CURRENT RESEARCH IN PEDAGOGY WITH A FOCUS ON LOW SES SCHOOLS Supporting Highly Accomplished Teachers in the Low SES School Communities National Partnership Sydney 5th March 2012

Professor Stephen Dinham OAM Chair of Teacher Education | Director of Learning and Teaching Melbourne Graduate School of Education

Opening thoughts ...

“The chains of habit are too weak to be felt until they are too strong to be broken.”

Dr Samuel Johnson

New Ideas?

'I can't understand why people are afraid of new ideas. I'm frightened of the old ones.'

(John Cage, Composer)

' …the focus of every school, every educational system and every education department or faculty of education – [should be] student learning and achievement.' (Dinham, 2008: 1).

WHAT ARE WE HERE FOR?

The Declaration articulates two important goals for education in Australia: ◦ Goal 1: Australian schooling promotes equity and

excellence ◦ Goal 2: All young Australians become: ■ successful learners ■ confident and creative individuals ■ active and informed citizens.

The Melbourne Declaration (2008)

Australia’s Performance on PISA

Figure 1: Mean reading scores in OECD/PISA

Figure 2: Trends in Australian students’ reading performances

Until the mid-1960s the view was that schools make almost no difference to student achievement, which was largely pre-determined by socio-economic status, family circumstances and innate ability (Coleman Report, 1966). However, research has powerfully refuted that

view. We now know that teachers, teaching and

schools make a significant difference to student success.

Background

As a result, there has been a major international emphasis on improving the quality of teachers and teaching since the 1980s. We now know how teacher expertise develops

and we know what good teaching looks like. However we also know that teacher quality varies within schools and across the nation. A quality teacher in every classroom is the

ultimate aim, but how to achieve this is the big question and challenge.

Background

'... the most important factor affecting student learning is the teacher. ... The immediate and clear implication of this finding is that seemingly more can be done to improve education by improving the effectiveness of teachers than by any other single factor'.

Wright, S.; Horn, S. & Sanders, W. (1997). 'Teacher and Classroom Context Effects on Student Achievement: Implications for Teacher Evaluation', Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education, 11, pp. 57-67.

It’s the Teacher …

Teachers and Schools Do Make a Difference

'Thus, the major challenge in improving teaching lies not so much in identifying and describing quality teaching, but in developing structures and approaches that ensure widespread use of successful teaching practices: to make best practice, common practice.'

– Dinham, Ingvarson & Kleinhenz (2008)

It’s Still the Teacher …

“Technology is just a tool. In terms of getting the kids working together and motivating them, the teacher is the most important.”

Bill Gates

*Dinham (2008) ACER Press http://shop.acer.edu.au/acer-shop/product/A4066BK

Four Fundamentals of Student Success (Dinham, 2008)*

FOCUS ON THE STUDENT

(Learner, Person)

LEADERSHIP

QUALITY

TEACHING

PROFESSIONAL

LEARNING

•Student Learning and Achievement

•Quality Teaching in Action •Professional Learning •Leadership for Quality Teaching and Learning

Unpacking The Four Fundamentals

Student Learning and Achievement

What Does Current Research Tell Us?

Prof John Hattie (Uni Melb): Meta-analysis of over 50,000 studies

Major sources of variance in student achievement: • Student: accounts for 50% of variance in student achievement • Home: 5-10% • School: 5-10% (principals, other leaders an influence) • Peer Effects: 5-10% • Teachers: 30% • 'It is what teachers know, do, and care about which is very

powerful in this learning equation'. – Hattie, J. (2009). Visible Learning – A synthesis of over 800

meta-analyses relating to achievement. London: Routledge.

Research Evidence

• Effect size (ES) is a name given to a family of indices that measure the magnitude of a treatment effect. Unlike significance tests, these indices are independent of sample size.

• ES measures are the common currency of meta-analysis studies that summarize the findings from a specific area of research.

• The larger the ES, the greater the influence of the treatment effect.

– Note: As a guide, ES < 0.0 negative impact; 0.0 > 0.2 no/weak impact; 0.2 – 0.4 small, possibly significant impact; 0.4 – 0.6 moderately significant impact; > 0.6 large, significant impact.

Note on Effect Size

• An ES of 1.0 indicates an increase of one standard deviation on the outcome, typically advancing achievement by 2-3 years or about 50% (see Hattie, 2009: chapter 2)

• Almost everything works • We need to set the bar at about 0.4 at which point we

start to see real difference • However we also need to consider variance – it won’t be

0.4 for every student • We also need to think about how various interventions

work together, or not.

Note on Effect Size

• The teacher and the quality of his or her teaching are major influences on student achievement, along with the individual student and his or her prior achievement (all have large effect sizes).

• School-based influences (beyond the classroom) have weaker effects on student achievement.

• Structural and organisational arrangements (open vs traditional classrooms; multi-age vs age graded classes; ability grouping; gender; class size; mainstreaming) have negligible or small effects on student learning. It is the quality of teaching that occurs within these structural arrangements which is most important.

Effect Size Research: Key Points

Examples of ‘active teaching’ (reciprocal teaching; feedback; teaching self-verbalisation; meta-cognition strategies; direct instruction; mastery learning; testing) have large to moderate effects on student achievement. Effect sizes are negligible or small for ‘facilitory teaching’

(simulations and games; inquiry-based teaching; individualised instruction; problem-based learning; differentiated teaching for boys and girls; web-based learning; whole language reading; inductive teaching). Strategies to promote and remediate literacy figure

prominently in Hattie’s full list. Literacy is the foundation of student achievement.

Effect Size Research: Key Points

• SES and family background do have moderate/large effect sizes

• SES is about: – Foundations/advantage – Opportunity – Support – Role models and encouragement

• SES is not about: – Innate ability – Social-biological determinism – Potential

What About SES?

Reading Score

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

SES -2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

PISA 2000 PISA 2000 (PISA Aus)

Reading Score

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

SES -2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

PISA 200)) (PISA Aus

SES and School Performance [WA 2007] (numeracy, reading spelling, writing; grades 3,5,7)

SES and School Performance

• There is a strong positive relationship between academic outcomes and socioeconomic status scores (on average, a 10 point increase in socioeconomic status scores is associated with a 6 percentage point increase in the pass rate).

• However, there is also considerable dispersion around this line, with the linear relationship between socioeconomic status scores and test results explaining only 28 per cent of the variation in student test scores.

– http://www.treasury.gov.au/documents/1421/HTML/docshell.asp?URL=05%20How%20much%20of%20the%20variation%20in%20Literacy%20and%20Numeracy%20can%20be%20explained%20by%20School%20Performance.htm

Poor student performance is spread across the SES spectrum Schooling represents an obstacle course. Some

students have certain advantages and others have obstacles.

“Life isn’t fair, but good teaching and good schools are the best means we have of overcoming disadvantage and opening doors of opportunity for young people.”

(S. Dinham)

Facts About SES

' … school improvement by itself has potential to make an enormous difference in the lives of children even if broader social change is slow in coming. The children who depend most on good schooling for academic growth are the least likely to receive it. If school improvement begins early in life and if sustained, the most disadvantaged children stand to benefit most. This reasoning suggests that increasing the amount and the quality of schooling to which these children have access would reduce inequality in academic achievement.'

Raudenbush, S. (2009). ‘The Brown Legacy …’ , Educational Researcher , 38(3), 171.

What is Needed?

“It’s no use saying ‘we are doing our best’. You have got to succeed in doing what is necessary”.

Sir Winston Churchill

'… one of the most damaging things we can do to people is to put them into categories and treat them accordingly.' (Dinham, 2008: 2)

(Not labelling students ES = .61)

What about labelling and categorising students?

Categorisation

Entity Theory of Intelligence (Carol Dweck)

• see Dweck, C. (2000). Self-Theories - Their Role in Motivation, Personality and Development. Psychology Press.

• Harmful, invalid beliefs: 1. Students with high ability are more likely to display

mastery-oriented qualities. 2. Success and school directly fosters mastery-

oriented qualities. 3. Praise, particularly praising a student’s intelligence,

encourages mastery-oriented qualities. 4. Students’ confidence in their intelligence is the key

to mastery-oriented qualities.

Entity Theory of Intelligence

• The theory of fixed intelligence – some people believe that their intelligence is a fixed trait. We call this an ‘entity theory’ of intelligence.

• The theory of malleable intelligence – other people have a very different definition of intelligence. Their intelligence is not a fixed trait that they simply possess, but something they can cultivate through learning. We call this an ‘incremental theory’ of intelligence because intelligence is portrayed as something that can be increased through one’s efforts.

“Don't mention the G-word: boy 'genius', 14, puts success down to hard work”

‘The one thing 14-year-old Moshe Kai Cavalin dislikes is being called a genius.

All he did, after all, was enrol in college at age eight and earn his first of two Associate of Arts degrees from East Los Angeles Community College at age nine, graduating with a perfect 4.0 grade point average.

Now, at 14, he's poised to graduate from UCLA this year. He's also just published an English edition of his first book, We Can Do.’

– Read more: http://www.smh.com.au/world/dont-mention-the-gword-boy-genius-14-puts-success-down-to-hard-work-20120216-1tada.html#ixzz1mWVHz0n2

What about self-esteem?

• Self-esteem or self-concept has been found to predict student achievement (moderate-large effect size). However self-esteem boosting through easy success and empty praise, coupled with failure avoidance, is counter-productive.

• Self-esteem is not something we give people but something that results from genuine success and progress. This then sets up a cycle of effort, success, growth in self-esteem ...

– See Dinham, S. (2010). ‘The Perils of Self-Esteem Boosting’. Available at: http://www.thesmithfamily.com.au/webdata/resources/files/Steve_Dinham_presentation.pdf

• Since the 1970s • More than 70 models in varied settings (EC to higher ed) • A highly lucrative industry (instruments, manuals, videotapes, in-

service packages, web sites, publications and workshops) • Psychologists and neuroscientists believe there is little efficacy for

these models which rest on dubious grounds • Confusion with teaching strategies (as with ‘constructivism’ – see

over); conflation with multiple intelligences, Myers-Briggs, etc. • Numerous publications; few subject to peer review. • (Hattie, 2009: 197). 'It is hard not to sceptical about these

learning preference claims'

What about ‘learning styles’?

• No clear concept of LS. • No valid and reliable way to assess students. • No clear evidence to support the effectiveness of matching teachers’

TS to students’ LS: • “The reason researchers roll their eyes at learning styles is the utter failure to find that assessing children’s learning styles and

matching to instructional methods has any effect on their learning” (Stahl, 1999: 1).

• Problems caused by categorisation, labelling, limiting learning experiences; potential harm

• See: – Lilienfield et al (2010). 50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology. Chichester: Wiley-

Blackwell. – Scott, C. (2010). ‘The Enduring Appeal of ‘Learning Styles’’, Australian Journal of

Education, 54(1), pp. 5-17. – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sIv9rz2NTUk&feature=player_embedded#at=32 – http://www.theonion.com/content/node/28606

Problems with Learning Styles

'I learned that an entire state in Australia had adapted an education programme based in part on MI theory. The more I learned about this programme, the less comfortable I was. … much of it was a mishmash of practices, with neither scientific foundation nor clinical warrant. Left-brain and right-brain contrasts, sensory learning styles, ‘neuro-linguistic programming’, and MI approaches commingled with dazzling promiscuity.' (Howard Gardner cited in About learning: Report of the Learning Working Group, Demos, 2004, 15)

– See http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vdJ7JW0LgVs&feature=related

Multiple Intelligences?

Myers-Briggs, etc?

“Millions of people worldwide take personality tests each year to direct their education, to decide on a career, to determine if they'll be hired, to join the armed forces, and to settle legal disputes. ... the sheer number of tests administered obscures a simple fact: they don't work. Most personality tests are seriously flawed, and sometimes unequivocally wrong. They fail the field's own standards of validity and reliability.”

- see Paul, A. (2004). The Cult of Personality: How Personality Tests Are Leading Us to Miseducate Our Children, Mismanage Our Companies, and Misunderstand Ourselves.

- See also http://www.psychometric-success.com/personality-tests/personality-tests-popular-tests.htm

‘As constructivism has become the dominant view of how students learn, it may seem obvious to equate active learning with active methods of instruction. Thus, educators who wish to use constructivist methods of instruction are often encouraged to focus on discovery learning – in which students are free to work in a learning environment with little or no guidance. Under the banner of social constructivism, the call for discovery learning remains, but with a modest shift in form – students are expected to work in groups in a learning environment with little or no guidance. … The research in this brief review shows that the formula constructivism = hands-on activity is a formula for educational disaster’.

– Mayer, R. (2004). Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure Discovery Learning?, American Psychologist, 59(1) ,14-19.

Constructivism?

1. Carefully explain to students an assignment or learning activity, including key terms and directions.

2. Provide students with the assessment rubric, including criteria and the marking/assessment scale/method for each item/criterion.

Optional: Jointly discuss and determine criteria to be used.

3. Students complete the activity (individually or in groups), using rubric as a guide.

Self-Report Grades (E=1.44)

4. Students assess their work using the rubric. Optional: Students assess another student’s work,

discuss with student concerned. 5. Teacher assesses each student’s work,

providing feedback using rubric. 6. Student and teacher discuss/compare their

assessments. One-to-one conferences are powerful

Self-Report Grades

‘In a nutshell: The teacher decides the learning intentions and success criteria, makes them transparent to the students, demonstrates by modelling, evaluates if they understand what they had been told by checking for understanding, and re-telling them what they had been told by tying it all together with closure.’ (Hattie, 2009: 205-206).

– It is a major mistake to confuse direct instruction/explicit teaching with didactic teaching.

What is Direct Teaching? [E=.59]

Spaced versus mass practice (ES=0.71) 'If you can’t go slow, you can’t go fast.'... Research shows the value of deliberate practice across

fields such as music to athletics: ' … whether the subject is baseball or biology, piano or palaeontology, medicine or math, children and adults need deliberate practice in order to achieve their objectives …

The Importance of Practice

The components of deliberate practice include performance that is based on a particular element of the task, expert coaching, feedback, careful and accurate self-assessment, and – this is the key – the opportunity to apply feedback immediately for improved performance'.

– Reeves, D. (2010). Transforming Professional Development Into Student Results. ASCD.

Deliberate Practice

'Look at learning or mastery in fields as diverse as sports, the arts, languages, the sciences or recreational activities and it’s easy to see how important feedback is to learning and accomplishment. An expert teacher, mentor or coach can readily explain, demonstrate and detect flaws in performance. He or she can also identify talent and potential, and build on these.

In contrast, trial and error learning or poor teaching are less effective and take longer. If performance flaws are not detected and corrected, these can become ingrained and will be much harder to eradicate later. Learners who don’t receive instruction, encouragement and correction can become disillusioned and quit due to lack of progress.'

(Dinham, ‘Feedback on Feedback’, 2008)

Feedback

(Feedback ES = .73) The four questions of Students: 1. What can I do? 2. What can’t I do? 3. How does my work compare with that of others? 4. How can I do better?

The Need for Feedback

'I really hate it when you wait for weeks to get back some piece of work and then it says ‘Well done. B’, and there are a few scribbles here and there. You don’t know what you’re supposed to do to get any better.'

(Student, 14, Improving Student Achievement, p. 53)

Feedback

G. Nuthall (2007). The Hidden Lives of Learners. Wellington: NZCER.

• 80% of feedback students receive about their work in primary school comes from other students

• 80% of this student-student feedback is incorrect.

What Sort of Feedback?

I suggest that you begin a professional conversation about feedback by asking eight questions:

1. What are our present approaches – formal and informal – to student feedback? Conduct an audit.

2. Are our assessment methods and criteria clear, valid and reliable? Identify the links between assessment and feedback.

3. Do our students understand what is meant by feedback?

4. Is the feedback our students receive infrequent, unfocused, unhelpful, inconsistent or negative? OR

Some Questions to Ask

5. Is the feedback we provide focused, comprehensive, consistent and improvement oriented, addressing the four key questions raised above? (especially How can I do better?)

6. How does the feedback our students receive relate to parental feedback through reports, interviews and parent nights? Is feedback to students and parents consistent?

7. How can we provide our students with improved feedback? 8. How will we know if it works? What evidence will we need? The answers to these questions will provide an important

foundation for improving the quality of teaching and student achievement in our schools.

However, feedback is only one part of the equation. It is not a substitute or remedy for poor teaching.

Some Questions to Ask

Quality Teaching in Action

Case Study: Successful Senior Secondary Teaching

Teaching isn’t enough ...

“Learning is not attained by chance. It must be sought for with ardour and attended to with diligence.”

Abigail Adams

'Teaching is more complex than setting tests and assignments, marking books, and telling students what to do. It is demanding, complex, dynamic and highly dependent on personal relationships and professional judgement. Teaching takes time to master and teacher pre-service education can only provide a foundation for the myriad of contexts and challenges to which teachers can be exposed. … no two days are the same and there is no certainty of what will eventuate in the next lesson or what one is likely to encounter around the next corner of the school.'

– Dinham, S. (2006). ‘Teaching and Teacher Education: Some Observations, Reflections and Possible Solutions’, ED Ventures, 2, pp. 3-20.

On Teaching

The Senior Secondary Successful Teaching Study

• Teachers genuinely expert in their subject area(s), and enjoyed teaching

• Three sorts of knowledge essential: – Subject content knowledge (what subject

content to teach) – Subject pedagogic knowledge (how to teach

particular subject content) – Subject course knowledge (subject

curriculum, assessment, exam knowledge)

Findings from the HSC Study

• Lessons were student centred and teacher directed.

• Teachers were highly responsive to students and highly demanding, i.e. authoritative, rather than uninvolved, permissive or authoritarian (see later).

• Mutual respect, confidence and high expectations.

• The faculty was more significant than expected.

Findings from the HSC Study

Authoritarian Teaching

Authoritative Teaching

Uninvolved Teaching

Permissive Teaching

RESPONSIVENESS Low

High

Low

High D

EM

AN

DIN

GN

ES

S

• Although wide range of strategies used, key common factor was emphasis on having students think, solve problems and apply knowledge.

• Understanding built in layers, connections. • Frequent assessment and feedback. • Teachers saw their role as challenging

students beyond demands of the HSC.

Findings from the HSC Study

• Assisted note building, ownership of note-making • Group work, community learning more common

than might be expected • Good relationships and positive classroom

climate essential

Findings from the HSC Study

• Faculty-based professional learning; • Sharing programs, resources, teaching ideas; • Setting high expectations and creating a faculty climate for all

members; • Whole-faculty approaches, consistency and joint initiatives; • Developing a faculty identity within the school; • Faculty HSC success breeding success through attracting

talented students, becoming a dominant culture within the school, and

• Setting up success in Years 7-10 through teaching the ‘basics’ well and enthusing students about the subject(s) taught by the faculty.

The Faculty as a Team

• No instant recipe for teaching success, yet much can be learned from successful teachers and faculties – a framework for reflection and action

• ‘Overall, the quality of the teacher and the quality of teaching (large effect sizes) are much more important than structural or working conditions (negligible or small effect sizes), demonstrating the futility and waste of ‘fiddling around the edges’ of schooling without sufficiently addressing the quality of teachers and the quality of teaching within schools and classrooms.’ (Dinham, 2008)

• ‘Quality teaching matters and it’s time we started acting like it.’ (Dinham, Ingvarson & Kleinhenz, 2008)

Implications

'The biggest equity issue in Australian education today isn’t computers, new buildings or equipment. It’s each student having quality teachers and quality teaching in schools supported by effective leadership and professional learning in mutually respectful local community contexts'.

Dinham, 2010, ‘Teachers Make A Difference’, Teacher.

Key Point

Dinham, Ingvarson & Kleinhenz (2008) BCA

Let’s get serious about teacher quality ...

• See: – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hT49plkJ7Ek – http://www.edfac.unimelb.edu.au/news/lectures/pdf/S

%20Dinham%20lecture%20notes%2027.9.11.pdf

Professional Learning

Student Learning is heavily dependent on teacher learning

Leaders are learners and help others learn ...

“Learning and leadership are indispensible to each other.”

John F. Kennedy

'… teacher professional learning needs to be built upon an evidential foundation of what works in teaching, not fad, fantasy, idealism, ideology or rhetoric'.

– Dinham, S. Innovative and effective professional learning for student accomplishment, Curriculum Corporation conference, Melbourne, 19 June, 2008.

We are in an age of evidence ...

'Although teachers have an undeniably large influence on student results, they are able to maximise that influence only when they are supported by school and system leaders who give them the time, the professional learning opportunities, and the respect that are essential for effective feedback to support instruction'. (Reeves, 2010)

Leadership for Teacher Learning

' … leadership is the ‘big enabler’ in successful schools. You can have good teaching without having a good school, but you can’t have a good school without good leadership … professional learning is the lever that helps leaders create the conditions in which teachers can teach effectively and students can learn.' (Dinham, 2010)

Leadership for Teacher Learning

Traditional • Formal pre-service • ad hoc, on the job • Professional associations • Informal self-directed • Formal in-service • Formal postgraduate study

Types of Teacher Learning

Alternative Approaches • Action research • Action learning • Formal mentoring • Professional standards/certification (mandatory,

voluntary) • Professional learning modules • Learning communities • Communities of practice

Types of Teacher Learning

From ………………………… To Centralised Decentralised System responsibility Individual, collective responsibility Off the shelf Tailored Generalised Contextualised Off site, apart On site, embedded Input Outcomes Passive Interactive External expert External partner Individual learning Community learning Theory based Problem based Transactional Relational Changing things Changing people Learning by seeing, hearing Action learning Using research Doing research Broad focus Student/learning focus

Trends in Teacher Learning

Quality teaching matters Leadership is the big enabler Professional Learning is essential The best classrooms, departments, schools, and even

systems have a central focus on students as learners and people

Educational systems, leaders and teachers need to plan, proceed, assess, evaluate and modify as necessary ON THE BASIS OF EVIDENCE.

Data is not just about compliance – it is about improvement Vision is important but it must rest on evidence.

The Essential Messages

Closing thoughts ...

“Life is like riding a bicycle – in order to keep your balance, you must keep moving.”

Albert Einstein

Alice speaking to the Cheshire cat: 'Would you tell me, please, which way I ought to go from here?' 'That depends a good deal on where you want to get to,' said the Cat. 'I don’t much care where,' said Alice. 'Then it doesn’t matter which way you go,' said the Cat. '- so long as I get somewhere,' Alice added as explanation. 'Oh, you’re sure to do that,' said the Cat, 'if only you walk long enough' Where do you want your school to go? How are you going to get there?

How will you know when you are there?

Alice In Wonderland

Ayres, P.; Dinham, S. & Sawyer, W. (1999). Successful Teaching in the NSW Higher School Certificate. Sydney: NSW Department of Education and Training.

Ayres, P.; Dinham, S. & Sawyer, W. (2000). ‘Successful Senior Secondary Teaching’, Quality Teaching Series, No 1, Australian College of Education, September, pp. 1-20.

Ayres, P.; Dinham, S. & Sawyer, W. (2004). ‘Effective Teaching in the Context of a Grade 12 High Stakes External Examination in New South Wales, Australia’, British Educational Research Journal, 30 (1), pp. 141-165.

Dinham, S. (2010). ‘Self-esteem – Caution: do not over-inflate’, Teacher, August, pp. 6-11.

Dinham, S. (2009). ‘Teacher Effects: What Makes a Difference to Student Achievement?’, The Spray, NSW Institute of Teachers, 2009/3, pp. 4-6. Available at: http://www.nswteachers.nsw.edu.au/IgnitionSuite/uploads/docs/The%20Spray%20Issue%203%2009.pdf

Dinham, S. (2008). ‘Feedback on Feedback’, Teacher, May, pp. 20-23. Dinham, S. (2008). How to get your School Moving and Improving: An

evidence-based approach. Melbourne: ACER Press.

Some References

Dinham, S. (2010). ‘The Perils of Self-Esteem Boosting’, available at: http://works.bepress.com/stephen_dinham/594/

Dinham, S. (2008). ‘Powerful Teacher Feedback’, Synergy, 6(2), pp. 35-38. Available at: http://www.slav.schools.net.au/synergy/vol6num2/dinham.pdf

Dinham, S. (2007). Leadership for Exceptional Educational Outcomes. Teneriffe, Qld.: Post Pressed.

Dinham, S.; Ingvarson, L. & Kleinhenz, E. (2008). ‘Investing in Teacher Quality: Doing What Matters Most’, in Teaching Talent: The Best Teachers for Australia’s Classrooms. Melbourne: Business Council of Australia. Available at: http://www.bca.com.au/Content/99520.aspx

Hattie, J. (2009). Visible Learning. London: Routledge. Hattie, J. & Timperley, H. (2007). ‘The Power of Feedback’, Review of

Educational Research, 77(1), pp. 81-112. Marzano, R.; Pickering, D. & Pollock, J. (2005). Classroom Instruction that

Works – Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

National Research Council. (2000). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience and School. Washington, DC: National Research Council.

Scott, C. (2010). ‘The Enduring Appeal of ‘Learning Styles’’, Australian Journal of Education, 54(1), pp. 5-17.

Some References

© Copyright The University of Melbourne 2009