Curriculum Planning and Evaluation Guided by Attitude Change

Chapter 5

Planning: The First PAP-TE-CA Service

• Adapted physical education instructor– Plan and implement services in a school district

• School district– Combined home-school-community entity

• School district planning– Shared decision making about the philosophy,

principles, policies, and practices that guide decisions of schools and the use of resources to meet educational needs

Purpose, Goals, and Objectives

• Purpose - overall aim or intention– Adapted PE - changing psychomotor behaviors,

facilitating self-actualization

• Goals - broad, global statements that are long range– Guide development of IEPs– Goals are broken down into objectives

Purpose, Goals, and Objectives

• Objectives - short term

• Three Parts– Conditions– Behavior to be developed or changed– Success criterion

• Tools or vehicles for accomplishing goals

Goal Area Organizing Centers

• Frames of reference, themes, or emphases that provide focus for programming

• Value of all the goals in plan, and resolve differences concerning importance of each goal

• Goals met in a variety of settings both inside and outside of school

Functional, Developmental, and Interactive Organizing Centers

• Frame of reference helps facilitate teamwork and organize efforts

• Individualize and adapt instruction using all frames of reference– Functional– Developmental– Interactional

Functional Frame of Reference (Top Down)

• Roles and functions needed for success• Assessment determines performance of

functions • Mastery of task or activity• Generally used with adolescents or adults

with severe disability• Pedagogy is typically behavior management • Age appropriateness

Developmental Frame of Reference (Bottom Up)

• Abilities for age and developmental sequences

• Assessment determines performance of abilities relative to norms

• Learning age-related skills, knowledge, strategies

• Generally used with infants, toddlers, and young children

• Pedagogy of various kinds are used

Interactional Frame of Reference (Ecological)

• Combination of functional and developmental perspectives

• Keeping special education students in inclusive settings

• Awareness of ecosystem and interacting variables• Move back and forth between functional and

developmental• Ecological perspective

Placement vs. Services Organizing Centers

• Least restrictive environment approach

• Inclusive approach

• Deemphasize placement and focus on services

• Service delivery systems versus placements

Least Restrictive Environment Philosophy

• Use of the IEP process to place students in their LRE for each content area– Match individual abilities and appropriate

services so that students derive educational benefits

– Preserve as much freedom as possible

• Must be a continuum of placements

• General education with supports

Inclusive Philosophy

• All children in general education

• Removal of students from general education– Justified only after instruction with use of

supplementary aids and services is documented as not providing sufficient benefits

One Adapted Physical Educator in Every School District

• Adapted physical educator to provide support to general physical educator

• Funding from both special education and general education budgets

• Assist all students with special psychomotor needs

• Consultation or direct service

Support Services

• Supplementary aids and services

• Extra personnel - aides, adapted physical education specialists, and others

• Equipment

• Not automatically provided

A Continuum of Placement and Services

• Full-time in general PE, traditional• Full-time in support services, mainstream

or Full-time in entry-level specially designed mainstream

• Part-time in separate adapted PE, beginning of integration in general PE

• Full-time in separate adapted PE• Homebound

Variables Affecting Placement and Services

• Class size• Teaching styles• Competence level of general education students• Content orientation• Content to be taught• Use of community resources and role models• Teacher attitudes and preparation• Overall program quality

Class Size

• Thirty students or less

• Larger difficult to individualize and adapt

• Limited space

• Optimal size for small-group interaction and skill practice is 2 to 6 students

• Negotiate class size depending on disability

Teaching Styles: Traditional and Inclusive

• Traditional – All students achieve a standard criterion or

minimal competency level and practice the same activity or participate in the same game

• Inclusive– Multiple performance standards and personal

best and practice skills at a variety of levels of their own choosing

Competence Level of General Education Students

• How close is performance to the class mean on a variety of components– Skills– Knowledge– Strategies– Behaviors

Content Orientation

• Competition

• Cooperation

• Individual achievement

Content to Be Taught

• Elementary physical education– Emphasis on teaching basic skills, rules,

strategies, minimum fitness levels

• Secondary physical education– Emphasis on teaching regulation sports– Assumes basic skills, rules, and strategies have

been mastered– Some units may not be appropriate

Use of Community Resources and Role Models

• Parallel instruction in sports specific to disability

• Learn individual sports

• Employ athletes with disabilities to teach

• Transportation to community facilities

• Facilitate transition to community activities

Teacher Attitudes and Preparation

• Essential component for success of students

• Availability of support services

• Pre-service and in-service preparation

• Promote humanistic learning for students with disabilities

Overall Program Quality: Summary

• Program quality affects planning, assessment, and placement

• Evaluation of student placement

• Available information on general physical education program to make appropriate decisions

Service Delivery for General Education Students

• Law does not protect overweight, unfit, or clumsy children

• Not eligible for help under IEP-based special education models

• Assessment-placement process for general education students

• May qualify under Section 504

Selecting Goals and Writing Objectives

• School curriculum guides list objectives that are age appropriate for certain grades

• Achievable over several weeks

• Addition of conditions to further individualize objectives for students with disabilities

Selecting Curricular Models

• Packaged curricular models

• Most include both assessment and instructional components

• Create a curricular model– Combination of existing models and original

ideas from personal experience

I CAN and ABC Models

• Janet Wessel & Luke Kelly

• Principles that underlie successful teaching– Individualize instruction– Create social leisure competence– Associate all learnings– Narrow the gap between theory and practice

• Diagnostic-prescriptive system

Data-Based Gymnasium

• John Dunn & associates

• Prescriptive physical activity program

• Source of behavior management and task analysis in adapted physical education

• Criterion-referenced assessment

• Clip-board approach

• Forward and backward chaining emphasized

Body Skills: A Motor Development Curriculum for Children

• Judy Werder & Robert Bruininks

• Used with the BOTMP

• Based on data from the Motor Skills Inventory

• Developmental sequences are presented pictorially

• Thirty-one motor skills for ages 2 to 12

Special Olympics Sports Skills Program

• Special Olympics International

• Sports skills guides for a variety of sports

• Applicable for persons with and without disabilities

• Includes long-term goals, short-term objectives, criterion-referenced assessment checklists, and detailed task analyses

Moving to Inclusion

• National initiative developed in Canada• Contains nine books - introduction and one

each on eight disability conditions• Four principles

– Activities modified and individualized– Expectations realistic yet challenging– Assistance provided minimally– Dignity of risk and availability of choices

You Stay Active

• AAHPERD and Cooper Institute

• Comprehensive recognition program– Physical Best– FITNESSGRAM

• Materials for teaching and reinforcing lifetime physical activity

• Recognition for regular participation

Using, Creating, and Evaluating Curricular Models

• Determine whether to use the whole model or parts

• Use model to stimulate creativity and initiative

• Collaboratively developed programs generally work better than adopted programs

Planning Instruction for the Year

• Calculating instructional time– Determine available time for the semester

• Planning use of time – Determine how many objectives can be

achieved within the available time– Determine how many objectives to select from

each goal area

Planning Instruction for the Year

• Developing semester plans– Arrange objectives into instruction units and

determine beginning and ending date for units– Difficult objectives require more time

• Other decision making– Space– Equipment– Resources

Link Between Planning and Evaluation

• Evaluation protocols - criteria to be used to evaluate each aspect of the program

• Utilize both formative and summative processes– Effectiveness– Efficiency– Affectiveness

• Discrepancy evaluation model

Link Between Planning and Professional Philosophy

• Planning is guided by philosophy of individuals and groups

• Well-developed philosophy guides actions

• Philosophy comes from knowledge and experience

• Philosophies often have theoretical basis

Self-Actualization Theory of Maslow

• Self-actualization – Individual’s self-fulfillment of her or his potentialities

– Inner drive to become all that one can be

• Hierarchy of needs• Deficiency needs should be addressed in a

particular order• Safety includes psychological security• Emphasis on the social basis of learning

Self-Concept Theory of Rogers

• Application of self-actualization theory to teaching, counseling, and rehabilitation

• Ideal self and a real or actual self• Come to know ourselves through experiences,

including feedback from others• Defense mechanisms - distortion and denial• Self-concept should be central in planning and

implementing service delivery• Physical educators need counseling skills

Personal Meaning Theory of Wright

• Personal meaning of a disability is of central importance

• Personal meaning in relation to the activities to be taught

• Personal meaning of fun• Measuring importance of sports and physical

appearance• Personalize instruction by caring about personal

meaning

Social Cognitive Theory of Bandura

• Associated with behavior management

• Role that cognition and the total social environment play in response teaching and learning

• Cognition between the stimulus and the response

Social Cognitive Theory of Bandura

• Self-efficacy theory – Perceived self-efficacy– Efficacy expectation is a good predictor of actual

performance– Determinants of an efficacy expectation

• Personal mastery experiences• Vicarious learning by watching, listening• Verbal persuasion• Cognitive controlling of anxiety and fear

Social Cognitive Theory of Bandura

• Self-determination theory– High degree of perceived personal control over

life’s events contributes to intrinsic motivation, goal achievement, and psychological well-being

– Perceived collective efficacy– Understand the exercise of control– Enhance perceived and actual control

Perceived Control or Locus of Control Theory of Rotter

• Perception of the connection or lack of connection between one’s actions and their consequences

• Internal to external continuum• Internal LOC - events in one’s life are dependent

upon ability and effort• External LOC - events in life are a result of

chance, fate, luck, or controls imposed by others• Stress independence, personal control, and

responsibility

Perceived Control or Locus of Control Theory of Rotter

• Learned helplessness– Nothing person does seems to help condition– Associated with repeated failure despite best efforts– Results in lack of motivation

• Motivation - forces that focus behaviors, start and stop them, and determine frequency and duration

• Types of motivation– Intrinsic motivation– Extrinsic motivation– Amotivation

Achievement Goal Theory

• Ego orientations - set goals that emphasize the “I” in comparison with others– Achieve best in a performance climate

• Task orientations - set goal in relation to overcoming barriers, completing specific tasks, and achieving personal best– Perform best in a mastery climate

• Mastery climates result in higher perceived competence for children with movement difficulties

Other Psychosocial Theories

• Competence motivation theory

• Personal investment theory

• Teacher expectancy theory

• Attribution theory

• Connection to attitude theories

Facilitating Attitude Change

• Development of positive attitudes toward teaching students with and without disabilities in the same setting

• Attitudes are social constructions• Attitude - enduring sets of evaluative

beliefs, charged with feelings and emotions, that predispose a person to certain kinds of behaviors

Attitude-Behavior Link

• Process of facilitating positive attitudes is complex

• Valid measures can be used as predictors of teachers’ behaviors

• Provide information about who needs in-service training and staff development

• Level of readiness for employment

Reasoned Action and Planned Behavior Theories

• Attitude measurement theories• Guide the development and testing of

selected components believed essential in the attitude-behavior link– Belief systems– Attitudes– Intention– Behavior or action

Components of the Attitude-Behavior Link

• Identification of behavior to be changed

• Break targeted behavior into parts– Action, context, target, time

• Intervention

• Beliefs

• Attitudes

• Intentions

Using Contact Theory to Promote Inclusion

• Guides philosophy and practices for increasing acceptance, appreciation, and inclusion of others perceived as different from oneself

• Understanding friendships, social behaviors, and inclusive and exclusive practices

• Guides the examination of prejudices, stereotypes, discrimination, and oppression

Contact Conditions Associated With Favorable Attitudes Towards Inclusion

• Parties involved must share equal status

• Community must support and sanction inclusion

• Individuals must be in pursuit of common objectives

• Association must be deep, genuine, and intimate