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7/21/2019 Current Perspectives on Teaching the Four Skills (Eli Hinkel)
1/23
continues to be a dynamic field , one in which new venues an d
perspectives
are
still un f
old
ing.
Th
e
growth
of new
knowledg
e ab
out
the how
and
the
what of L2 teaching and learning is certain to continue
and will probably r
emain
the hallm
ark ofTESOL s
disciplinary maturation.
T
oday, it is a truism
to
say t
ha
t each
era
in
the
history of s
eco
nd
language L2) teaching has been marked by expansions of knowl
edge and pivotal
ad
vancemen ts in disciplinary theory and practice. One
unf
ortunate side effec t of
ongoing
dis ciplinary innovation and a sea rch
f
or the
best tea
ching
m
ethod
is
what
Ri
chard
s 2005)
referred
to as the
theoretical flavor of th e m
onth
n .p.), alluding to recurrently fashion
able theories
of language learning an d use that claim to be bas
ed
on th e
findings of
current research . However, implicit in a view
of th
e o
ngo
i
ng
development of L2 teaching is an expectation that what is cu rren t,
innovative, and central in L2 pedagogy today is likely to become a
stepping-stone
in the ex
pa
nsion and refinement of disciplinary knowl
edge. This overview of th e curren t perspectives
in
L2 teaching highligh ts
the trends that began
in th e 1990s and
the
2000s
and are
likely to
continue to affect instruction in L2 skills at least in the immediate
futur
e .
In
the
current
d
ynami
c perspectives
on found
ational
L2 skills, f
ou
r
TESOL QUARTERLY Vol 40 No I March 2006
109
7/21/2019 Current Perspectives on Teaching the Four Skills (Eli Hinkel)
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R ecognition of the essential roles of the teacher
n
the learner
n
of the need
for situ ation ally releva
nt
langu ge pedagogy has brought about the decline
of
methods with theirspecific philosophies n prescribed sets
of
classroomproce ures
As early as th e mid-1980s, a small
number
of
researcher
s and
method-
ologists
began
to voice
growing
apprehension
about the
worldwide
applicability
of
any
particular
method
to
the enormou
s diversity
of
le
arners and learning
needs. Since th at tim e,
many
L2
profes
si
onals
have
come to
see
specific tea
ching methods
as overly
prescripti
ve and inappli
cable in
divergent
le
arning
contexts e.g., Brown, 2001;
Kum
ar
avadi velu ,
2003, 2005). For example, although
communi
cative skills can occupy a
high priority
for
ESL s
tudents
who
n
eed
to
interact
in th
eir
L2,
fo r
EFL
le
arners
communicatin
g in English may have a
reduced
valu e relative to
preparing for
entra
nce exams
or tests for securing
empl
oym
ent. The
past two
decades
have seen a shift in
the
responsibility
for
curricular
and
1Th
e 25 th ann iversary issues of
TESOL Quarterly
re flec ted the gene ra l tr
en
d of tre
atin
g th e
founda t ional language skills sepa rately. A broad overview such as this o ne may well re present an
innovation in its
el f
to evince the m
atu
ration of L2 tea ch in g as a discipline as well th e infl
uen
tial
expansion
of integrated instru ctional models disc ussed in the section In teg
ra t
ed an d Multiple
Skills T
aught
in Con text).
110 TES
OL QU
AR
TE
RLY
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Based on recent research on the role
of
cognition in learning, pedagogy
in practically all skills has come to recognize the importance
of
both accuracy
and
fluency and both bottom-up and top-down language skills discussed in the
sections on teaching speaking, listening, reading,
and
writing .
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, a number of studies were carried ou t
to determine wheth
er
exposure to and communicative
int
eraction in th e
L2 enables
learn
ers to a ttai n L2 s
peaki
ng fac ilities
that
add ress fluency
and accuracy in language production e .g., Lightbown
Spad
a, 1990;
Schmid t, 1993; Sw
ain
, 1991). Research findings demon
str
at e th at , with
ou t explicit
and
form-focu
sed
in
stru
cti
on
, e
xten
sive e
xposur
e to mean
ing
-based
input
does not lead to th e development of syntactic and lexical
accu racy in an L2. Curr
entl
y, in th e tea
ching
of
the
four skills, curricula
and instruction strive to achieve a bala
nce between the
linguistic and th e
schematic aspects of
learn
er lan
gua
ge
development.
At present, practi
cally all
teacher education
textbooks on
the
essentials
of
language
instruction include
mat
eri
al on how to
address
both
bottom-up
and top
down abilities e.g., Adger, Snow, Ch ristian , 2002; Brown, 2001;
Ca
rter
Nunan,
2001; Celce-Murcia, 2001; L
arsen-Freeman,
2000; Nunan,
1999, 2003).
CURRENT PERSPECTIVES ON TEACHING THE FOUR SKILLS
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to obtain detailed descriptions of its properties
that
can be app lied to th e
r
efinem
en t of language th eories. So
me
prominent ex
perts
in L2 teach
i
ng and
lin gui stics have ques tioned
the
value
of
a
pp
lying co rpus
findin
gs
to L2 teaching. For insta
nce
, according to Widdowson 1990, 2000,
2003 and Cook 1997, 1998
learners
in EFL se ttings, who in effect
have few
opp
ortu nities to interactwith native s
pea
kers ofEnglish, do
not
need to be parti cul arly concerned with the
frequenc
ies of linguistic
features in native s
peaker
corpora.
Th
ese au
thors
also
arg
ue that, in
many cases, co rpus find ings are too cultu rebound and n
arr
owly specific
to a particul
ar
variety
of
E
ng
lish to be useful
for
le
arn
e rs w
ho
have no
access to th a t cult
ure
or var iety.
Furth
e
rm
ore, the issues
of
di fficul ty,
le
arn
ability, use
fuln
ess, releva
nce an
d pedagogical
sequencing
have to
be taken in to accoun t in co rpus-based L2 tea
ch
ing and ins truc tional
materials e .g., Aston, 1995; fo r a discussi
on
,
see
also Conrad , 2005 .
Many L2 meth odologists believe,
how
ever, that corpus findings can make
L2 teaching far more effective and effi
cien
t by identifying
the
language
features th at le
arn
ers mu st know to
achi
eve th
ei r
lea
rn
ing goals e.g.,
Byrd, 2005; Byrd Reid, 1998; Conrad 2000.
112
TES
OL QUA
RTERLY
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n
pr
omo
t ng
co
mmun cat
ve
an
guage
use . t
pres
en
t, t e
mo
e s
or
inte
grated
teachi
ng with a co
mm
unicative focus include an extens ive
a rray of curricula and ty
pes of
instructi
on
al m
od
els, suc h as
conte
n t
based (in clu
ding
th e
me
based ) , task based, tex t based (also ca lled ge
nre
based ) , discourse based , project
ba
sed,
pr
ob
lem ba
sed , literature
base
d,
litera
cy
ba
se d, com
munity
based ,
comp
e t
en
cy
based
, o r standards based
(an d th is is n
ot
a complete list by any mea
sure
). In fact, Richards and
R
od
g
er
s (200 1)
note
that , as lo ng as instru ction e
ngages
learn ers in
me
an ingful
com
muni
cation
and
enables t
he
m to attain
the
curr icu lar
objectives, the range of model s and
tea
ching materials comp atible with
int
egrated
langu
age
tea
ch i
ng
is unlimited (p . 165 ) .
It is safe to say, howev
er
, th at few movements in fo reign l
an
guage (FL)
and L2 teaching take place wi
tho
u t
contes
t, and in t
egra
ted language
instru
cti
on
is c
er
tainly
no except
ion . Cu rrently, task-based
and con
tent
based
in s
truction
are
proba
bly among t
he
most
widely adop
ted
inte
grated models . Howev
er
,
some
le
adin
g
spec
ialists in L2 teaching and
applied linguistics have m
ain
tained th a t th e s
upe
rio rity
of
, f
or examp
le,
task-based
instru
cti
on
ov
er trad
itional
teac
hing has
no
t
been
dem
on-
strat
ed empirically and
that
to
da
te
resea
rch has
had
li ttle to say ab
out
its
effe ctiveness (e .g., Ri
chard
s
Rodgers, 2001; Seedhouse, 1999; Swan,
2005; Widdowson, 1990, 1993, 2003) .
r
itics also
con
ten
d tha t in many
CURRENT PERSPECT IVES ON TEACHING THE FOUR SKILLS
3
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speaking
,
listening
,
reading
,
and
writing.
This traditional
division has
th e
sole
purpos
e
of
easing
th e reader
s
navigation
through the
articl
e s
contents,
a nd
som
e g
enerally accepted
ways to
integrate
th e
te a
ching
of
L2 skills will be
addr
essed as a
matter of
course.
TE HING SPE KING SKILLS
The complexity of learning
to
speak
in
another language
is refl
ected
in
the
range and
type
of
subskills
t ha t a re e nt ai le d
in L2
oral
production
.
Learners
must simultaneously
attend
to
content,
morphosyntax
and
lexis, discourse and
information
structuring,
and th e
sound system
and
prosody, as well as
appropriate register and pragmalinguistic features
Tarone,
2005) . In an
i nt er ac ti on t ha t
typically involves
speaking and
comprehending at
th e
sam e time, L2
speakers
need to
self-monitor
so
that
th ey
ca n
identify
and correct production problems at the
fast
pace of
a
real conversational
ex ch an ge. Re
search
on
th e
characteristic
s
and
development of
L2
oral
skills
ha
s
shown
conclusively
that
communicat
in g
in an L2 is a cognitively demanding
undertaking
,
not
to
mention
that
th e
success
of
an interaction often depends
on
production
quality e.g.,
McCarthy
O Keeffe
, 2004).
Thus
,
speaking
in
an
L2
require
s fluency,
114 TESOL Q UARTERLY
7/21/2019 Current Perspectives on Teaching the Four Skills (Eli Hinkel)
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fl
ue
ncy, acc
ur
acy,
an
d
lingui
stic co mplexity. Fo r
exam
p le , ad v
an
ce
plan-
ning and
re hearsals of conte
nt
an d
formul
ation, th at is, what to say and
how to say it, l
ead
to su bsta
nt
ial
impro
vements in th e a
mo
u
nt of
s
po
ke n
d iscourse a
nd
in
gram
m a tical, le xical , an d
art
iculatory
accu
racy.
In
con
tent-based
and
tas k-based i
nstruction
, co ntextualized use s of specific
gra
m m a r
stru
ctures an d vocabulary
can
be em p h as ize d to
conne
ct th e
su bject ma tt e r an d language learning ac tivities fo r a th o rou
gh
overview,
see
Snow, 2005).
Speaking Integrated
it Other
Language
Skills
peaking
n
ronunciation
The
r
apid
pac
e
of
th e in
ternat
io
na
lization
of Eng
lish has l
ed
to
changing per
spe
ctives
on
th e teach
ing
of p ronunciati
on.
In ge neral
terms as
Taro
n e 2005)
poin
ts o u t, th e
goa
l
of
pr
on unciation te
achin
g
h as shifte d fro m targe
ting
a nativelike
accen
t to targ
eting
in telligibility,
t
ha
t is, the d egree to wh ich th e listen
er
u n
derstan
ds th e s
peake
r s
utt
er
an
ce . In
an age
when
En glish has bec
om
e a p rimary m ed iu m fo r
in t
ernatio
n al com m
un
ication, most cross-cul tural
inter
actions take
place
CURRENT PERSPECT IVES ON TEACH ING T HE
FOUR
SKILLS 5
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effec tively and to nego tia te cross-cultural
in t
eracti onal no
rm
s success
full y Kas
per
Roever, 2005 ; McKay, 2002) . The tea
chin
g
of
L2
soc io p
ragma
tic skills
elu
cid ates
the
is
sue
s of power in co mmunication,
suc h as th e im pact of soc ial status, social di st
an
ce , a n d lin guistic register
on L2 s
peec
h.
At presen t, pe d ag ogy o n L2 sociopragmatic norms of speaking typi
cally in corporates effective communication strategies; di sc
ou
rse o rgani
zation an d str
uc t
u r ing; conversational routines e.g.,
sma
ll talk);
con
ver
sation
al fo rmulae e.g., fo r m s of
address ; and
sp eech acts, suc h as
reques
ts,
ref
usa
ls, c
omplim
ents
or
clarification
question
s e.g., McKay,
2002; Yule Ta
rone
, 1997) .
According
to Kas per s 2001 ) overview
of
sev
er
al empirical studies on teaching L2 pragmatics ex p licit teaching
and di r ec t explanations of th e L2
form-function
connections re present a
highly
p r
odu
ctive m eans
of helping
learners imp rove th e ir L2
sociopragma tic skills. Fo r example, tu the radio down an d could you please
turn the radio down
have th e sam e function re ques t) bu t differ
ent
pr
agmalinguistic forms, an d , depending
on
th e co ntext, one is likel y to
be mo re effec tive th
an
the other. Implici t in struction in var ious co m m u
ni cation tac tics and appro pria te l
angu
ag e uses i.e. , w
he
n p ra
gm
atic
fe
atu
res are p ractic
ed
in co n
tex
t wit
ho
u t d es
cripti
on
s a nd ex p la
na
tions)
6
T ESOL Q UARTE RLY
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, ,
,
,
tom-up linguistic processing.
The
1980s saw a shift from th e view of L2
listening as predominantly linguistic to a schema-ba
se d
view, and list
en
in g pedagogy moved away from its focus
on
the linguist ic aspects of
comp rehension
to th e ac tivation of le
arners
top-down kn owledge. In
top-down
proce
ssing, aural comprehension
hinge
s on listeners abilities
to activat e
their
kn owledge-based sc hemata, such as cultural co nstructs,
topic familiar ity, discourse clues, and pragm atic co nventions e.g., Celce
Mur
cia, 1995;
Mendelsohn
, 1994; Rost Ross, 1991 . In th e
practice of
teaching L2 listening, ho wever, neither approach focus on bottom-up
or
t
op-down
pro
ce
s s i n g - p r
oved to be a
resoundin
g success:
Learn
er
s
w
ho
rely on
lingui
stic processi
ng
ofte n fail to activ
ate highe
r o rd e r L2
schema ta, and th ose wh o co rrectly apply sch ema-based
kn
owl
edge
tend
to neglect the linguistic input e.g., Tsui Fullilove, 1998; V
andergri
ft ,
2004
) .
Advances in th e studies of spoken co r
po
ra and conve rsatio n analysis
ha
ve illuminat
ed the
complexity of
ora
l discourse and l
an guage
. Th e
findings of th ese analyses have made it evident that, in many cases,
empl
oying authentic language in liste ning instruction can be of limited
ben efit
be
cause of
a variety
of
co nstraints, suc h as
th e
fas t
pa
ce
of
sp
ee
ch,
s
pe c
ific c
ha
racteristics
of
sp
oken
gram
ma
r
and
lexic
on
e.g., in c
omplet
e
CURRENT PERSPECTIVES ON TEACHING TH E FOU R SKILLS 117
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st r
ategies ca n be useful in a
b ro ad r an ge of
teaching
contexts and can
m
eet
diverse le
arning need
s.
For instan
ce ,
prelistenin
g ac tivities ca n be
emplo
yed in tea
chin
g le
arners
to
n ot ic e t he c ul tu ra l
sc
he
ma and to raise
their
awareness of
th e ef
fect
of culture on
discourse
or
g
an i
zati
on
,
information
st
ru c
turing, and pragmatics see, e.g., Rost , 2005; Vande rgrift,
2004 . In addition, le
arnin
g to listen to
conversations provid
es a fruitful
v en ue f or
focusing on
morphosyntax,
lexical
parsing, a nd p ho no lo
gical
variables, thus ad ding new
dimensions
to
th e teaching
of gr
amm
ar and
vocabular
y. Analyses of L2 conversations
ca n
similarly
emph
asize L2
sociocultural
n
orms
and pragmatics to
expand
learners rep
ertoir
e
of
common speech ac ts and dis
course structuring. As
has b een m ent io ned,
t he t ea chi n
g of
pr
onunci
ation
skills is also ubiquitously
integrated
with
both
sp
eakin
g and li
stenin
g
instruction.
The lin guistic and sche
ma
-driven staples of
teaching
listening have
found appli
cati
on
s in curren t
integrated
approaches, such
as task-based
or content-b
ased in
stru
cti
on
see
Sn o
w, 2005,
fo r
overviews .
Th
e design
oflistenin
g
pr
actice can incorpor
at e
a
number of featur
es
that
make
th e
de
velopm
ent
of
L2 list
en
in g abilities
relevant
and
realistic. List
en -
and-d
o
tasks, for in stan ce, repres
ent
a flexible
source
of li
stenin
g input fo r
beginnin
g
or interm edi at e
le
arn er
s. A
ccording
to Ellis 2003 ,
th e
TESOL QUARTERLY
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tant
eren
ce etween s s
an
strate
g es s
t at
strateg es
are
un
er
learners cons
cious control,
and
li
steners
can be tau gh t to co mpensate
for
in
compl
ete
understanding,
missed lin guistic
or
schematic
input
, o r
mi sid
entified
c lu es see Rost, 2005,
for
a d iscussion).
Thus,
curr
ent
L2 li
stening
pedagogy
includ
es
the modeling
of
meta
cognitive
strategie
s a nd str
ate
gy
training
in tandem with
teaching
L2 li
stening
. A consisten t use
of
metaco
gnitive strategi es is m
ore
eff
ective
in
improvin
g learners L2
listening
compr
ehension than work on
list
en
ing
skills
alon
e e.g., V
andergrift
, 2004) .
The
key
metacognitive
strat
e
gies widely ad o p ted in L2 li
stening
instruction
include
planning
for
list
en
ing,
self-monitor
in g
the
co mprehension
pro
cesses, ev
aluating
co m
pr
ehension, and identifying comprehension
diffi culties e.g.,
see
Rost ,
2005, for a discussion) . Learners at
beginning and intermedi
at e levels of
profi ciency may
benefit from instruction that con
c
entrates on bottom-up
and
top-down
listenin
g
proces
ses,
togeth
er
with selective
str
ategy train
ing
.
For mor
e
advanc
ed
learn
ers, an
addition
of cognitive strategies,
su ch as dis c
our
se
organization
,
inferen
cing,
elaboration
,
and summ
a
tion
, also r
epr
esent
an
effective
appro
ach to tea
ching
list
ening
Rost,
2001; Rost Ross, 1991).
CURR ENT PERSPECTIVES ON TEA
CHl
NC TH E FOUR SKILLS
1I
9
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ea ng
n egra e
er
anguage
s
ottom Up
n
Top Down Skills
The bo tto m-up processing
of
read ing involves a bro ad array of dis tinct
cognitive subs kills, such as word re
cog
ni tio n, spelling and pho no
log
ica l
p rocessing,
mo
rphosy
ntac
tic parsing, and lexical re co
gni
ti
on
and access
(e .g., Eskey, 2005). The reader needs to gathe r visual
inf
ormation fro m
the wri
tten
text (e.g., letters and words) , identify
the
meanings
of wor
ds ,
and th en move
forward
to th e proces
sing
of
the
stru
ctu
re and th e
meani ng
of
l
arger
syntactic
uni
ts, suc h as
phrases
or se
nt
e nces . A
num be r
of
studies,
such
as th ose by Kod a (1999),
Chik
ama tsu (1996),
an d S
himron
and Savon (1994), have s
how
n
that
visual processing
of
words and letters
repr
es
ents
a
cogn
itively complex task. Th ese and o ther
researc
hers
fou nd th
at
read e rs w
hos
e L1 ort
hogr
aphies (e .g., Chinese,
J ap anese , or H
ebr
ew) are markedly d istin ct from th e L2
or
thography
may be slowed down in th ei r read ing
pr
ogress by th e need to a ttai n
flu
en
t L2 word r
ecogn ition
bef
or
e th ey can acquire text-processing skills.
Fu rtherm ore, positive L1-to-L2 transfer
of
reading skills
does
not occu r
when th e writing systems in th e two
language
s
are
fu ndamentally
diff
erent
(e .g., Birch, 2002; Koda, 19
99 2005 .
On
th e o t
he
r h
and
L2
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reading. Ba
sed
on
the
co nclusions
of
vari
ous
stu dies, Wallace e
xpl
ains
th at a st rong link ex ists
be
tween
phon
emic awareness, th e ability to
process words aut
omati
cally and rapidly, and reading achievement (p.
23). In her
practi
cal
book
for
tea
chers, Birch (200 2) advocates teac
hing
L2 re
adin
g by be
ginnin
g with processing le tt
er
s, th en moving forw
ard
to
th e English spelling system, morphophonemics, and vocabulary le
arn
ing. According to Birch, although
both
b
ottom-up
and t
op
-down pro
cessing skills
are
necessary to lea
rn
to read in an L2, th e r
eading
fundam entals
mu
st be in place before top-down in
struction
can b
enefit
learners.
e ding
nd Vocabulary
In o t
her
ve nues, th e found ations-first p
ersp
ec tive on L2 reading
p
edago
gy also extends to t
oday
s views on teaching an d learning vocabu
l
ary Eno rmous
am
ounts of resea
rch carri
ed out
in the past two dec
ades
have be
en
dev
oted
to th e r
ole of
v
oca
bulary in L2 r
eadin
g as well as to
vocabulary l
earni
ng and acquisition . Although in the 1970s and 1980s
th e
teaching
and learning
of
voc
abulary
was
considered
to be largely
seco
ndary to th e tea
chin
g of ot
he
r L2 skills, at
pr
es
ent
a
grea
t deal m
ore
CURR
ENT
PERSPECTIVES ON TEAC
HIN
G
TH
E FOU R SKILLS
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of
vocabulary
teaching.
Rese
archers
have also voiced
caution
that
incidental
learning
leads to significantly low
er
rates of voc
abulary
r
etention and
th at a
word need
s to
be
encount
ered
12-20 times to be
learned
from
context (e.g
., Coady,
1997). Accord ing
to
Nation
(2005)
and
Hulstijn
(2001),
research has
not
supported
the contention that
meaning-focused
use
and encounters
with new words in
context
are
the
best
way to
learn
vocabulary.
These authors
underscore that the
converse
approach is
prob
ably true,
that
is,
deliberate attention
to
decontextu
alized
words is
far more
likely to
lead
to
learning,
although
new vocabulary
can
c
ertainl
y be
reinforced
in
the
cont
ext
ofother
L2
skills .
In
general
terms,
to
result
in le
arning,
activities with new
word
s,
such
as re
ading or
listening, have to
meet the
following
conditions:
interest,
repetition,
deliberate att
ention,
and gen
er
ative use
(the
use of a
word
in a
new
context) (Nation, 2005,
p.
585). Teaching word
families
rather than
individual
words can
dramatic
ally
increase
the
rate
of learning
.
xtensive Reading and Reading luency
v lopm nt
A
pedagogical
approach
usu
ally
referred
to as
extensive reading (o r
sustained silent reading
has
been
very
popular among
reading
te
achers
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Althou
gh in th e 1980s
much
in t
he
tea
ching of
L2 writi
ng
was bas
ed
on L1 writing re sear
ch ,
in
th e pa
st two decad es, a number of
publi
c
ations
have emerg
ed
to address
th e important differenc
es
that
exist betw
een
l
earning
to wr ite in one s
Ll and
in on
e s
L2 (e.g.,
Hinkel
, 2002 ; McKay
Wong
, 1996; Silva, 1993). Based
on
his syn t
he s
is
of
72 studies, Silva
(1993)
concludes
that
significant
differen
ces exist between
practic
ally all
aspects of L1
and
L2 writing.
He
emphasizes
that
th e
learning
ne
ed
s
of
L2 writ
er
s are crucially di
stinct
fro m those of basic or profici
ent
L1
writers
and
that
L2 writing
peda
gogy
requires
sp ecial
and
systematic
approache
s
that
take
into
accou
nt
th e
cultur
al,
rhet
orical, and lin
gui
stic
diff
erences
betw
een Ll and L2 writers. Similarly, H inkel s (2002) large-
scale
empirical
an alysis
of
L1 and L2
text showed
th at even
after
years
of
ESL
and
compos itio n tr
aining
, L2 wri
te r
s
text
con tin ues to
differ
signific
antl
y from that
of
novice L1 wri ters in re gard to most lin guistic
and
rhetori
cal features. Ev
en
advan
ce d
and
trained
L2 writers
continue
to have a severely limited lexical and s
ynta
ctic rep
ertoir
e
that
enables
th
em
to p
rodu
ce
on l
y sim ple t
ex t
re
st r
i
cted
to
th e
most
common
lan
guage
f
eature
s encountered
pr
edomi
nantly in conversational d is-
cour
se
Hinkel,
2003).
CURRENT PERSPECTIVES ON TEACHING
TH E
FOUR SKILLS
23
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To
address
th e shortfalls of th e writing ped agogy widely adopted in
th e 1980s, th e
pr
actice
of
L2 writing
instruction
has
begun
to take a
more
bal
anced
view of l
earning
to writ e in an L2 Silva
Brice, 2004).
For
inst
ance
,
Frod
esen 200 1) states th
at
the wholes
ale
adop ti
on
of L1
composition
theori
es
and
pr
actices
fo r
L2 writing classes
see
ms mis
guided in li
ght
of
the
m
an
y
differences
betw
een
first a
nd
second
language
wri t
er
s, processes, and
products
p . 234).2 Ac
cording
to
Frodesen
th e ne
glect of lan
guage
instruction for
L2 writ
er
s is
most
pr
evalent
in th e United States,
where
many con tinu e to believe that
comprehensible inpu t is suffi ci
ent for
language acquisition. Fr
odesen
and
other
ex
pe
r ts, such as
Bir
ch 2005), Byrd 2005), Byrd an d Reid
1998),
and
McKay 1993) p
oint out
th at c
ur
ric ulum design in L2
wr
iting instru
ction has to
includ
e grammar and vocabulary to e
na
ble L2
writers to
communicate
meanin
gfully
and approp
riately.
With
this objec
tive in
mind pr
ominent curr
ent
positions advoca te the
int
e
gration of
grammar
and
voc
abulary curri
cula with L2 writing
instruction.
2 In the teac hing of rheto ric and writing, the pr ocess roduct debate origina ted in the late
19th and early 20t h
cent
ury, whe n
Eng
lish d
epartmen
ts were formally sep arated from, for
example, philosophy de par tments in
man
y U.K.
an d
U.S. universities.
These
deba tes hav e
conti
nued
unab
ated for
more
than
a
cent
ury now,
bu t
in the 1970s
and
1980s, they aided in
th e
ins titutionalization of composi tion studies in the Uni ted States- but
no t
in other countries.
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SOL
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diaries. T h e n in structi
on begin
s to adv
ance
to school-based wri ting,
usually i
ntegra
ted with r
ea
d i
ng
as well as with g
ram
m a r and vo c
abula
ry
learning Adger, Sn ow,
Chri
sti
an,
2002; Birch , 2005; Schleppegrell,
2004).
Integrated
n
ContentBased Teaching
of
Writing
Mu ch of th e cu
rr
e
nt
in t
egr
at
ed
inst
ru c
tion
in L2 writin g, gr
ammar
,
a nd voca b u lary takes place in co nj u nc t io n with re
adin
g, co n tent-based,
an d
for
m-focused
instruction
to
impro
ve
the
ov
er
all
qu
ality
of
L2
prose
e.g., Co pe,
Kalan tzis, 199 3; H
edg
cock, 200 5; Williams, 2005).
For
exa m ple , to
pr
om
ote
learn
ers
n oti c in g of h ow parti
cul
a r
gra
mmar and
lexis
are
employed in au then tic w
ritten
text
and
di
scou
rse,
teacher
s
can
sele ct re
adings
fro m a wi
de
array o f
genr
es,
such
as
narr
ative,
exp
osition,
o r argumentatio n. Based o n
rea
di
ng
co n t e n t,
pr
acti ce in text a na lysis
ca n bec
ome
a useful spring
boar
d
fo r
an in
struction
al fo cu s on th e
sp e c ific uses of gram
ma
r stru ctures and contextualized vocabulary.
Similarly, in structi
on can
ad d ress th e features
of
written register by
bringin
g l
earner
s
attent
i
on
to th e situat i
onal
variables
of
lan
guage in
co ntext, su ch as e-mail
messa
ges,
new
s
report
s,
or
wri tt
en
acad
emic
pr
ose, and th e ir a tte n
da
n t lingui sti c a nd di scourse fea tures Celce-
CURRE NT PE RS
PECT
IVES ON T EACH ING TH E FOU R SKILLS 125
7/21/2019 Current Perspectives on Teaching the Four Skills (Eli Hinkel)
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k
now
ledge
about
th e l
earner and
th e English
lan
guage, b) a greater
balance in th e teach ing of both b
ott
om
-up
and top-down L2 skills, and
c) a
proliferation of
integrated ins t
ruc
tional
model
s. Th e
purpos
es
for
whic h
people
learn En glish today have also evo lved fro m a cul
tura
l and
educational enter
pr
ise to that of in te rnational
com
munication. The
growth
of
new knowledge
abou
t t
he how and
th e what
of
L2 tea
chin
g
and learning
are cer
tain to continue and will p robably remain as
hallmarks of TESOLs disciplinary maturation.
KNOWLEDGMENTS
For th eir insightful and helpful comments
on
early
draf
ts
of
thi s a r ticle, I e
xpr
ess my
sincere gratitude to Mari
anne
Celc e-Murcia, University of Californ ia , Los Angel es,
Sandr
a McKay, Stat e Un iversity
of San
Francisco,
Sandra
Fotos, Senshu
Univ
ersity,
an d Ken Benoit , Seattle Un iversity, whose
sugge
stions fo r re visions were instrumental
in fin e-tuning the fin al vers ion. Additionally, Suresh Canagara
ja
h and two ano ny
mous reviewers provided very useful feedback and comments that helped develop
the fina l version .
126
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ESOL
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