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ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE: A Global Concern, 5th edition
William P. Cunningham University of Minnesota
Barbara Woodworth Saigo
Saiwood Biology Resources
What is Environmental Science?
• Environment
• Environmental Science
• History of Environmental Science– utilitarian conservation– altruistic preservation
CURRENT CONDITIONS
• Planet Earth
• Environmental Dilemmas– population– food shortages– energy– pollution
A DIVIDED WORLD
• Rich vs. Poor
• North vs. South
• Developed countries vs. undeveloped countries– First, Second, Third and Fourth World
Countries
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT• Human Development Index
• Developmental Discrepancies– basic social services
• education
• health care
– agrarian reform– employment– civil rights– sustainable resource use
• Sustainable Development
ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES
• Neo-Malthusian
• Technological optimists/Promethean environmentalism
• “Cornucopian Fallacy”
• Lessons from the Past
Environmental Ethics and Philosophy
• Universal Ethical Principles– Relativists– Nihilists– Utilitarians
• Modernism & Postmodernism
Science as a Way of Knowing
• Scientific Method
• Hypotheses Testing
• Indirect Scientific Evidence
• Technology and Progress
• Appropriate Technology
From Atoms to Cells
• Atoms– ions– atomic number
• Molecules– compound
• Organic Compounds– carbon
• Cells
Energy Types and Qualities
• Kinetic Energy– heat– temperature
• Potential Energy
• Chemical Energy
• Conservation of Matter
• Thermodynamics– 1st law
– 2nd law
Food Chains• Productivity/biomass
• Food chain/food web
• Trophic level– producers– consumers
• Organisms– herbivores– carnivores– omnivores
Material Cycles and Life Processes
• Carbon Cycle
• Nitrogen Cycle
• Phosphorus Cycle
• Sulfur Cycle
Critical Factors, Who Lives Where?
• Temperature
• Moisture levels
• Nutrient supply
• Soil chemistry
• Water chemistry
Community Properties• Productivity
• Abundance and Diversity
• Complexity and Connectedness
• Resilience and Stability
• Structure
• Edges and Boundaries
Ecological Succession
• Primary Succession
• Secondary Succession
• Pioneer Species
• Ecological Development
• Climax Community
• Introduced Species and Community Change
Terrestrial Biomes• Deserts
• Grasslands– Prairies– Savannas
• Tundra
• Conifer Forests
• Evergreen Forests
• Tropical Forests
• Tropical Seasonal Forests
Aquatic Ecosystems
• Freshwater and Saline Ecosystems
• Estuaries and Wetlands
• Shorelines and Barrier Islands– Coral reefs
Restoration Ecology
• Rehabilitation
• Remediation
• Reclamation
• Re-creation
• Nature, self-healing
Factors affecting Population
• Natality, Fecundity, and Fertility
• Immigration
• Mortality and survivorship
• Age Structure
• Emigration
• Education
Factors Affecting Birth and Fertility Rates
• Education/affluence
• Importance of children to family labor force
• Urbanization
• Cost - raising and educating children
• Education & Employment opportunity - women
• Infant mortality rate
• Average marriage age
• Availability - pension
• Birth control
• Religious beliefs, tradition and culture
Factors Affecting Death Rate
• Nutrition• Fewer infant deaths and increased longevity• Health and technology
Population Age Structure
– Ways of classifying
• Pre-reproductive age
• Reproductive age
• Post-reproductive age
Solutions Influencing Population
– Controlling Migration– Reducing Birth Rates
• Economic development• Family planning• Economic rewards• Empowering women
– Population Control Studies• India• China
Population Distribution
– Urbanization and Growth• The future is urban
• Hyper-urbanization - LDCs
• The United States and other MDC’s
• Spatial patterns of development
Limits to Population Growth
• Malthusian checks
• Karl Marx
• Neo-Malthusian– Technology solutions?– Can More people be Beneficial?
Human Demography
• Fertility
• Birthrate
• Zero population growth
• Mortality and death rates
• Population growth rates
• Life span and life expectancy– dependency ratio
• Emigration and Immigration
Population Growth: Opposition
• Pronatalist/Social Pressures
• Birth Reduction Pressures– Education– Birth control– Economics
Demographic Transition
• Improved living conditions• Development and Population• Optimistic View• Pessimistic View• Social Justice View• Ecojustice View• Infant Mortality• Women’s Rights
Family Planning & Fertility Control
• Birth Control– Celibacy– Mechanical barriers– Surgery– Chemicals– Implantation of physical controls– Abortion
Classical Economics
• Diminished Returns
• Demand
• Supply
• Market Equilibrium
• Marginal Costs
• Price Elasticity
Resources, Capital and Reserves
• Resource Types– Capital– Resource– Nonrenewable resources– Renewable resources– Intangible resources
Economic Resource Categories
• Proven resources
• Known resources
• Undiscovered resources
• Recoverable resources
Population, Technology, and Scarcity
• Market Efficiencies
• Increasing Environmental Carrying Capacity
• Economic Models
• Why Not Conserve Resources?
Natural Resource Accounting
• Gross National Product (GNP)
• Human Development Index (HDI)
• Non-market Values
• Cost/Benefit Ratios
• Green Business
• Jobs and the Environment
Health Hazards
• Infectious Diseases
• Respiratory diseases– pneumonia– tuberculosis– influenza– whooping cough
Toxic Chemicals• Irritants
• Respiratory fibrotic agents
• Asphyxiants
• Allergens
• Neurotoxins
• Mutagens
• Teratogens
• Carcinogens
Chemical Hazards and Toxicology
• Dose and response– LD5O factor
• Acute effect
• Chronic effect
• Types – toxic substances
– hazardous
– carcinogens
– mutagens
– teratogens
Movement, Distribution and Fate of Toxins
• Solubility
• Bioaccumulation
• Biomagnification
• Persistence
• Chemical Interactions
Measuring Toxicity
• Animal Testing
• Toxicity Ratings
• Acute vs. Chronic Doses and Effects
• Detection Limits
Risk Analysis
– Identifying Risks– The Greatest Risks– Problems - Risk Assessment– Risk-Benefit Analysis– Managing Risks
Human Nutrition
• Energy Needs– undernourishment– over-nourishment
• Nutritional Needs– proteins– carbohydrates– lipids and oils– minerals– vitamins
Increasing Food Production
• Green Revolution– Technology– Genetic Engineering– Increased Farm Output
• New Food Sources
• Blue Revolution– Aqua-culture
Agricultural Economics
• Food Supplies
• Food Subsidies
• Agricultural Aid
• International Food Trade
• Cash Crops
What is soil?• Soil, a renewable resource
• Soil composition– humus
• Soil organisms
• Soil profiles– top soil– sub-soil– parent material– bedrock
Erosion
• Types of erosion– sheet erosion– rill erosion– gully erosion– streambank erosion
• Erosion in the United States
• Erosion in other countries
Soil Conservation
• Managing Topography– contour plowing– strip-farming– tied ridges– terracing
• Providing Ground Cover– cover crops– mulch
• Reduced Tillage Systems
What are Pest and Pesticides?
• Biological Pests– Insects– Large animals
• Botanical Pests– Weeds
• Pesticides– Insecticides
• Herbicides– Fungicides
Pesticide Types• Inorganic pesticides
• Natural organic pesticides– botanicals
• Fumigants
• Chlorinated hydrocarbons
• Organophosphates
• Carbamates
• Microbial agents
Pesticide Problems
• Effects on Nontarget Species
• Pesticide Resistance/Pest resurgence
• Creation of New Pests
• Persistence and Mobility in the Environment
• Human Health Problems
Alternative Pesticide Uses
• Crop rotation
• Biological controls – predatory insects– pathogens
• Herbivorous insects
• Genetic and bioengineering
Benefits of Biodiversity
• Food
• Drugs
• Medicine
• Ecological Benefits
• Aesthetic and Cultural Benefits
Human-Caused Reductions in Biodiversity
• Habitat Destruction
• Hunting and Fishing
• Commercial products and Live Specimens
• Predator and Pest Control
• Exotic Species Introductions
• Disease
• Pollution
• Genetic Assimilation
Biodiversity Protection• Hunting and Fishing Laws• Endangered Species Act• Recovery Plans• Private Land and Critical Habitat• Minimum Viable Populations• Habitat Protection• International Wildlife Treaties• Zoos• Botanical Gardens• Captive Breeding Programs
World Land Use
• Forest, 30%• Range and pasture, 26%• Cropland, 1%• Other, 33
– tundra– desert– wetlands– urban areas
Tropical Forests
• Diminishing Forests
• Swidden Agriculture
• Logging and Land Invasions
• Forest Protection– Reforestation
• Debt-for-Nature Swaps
Temperate Forests
• Ancient forest/old growth forests
• Wilderness Protection
• Wildlife Protection
• Harvesting old growth forests– clear-cutting– strip-cutting– selective-cutting
• Fire Management
Rangelands
• Range Management
• Overgrazing and Land Degradation– desertification
• Forage Conversion
• Harvesting Wild Animals
Rangelands in the U.S.
• Bureau of Land Management
• State of the Range– feral animals
• Grazing Fees
North American Parks– Existing Systems– U.S. National Park System– Park Problems
• Over crowding
• Roads
• Commercialism
• Pollution
– Wildlife– New Directions– New Parks
World Parks and Preserves• Biosphere Reserves
• Protecting Natural Heritage
• Size and Design of Nature Preserves– recreation areas– historic areas– conservation areas– pristine research areas
• Conservation and Economic Development
• Indigenous Communities
Wetlands, Floodplains, & Coastal Regions
• Wetland Values
• Wetland Destruction
• Floods and Flood Control– Floodplains
• Beaches, barrier Islands, and Estuaries
Earth, A Dynamic Sphere• Earth’s Layers
– Crust– Mantle– Outer Core– Inner Core
• Tectonic Processes– Tectonic Plates– Magma
• Shifting Continents
Rock Types & How They Formed
• Igneous Rock
• Weathering
• Sedimentation
• Sedimentary Rock
• Biogenic Sedimentation
• Metamorphic Rock
Environmental Effects of Resource Extraction
• Mining– tunneling– water leakage– strip mining
• Processing– water pollution– chemical emissions
Conserving Mineral Resources
• Recycling– Aluminum & Platinum– Steel & Iron
• Substituting New Materials for Old Ones
The Atmosphere,Composition & Structure
• Gas Mixture
• Layered Envelope– Troposphere– Stratosphere– Mesosphere– Thermosphere– Ionosphere
Weather Engine
• Solar Radiation/ Heat– Albedo (reflectivity)– “Greenhouse effect”
• Convection Currents– Water vapor
Weather• Energy Balance in the Atmosphere
• Convection Cells
• Prevailing Winds
• Jet Streams
• Frontal Weather
– cold and warm fronts
• Cyclonic Storms
– hurricanes and tornadoes
• Seasonal Winds
– monsoon
• Weather Modification
Climate
• Climatic Catastrophes– Ice Ages
• Driving Forces & Patterns in Climatic Changes– Milankovitch Cycles
• El Niño
Human-caused Global Climate Change
• Greenhouse Gases– Carbon Dioxide– Aerosols
• Sources– Burning Fossil Fuels– Industrial Processes– Deforestation– Agriculture
Effects of Climate Change
• Temperature Changes
• Impact on Plants and Animals
• Rising Sea Levels impacting Coastlines
• Melting Ice Packs
• Possible Increase of Disease
Cutting Emissions
• United Nations “Earth Summit”
• Kyoto Protocol
• Developed Nations
• Developing Nations
Conventional or “Criteria” Pollutants
• Sulfur compounds
• Nitrogen Compounds
• Carbon Oxides
• Metals and Halogens
• Particulate Materials
• Volatile Organic Compounds
• Photochemical Oxidants
Unconventional Pollutants
• Emissions & emissions standards
• Unconventional or noncriteria pollutants
• Aesthetic degradation
• Indoor air Pollution– smoke
Climate, Topography, & Atmospheric Processes
• Inversions
• Dust Domes and Heat Islands
• Long Range Transport
• Stratospheric Ozone– chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Effects of Air Pollution• Human Health
– bronchitis– emphysema
• Plant Pathology
• Acid Deposition– pH and atmospheric acidity– aquatic effects– forest damage– buildings and monuments– visibility reduction
Air Pollution Control• Moving Pollution to Remote Areas• Particulate Removal
– filters• Sulfur Removal
– fuel switching and fuel cleaning– limestone injection/fluidized bed combustion– flue gas desulfurization– sulfur recovery processes
• Nitrogen Oxide Control• Hydrocarbon Controls
Clean Air Legislation• Clean Air Act of 1963• Amendments of 1970• Amendments of 1990
– Acid rain– Urban smog– Toxic air pollutants– Ozone protection– Marketing pollution rights– Toxic organic compounds
• EPA
Water Resources• Hydrologic Cycle
– Evaporation/Sublimation– Saturation Point– Relative humidity– Condensation– Dew Point
• Rainfall & Topography– Rain Shadow
• Desert Belts• Balancing the Water Budget
Major Water Compartments• Oceans• Glaciers, Ice, & Snow• Ground Water
– infiltration– water table– aquifers
• Rivers and Streams• Lakes and Ponds• Wetlands• The Atmosphere
Water Availability and Use
• Water Supplies• Drought Cycles• Types of Water Use
– Withdrawal– Consumption– Degradation
• Quantities of Water Use• Use by Sector
Increasing Water Supplies
• Seeding Clouds &Towing Icebergs
• Desalination
• Dams, Reservoirs, Canals, & Aqueducts
• Environmental Costs– Evaporation, Leakage, and Siltation– Loss of Free-Flowing Rivers
Water Management & Conservation
• Watershed Management
• Domestic Conservation
• Industrial and Agricultural Conservation
• Price Mechanisms
Types and Effects of Water Pollution
• Infectious Agents• Oxygen-Demanding Wastes• Plant Nutrients & Cultural Eutrophication• Toxic Inorganic Materials
– Heavy Metals– Nonmetallic Salts– Acids and Bases
• Organic Chemicals• Sediments• Thermal Pollution
Water Quality Today
• Surface Water in the U.S. & Canada
• Surface Water in other Countries
• Groundwater and Drinking Water Supplies
• Ocean Pollution
Water Pollution Control
• Source Reduction
• Non-point Sources and Land Management– Agriculture– Urban runoff– Construction sites– Land disposal
• Human Waste Disposal– Natural Processes– Municipal Sewage Treatment
• Primary treatment
• Secondary treatment
• Tertiary treatment
– Low-Cost Waste Treatment• effluent sewerage
Water Legislation
• Clean Water Act
• Clean Water Act Reauthorization
• Other Important Water Legislation– Safe Drinking Water Act– Superfund– Great lakes Water Quality Agreement
Energy• A Brief History
• Current Energy Sources– Fossil fuels– Nuclear power– Hydroelectric– Solar
• Per Capita Consumption
• Energy Use
Nuclear Power
• Nuclear Reactors: How They Work?
• Types of Reactors
• Alternative Reactor Designs
• Breeder Reactors
Radioactive Waste Management
• Ocean Dumping
• Land Disposal– high-level waste repository– monitored, retrievable storage
• Decommissioning Old Nuclear Plants
Changing Fortunes of Nuclear Power
• Changing Public Opinion
• Nuclear Fusion– Magnetic confinement– Inertial confinement
Conservation
• Utilization Efficiencies
• Energy Conversion Efficiencies– net energy yield
• Negawatt programs
• Co-generation
High-Temperature Solar Energy
• Solar Cookers
• Promoting Renewable Energy
• Photovaltaic Solar Energy– Photovoltaic Cells
• Storing Electrical Energy
Energy from Biomass
• Burning Biomass
• Fuelwood crisis in LDCs
• Dung and Methane as Fuels
• Alcohol from Biomass– gasohol
• Crop Residues, Energy Crops and Peat
Energy from the Earth’s Forces• Hydropower
– Dams and Hydro Generators
• Wind Energy– Wind Farms
• Geothermal Energy
• Tidal and Wave Energy– Tidal Stations
• Ocean Thermal Electric Conversion
Solid Waste • Waste Stream
– Paper, 38%– Yard waste, 17%– Metals, 8%– Plastics, 8%– Glass, 7%– Food, 7%– Miscellaneous, 14%
Waste Disposal Methods• Open Dumps
• Ocean Dumpings
• Landfills
• Export Waste
• Incineration and Resource Recovery– Types of incinerators
• refuse-derived fuel
• mass burn
– Incinerator Cost and Safety
Reducing the Waste Stream
• Recycling
• Composting
• Energy from Waste
• Reuse
• Producing Less Waste– Photodegradable plastics– Biodegradable plastics
Hazardous and Toxic Wastes• Hazardous Waste Disposal
• Superfund
• Hazardous Waste Management– Produce Less Waste– Convert to Less Hazardous Substances
• Physical treatments
• Chemical treatments
• Bioremediation
– Store Permanently• Retrievable Storage
• Secure Landfills
Urbanization
• What is a city?– Rural area– Urban area– Village– City– Megacity– Core region
• World Urbanization
Urban Problems
• The Developing World– Traffic and Congestion– Air Pollution– Sewer Systems and Water Pollution– Housing
• Slums
• Shantytowns
• Squatter Towns
Transportation and City Growth
• Transportation methods– horse & buggy– automobiles
• Roads/freeways
City Planning
• History
• Garden Cities and New Towns
• Cities of the Future– technopolis
• Urban Redesign
• Design for Open space– conservation
• Urban Redesign– Limit size– Development areas– Shopping malls into city centers– Convenience for shopping and services– Job location– Exercise areas– Diverse housing– “Superblocks”– Self-sustainable food and waste centers– Public participation
Individual Accountability• Shopping for Green Products
– precycling– Non toxic products– recyclable products– natural products– Environmentally friendly products
• Blue Angels and Green Seals
• Limits of Green Consumerism
• Paying Attention to What’s Important
Collective Actions• Student Environmental Groups
• Mainline Environmental Organizations
• Broadening the Environmental Agenda
• Deep or Shallow Environmentalism
• Radical Environmental Groups
• Anti-environmental Backlash
Global Issues
• Public Opinions and Environmental Protection– “Post materialist” values
• Sustainable Development
• International Nongovernmental Organizations