective only if part of a comprehensive
solution to address related administrative and cultural problems as well.
Cycle Track in New Delhi
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Design ChallengesDespite the many international design standards for cycling infrastructure, the design must be
compatible with Indian road culture and systems to be successful.
1. Design of new infrastructure must consider varying priorities for different user groups.
Cyclists in countries with high rates of cycling quote convenience and efficiency as the primary
reason they cycle to work.1 However, research suggests different groups of Indian cyclists have
different priorities. Most captive cyclists prioritize efficiency and directness far higher than safety
and comfort, for example. Students and other groups of potential cyclists prioritize safety and
comfort above directness, meaning the location and intended users of new cycle infrastructure
will influence its design. Ignoring or addressing the priorities of a major user group can mean the
difference between no one and everyone using the cycle network.
2. Unsafe, inefficient, and/or uncomfortable cycling infrastructure lacking proper lighting, drainage,
paving, etc. deters use by both captive and potential riders.
Cycling lanes, tracks, crossings, parking and other infrastructure competes with all transportation
alternatives, including cycling on the existing carriageway. The vast majority of cyclists in India ride
because they have no transportation alternative, yet in most Indian cities, they choose to ride on
the roads with cars, buses and motorcycles rather than on cycle tracks. This is because they perceive
(often correctly) that the carriageway is more direct, more comfortable, or faster than the cycle
tracks.
3. Infrastructure is too inviting for cars, parking, scooters, pedestrians and hawkers.
Alongside the first design challenge, cycling infrastructure competes with other spaces and modes
for not only cyclists’ preference, but also the preference of all other road users. Cycle tracks that are
too wide can attract motorists looking for a quick parking spot. If the track is moving faster than the
traffic on the main carriageway, it invites two-wheelers to use it instead. If the pedestrian sidewalk is
blocked or too narrow, then pedestrians may prefer the open cycle tracks instead. Thus, the design
of cycling infrastructure must walk a fine line between appealing to cyclists, while not appealing to
other users.
1 A Gehl Architects survey of Copenhagen commuters found that 61% cycle to work because it’s fast, easy and convenient, as compared to health (19%), financial (6%) or environmental (1%) reasons. Source: Cities for Bicyclists = Cities for People. Workshop in Copenhagen, Denmark. 21 June 2010.
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4. Infrastructure is unusable by Indian-specific NMT vehicles like cycle rickshaws.
Many international specifications are created with only bicycles in mind, but India has a variety of
NMT transportation vehicles that could and should benefit from new cycling infrastructure as well.
Cycle rickshaws in Delhi, cargo cycles in Pune and tangas in Mysore all divert some transportation
needs away from the motorized sector, and providing ample space for these vehicles off the main
carriageway can allow them to travel more comfortably, as well as allow motorized vehicles to move
more smoothly in their own space.
Administrative Challenges
The structure, composition, and processes of governing bodies that oversee the implementation of
cycling infrastructure have a great effect on its success.
5. Lack of official leadership and/or effective organizing bodies prevent consistent and
comprehensive design and implementation.
The organization of municipal corporations and transportation departments vary widely between
Indian cities. However, the successful implementation of comprehensive and usable cycling
infrastructure depends on effective leadership and coordination. In some cities like Pune, there
was no official office or authority in charge of the cycling plan, resulting in a disconnected and
A tanga carries passengers through the streets of Mysore
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inconsistent cycle network. In many cases, there is no coordination between departments,
meaning road, traffic, bus, and utility priorities can conflict directly with cycling infrastructure.
Therefore, Indian cities must identify and empower an administrative organization within their
own bureaucracy that will ensure the necessary leadership and coordination to implement cycling
projects.
6. Absence of design and expert reviews in project development prevents proper coordination of
systems.
The usability of cycling infrastructure observed in the case studies was crippled by inconsistent and/
or lack of a clear cyclist-oriented design. Many cities lack stipulations in cycle infrastructure tenders
for a design phase and subsequent reviews, leading to a waste of public funds because a track may
be built, for example, but there is no review of plans by a planner with cycling experience. Such
reviews would prevent much of the inconsistencies between departments and system plans.
7. Lack of continuous leadership impedes the establishment of long-term operations and
maintenance processes.
Many municipal officials who have control over cycling infrastructure projects are appointed and
subject to change on an annual basis. The success of a project after construction relies heavily
on the overseeing department, and several cities have seen cycle tracks neglected because of
department heads without experience or sense of stewardship.
A cycle track in Pune
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8. Absence of policy to protect cyclists and a passive enforcement of traffic laws threatens the safety
and usability of new cycling infrastructure.
Although many modes of road traffic could benefit from tighter regulation and enforcement,
cyclist safety typically relies on other vehicles’ avoiding them, and riders have little power to keep
other road users off their infrastructure. Both laws and enforcement are needed. Blogger Sudip
Bhattacharya wrote the following account after finding the Delhi cycle tracks full of two-wheelers in
2010: “I tried talking to the cops they threatened me in return and asked me to produce documents
stating right of bicycles on the bicycle lane.”2
When new cycling infrastructure is built, it needs to be actively protected for cyclist use only, lest
hawkers, pedestrians and motorists occupy it. Although good design can minimize the need for
protection, cyclists still depend on laws and support form traffic officials, especially in India where
cyclists often occupy the bottom rung of the social ladder.
Cultural Challenges
Indian road culture and the perception of cycling in cities has a significant effect on the number
and type of riders on the roads, which in turn has an effect on the usability and safety of cycling
infrastructure.
9. Cycling stigma and respect for cyclists on the road inhibit popularity as a mode of transportation.
Car ownership is relatively low in India, as compared to two-wheelers and cycle ownership. In Delhi,
there are still only 85 cars per 1000 people, as compared to the United States where there are more
than 800 per 1000 people. However, car ownership remains a goal for most Indians because it
represents high social status.3 Conversely, cycles occupy the very bottom rung of the social ladder,
and because most all Indian cyclists ride because they cannot afford to do otherwise, cycles carry
a stigma most Indians wish to separate themselves from as soon as they can afford to. To illustrate
anecdotally, during the field research for this report, the manager of a Pune business hotel refused
to allow a cycle to be parked in the lot in front of the hotel with cars and two wheelers. The cycle
was relatively high-end, but he felt it would cheapen the image of the hotel. (He eventually relented
on the condition it would be moved soon after sunrise.)
2 See this and other reflections on cycling in India at http://onourowntwowheels.com/2010/10/31/poor-little-bicycle-lane/3 Sahai & Bishop 1. Bus System Reform in Delhi. DIMTS Report. 2008.
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This may be the greatest challenge to increasing ridership in Indian cities. Social symbols and
stigmas can trump the convenience and efficiency of good management and infrastructure. To keep
captive users cycling despite being able to afford more, and to persuade others to choose a cycle
over a car or two-wheelers, cities much find ways to eliminate the stigmas and dissociate cycles
from lower social status.
10. Encroachment and lack of discipline in Indian road culture threaten the safety and usability of
cycle infrastructure.
Painted cycle lanes that have no buffers do not separate motorized traffic from cyclists on Indian
roads; in heavy traffic, they are indistinguishable from the main carriageway. Physically segregated
tracks are also susceptible to encroachment by two-wheelers, particularly in heavy traffic, when
the cycle track is moving faster than the carriageway. Not only does the presence of motor vehicles
defeat the purpose of cycling infrastructure, but it also poses a safety hazard for slower-moving
cycles and acts as a deterrent to potential users.
11. Lack of access to cycles for various groups prevents potential riders from cycling.
Related to the cultural stigma, nearly all cycles in India are designed for working-class captive users.
These ubiquitous cycles are inexpensive, solid, and easy to maintain, but they are also heavy and
slow, as compared to cycles available in other parts of the world designed for recreational riding.
These cycles are often made of aluminum or carbon, are lighter, faster, and often feature multiple
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speeds and suspension. The appeal of cycling as an enjoyable way to commute or exercise is partly
related to the availability of cycles that are less utilitarian and fun to ride. As of writing, there are
only a handful of shops that offer such cycles in Indian cities.
12. Low public awareness of health and environmental benefits deters the growth of cycling in some
demographics.
In Copenhagen, nearly 20% of all cyclists cite health considerations as the primary reason they
cycle, second only to convenience (61%).4 Although many in India are becoming more health-
conscious, there is little public awareness of correlations between cycling and a healthy lifestyle.5
Because most people interested in fitness belong to demographics that typically do not cycle
(middle- to upper-classes), drawing a connection between cycling and fitness has high potential
for the growth of recreational cycling. This potential is particularly ripe if emphasis on cycling as a
healthy mode of commuting can be brought to the public awareness.
4 Gehl Architects Cycling Workshop. 21 June 2010. Copenhagen, Denmark.5 The fitness industry has grown nearly 200 percent over the last 8 years in Delhi: Anand, Shambhavi. Fitness busi-ness on a rise in Punjabi Bagh. The Economic Times. 11 Sept. 2012.
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II. Indian Case Studies: Pune & DelhiThe following case studies form the basis for this report. In both cities, cyclists, planners, urban
designers, and activists were interviewed and existing infrastructure was documented and tested to
analyze what contributes to the success or failure of cycle projects in India. Factors are categorized
into three broad categories: design, administrative, and cultural.
PUNE
Population: 6.1 millionClimate: 12C min / 37C max. 600-700mm rainfall.Topography: 88% flat.Percent of accidents involving cycles: 3%6
Distribution of trips (2008):7
- 2-wheelers: …..28%- Automobiles: ...15%- Walking: ……..31%- Bus: …………. 15%- Bicycle ……….13%
6 Singh et al. 21. Study on Traffic and Transportation Policies in Urban Areas in India. Ministry of Urban Development.7 Sanders, P.B.A. Measuring the Quality of Bicycle Routes in Pune, India.
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Background
Once known as the “Bicycle City,”8 Pune has seen a decrease in cycle ridership from over 50% in 1960
to 13% in 2008 (Others cite as low as 9% in 2009).9 The city adopted a Comprehensive Mobility Plan
in 2008 in collaboration with the Transportation Research and Injury Prevention Program (TRIPP), IIT
Delhi, and CIRT. The bicycle master plan provided for 150km of bicycle tracks as part of a coherent
cycle network in an effort to encourage bicycling in the city while reducing congestion from
motorized traffic.
The majority of Pune’s cycle tracks were developed under the provisions of the Jawaharlal Nehru
National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) that required cycle tracks alongside major arterials
in the city. The tracks were planned in two phases, totaling about 180km.10 However, there are
currently only about 90 km of tracks built. There are several kilometers built prior to the JNNURM
tracks, and these are mostly removed from major thoroughfares.
The quality of the existing tracks varies widely in terms of safety, directness and comfort. Much of
the discrepancies have to do with the process in which they were created. The non-JNNURM tracks
were the result of local neighborhood pressure on a project by the Irrigation Department, which
functions independently of the Pune Municipal Corporation. The Irrigation Department filled in a
canal near Fergusson College, and part of the mostly residential land was converted into NMT and
shared tracks.
The vast majority of tracks (more than 80km) were created later under the JNNURM provisions.
These are found primarily along the BRT corridors and other arterial streets. Some of the earlier
tracks, including those on Satara Rd are designed by urban design professionals. These offer
physical separation from both motorized and pedestrian traffic, sufficient width on both sides
of the road, painted lanes, bollards and signage. Other tracks, primarily those constructed after
inspections for the Commonwealth Youth Games in 2008, were not designed, but implemented
only to specified heights and widths by the civil engineer and/or contractor. This unplanned process
led to missing signage, unspecified materials, curbing, and a general inconsistencies between
segments of the cycle network. Regardless of the location, phase or design of the tracks, multiple
surveys, reports and observations show that virtually no cyclists use the network regularly.
8 Umbrajkar, Manish. City’s Cycle Plan Must Look at Safety First. The Times of India. 1 November, 2010.9 Parisar. Know Your Cyclist: A Pilot Survey. 2009.10 PMC Mobility Plan 2008
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Design Factors – Pune’s Cycling Infrastructure
Three types of cycle tracks in Pune (from left): Pre-JNNURM; Early JNNURM; Later JNNURM/post-inspection.
Raised Tracks Green Buffer
Safety
The most compelling reason to use the cycle tracks is the fact that they are primarily removed from
motorized traffic. This is done primarily by raising the tracks as much as 40 cm above street level. If
there is sufficient width and no need for motorized transportation access, the track is occasionally
buffered by a strip of either pavement (often occupied by vendors) or green space.
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There are many factors that compromise the safety of the tracks, however. The greatest threat
to cycle safety is at the intersections. There are no provisions or design criteria for cyclists at the
intersections, and even when on comfortable, segregated tracks, cyclists are left to their own
devices at road crossings and traffic circles. In some cases, cyclists must force themselves into traffic
to bridge two segments of the same track because there are no crosswalks or lights. Unexpected
left turns from motorized traffic can be a hazard when drivers are not looking out for cycles.
NO SAFE CROSSING
Obstructions and paving inconsistencies, when combined with poor lighting, an also be safety
hazards. Often missing paving bricks, trees and curbs occur in otherwise smooth segments of
the tracks. There is no dedicated lighting for the cycle tracks, making these hazards even more
dangerous.
Finally, small details like the design and
orientation of sewer grates can be hazards
to cyclists in the day or night.
Hazardous paving, grates and poor drainange are details that can deter cycle track use.
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Directness
On the urban scale, Pune has the widest cycling network in India, currently boasting 130 km
of official cycle tracks.11 Connectivity between major destinations like the universities and
neighborhoods is decent, mainly because the tracks exist on arterials. The main exception is
connectivity to the city center, including the railway station and commercial centers. Cyclists may
be able to get from peripheral neighborhoods into the city, but cannot complete their journey
on the tracks. Also, there are few collector segments that link neighborhoods to the main tracks,
particularly in densely populated areas.
However, on the micro scale, the directness of Pune’s cycle network is much more limiting. There are
stretches of road that are designated as cycle track, but lack the actual infrastructure, resulting in
simply a wider carriageway.
11 Sources range from 90-130km
Constructed cycle tracks in Pune
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Occasionally the tracks inexplicably end.
In other cases, automobile traffic patterns force cycle tracks into indirect routes. For example, on
the busy Nagar Road, cyclists sticking to the tracks are forced to cross the river twice to continue
on Nagar Road heading west. While a minor inconvenience for a car, this is a major detour for a
cycle. A cycle-only shortcut could easily facilitate commutes, as well as give cyclists a priority with a
privileged route.
Many “official” obstacles also act as
deterrents. These lamp posts, trees, fences,
and bollards are constructed without any
consideration for the users of the tracks.
“Official” obstacles obstructing cycle tracks in Pune
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Intended to keep motorized vehicles off the tracks, these fences and bollards also dissuade cyclists from using them as well.
Finally, continuity and wayfinding can be a problem for cyclists unfamiliar with Pune. The pre-
Commonwealth Games segments are often marked as part of the network, but at the ends of these
segments, there are few signs, if any, that indicate where the tracks lead from there. In addition, the
tracks are not always recognizable because they are paved, constructed, and demarcated differently
in various areas in the city. The network lacks an identifiable marker, sign, or style that is consistent
throughout. A survey of about 32km of tracks in Pune found eight different styles of paving, and
many tracks were indistinguishable from pedestrian sidewalks.
Only the paving distinguishes the intended cycle track in Pune, but the bricks are less smooth than the carriageway, so cyclists choose to ride in the road. The yellow-painted tree in the middle of the track is another deterrent.
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Comfort
The pre-Commonwealth Games (professionally designed) tracks that exist in the southern area of
the city have some elements of comfort, including smooth and continuous asphalt finishing, and
separation or bollards that prevent (most) motorized traffic from entering into the cycle lanes. When
unobstructed for longer stretches of at least a complete block, these tracks are a more attractive
option than cycling in traffic.
However, the fact that nearly all cyclists prefer to join the motorized traffic on the road over the
segregated cycle tracks suggests that the tracks provide little comfort to cyclists. The greatest
obstruction is the variable widths of the tracks. In some places, tracks are a sufficient 3 m wide. In
other places, they are only about 80 cm wide – barely wide enough for a single cycle.
EFFECTIVE CYCLE-TRACK WIDTH
0.9 m
Double-lane cycle track in Delhi. Width is 2.5m.
Pre-Commonwealth Games (designed) track A track separated on a green strip from traffic
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Besides the official obstructions listed above, there is evidence of poor design like bricks for paving
(as opposed to smooth asphalt) that can get slippery when wet. Drainage problems on the tracks
can lead to impassable puddles during the rainy season.
Poor drainage and paving materials obstruct smooth cyclinsg in Pune.
Poor intersection design: carriageway is flat; cycle track goes down & up to meet it. Also, sometimes the curbs lack cuts, forcing cyclists to dismount.
The intersection of the cycle tracks and driveways or other access ways requiring curb cuts has a
great effect on the comfort of the cyclist. There are no guidelines for property access across the
cycle tracks, and the usual solution is to cut the track to allow level access from the road. This
solution results in repeated (and steep) ramps up and down, eliminating any momentum and
smoothness of the surface. Sometimes there are no cuts at all.
DESIGNATED CT
CROSSING
TRACK GRADE DROP
NO CURB CUT; CYCLES FORCED TO DISMOUNT
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A solution prioritizing cyclist comfort would maintain a continuous and level cycle track as much as
possible. In this case, the access driveway would slope up to the level of the track. This would also
improve safety as an indicator that one is crossing a cycle right of way.
Good intersection design: cycle/NMT track maintains its grade, while driveways are raised, forcing cars to recognize they’re crossing NMT space.
Human encroachments: parking and dumping/storage.
SHARED NMT
TRACKS
PRIVATE ACCESS
PRIVATE ACCESS
TRACK GRADE MAINTAINED
There are many human encroachments that prevent a smooth ride as well. The greatest problem is
pedestrians using the tracks as pedestrian sidewalks. This occurs even when there is a designated
sidewalk, but often the track is a better walking option because it is a) wider, b) closer to the road/
bus stop/attractions, and/or c) more open than the adjacent pedestrian sidewalk, which may be
occupied by informal vendors, parking, etc.
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pedestrian path appropriated by informal sector
1.3m
cycle tracks appropriated by displaced pedestrians
2.4m
separationstrip (w/utilities)
0.5m
ROW(includes cyclists)
6.5m
Insufficient width of a pedestrian path and failure to anticipate hawkers forces pedestrians onto the otherwise-sufficiently wide cycle track in Pune (Satar Rd).
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Other encroachments include motorbikes and auto-rickshaws.
pedestrian path (too narrow for road type)
hawker space (incl. approppriated access road)
1.4m
cycle tracks appropriated by pedestrian overflow
2.3m
ROW(includes cyclists)
6.5m5.3m
separationstrip (w/utilities & landscape)
0.5m
On this street, there is again a sufficiently wide cycle track, and enough room for a semi-formal market. However, the pedestrian path is still too narrow, and the fact it’s raised above the market strip and the track keeps pedestrians in the way of cyclists.
Motorbike encroachement Auto-rickshaw encroachment (because the median barrier prevented the rickshaw from turinging right)
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Given Pune’s circumstances, it is surprising the cycle network has been such a failure. The city had
sufficient will, funds and space to create model cycle tracks for India. In fact, many of the roads
where the network exists (or would exist) actually have far more width than is required for proper
tracks.
unmarked shoulder used for cycling, parking, walking, auto dropoffs, etc.
3.8m
ROW(mixed traffic)
10.5m
narrow lane possibly planned for cycling, mostly used by motorbikes
1.8m
unmarked shoulder used for cycling, parking, walking, auto dropoffs, etc.
3.8m
ROW(mixed traffic)
10.5m
narrow lane possibly planned for cycling, mostly used by motorbikes
1.8m
Pune is well-equiped for a comprehensive cycling infrastructure, particularly because it has enough right-of-way to accommodate all modes of transportation. These modes often self-segregate themselves, and well designed infrastructure could help cyclists and pedestriands navigate the city more quickly, safetly and comfortably.
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It is impossible to pinpoint a single design criterion that is responsible for cyclists to choose the
road over the cycle tracks. Many researchers believe that all components within the safety, directness
and comfort categories must be properly in place for the cycle tracks to function as intended.
Although Pune’s infrastructure is far beyond what one can typically find in India, it is lacking in all
three critical areas, dissuading nearly all cyclists from using it. Small design oversights like choice of
paving, the placement of trees, and pedestrian paths made the difference between successful and
ignored infrastructure. Additionally, to get the details right in the beginning would have cost little
or nothing in additional funds; only careful planning and coordination would have been required.
There are no standard guidelines for the design of cycle tracks in Pune. A set of established
guidelines that prioritized safety, relationships between transportation modes, materials, signage,
comfort, etc., might have been established in the beginning and explicit in all tenders to ensure
quality and consistency across all track construction.
Administrative Factors – Managing Pune’s Cycle Infrastructure
The JNNURM Cell
The majority of Pune’s cycling infrastructure fell under the responsibility of a JNNURM project
management cell created within the Pune Municipal Corporation (PMC) that was to plan and
implement the projects to meet JNNURM standards. The projects stipulated providing cycle tracks
as part of the new BRT corridors, and in most cases the cycle infrastructure was executed. However,
JNNURM gave few specific guidelines for the design of the tracks, and as the previous section
shows, they were compromised by inconsistencies and lack of knowledgeable design.
The JNNURM cell consisted of members from relevant PMC departments, including the road and
traffic departments. The cell had general decision-making power within the PMC, which allowed
it to effectively coordinate and manage the road projects. Although the early cycle tracks, along
Satara Rd and Shankar Seth Rd, were created with the input of an urban designer, an urban designer
was not a regular or official member of the cell. All other cycle track decisions were made by
engineers from the road department or contractors on site. This organization of the PMC allowed
the cycle tracks to be implemented, but left all but a few created without urban design knowledge
or guidelines to ensure consistency or quality.12
12 Gadgil, Ranjit. Interview at Parisar. 8 August 2012.
26
The JNNURM cell neither retained nor claimed responsibility for the supervision and maintenance
of the cycle tracks after they were completed. The result was that no single person or department
within the PMC had jurisdiction over them, leaving others, like the road or garden departments, free
to install lamp posts or trees in the middle of the tracks. While the PMC refused to construct new
tracks, citing the fact that cyclists were not using the existing ones, cyclists like those representing
the affinity group, Pune Cycle Pratishthan, pointed to unacceptable conditions and demanded the
existing tracks be fixed.
The NMT Cell
In February of 2008, the PMC established an NMT Cell, which was to coordinate the pedestrian
and cycling infrastructure in the city. This was a requirement of a memorandum of understanding
signed with the Interface for Cycling Expertise (I-CE) in an attempt to build cycling capacity in the
city.13 The cell was commissioned to do the following:14
a. Create an NMT mission statement
b. Create a consistent set of standards and designs for NMT projects
c. Ensure compliance with NMT infrastructure
d. Ensure maintenance of NMT infrastructure
e. Propose changes and actions that will improve and/or promote NMT
f. Undertake outreach and promote NMT
g. Engage with techinical experts and citizens on NMT issues Although this cell would appear to fill the vacuum of control of the NMT infrastructure, its organiza-
tion and composition deterred any progress in cycling or pedestrian improvements. Representation
in the cell was limited to only engineers from the road department and select NGOs like Pune Cycle
Pratishthan. This meant that a department with an interest in NMT zones might not have jurisdic-
tion over its own infrastructure. For example, the bus transportation department (PMPML), would
not be included in decisions that might affect bus stop location.
In addition, the NMT cell relied on strong leadership, which was generally lacking. It held only three
official meetings that resulted in no actions to improve NMT infrastructure. A primary reason for
this was its position as a relatively low priority in Municipal Corporation leadership. Representatives
from the NMT also cited the lack of power authority over other departments. Unless the heads of
13 I-CE Bicycle Partnership Program. www.bikepartners.nl14 Office Orders of the Municipal Commissioner, PMC, 25 February, 2008.
27
each department were to participate in the decision-making process, the NMT would have little
power over individual departments. Also, because Pune is divided into 14 jurisdictional wards,
responsibility is too easily handed off between the PMC and each ward. Therefore, for the NMT to
make meaningful decisions, each ward would need to be represented in the NMT Cell, or at least be
consulted when projects affected it.
The only way the NMT cell can fulfill its mission, therefore, would be if it retains some authority
over individual departments, rather than within or below them. This could be accomplished by 1)
mandating the heads of each relevant department be appointed to the cell; 2) heading the cell with
a high-ranking commissioner who can call meetings and enforce action; and 3) including represen-
tatives from wards to establish responsibility over individual projects.15
Project Design Process
The variations in the design and quality of Pune’s cycle tracks is a reflection of the lack of a pre-
scribed process for design and implementation specific to NMT infrastructure. In the first JNNURM
phase, the cycle tracks were designed by a urban planner, and in subsequent phases, the tracks
were either not designed, or designed by an engineer in the Roads Department. The NMT cell would
be the logical entity responsible for ensuring cycle tracks are properly designed and approved by
qualified designers. However, no such experience existed on the Pune NMT cell.
Nevertheless, the inclusion of a qualified cycle-track designer or panel in the NMT cell may not en-
sure quality cycle tracks are implemented. Parisar points out that both the project implementation
process and the way an NMT panel (NMTPs) is appointed are important. Any projects that include
a new cycle track must have the NMTP actively involved in the design process, and the NMTP must
approve final plans as part of the city review. Additionally, all road projects whose scope includes
cycle tracks must have plans approved by an NMTP before construction.
To ensure the NMTP is qualified, Parisar argues the positions must not be like a typical NMT cell
appointment or tendered service, but an appointment. The city council and head of the NMT cell
would approve this appointment. In addition to NMT design guidelines for city projects, there
should therefore also be guidelines listing qualifications for appointees on the NMT panel.
15 Background and suggestions for the NMT cell are collected from interviews on 8 August, 2012, with Ranjit Gadgil of Parisar and Jugal Rathi, an NGO representative for Pune Cycle Pratishthan in Pune’s NMT cell.
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Public Bike Sharing
The PMC entered into a public-private partnership (PPP) in 2010 to implement a public bike shar-
ing system (PBS) that would promote cycling in the city. The PMC tender called for an initial system
comprised of 300 cycles spread over 25 stations. The system would require a Rs. 700 membership
fee for 5 years, and rentals would be via a smart card system, costing nothing for the first 30 min-
utes, Rs. 5 for the second 30 minutes, and Rs. 10 for each subsequent half hour. Funding would
come from membership, rental and advertising fees.16
However, the PBS plan was dropped when the PPP bidder failed to raise funds. One challenge was
relying too heavily on advertising fees in an environment where the value of advertising is low, due
to a lack of regulation. Parisar, a primary proponent of the Pune PBS system, emphasizes the need
for both a strong corporate sponsor and the support of a high-level municipal commissioner, or
possibly a state transport authority. Pune’s attempt at a PBS has shown that the support of NGOs
and contractors can help with the design and implementation of a viable system, but cannot sup-
port it completely.
Cultural Factors – Building a Cycle Culture in PuneAlthough the number of cycle owners in Pune has decreased steadily over the past three decades,
the city still has a significant percentage of trips by cycle (13%), and more than 150,000 people still
own cycles.17 The vast majority are “captive” riders – those who cycle because of financial con-
straints, rather than by choice.18 There are relatively few statistics on captive riders, defined as those
who fall under the poverty line of earning at most Rs. 5000 per month, of which Rs. 750 is spent
on transportation. In large cities, their cycling rate can be as high as 80%, and even higher among
those in informal distribution activities (nearly 100%).
16 Parisar: http://parisar.org/activities/events/123-public-bicycle-scheme-workshop.html#pbs_poster_basics.17 Umbrajkar, Manish. City’s Cycle Plan Must Look at Safety First. The Times of India. 1 November, 2010.18 Statistics on the exact percentage of captive users are not readily available, but cycling activists in the city gener-ally assume the number is between 95-99%.
An abandoned public bike share station in Delhi
29
However, Pune is at the center of a quickly growing movement of “hobby” cyclists – those who
choose to cycle for fun, health, social and/or competitive reasons. Organizations like Lifecycle, a lo-
cal high-end cycle shop, and Pune Cycle Pratishthan have promoting cycling as a hobby, in addition
to a means of transportation, for more than a decade. Activists see hobby cyclists, who typically fall
in the upper/upper-middle classes, as having the greatest growth potential in the city. Unlike cap-
tive users, these users are social and economic leaders who can serve as examples to others.19
Group Rides
Many groups have found that organized group rides are effective in growing a hobby cycling
culture from the ground up, echoing findings of I-CE and other international cycling promoters.
Such events happen on a regular basis, often daily, weekly or monthly, with more attending each
time. One promoter and owner of Lifecycle Mall, Nachiket Joshi, remembers organizing his first ride
through the city when only two people attended. Today he organizes weekly rides with as many as
6,000 riders. Every few months Lifecycle organizes long-distance excursions to Ladakh for mountain
biking enthusiasts. Pune Cycle Pratishthan holds regular rallies that involve 5-km rides around the
city, as well as multi-day rides of over 1000 km. Such rides, especially those within the city, have
great visibility that allows them to promote cycling, and are largely responsible for Pune’s growing
hobby cycling culture.
In addition to group rides, there are a growing number of people in Pune who are cycling competi-
tively. There are several organized road races in and around Pune, and in 2011, the National Road
Cycling Championships were held there. While races in India are relatively few and far between, the
circuit is growing, and Joshi believes that, if well publicized, these events can change the image of
cycling and raise the aspirations of cyclists in the city.
Cycling Technology
Joshi, the owner of Pune’s only high-end cycle shop, points to the availability of new and exciting
cycles as a catalyst for cycling culture. In contrast to the ubiquitous Atlas- and Hero-brand models
that haven’t changed for 50 years in India, imported brands are beginning to emerge in some major
cities like Pune, Bangalore and New Delhi. These cycles are typically American and European brands
and feature modern technologies like shock absorbers, aluminum or carbon frames and up to 27
speeds. Joshi and Jugal Rathi agree that cycles in India need to make a departure from the industrial
models to appeal to a new generation of cyclists. Such cycles can go more places faster and can add
an element of fun to an activity that until recently was purely utilitarian in India.
19 From interviews with Nachiket Joshi and Jugal Rathi on 7-8 August, 2012.
30
Signs of new technology fueling a rise in cycling culture is evident in United States, where in 2011
73% of cycle trips were for recreation while only 10% of trips were for commuting. As mountain bike
technology improved and became mass-produced in the late 1980s and 1990s, the sport became
popular across the country. Similarly, road cycles have become more popular as carbon frames and
better components became commercially viable, accounting for 24% of all cycle sales in 2011, up
High-end cycles can attract potential riders from different demographics
from 16% in 2005.20
Furthermore, Joshi believes that cyclists should not only be excited about their cycles, but also be
able to maintain them themselves. He holds classes and workshops to help spread the knowledge
on all maintenance points, from changing a tire to fixing a hydraulic disc brake. Like cycle promo-
tion in United States,21 such programs slowly grow a cycling culture by cultivating expertise and
appreciation for cycles themselves.
20 Industry Overview. National Bicycle Dealer’s Association. 2011.21 See Cascadia Bicycle Club (http://shop.cascade.org/content/events/events) or REI classes and events (http://www.rei.com/learn), for example.
31
Government Incentives
Pune’s local government has considered some pro-cycling policies, but has not been able to pass
many. One example is a 4% city-tax exemption on imported cycles. However, this reduction pales in
comparison to the tax hike that the national government imposed recently that raised import taxes
on cycles from 10% to 30%. Cycling activists criticize this policy as sending the wrong message to
would-be cyclists throughout India. Parisar and other activists have pushed for both public- and
private-sector incentives that would reward those who cycle. These might include a financial incen-
tive to ride a cycle to work, for example. Although nothing has transpired in policy, some businesses
in Pune now offer a monthly financial incentive, changing and parking facilities or extra time in the
mornings to cycle commuters.
The Pune Municipal Corporation considered a program in 2010 to promote cycling within its rela-
tively large student population with a Rs. 4 crore initiative to provide 50,000 bikes to indigent stu-
dents. This program was never implemented because officials passed off responsibility. The corpo-
ration is currently considering giving a financial incentive of Rs. 1,000 per year to indigent students
who cycle, but the program would be severely underfunded at Rs. 10 lakhs, according to Rathi.22
In Pune, the most significant incentive the city government has provided is the cycling infrastruc-
ture, with the help of JNNURM. A financial commitment like that could go a long way in promoting
a cycling culture, activists like Gadgil and Rathi argue, if only the cycle tracks had been executed
and maintained to an acceptable standard. The infrastructure is key to both promoting cycling as
a hobby, as well as keeping captive users cycling, even when their financial situations improve.
Promoters agree that the goal of the PMC should be to implement well-designed infrastructure
that would make cycling simply the most convenient option. Then commuters would freely choose
cycling over other transportation modes, regardless of economic stature.
22 Thite, Dinesh. Is PMC Re-cycling an Old Promise? Pune Mirror. 12 April 2012.
32
Learning from PunePune’s cycling infrastructure is currently the largest most comprehensive in India. However, there
are many factors that prevented it from succeeding in promoting cycling in the city. The key points
to take from the Pune case study are:
Design & Infrastructure
· Building cycle tracks is not enough; they must prioritize cyclist safety and comfort.
· Directness must be designed on all scales, from continuous routes within the city to
providing unobstructed riding on the tracks.
· Raising the cycle tracks above the road level is effective in improving rider safety.
· Cycle tracks must be designed to segregate cyclists from both motorized traffic and
pedestrians.
· Cycle tracks must be designed to segregate cyclists from hawkers and informal markets.
· Details are important: the drainage, paving, bollards, sewer grates, and curb cuts will
encourage or prevent the use of the tracks.
· Cycling tracks must be protected from other city departments’ installing “official”
obstructions like street lamps, bus stops, or landscaping.
· Intersections must be carefully designed with cyclist safety in mind. Strategies such as “bike
boxes” should be considered.
· Removing cycle tracks from main arterials to less trafficked areas like parks, service roads,
etc. can improve comfort and use of cycle tracks.
· The city must develop a detailed set of guidelines for the design of cycle tracks, focusing on
safety, relationships between transportation modes, materials, signage, comfort, etc.
33
Administration and Management
· An autonomous NMT cell within the municipal corporation with full responsibility and
jurisdiction over the NMT infrastructure is essential in effectively constructing and
maintaining a cycle network.
· The NMT cell must have decision-making power by organization: it should include the
heads from all relevant departments (road, traffic, bus, garden, etc.).
· The NMT cell needs strong leadership by a relatively high-ranking commissioner who can
call meetings and make decisions.
· The NMT cell must include the participation of all wards or sub-sections of the city to
resolve responsibility of NMT projects. To avoid over-encumbered meetings, the NMT cell
might involve an individual ward only if a project is in its jurisdiction.
· The NMT should involve the participation of cycle interest groups and experienced urban
designers.
· Design guidelines for cycling infrastructure must be explicitly laid out in project tenders.
The guidelines should be developed and supervised by a relatively autonomous panel (not
a tendered contract). This panel should have an active role in the road and construction
process
· A PBS system within a PPP model requires strong leadership from a high-ranking
commissioner, as well as a strong private backer. A PBS system could be successful with the
full support of a state transportation authority.
Promoting Cycling Culture
· Cycling interest groups can increase cycling popularity by making cycling visible in the city
with regular group rides, competitions, and promotional activities and events.
· The availability of new cycles and technologies can make cycling easier and more fun,
thereby growing and reinforcing the cycling culture.
· The municipal government can provide numerous incentives to promote cycling,
including:
o Eliminating taxes on imported cycles
o Providing tax and/or financial incentives to those who purchase a cycle and cycle
regularly
o Giving businesses tax/financial breaks for providing employees incentives and
infrastructure (parking, changing rooms, etc.) for cycling to work.
o Providing free or subsidized cycles to students.
o Invest in a PBS system (see Political Management).
o Invest in quality cycling infrastructure (see Design & Infrastructure) in a long-term
commitment to develop a comprehensive cycling network in the city.
34
NEW DELHIPopulation: 11 millionClimate: Moderate winters (lows = 10C); Hot summers (highs = 39C).Topography: Relatively flat
Percent of accidents involving cycles: 6%23
Distribution of trips (2008):24
- 2-wheelers: …….16%- Automobiles: .....9%- Walking: ……....34%- Bus/Metro: .…....29%- Bicycle ………...4%- Cycle Rickshaw…8%
BackgroundThe cycle tracks in New Delhi are a component of the BRT Corridor project, approved in 2004
as part of the city’s Integrated Mass Transit Plan and constructed between 2006-08. Only 14.5
km of the corridor have been built, from Dr. Ambedkar Nagar to Delhi Gate, and the completion
of the planned 310km is in doubt. Construction of the southernmost 5.8km were accelerated
in anticipation of the 2010 Commonwealth Games. However, cycle tracks were designed and
implemented as a priority second only to the BRT infrastructure itself.25
23 Singh et al. 21. Study on Traffic and Transportation Policies in Urban Areas in India. Ministry of Urban Development.24 Singh et al. 35. Study on Traffic and Transportation Policies in Urban Areas in India. Ministry of Urban Development.
25 TRIPP. First Delhi BRT Corridor: A Design Summary. 2005.
Cycle tracks on the BRT Corridor near Moolchand
35
Although cycling in Delhi has declined significantly in the past decades, from 19% in 1980 to 5%
in 2010 the city nevertheless has a significant number of daily trips by cycle, estimated between
0.9 and 1.2 million in 2008.26 Captive riders, who rely on cycles to commute or for their businesses,
make the vast majority of these trips. Designers of the BRT corridor focused on these captive riders
as the starting point for the design of the cycle tracks. In addition, Delhi has an active cycle rickshaw
culture, and the needs of both cyclists and rickshaws influenced the final specifications.
Design FactorsThe correlation between high cycle traffic and the presence of feeder tracks near Chirag Delhi
may underscore the importance of a comprehensive approach in a cycle network. However, at the
time of observation, many, cyclists were using the main carriageway despite the feeder tracks, and
the proximity to relevant neighborhoods may be a more critical factor. In fact, the highest levels
of traffic is found in the 5.8 km stretch from Ambedkar Nagar to the Moolchand Metro stop, and
those involved in the project agree that this has to do with the easy connection to working-class
neighborhoods (i.e. high rates of captive users) like Tigri, Deoli, and Chirag Delhi.27 Peak traffic in
each direction can reach 2000 cyclists per hour in this stretch. Because only the southernmost
segments, from Ambedkar Nagar to Moolchand, are regularly used, most of the following
assessment is focused on these 5.8km.
26 Tiwari. Planning for Non-Motorized Transport in Cities. 2010.
27 Background, interpretations, and suggestions come from interviews with Amit Bhatt and Umang Jain on 20 Aug, 2012, and Sandeep Gandhi on 21 Aug, 2012.
Chirag Delhi
Moolchand
Northern Segments- 8.7 km- 2006 - not completed- no designated BRT lanes- poor CT maintenance- little CT use
Southern Segments- 5.8 km- 2006-08 construction- May 2008 pilot opening - designated BRT lanes- regular CT maintenance- high CT use
36
The design of the cycle tracks along the BRT corridor varies in terms of safety, directness and
comfort. An important design consideration for the tracks, according to the designers, was the
idea that they would not be able to count on police or traffic enforcement to restrict cars and other
motor vehicles from encroaching on the tracks. Therefore, they relied on a competition-based
strategy, and the subsequent critical mass of ridership. This means that each component of the BRT
corridor is designed to be the most appealing (in terms of speed, comfort, safety, directness, etc.) to
only the mode of transportation it was intended for. For example, two-wheelers would not encroach
on the cycle tracks because they move too slowly, and pedestrians would not encroach because
they are too busy for comfortable walking. The relative attractiveness of each lane would then self-
reinforce itself with larger volumes of appropriate users.
Safety
The segregation of the Delhi cycle tracks from the main carriageway and the pedestrian paths is the
most significant safety factor, as research has shown separate facilities reduce the rate of accidents
by 40% and fatalities by 50%.28 Cyclists rarely interact with motorized traffic on the fast-paced
arterial roads (50+ kmph). Although the tracks are often on the same level as the road, they are
separated by a curb or median.
28 Tiwari (2002) 12. There is no data analyzing the effect of Delhi’s cycle track on accident rates yet.
effective width ofcycle tracks
2.4m 0.4m
ROW(one way)
Metro Infrastructure
pedestrian path w/warning stripe & utilities below
4.1m
separationstrip (w/utilities)
Typical NMT section in Delhi, in the BRT southern segment.
37
Intersections and street connections are also designed for safety. Some busier intersections feature
“bike boxes” that push the stop line for motorized traffic back several meters to give waiting priority
to cyclists. These green boxes allow cyclists to collect at lights ahead of other traffic, giving them
important visibility and preventing left-turn accidents, which are some of the most common
accident types for cyclists.29 Cycle tracks connect directly to these green boxes, allowing cyclists to
remain segregated from other vehicles at intersections.
The safety of the bike boxes is dependent on their use. When enough cyclists are waiting at the
intersection in the box, then motorized traffic will respect the space.30 If there are no cyclists, or only
one cyclist waiting in the box, then other vehicles may disregard them. Also, some of the boxes are
not planned properly, with the space serving as both a pedestrian crosswalk and a bike box. In areas
with many pedestrians, this can discourage the use of the bike boxes.
29 Tomlinson, David. Conflicts between Cyclists and Motorists in Toronto, Canada. 2000. p.3. 30 However, many 2-wheelers were observed in the bike boxes. They often stop at the stop line and then “creep up” into the box as they wait at the light.
BIKEBOX
3.0m
DIRECT SIDE ACCESS FROM CT w/CURB CUT
CT CONTINUED AFTER INTERSECTION w/CURB CUT
Typical Bike Box design in Delhi, in the northernmost segment near the courthouse.
38
However, because much of the danger posed to cyclists at intersections is due to their poor visibility
to other motorists, the implementation of bike boxes in Delhi is a step in the right direction for safer
cycling.
Street connections – where a side street connects to an arterial – sometimes prioritize the cycle
tracks as well. Track crossings will often have a change in materials that indicates to drivers that they
are crossing a continuous cycle lane. Small details like this can make cyclists much more visible to
motorists.
TRACK GRADE MAINTAINED
CHANGE OF MATERIAL AT INTERSECTION
CYCLE TRACK
WARNING STRIP`
ACCESS ROAD
PEDESTRIAN PATH
Directness
On the urban scale, the Delhi cycle tracks are not comprehensive enough to be called a network.
They exist only along one arterial, and the most useable tracks only form a 5-km continuous route.
However, on a smaller scale, the tracks are designed to prioritize easy and direct travel along the
arterial. Much of this is due to the fact that the tracks are just part of a comprehensive street plan,
including a BRT corridor, lanes for motorized traffic, and a pedestrian sidewalk. Unlike in Pune,
where trees, bus stops and lampposts are some of the most common obstructions in the cycle
tracks, planners designed such infrastructure into the plan from the beginning. This ensured that
the cycle tracks would be uninterrupted.
39
Typical tracks are 2.5m wide, allowing traffic in both directions. The width of the lanes is designed to
accommodate two cycle rickshaws passing each other. The southernmost segments of the corridor
in Delhi feature bi-directional tracks on both sides, while the northernmost segments only have
segregated tracks on the northbound side. There is a painted, single-direction cycle lane on the
southbound side.
pedestriansutilities below
4.0m
2.3m
0.5m
0.8m
2.5m
2.2m
7.0m
0.4m
3.8m
36.0m
2.3m
(var
ies)
(var
ies)
10.2
m
pedestriansutilities belowcy
cles bu�er &
utilitiesbu�er,utilities,landscaping
main carriageway(3 lanes)
main carriageway(2 lanes)
median &landscaping
BRT lane seperationcurb
cycl
es
A “complete” multi-modal BRT corridoor in Delhi, near Lajpat Nagar
A painted cycle lane in Delhi.
40
Having bi-directional tracks on both sides of the corridor make cycling both more direct and safer.
Such a system provides for a road culture where cyclists often choose cycling against traffic over
crossing a street twice.
There are several segments of the Delhi BRT corridor that are not used, primarily because of
obstructions to the tracks’ continuity and directness. All of these segments are in the northern part
of the corridor. Obstructions include trees and PBS stands constructed in the middle of the cycle.
Planned and unplanned obstacles renders entire segments of the Delhi cycle tracks useless.
41
Intersection design is crucial
to the perceived directness of
the cycle tracks. Intersections
along the BRT corridor vary in
terms of visibility, continuity
and directness. Many major
intersections involve one or
more “channelizer” roads that
allow left-turning traffic to flow
seamlessly. This means that
in the absence of bike boxes,
which put cyclists in the main
carriageway, cyclists must wait
for traffic and cross three roads
instead of one. If the cycle
track is raised, then this could
mean up to six grade changes.
Intersection conditions like
these affect the directness of
the tracks, and if they occur
too frequently, cyclists will be
discouraged from using those
tracks.
PRES
CRIB
ED C
YCLE
CR
OSS
ING
At arterial junctions, cyclists must cross four separate lanes
Typical designated path for cyclists at an intersection
Comfort
The comprehensive planning of the entire BRT corridor has a noticeable effect on the cycle
tracks’ comfort, particularly with regard to encroachment. Because the pedestrian paths are often
unobstructed and sufficiently wide, cyclists do not encounter much pedestrian encroachment.
In busier areas, space for hawkers has been provided so they will not appropriate the cycle or
pedestrian paths. In addition, the tracks themselves are sufficiently wide to allow smooth cycling
despite sharing lanes with slower rickshaws. The tracks are most comfortable in the southernmost
segments where there are large numbers of cyclists.
42
However, in areas where there are few or no cyclists, encroachment is more evident. People park
cars and drive two-wheelers on the tracks. In heavy traffic, two-wheelers take the cycle tracks
instead of the main carriageway.
Encroachment on the cycle tracks when there are no cyclists present
A hawker occupies the cycle track in the northern segment, near the Delhi zoo.
Hawkers occasionally set up permanently in areas that see little cycle use. In the process, this
prevents any future use.
43
Also, there is little accommodation for cycle rickshaw parking in certain high-traffic areas like
near metro stations. This means that they will wait for passengers on the cycle tracks, essentially
occupying one lane.
Maintenance is mixed along the Delhi cycle tracks. In the southern segments they are generally well
maintained, with few potholes and little debris obstructing paths. In the northern segments, there
were several areas with garbage and damaged infrastructure, but there were workers sweeping the
tracks not far away as well. The varying levels of maintenance may be a factor in explaining why the
northern tracks are not used.
Designers failed to anticipate waiting rickshaws at the Lajpat metro station.
Maintenance (and lack thereof ) in Delhi
Drainage is another problem throughout the BRT corridor. There are many patches that do not have
sufficient slopes or outlets, leaving large puddles on the tracks. This does not stop cycle rickshaws,
but it may deter regular cyclists if the alternative (the main carriageway) is dry.
44
Lighting is an important comfort factor in Delhi, where many commuters ride home at night. There
is sufficient lighting at night in the southern segments, matching the lighting level for the main
carriageway (40 lux). In Delhi the cycle track lighting is yellow while the carriageway lighting is
white, but this is to make a distinction between the modes of traffic and does not affect the safety
or comfort.
Paving on the Delhi cycle tracks is poured concrete with expansion joints every 2-3 meters. The
expansion joints are not thick enough to cause discomfort in riding. The concrete means less
maintenance and fewer potholes. Also, it adds a degree of permanence that Pune’s concrete pavers
lack; future utilities will be less willing to pull up poured concrete.
Bollards present a complex question when it comes to cycling comfort. In Delhi, most points of
entry to the cycle tracks have bollards, made of precast concrete, stone or steel. Their purpose is to
increase comfort by preventing cars and two-wheelers from entering the tracks, but their spacing
is wide enough to accommodate a rickshaw, so they are not deterrents to two-wheelers. However,
Poor drainage and maintenance in the southern segements in Delhi
Types of bollards on the Delhi cycle tracks
45
according to the designer, Sandeep Gandhi, the bollards become a deterrent to cyclists as well,
especially as the traffic increases. Therefore, the city removed bollards in the southern segments
with the highest cycle traffic. Because there is a critical mass of cyclists, there is no encroachment
from cars, and any two-wheeler encroachment is negligible because they would move at the same
speed as cyclists on the tracks. However, in areas where there is not a steady flow of cyclists, bollards
remain, because they do not deter light cycle traffic, but they can prevent cars from encroaching.
Finally, wayfinding along the Delhi
BRT corridor is straightforward once
one has found the cycle tracks. There
is some signage along the tracks that
indicate the track is for cyclists only.
However, many entrances to the
tracks, especially at large intersections,
lack sufficient signage to indicate
the presence of a cycle track. Overall,
much of the 14.5km stretch lacks
signage, which may be a factor in
the underuse of the northernmost
segments.
Administrative FactorsThe Delhi cycle tracks are a component of Route 4 / Phase 1 of a comprehensive BRT network
project proposed by the Committee for Sustainable Transport in 2003. The committee included
senior transport officials, Government of India Officials, and transport consultants from the private
and academic sectors. The Government of Delhi (GNCTD) initiated the project, granting design and
planning responsibilities to TRIPP (IIT) and RITES Ltd., Delhi.
DIMTS: A limited Unified Metro Transport Authority
GNCTD created a special organization, the Delhi Integrated Multi-Modal Transit System (DIMTS),
to implement the BRT system, as well as other public transportation projects in Delhi. DIMTS
is an equal-equity joint venture organization formed between GNCTD and the IDFC, a not-for-
profit organization that advocates for social responsibility, policy, and capacity building.31 DIMTS
conducted several feasibility studies in 2004 for the GNCTD Transportation Department and was
given responsibility for Operations and Management of the BRT corridor.32
31 DIMTS History. www.DIMTS.in/Dimts-Our-History.aspx. Also, www.idfc.com/ foundation32 See appendix for the full list of stakeholders involved in the BRT Corridor design.
46
O&M responsibilities were comprehensive and included organization of the BRT itself, the
implementation of the NMT tracks, repairs, traffic signals, lighting, horticulture, and public
awareness campaigns.33 Although DIMTS answered in part to the Transportation Commissioner,
this wide scope allowed it to control most facets of the project that would normally have fallen to
disparate departments, like Transportation, Traffic Police, an NMT Cell, etc. Comprehensive control
for DIMTS lead to a better coordination of systems along the corridor, particularly in the southern
segments in the earliest phases (pre-Commonwealth Games). In these segments, DIMTS and its
consultants had enough autonomy and uninterrupted control over the entire project to avoid the
spatial conflicts found in Pune.
Operations & Maintenance of the Corridor
Operations and maintenance after the opening of the BRT corridor in April of 2008 benefitted from
this autonomy, as well as the internal stability of DIMTS. The Managing Director of DIMTS has been
the same for more than five years, allowing the organization to establish processes deeply enough
to continue as control and priorities change at the top. Processes including the removal of debris
from cycle tracks, the removal of hawkers, and the upkeep of lights and landscaping have been
refined and implemented for enough time to ensure their relative permanence despite evolving
politics and management.
In addition, DIMTS offers value and stability to the BRT’s O&M because of its role in the design. The
organization was involved from the first day of designs, giving it an element of ownership in the
project. Those who operate the systems have had a say in how the systems work, thereby giving
them more investment in them and ensuring dedicated upkeep. Such a relationship between
design team and operations stands in stark contrast to Pune, where infrastructure was designed (or
not designed at all) by one contractor, constructed by uninvolved builders via tender, and operated
by uninvolved traffic police, road department officials, etc.
DIMTS currently employs 50-60 staff members to maintain these BRT corridor O&M processes – a
number some say is insufficient. However, it is enough to keep the cycle tracks useable (in the
southern segments; the northern segments are more neglected), and ensure all systems are
coordinated appropriately. Although Delhi has established an NMT cell within the GNCTD, it lacks
the staff, experience and project ownership to exercise any influence over the existing pedestrian
or cycle tracks. The authority and autonomy of the DIMTS therefore renders the cell redundant with
respect to the city’s cycle tracks.
33 See DIMTS website: http://dimts.in/Operation-and-Maintenance-of-BRT.aspx
47
Cultural FactorsBetween 5-7% of all trips made in Delhi are by cycle today.34 Most of these cyclists are captive riders,
and the designers of the cycle tracks targeted this group as a base on which to build. The objective
was to tailor the cycling network to these users first to keep them on cycles because of comfort and
convenience, even if their income afforded them something more. Infrastructure built for these
users could then leveraged to promote cycling among students and hobby riders.35
Priorities by Rider Type
The priorities for captive riders differ from recreational riders. Safety is less of a priority; they will
cycle despite heavy or mixed traffic and unsafe intersections. However, captive users have a low
tolerance for indirectness. They will prefer to cycle in the main carriageway if a cycle track goes out
of their way, even if only for a block. Thus a cycle track will be ignored unless it links their origins and
their destinations in a direct manner. For this reason, the designers chose to implement segregated
cycle tracks only on arterials, because most destinations in Delhi for captive users (certain
commercial centers, large employers like hospitals, etc.) are accessed from arterial streets.
However, designers in Delhi found that recreational and “potential” riders prioritize safe conditions
over directness. They will not cycle unless they feel safe on a particular route. When this user is
targeted – often in environments where most riding is for recreation, like in the United States –
cycle tracks removed from arterials and congested areas is preferred. The routes do not have to be
direct, but users must perceive a certain level of safety and comfort.
Converting Potential Riders
The designers hoped that providing safe and efficient infrastructure for captive riders would also
encourage other potential riders to choose cycling over other transportation modes. According
to a 2006 survey, 48% of Delhi bus riders walk between 0.5-1.0 km to access public transportation,
and 7% of bus commuters have a total trip length of less than 5 km. These commuters have
strong potential to convert to cycling if they have access to safe and direct cycle tracks. DIMTS and
advocacy groups began cycling campaigns and rallies to promote awareness of the cycle tracks and
to show these potential riders that the tracks are for everyone.36
34 Tiwari. Planning for Non-Motorized Transport in Cities. 2010.35 Interview with Sandeep Gandhi, principle designer of the BRT corridor, on 12/8/12.36 The Delhi Cycling Club, for example, organized weekly and monthly rides/rallies around various parts of the city. (ITDP India. Cycle Rickshaw & Cycling Advocacy in Delhi. October, 2008.
48
Cycling rallies organized by the DIMTS
The Importance of Critical Mass
Most of the promotions and
awareness campaigns began
around the opening of the
southernmost 5.8 km of the BRT
corridor in May of 2008. The goal
was to achieve a critical mass of
riders on the cycle tracks early
on to condition both cyclists
and others that the cycle tracks
were for cycles, rather than
parking, hawkers, two-wheelers,
etc. These campaigns were
largely successful in that they
established enough regular
cyclists on these segments
of the tracks to prevent most
encroachment, and during peak
times, there are as many as 2000
riders per hour.37
However, reminders of the importance of maintaining this critical mass occur every day. Captive
cyclists often begin their days and commutes earlier than other, faster modes used by more affluent
demographics. This means that in the morning, the cycle tracks are full of riders, which discourages
their use by two wheelers. As the surge dies down later in the morning, more two-wheelers occupy
the cycle tracks because of heavier traffic on the main carriageway. If the rate of cyclists on the
tracks drops below a certain level, then the two-wheelers might increase their speeds on the tracks,
discouraging other cyclists. Therefore, the competing volumes of cyclists and two-wheelers on
the cycle tracks can have a self-reinforcing positive or negative effect, underscoring the need to
maintain high levels of cyclists during commuting hours (and/or effectively enforcing proper track
use). The same principles hold for the maintenance of the cycle tracks.
37 According to a report by the DIMTS, however, awareness campaigns would have been more effective had they started several months before the opening, and perhaps should have targeted younger demographics like students. (DIMTS. Delhi BRT System- Lessons Learnt. p11.
49
Learning from Delhi:
Design Factors
- CRITICAL MASS. The best - and possibly the only - way to ensure cycle infrastructure
(tracks, bike boxes, parking, etc.) will be respected by other modes of transportation is
if there is enough cycle traffic to sufficiently occupy the spaces. Maintaining a critical
mass will provide additional safety and deter encroachment from two-wheelers,
automobiles, hawkers, pedestrians and parking. The critical number may depend on
the location and design of the tracks, but 200 cyclists per hour in each direction is a
baseline for maintaining a presence. Especially a few months before the opening of a
project, it is essential to coordinate public awareness, rallies, rides, and other events
to establish an initial mass of riders on the tracks.
- COMPETITION. Rather than only focusing on segregating cycle tracks, planners need
to recognize the entire road as a complete system of interrelated transportation
modes. Without lane discipline as part of the road culture, one should assume each
designated space – main carriageway, a bus lane, cycle track, or pedestrian path – will
be in competition with each other for users.
Critical mass of cyclists on the southernmost segment in Delhi. Note that the presence of enough cyclists neutralizes the negative effects of encroachment by the two-wheelers. Photo courtesy of DIMTS.
50
If a cycle track is more attractive than the main carriage way to a two-wheeler (because
it is faster, wider, or has less traffic, for example), then the rider will choose the cycle
track over the carriageway. Similarly, if the cycle track has too many obstructions,
pedestrians, or other encroachments, then a cyclist will choose the smoother
carriageway over then cycle track. If a pedestrian path is regularly occupied by parking,
hawkers, or trees, then pedestrians will choose to walk in the carriageway or the cycle
track, both of which are less safe, but also have fewer obstructions. On the larger scale,
if cycling is more convenient than taking the bus, then a bus rider will become a cyclist.
This means that both the design and the occupancy of all other spaces affect the
cycling infrastructure as much as the cycling infrastructure itself. Given the various
desired speeds, comfort levels, and safety tolerances for each mode of transportation,
all lanes of the road must be carefully designed (or re-designed) to meet the specific
needs of the intended users.
- USER PROFILES: It is important to select target users because design priorities differ.
Captive riders – labor-class cycle commuters – have a high tolerance for unsafe riding
conditions and inconvenience and a low tolerance for indirectness and efficiency.
Potential commuters – those who don’t cycle, but might given the right conditions –
are more tolerant of slightly indirect routes, but intolerant of unsafe conditions. Hobby
cyclists – those who ride for pleasure, rather than commuting – prioritize comfort and
speed, and have a low tolerance for inconvenience and unsafe riding conditions.
In Delhi, planners concentrated on serving the needs of captive users first, under the
theory that other groups would join as they perceived higher safety and convenience
in cycling. For example, cycle tracks were implemented only on the main arterials,
because most destinations (hospitals, bus stands, schools, etc.) have access to these
major routes. Had tracks been designed on quieter streets, they would not have been
used because captive users would cycle with motorized traffic over taking an indirect
route.38
38 - From interview with Sandeep Gandhi, formerly of TRIPP, on 21 August, 2012.
51
Administrative Factors
- Alternative to an NMT Cell: UMTA = Unified Municipal Transportation Authority
allows total control over the entire street, including NMT. This is consistent with the
Competition principle of design, and the complete authority of the UMTA avoids
conflicts and complications between various departments (sits above the individual
departments or its projects don’t overlap with theirs). In Delhi, the UMTA was DIMTS.
- Stability at the top: DIMTS has a long-tenured Managing Director who was able to
establish processes with regard to the BRT corridor and the NMT routes. This means
that if a new director comes in who is averse to NMT, the O&M processes are already in
place, allowing consistency between personnel.
- OWNERSHIP: DIMTS had input on the design from the beginning, making the
department much more likely to claim ownership and responsibility for the project.
- Contractors – need experience with NMT. Need to make it a capacity building exercise
to develop repertoire.
- DEPARTMENT COORDINATION THROUGH DESIGN: Allotting space for all required
systems on the road in the initial stage can help avoid “official” encroachments
(lamp posts, landscaping, drainpipes, electrical conduits, bus stops, etc.) on NMT
infrastructure. If there is a prescribed strip for lamp posts.
Cultural Factors
- Coordinate public-awareness campaigns to coordinate with the opening of large
projects to help achieve a critical mass of riders as early as possible.
- Public-awareness campaigns should begin several months before the official opening
of the new infrastructure.
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IV. Strategies for the Design and Implementation of Successful Cycling Infrastructure in India
Critical mass is the most important factor to establish control over new cycle tracks. Photo courtesy of DIMTS.
The following suggestions are intended to address three larger (and interrelated) strategies for
successful cycling infrastructure and increased ridership:
1. A critical mass or riders that establishes ownership of the cycling infrastructure by cyclists.
2. Mode-specific design of all road spaces based on the relative attractiveness to of different
lanes of traffic to users of each mode (Principle of Relative Attractiveness).
3. Long-term control over a cycling project’s proper design, implementation and
maintenance that ensures reliability and functionality.
53
Many of the strategies are interrelated, and a solution to a design problem may be effective only
as part of a comprehensive solution to address related administrative and cultural problems as
well. Furthermore, because of the importance on achieving a critical mass of cyclists, many of these
strategies must be carefully coordinated within a project to achieve this as quickly as possible.
Design examples are taken from a proposal for a new cycle network in the city of Mysore.
Design Strategies
1. Design of new infrastructure depends on varying priorities for different user groups.
The case studies have shown that different groups of riders have different priorities. Cyclists will
only use new infrastructure if it meets their requirements. In general, Captive users demand
directness and efficiency; they will not use a cycle track if it redirects their route even a small
amount or extends their commute time. Safety is not a significant factor in their choice of route.
These priorities extend to access on and off the track. Unless there is easy and visible access, then
they will stay on the carriageway, and the design of the track must allow exits onto connecting
streets and properties as needed.
The upshot of these priorities is that a cycling network must be designed specifically to the existing
routes and desire lines of captive riders (assuming this is the most significant demographic of
cyclists in the city). Main arterials and faster-moving roads that connect their neighborhoods with
city centers typically carry the most cyclists, and these should be the ones with the highest design
priority.
Example: Desire lines, common origins, and destinations of captive riders in Mysore.
54
Alternatively, other potential riders prioritize safety and comfort over directness and efficiency to
varying degrees. Sport and recreational riders, who make up a small but growing demographic
in some cities, will choose routes or lanes only if they are comfortable and safe. Non-captive
commuters, also rare but with high potential for growth, have priorities between the two extremes:
they will cycle only if there is a reasonably efficient route to get from A to B, but only if there is a
minimum threshold of safety.
Ideally, new cycling infrastructure should be direct, efficient, safe and comfortable. However, the
priorities of expected user groups must be considered, particularly in the phasing of a large-scale
cycling network.
2. Unsafe, inefficient, and/or uncomfortable cycling infrastructure lacking proper lighting, drainage,
paving, etc. deters use by both captive and potential riders.
Perception of directness, efficiency, safety and comfort is key. Existing riders will only use cycle
infrastructure if it is a better alternative to riding on the road, and potential riders will only make the
switch if it is a better (and safer) alternative to driving a car, two-wheeler, public transportation, or
walking. Design solutions must therefore address both the large scales (directness, efficiency and
connectivity) and small scales (safety and comfort).
In most all Indian cities, the vast majority of cyclists are captive riders, and in most cases, this is a
large enough group to focus on to initially establish a critical mass of cyclists. Projects therefore
must be designed first for the priorities of this demographic: directness and efficiency.
Directness, Efficiency & Connectivity
Directness must be carried out on all scales. On the city scale, the first cycle tracks should focus on
the routes that see the heaviest cycling traffic, typically extending from high-density working-class
neighborhoods to common destinations for those captive riders, such as markets and city centers.
55
Secondary phases of a
cycle network should then
reinforce those first routes
to build up to a critical
mass. That is, routes should
be chosen to create more
captive-user traffic on a
few key connections as the
project grows. This may be
done by connecting other
captive-user neighborhoods
to the primary routes.
Tertiary phases of the
network should continue to
increase ridership on these
primary routes by making
them more useful. This
may be done by making
connections and shortcuts
within the existing network.
Top: Primary (pilot) phase of cycle network in Mysore. Segments are based on the desire lines and priorities of captive users.
Middle: Phase II of cycle network in Mysore
Bottom: Phase II of cycle network in Mysore
56
On a smaller scale, directness can be increased to a huge degree over existing roads by
implementing bi-directional cycle tracks on both sides of the road. Not only does this increase
safety, as many captive riders routinely cycle against traffic, but prevents many street crossings and
opens up other one-way routes. To be bi-directional, the width of a cycle track should be at least
2.5m.
Existing
2.8msidewalk
2.8msidewalk
3.6msidewalk
2.5mcycletrack
.75m 1.0m0.9m2.5mcycletrack
2.7msidewalk
3.2mangledparking
3.2mangledparking
2.25mparallelparking
3.2mangledparking
11.3mcarriageway
9.1mcarriageway
6.5mcarriageway
7.0mcarriageway
33.2m overall
Proposed
0.9m
33.2m overall
Example: Typical proposed street plan in Mysore with bi-directionsal paths on each side.
57
Directness must also be evident on the street scale. If cycle tracks stray from the main desire lines
of captive riders, then they will not be used and become vulnerable to encroachment. For the same
reason, access to tracks at intersections must be as easy as accessing the main carriageway for
cyclists.
Safety
Safety, while not top priorities of captive riders, is important as both a secondary reason for them to
use new infrastructure and to attract new commuters and recreational riders. Many examples and
details for safe cycle track design are available in guides like NACTO Urban Bikeway Design Guide,
and should be followed. The NACTO guide offers details for proper intersections, drainage, lighting,
and obstructions like bus stops. However, the priorities of captive users must be strongly considered
in Indian cycling projects, especially in terms of access at intersections. This is because achieving
and maintaining a critical mass is the best way to ensure cyclist safety on the roads, as numerous
studies have shown.39
39 Mandatory bicycle helmet laws have counterintuitively been shown to make cycling in cities less safe because they deter a significant number of potential cyclists whose presence would make the roads safer on the whole. De Jong, Piet. The Health Impact of Mandatory Bicycle Helmet Laws. Risk Analysis. 2012. http://ssrn.com/abstract=1368064
58
Comfort
Comfort is also not a priority for captive riders, but can increase ridership by making cycle tracks
more attractive when all things are equal, and by attracting potential users. The most important
factor in comfort is cycle track width. There should be enough room for at least two cycles abreast
(2m wide), preferably three for overtaking (2.5m wide). This allows cycle tracks on both sides of an
arterial to be bi-directional, increasing directness.
Other obvious strategies include avoiding existing trees and eliminating obstructions like lamp
posts, bus stops, man holes, and drainage grates from the cycle tracks.
Existing
4.3msidewalk
6.4msidewalk
4.3msidewalk
6.4msidewalk
2.5mcycletrack
2.5mcycletrack
2.5mbike
parking
2.2mbike
parking
2.4mbike
parking
2.4mbike
parking
6.6mcarriageway
6.9mcarriageway
Proposed
28.8m overall
3.0mcar lane
1mbike
1mbike
3.0mcar lane
28.8m overall
shop
s
shop
s
A - Exist
A - Proposed
A - Exist
A - Proposed shop
s
shop
s
shop
s
shop
s
shop
s
shop
s
Trees in the cycle tracks, Pune.
Bad paving: tiles/bricks Better paving: bitumen asphalt Best paving: poured concrete
Strategy to avoid trees in Mysore
The choice of paving is key in preserving cycling comfort. Poured concrete paving with control lines
is the best choice because it requires little maintenance and stays smooth while ensuring proper
drainage. If this option proves too expensive, bitumen asphalt is a viable alternative, but requires more
maintenance and is prone to potholes, tree roots, etc. Concrete (or other) pavers should be avoided
because of they provide a less comfortable ride. In projects where there is little coordination between
departments, pavers are also more inviting to spontaneous uprooting for the sake of other utilities.
59
3. Infrastructure is too inviting for cars, parking, scooters, pedestrians and hawkers.
The design of cycle infrastructure must rely on mode-specific design and acknowledge the principle
of relative attractiveness. If a cycle track is moving faster or more smoothly than the space for
two-wheelers or cars, then those motorized vehicles will attempt to use the cycle track. This can be
remedied in two ways (preferably both).
1. Make the cycle track less attractive to motorized vehicles. The best and self-regulating
strategy for this is to maintain a critical mass of cyclists. Then, even if two-wheelers or
cars encroach on the cycle tracks, they will not be able to move faster than cycle traffic,
eliminating the safety and comfort hazards.
In the absence of a critical mass, cars can be deterred by narrow lanes (less than 2.5m wide)
and/or bollards. However, cycle tracks should be at least 2m wide, preferably 2.5 when
bi-directional. A single bollard at the center at each intersection/entrance can prevent cars
form entering and help establish the tracks’ bi-directionality.
Important: Once a critical mass of cyclists has been achieved, bollards should be removed,
as they begin to deter cyclists at this point. On particularly sensitive routes, removable
bollards may be installed and removed only during peak traffic hours.
60
Example: an entrance with a single, removable bollard for peak times
2. Make other road space more attractive to other motorized traffic. Two-wheelers are the
most likely vehicles to encroach on motorized traffic because they enjoy the same physical
access as cycles. However, based on the Principle of Relative Attractiveness, they will not
encroach if another lane of travel is more inviting, because it is faster, more direct and/or
comfortable. Therefore, a supplemental solution to encroachment is to implement a two-
wheeler specific lane that will move faster than cycle traffic and is protected from cars.
Existing
4.3msidewalk
6.4msidewalk
4.3msidewalk
6.4msidewalk
2.5mcycletrack
2.5mcycletrack
2.5mbike
parking
2.2mbike
parking
2.4mbike
parking
2.4mbike
parking
6.6mcarriageway
6.9mcarriageway
Proposed
28.8m overall
3.0mcar lane
1mbike
1mbike
3.0mcar lane
28.8m overall
shop
s
shop
s
A - Exist
A - Proposed
A - Exist
A - Proposed shop
s
shop
s
shop
s
shop
s
shop
s
shop
s
Existing
4.3msidewalk
6.4msidewalk
4.3msidewalk
6.4msidewalk
2.5mcycletrack
2.5mcycletrack
2.5mbike
parking
2.2mbike
parking
2.4mbike
parking
2.4mbike
parking
6.6mcarriageway
6.9mcarriageway
Proposed
28.8m overall
3.0mcar lane
1mbike
1mbike
3.0mcar lane
28.8m overall
shop
s
shop
s
A - Exist
A - Proposed
A - Exist
A - Proposed shop
s
shop
s
shop
s
shop
s
shop
s
shop
s
Example: Proposal for a dedicated two-wheeler lane that a) moves faster than cars in heavy traffic, and b) is too narrow for car encroachment, making it a preferable alternative to encroachment of the cycle tracks, which are separated by parking.
61
4. Infrastructure is unusable by Indian-specific NMT vehicles like cycle rickshaws.
If cycle rickshaws or other NMT modes are used in a given city, projects should incorporate their
physical requirements into cycle track design. For example, the best-used tracks in Delhi are
designed to be wide enough to allow two local rickshaws to pass each other (3m).
29
Figure 8: Detail cross section of cycle track entry at (on the off side of) junction.
Figure 9: Detail elevation of cycle track entry at (on the off side of) junction.
In addition, at key intersections,
transportation hubs and other
high-traffic areas, space for rickshaw
waiting should be designed into the
project to prevent backups.
Not only do rickshaws, tangas and other NMT modes offer alternatives to motorized traffic, but
their presence on cycling tracks can also help make cycle tracks much less attractive to potential
encroachers.
Detail from Delhi design standards.
Administrative StrategiesThe structure, composition, and processes of governing bodies that oversee the implementation of
cycling infrastructure have a great effect on its success.
5. Lack of official leadership and/or effective organizing bodies prevent consistent and
comprehensive design and implementation.
The organization of municipal corporations and transportation departments varies widely between
Indian cities. However, the successful implementation of comprehensive and usable cycling
infrastructure depends on effective leadership and coordination. Cycle projects in Pune were
undermined because of a lack of coordination between city departments. There are two solutions
that might prevent these problems.
1. An autonomous NMT cell within the municipal corporation with full responsibility
and jurisdiction over the NMT infrastructure could have the necessary power to properly
design, construct and maintain a cycle network. This cell would need to be structured with
62
sufficient decision-making power, as well as a leader who supports the expansion of NMT.
Critical points include:
• The NMT cell must have decision-making power by organization: it should include the
heads from all relevant departments (road, traffic, bus, garden, etc.).
• The NMT cell needs strong leadership by a relatively high-ranking commissioner who
can call meetings and make decisions.
• The NMT cell must include the participation of all wards or sub-sections of the city to
resolve responsibility of NMT projects if those wards have decision-making power or
responsibility over roads and infrastructure.
• The NMT should involve the voluntary participation of cycle interest groups and experi-
enced urban designers.
2. A Unified Metro Transit Authority could provide the autonomy and longevity to ensure
a cycle project is properly designed, executed and maintained. The UMTA functions outside
the municipal corporation and elected bodies, but works with it and the city departments.
The Department for Urban Land Transport, run by the state of Karnataka is an example of a
UMTA, for example.
UMTA is only applicable and effective if it has a mandate for (and therefore control over)
the development of an entire arterial or corridor network, like the BRT corridor in Delhi.
Such an arrangement is commissioned by the state and/or city governments, and typically
grants long-term rights and maintenance duties to the UMTA. A major benefit of a UMTA-run
cycling project is that it is part of a complete street (re)design project. The autonomy allows
total control over the entire street, including NMT. This is consistent with the Principle of
Relative Attractiveness, meaning the designers can ensure each lane of movement is tailored
to its specific intended users.
In addition, a UMTA avoids conflicts and complications between various departments.
Intersections and other overlapping lanes and systems are designed from scratch, rather
than retrofitted into an existing system. Any utilities, repairs, or other systems that overlap
with UMTA-controlled spaces would be commissioned, or at least coordinated, with the
UMTA at the top, ensuring consistency and preventing conflicts.
63
Finally, a UMTA has enough long-term control over a corridor network that it can establish
operations and maintenance practices to ensure proper functioning of the complete
corridors, including the cycle infrastructure. For example, in Delhi, the UMTA, DIMTS,
has a long-tenured Managing Director who was able to establish processes with regard
to the BRT corridor and the NMT routes. “Ownership” of the routes by DIMTS gave it a
better understanding of its needs and incentive to keep them running smoothly. These
did not need to be approved or tendered by the municipal corporation. Also, if a new
director comes in who is averse to NMT, the O&M processes are already in place, allowing
consistency between personnel.
Either an NMT cell of a UMTA would be instrumental in ensuring the proper implementation of suc-
cessful cycling infrastructure. However, the scope, size and needs of the city would likely determine
which would be a better organization to oversee the project.
6. Design and expert reviews not integrated into project development prevent proper coordination
of systems.
As Pune’s case illustrated, poor design can result in the absence of qualified designers, and can
result in unused cycle tracks and large amounts wasted public funds. A simple and obvious strategy
is for the governing body of any cycle project to require the involvement of a qualified urban/
cycling designer on any and all tenders. In addition, a panel of urban designers should be required
to sign off on any projects (e.g. bus stop construction) that affect the smooth operations of a cycle
network.
8. Absence of policy to protect cyclists and a passive enforcement of traffic laws threatens the safety
and usability of new cycling infrastructure.
When new cycling infrastructure is built, it needs to be actively protected for cyclist use only, lest it
be occupied by hawkers, pedestrians and motorists. Although good design can minimize the need
for protection, cyclists still depend on external forces, either enforcement or road culture, to ride
unencumbered and unobstructed. City officials cite understaffing as the reason there is little safety
enforcement on the road, let alone to protect cyclists or pedestrians. However, there also needs to
be basic road laws in place before enforcement becomes part of the solution.
64
1. Minimum policy requirements to protect new infrastructure and cyclists on the roads. Many of
these basic statutes are accepted as common sense in cycle-friendly cities around the world.40
1. Cities must recognize cyclists as having equal rights and responsibilities the road.
2. Any cycling-specific infrastructure (tracks, lanes, bike boxes, parking, etc.) must be
protected from encroachment by other motorized vehicles. Particularly, it must be illegal
for two-wheelers to ride on cycle tracks and for anyone, including cycles, to park on cycling
infrastructure. Penalties for encroachment must be explicit.
3. It must be illegal for anyone to dump, vend, hawk, or occupy lanes intended for cyclists.
4. Explicit minimum penalties must be passed for motorists injuring or killing cyclists on the
road through fault of their own.
5. Other, less critical laws that are beneficial to all users of the road and that can make
the road a safer place include: the left side of the road should be reserved for cyclists
in the absence of a cycle track; cyclists cannot ride more than two abreast on the main
carriageway; cyclists must use hand signals when turning; pedestrians have the right-of-
way over everyone, including cyclists, except on the cycle tracks; cycles must have lights or
reflectors at night.
2. Enforcement can and should be used strategically to shape and encourage a bicycling culture
by preserving infrastructure for bicyclists. This is true especially at the opening of a new project. In
order to achieve critical mass, cyclists must have the perception that their space will be protected,
and enforcement is essential in the time leading up to a critical number of cyclists. Likewise, lack
of enforcement in the beginning can allow encroachment to stifle cycle growth on some routes.
Therefore, special efforts in enforcement must be applied judiciously in the first few months of a
project’s opening.
In response to the claim that there are not enough officials to enforce the traffic laws, cities rarely
employ enough traffic officials to cover all infractions. Rather, a few officials can enforce infractions
they see randomly. The show of enforcement, as well as the demonstrated possibility that one
could get caught, is enough to persuade most to follow the law, thereby creating a more disciplined
culture.
Indian cities have been able to force most bikers to wear helmets in this way, with unscheduled
roadside checks. Traffic officials must do the same on new cycling tracks to signify to potential
encroachers that cycling laws will be enforced. This is best done with a combination of public-
40 For example, Bicycle laws in Germany: http://bicyclegermany.com/german_bicycle_laws.html
65
awareness signs and posters at the entrances to the cycling tracks, combined with random checks
(not stationary outposts) with traffic police patrolling the tracks. This would require little manpower,
especially once the number of cyclists grows to a critical mass, but still achieve the desired result of
protecting cycling infrastructure for the future.
Cultural StrategiesIndian road culture and the perception of cycling in cities has a significant effect on the number
and type of riders on the roads, which in turn has an effect on the usability and safety of cycling
infrastructure.
9. Cycling stigma and respect for cyclists on the road inhibit popularity as a mode of transportation.
This is likely the largest obstacle for building a cycling culture in India. Pune has begun to chip
away at the stigma by slowly growing a core of dedicated recreational cyclists and advocates. These
cyclists come from middle-to-upper classes and have formed clubs, group rides, races and other
events to promote cycling as not just a way to get around. The core is effective because creates an
example at the top of the socioeconomic ladder that other potential riders can look up to, rather
than down upon. Therefore, while cities can look to improved infrastructure to maintain ridership as
captive riders become less captive, they can look to recreational groups like this to introduce others
to cycling who were never forced to because of financial reasons.
66
This is not to advocate social stratification among cyclists, but rather to acknowledge there must
be role models that cycle for all demographics represented in the city to draw more to the mode of
transportation.
A cycle mall in Pune that offers inported, high-end cycles organizes group rides to promote cycling.
Scheduled group rides, like those in Pune are essential for solidifying a base of recreational rides,
and cities should work with activists to promote these rides. Perhaps the best example of activists
and a city working together to promote cycling and awareness is in Mexico City, where since 2007
the city’s largest avenue, the Avenida Reforma, has been closed off to everyone except cyclists on
Sundays. Combined with a public bike share system, cycling has grown dramatically, with more
than 10,000 riders participating weekly. Once a month, a 20-mile circuit is closed for cyclists, often
drawing as many as 70,000 cyclists.41
41 Ellingwood, Ken. Take the Lane: Mexico City’s Sunday Cycling. The Los Angeles Times. 21 September, 2012.
67
Like with enforcement, a multi-pronged approach, with group rides, road closures, and permanent
signs instructing motorists to respect cyclists, stay off of cycling tracks, etc. will help remove the
stigma more quickly and firmly, as it has in places like Mexico.42
10. Encroachment and lack of discipline in Indian road culture threaten the safety and usability of
cycle infrastructure.
As shown in Delhi and emphasized before, the best solution to encroachment is to occupy cycling
infrastructure with a critical mass of cyclists. Enforcement (see above) can help establish control
early on, as cyclists grow accustomed to new networks. However, this problem is interrelated
with the social-stigma problem and the enforcement problem, and is likely to change only with
concerted efforts on both fronts. From a project and design standpoint, the best strategy is to
launch a multi-pronged approach to consolidate a critical mass of cyclists as quickly as possible.
11. Lack of access to cycles for various groups prevents potential riders from cycling.
One of the reasons recreational cycling has grown in popularity in Pune is the presence of a high-
end cycling shop that provides cycles tailored to the needs and budget of recreational cycles. These
cycles are typically imported from the United States and Europe, and feature multiple gears, shock
absorption, and lighter frames. As in other countries, these high-tech cycles contribute to the “fun”
factor of cycling, and can help draw in wealthier potential riders who wish to avoid the stigma of
cycling.
42 de Los Reyes, Ignacio. Mexico City’s Bike Revolution. BBC Mundo. 20 February, 2012.
Cycling Sundays on Mexico’s largest avenue, where onyl cycles are allowed for a few hours each week to promote cycling.Photo: Ashle Fauvre
68
City, state and national governments can encourage recreational cycling by facilitating the sales
of these bikes. This includes eliminating import and excise taxes on all bicycles, tariffs, and other
financial disincentives to selling these cycles. For example, Pune has eliminated a city tax on foreign
bicycle sales. In addition, it is in the national government’s best interest to subsidize and incentivize
the research and design of high-tech models of cycles from major domestic manufacturers (Hero,
Atlas, etc.). These brands are beginning to offer certain new features, but inexpensive, domestically
available recreational cycles designed for middle-to-upper-class riders will be essential from a
transportation and economic standpoint in the future.
12. Low public awareness of health and environmental benefits deters the growth of cycling in some
demographics.
One of the primary reasons people adopt cycling as a means of transportation or recreation if for its
health benefits. In Copenhagen, 19% of cyclists cite fitness as the primary reason they cycle. As gym
membership and an awareness of fitness has exploded in India in the past decade, cities and cycling
advocates should take advantage of this nascent but growing trend.
Public awareness can take the form of signs, billboards and events like group rides. Much of
a campaign linking cycles to health can be privatized; gyms and cycle shops can pair up, as
combining commuting with a fitness regimen can save time and money. Group rides, sponsored
races, and other recreational activities are also good ways to show people the health benefits of
cycling, and to get fitness buffs on cycles.
Activists and government officials in Pune have identified students as a good way extend this
public awareness, as young people already cycle at high rates and will make up the majority of
future cyclists. Incorporating cycling education (safe practices, rules of the road, etc.) into a physical
education curriculum would help ensure the growth of a cycling culture.
Pune also considered other incentives, including offering free or discounted cycles to middle or
high-school students if they rode to school. Such programs could work and provide much-needed
incentive to cycle at ages when students are beginning to make transitions to two-wheelers.
Pune’s programs would have focused on indigent students, but because of the cultural incentive to
transition to motorized vehicles, it may be just as productive to subsidize cycles for all children. If
only indigent children are given cycles, then that would reinforce the future stigma of the cycle as
only transportation for the poor.
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V. Conclusion
All of these strategies are small pieces of a successful cycling network project in India. There are
many challenges to such a project; at the time of writing, there is no city with model cycling
infrastructure. Given these challenges, these design, administrative, and cultural strategies must
be taken in concert. If one category is ignored, it could mean the difference between success and a
huge waste of public funds. If critical strategy falls short, it could mean not achieving critical mass,
which could mean the infrastructure being overtaken by other modes. Mode-specific design of a
complete street can help to curb this, but not without additional attention to cultural challenges.
Finally, city governments need to build into each project proper oversight and long-term control.
Without this, the operations and maintenance will break down over time, even if there is sufficient
ridership.