CULTURE, STYLE AND CULTURE, STYLE AND SOCIAL PROFILESOCIAL PROFILE

CULTURE, STYLE AND SOCIAL PROFILECULTURE, STYLE AND SOCIAL PROFILE

IntroductionIntroduction

Like any other society, the British like to Like any other society, the British like to create an agreeable picture of themselves.create an agreeable picture of themselves.

The majority like to think the important The majority like to think the important national values such as national values such as

- tolerance- tolerance

- decency- decency

- moderation- moderation

- consensus- consensus

- compromise.- compromise.

CULTURECULTURE

CULTURE OFSPORTS

CULTURE OFARTS

URBAN SUB-CULTURES

COMMUNITY & INDIVIDUAL

CULTURE

CULTURES FORCOMMUNITY

They are uncomfortable with the terms They are uncomfortable with the terms which polarize, such as which polarize, such as - ideology- ideology- liberation- liberation- bourgeois- bourgeois- capitalist- capitalist- collectivist- collectivist

They like modesty and understatement, They like modesty and understatement, and they prefer practical common and they prefer practical common

sense to pure logic.sense to pure logic.

Community and the Community and the individualindividualIn spite of having been a centralized state for longer In spite of having been a centralized state for longer

than most European countries, British society is than most European countries, British society is deeply individualistic in a way which is deeply individualistic in a way which is inseparable from ideas of liberty and localism.inseparable from ideas of liberty and localism.

A sociologist said that British individualism was built A sociologist said that British individualism was built into ‘custom and practice’, into local work places into ‘custom and practice’, into local work places and community organizations.and community organizations.

There is a feeling that it is the ordinary people, There is a feeling that it is the ordinary people, standing up for their rights standing up for their rights in spitein spite ofof government, who safeguard freedom, in contrast government, who safeguard freedom, in contrast with France, where in theory it is the state which with France, where in theory it is the state which upholds liberty. upholds liberty.

Ralf Dahrendorf says, “There is a Ralf Dahrendorf says, “There is a fundamental liberty in Britain not easily fundamental liberty in Britain not easily found elsewhere.”found elsewhere.”

The traditions continue. Unlike in many The traditions continue. Unlike in many other countries, local government clings other countries, local government clings both to local identity and style.both to local identity and style.

The local response illustrates the The local response illustrates the longstanding characteristic of the British. longstanding characteristic of the British. They have a strong civic sense and They have a strong civic sense and participate in public affairs as their participate in public affairs as their birthright. birthright.

It is at the local level that British democracy It is at the local level that British democracy is most meaningful.is most meaningful.

The impulse to organize oneself and one’s The impulse to organize oneself and one’s neighbors in some cause is a strong British neighbors in some cause is a strong British tradition tradition

• About seven million Britons are involved in About seven million Britons are involved in some kind of voluntary activity, ranging some kind of voluntary activity, ranging from urban community action groups of from urban community action groups of the political left, to local preservation the political left, to local preservation societies, associated with more societies, associated with more traditionally-minded people.traditionally-minded people.

• Choirs, local dramatic groups, shelters for Choirs, local dramatic groups, shelters for homeless people, the provision of the homeless people, the provision of the lifeboat service around Britain’s shores, lifeboat service around Britain’s shores, and many other things besides, depend and many other things besides, depend upon the voluntary impulse.upon the voluntary impulse.

Urban sub-culturesUrban sub-cultures

Rebellion and dissent belong on city streets. Rebellion and dissent belong on city streets. Among those who rejected the English Among those who rejected the English cottage culture in favor of a popular urban cottage culture in favor of a popular urban culture, some remained deeply dissatisfied culture, some remained deeply dissatisfied with their place in society.with their place in society.

Like the rural dream of the majority, some of Like the rural dream of the majority, some of these sub-cultures are based on nostalgia for these sub-cultures are based on nostalgia for a lost world. a lost world.

Example: an imagined traditional working-class Example: an imagined traditional working-class culture for the Skinheads, or an idealized culture for the Skinheads, or an idealized Africa for Rastafarians.Africa for Rastafarians.

The single greatest influence for all these rebel The single greatest influence for all these rebel sub-cultures has been ‘Afro-Caribbean’.sub-cultures has been ‘Afro-Caribbean’.

Afro-Caribbean immigrants, and more Afro-Caribbean immigrants, and more particularly their children, have felt excluded particularly their children, have felt excluded from mainstream British society.from mainstream British society.

As they were largely confined to depressed As they were largely confined to depressed urban areas, many whites associated Afro-urban areas, many whites associated Afro-Caribbean youths with violence and disorder.Caribbean youths with violence and disorder.

The rich and lively expression of Afro-Caribbean The rich and lively expression of Afro-Caribbean identity is what the Carnival is really about, identity is what the Carnival is really about, yet the media tends to record the event in yet the media tends to record the event in terms of violence or good humor of the terms of violence or good humor of the occasion.occasion.

At a spiritual level many Afro-Caribbean, like At a spiritual level many Afro-Caribbean, like those still in the Caribbean, dreamed of a those still in the Caribbean, dreamed of a golden age in Africa before the slave golden age in Africa before the slave traders came.traders came.

Their text was the Bible, which has Their text was the Bible, which has traditionally been used by a dominant traditionally been used by a dominant white culture to tame them.white culture to tame them.

They reinterpreted it according to their own They reinterpreted it according to their own experience of racial suffering, viewing experience of racial suffering, viewing Britain as part of the Biblical ‘Babylon’, the Britain as part of the Biblical ‘Babylon’, the land of slavery, Africa, especially Ethiopia, land of slavery, Africa, especially Ethiopia, as the ‘Promised Land’.as the ‘Promised Land’.

Most important for its cultural impact, has Most important for its cultural impact, has been the black music which came into been the black music which came into Britain mainly through the Rastafarian Britain mainly through the Rastafarian movement.movement.

Two particular types: Two particular types: skaska and and reggaereggae, , evolved in Caribbean and United States, evolved in Caribbean and United States, but were developed in Britain during the but were developed in Britain during the 1970s.1970s.

‘‘Break-dance’ music came from the United Break-dance’ music came from the United States as did ‘Hip-Hop’.States as did ‘Hip-Hop’.

Indeed, it is through music that the black Indeed, it is through music that the black and white cultures have fused.and white cultures have fused.

As a movement, the Skinheads are now in decline.As a movement, the Skinheads are now in decline.A broader movement, a reaction to the glamour of A broader movement, a reaction to the glamour of

the pop star world of the 1960s is that of the the pop star world of the 1960s is that of the Punks. It is like the Skinheads, but they are Punks. It is like the Skinheads, but they are passive and politically apathetic.passive and politically apathetic.

Their appeal to the young is the ability to outrage Their appeal to the young is the ability to outrage middle-aged opinion, particularly among middle-aged opinion, particularly among guardians of social values, like the police and guardians of social values, like the police and other civil authorities.other civil authorities.

They use foul language, dressing in torn clothes, They use foul language, dressing in torn clothes, wearing Union Jacks, swastikas, mutilating their wearing Union Jacks, swastikas, mutilating their bodies with safety pins, wearing chains and even bodies with safety pins, wearing chains and even articles suggestive of urban waste like black articles suggestive of urban waste like black plastic dustbin liner shirts.plastic dustbin liner shirts.

Punk used black music, particularly reggae, Punk used black music, particularly reggae,

to inspire its own Punk sound.to inspire its own Punk sound.Unlike Skinheads, many Punks openly Unlike Skinheads, many Punks openly

identified with Black Britain (after 20 identified with Black Britain (after 20 years, they in decline, too).years, they in decline, too).

While the rock star culture of the 1960s While the rock star culture of the 1960s proclaimed a ‘classless’ society, Punks, proclaimed a ‘classless’ society, Punks, Skinheads and Rastafarians, each in their Skinheads and Rastafarians, each in their own way, were insisting that they own way, were insisting that they inhabited a ‘world divided’, as they saw it, inhabited a ‘world divided’, as they saw it, by class and race.by class and race.

Joining a gang is a means of finding status, Joining a gang is a means of finding status, and of defying the conventional world in and of defying the conventional world in which they have been defined as ‘failures’.which they have been defined as ‘failures’.

‘‘Heavy metal’ is the music of failure, and the Heavy metal’ is the music of failure, and the

fact that it is widely despised by those who fact that it is widely despised by those who enjoy pop, reggae or soul is its appeal.enjoy pop, reggae or soul is its appeal.

The followers of this kind of music have the The followers of this kind of music have the manner of victims, and some wear gothic manner of victims, and some wear gothic script and grinning skulls, suggestive of script and grinning skulls, suggestive of morbid interests.morbid interests.

The capital of heavy metal is Birmingham, The capital of heavy metal is Birmingham, one of Britain’s least love cities.one of Britain’s least love cities.

Such cults arise and disappear over periods Such cults arise and disappear over periods of a decade or two. of a decade or two.

There are still other youth cults which arose in the There are still other youth cults which arose in the

1980s: ‘1980s: ‘raggaragga’ and ‘gothic’.’ and ‘gothic’.RaggaRagga is essentially American inspired, as their is essentially American inspired, as their

clothing: baseball caps, tracksuit trousers and clothing: baseball caps, tracksuit trousers and chunky trainers indicate.chunky trainers indicate.

Gothic is a home-grown British style—a mixture of Gothic is a home-grown British style—a mixture of 1970s Punk and 1960s Hippie. 1970s Punk and 1960s Hippie.

Typically ‘Goths’ wear their hair very long and dyed Typically ‘Goths’ wear their hair very long and dyed black, and dress in cheap, loose and black clothes, black, and dress in cheap, loose and black clothes, sometimes embroidered in black and frequently sometimes embroidered in black and frequently torn. Both boys and girls wear make-up, looking torn. Both boys and girls wear make-up, looking pale with mascara around the eyes.pale with mascara around the eyes.

They tend to be non-violent, and seem nostalgic for They tend to be non-violent, and seem nostalgic for the youth culture and music of the 1960s.the youth culture and music of the 1960s.

At the end of the 1980s the fashionable At the end of the 1980s the fashionable

subculture was ‘Acid House’, which subculture was ‘Acid House’, which attracted thousands of adolescents who attracted thousands of adolescents who had not previously belonged to a cult.had not previously belonged to a cult.

Unlike Punks and Skinheads, Acid House Unlike Punks and Skinheads, Acid House promised fun and all night dancing. It came promised fun and all night dancing. It came ready-made with its own music, another ready-made with its own music, another variation on black music from America variation on black music from America (‘house music’), and a special drug, (‘house music’), and a special drug, ‘ecstacy’, which created a powerful sense ‘ecstacy’, which created a powerful sense of wellbeing.of wellbeing.

Their existence only took very short for the Their existence only took very short for the police repeatedly broke their parties.police repeatedly broke their parties.

Such sub-cultures follow a cycle. Many Such sub-cultures follow a cycle. Many

perhaps most, adopt one for fun, perhaps most, adopt one for fun, conforming to the requirements of conforming to the requirements of conventional society during working conventional society during working hours, and playing a rebellion in their hours, and playing a rebellion in their leisure time.leisure time.

In the end, those become accepted and In the end, those become accepted and colorful part of urban cultures.colorful part of urban cultures.

Each new culture also blends with Each new culture also blends with existing ones in a kaleidoscope of existing ones in a kaleidoscope of style. Meanwhile, the fashion style. Meanwhile, the fashion designers commercialize the look and designers commercialize the look and sell it in the clothes shops. sell it in the clothes shops.

The culture of sportsThe culture of sportsBritain was the first country to organize Britain was the first country to organize

sports as a national activity: football, rugby sports as a national activity: football, rugby football and cricket.football and cricket.

The initial purpose behind organized sports The initial purpose behind organized sports was to provide an outlet for youthful was to provide an outlet for youthful energies at public schools. It was generally energies at public schools. It was generally believed to have character-building believed to have character-building qualities for future leaders.qualities for future leaders.

Football clubs quickly sprang up in towns and Football clubs quickly sprang up in towns and cities all over Britain, and it was rapidly cities all over Britain, and it was rapidly taken into working class culture.taken into working class culture.

In recent years, commercial companies found In recent years, commercial companies found this profitable. example, Cornhill Insurance this profitable. example, Cornhill Insurance began to sponsor English ‘tast’ cricket in began to sponsor English ‘tast’ cricket in 1980 at a cost of £4.5 million. 1980 at a cost of £4.5 million.

More seriously, however, the decline in More seriously, however, the decline in spectators forced club managers to make spectators forced club managers to make their sporting events less occasions for their sporting events less occasions for local supports and more displays of local supports and more displays of spectacular skill. Football clubs started spectacular skill. Football clubs started buying and selling players.buying and selling players.

Meanwhile the clubs have desperately tried Meanwhile the clubs have desperately tried to remain profitable. In 1982 only 12 out of to remain profitable. In 1982 only 12 out of 92 football league clubs in Britain made a 92 football league clubs in Britain made a profit from spectators.profit from spectators.

Even though football has become such a Even though football has become such a spectator sport, in the mid 1980s, 1.6 spectator sport, in the mid 1980s, 1.6 million British were playing it as a million British were playing it as a recreation, more than ever before. It recreation, more than ever before. It remains a true national game. remains a true national game.

Even public school system established Even public school system established football, rugby and cricket as national football, rugby and cricket as national games.games.

Hunting, shooting, rowing and horse racing Hunting, shooting, rowing and horse racing are ‘gentleman class’ sports, but because are ‘gentleman class’ sports, but because of the expense involved, they remained of the expense involved, they remained primarily upper-class pastimes.primarily upper-class pastimes.

Despite the areas of exclusivity, sport Despite the areas of exclusivity, sport remains one of the areas in which remains one of the areas in which members of ethnic minorities have members of ethnic minorities have demonstrated their ability in a white-demonstrated their ability in a white-dominated society, particularly in dominated society, particularly in athletics, cricket and soccer. However, no athletics, cricket and soccer. However, no black has yet been invited to captain an black has yet been invited to captain an English cricket or football team.English cricket or football team.

The ArtsThe Arts

As has been seen, there is much in Britain’s As has been seen, there is much in Britain’s culture to cause unease. But curiously culture to cause unease. But curiously enough, the British find discussion of their enough, the British find discussion of their national artistic life faintly embarrassing.national artistic life faintly embarrassing.

This inferiority complex owed much to the This inferiority complex owed much to the rise of the Modern Movement which was rise of the Modern Movement which was so strongly rooted in continental Europe, so strongly rooted in continental Europe, particularly in France and Germany.particularly in France and Germany.

Yet Britain today has much to be proud of, Yet Britain today has much to be proud of, though its artistic achievements are though its artistic achievements are frequently better appreciated, and known frequently better appreciated, and known abroad than at home.abroad than at home.

As in As in fashionfashion, so also in art, the British seem , so also in art, the British seem to enjoy breaking the rules of the current to enjoy breaking the rules of the current Modernist style, and this perhaps is what Modernist style, and this perhaps is what gives it such originality.gives it such originality.

As one art critic wrote in 1998, “British artists, As one art critic wrote in 1998, “British artists, who are currently enjoying the highest who are currently enjoying the highest international standing, have been singularly international standing, have been singularly unaffected by the much vaunted unaffected by the much vaunted internationalism of the Modern Movement.internationalism of the Modern Movement.

English art is perhaps beginning to escape English art is perhaps beginning to escape from insularity and provincialism through a from insularity and provincialism through a rediscovery of its Englishness.rediscovery of its Englishness.

There are areas of the arts in which Britain There are areas of the arts in which Britain more confidently excels. British more confidently excels. British theatretheatre is is among the liveliest and most innovative in among the liveliest and most innovative in the world.the world.

Theatre is a powerful instrument of Theatre is a powerful instrument of education as well as art and culture. education as well as art and culture. Another significant feature of British Another significant feature of British theatre is the way in which actors have theatre is the way in which actors have taken drama to young people, even into taken drama to young people, even into primary schools. This has broken down primary schools. This has broken down some of the traditional barriers between some of the traditional barriers between formal stage drama and the community. formal stage drama and the community.

There is much fine There is much fine architecturalarchitectural work, work, in spite of the controversy between in spite of the controversy between Modernist and Post-Modernist at the Modernist and Post-Modernist at the end of the 1980s.end of the 1980s.

Anti-Modernism has been a prevalent Anti-Modernism has been a prevalent theme in British culture this century. theme in British culture this century. The popular culture of the urban The popular culture of the urban working class, expressed for example, working class, expressed for example, in cinemas, dance-halls and football in cinemas, dance-halls and football stadiums, has been a poor relation.stadiums, has been a poor relation.

Britain has a far weaker modernist culture than Britain has a far weaker modernist culture than exists in France and Germany, because the exists in France and Germany, because the British feel less certain about the relationship British feel less certain about the relationship between architecture, art, design, craft and between architecture, art, design, craft and manufacture.manufacture.

Modernist architects had no intention of Modernist architects had no intention of defending the poor of many cheap modern defending the poor of many cheap modern buildings. buildings.

Many architects watched with dismay as Many architects watched with dismay as important sites were developed in Post-important sites were developed in Post-modernist decorative, which carefully but modernist decorative, which carefully but dishonestly disguised modern offices behind dishonestly disguised modern offices behind ‘tasteful’ mock-Classical facades.‘tasteful’ mock-Classical facades.

Since 1960s Britain has achieved a special Since 1960s Britain has achieved a special position in position in musicmusic. While Britain’s operatic, . While Britain’s operatic, dance and classical music performances dance and classical music performances compare well with top international compare well with top international standards, it is in the field of popular standards, it is in the field of popular music that Britain has achieved a music that Britain has achieved a particular pre-eminence.particular pre-eminence.

In the beginning of the 1990s, British pop In the beginning of the 1990s, British pop music seemed to be rediscovering the music seemed to be rediscovering the spirit of the 1960s.spirit of the 1960s.

The new music marks a departure from the The new music marks a departure from the unrelaxed mood of the 1980s, and a unrelaxed mood of the 1980s, and a declaration of freedom.declaration of freedom.

Culture for the CommunityCulture for the CommunityOn the South bank of the Thames, On the South bank of the Thames,

opposite Whitehall, stands the capital opposite Whitehall, stands the capital of Britain’s cultural life, with three of Britain’s cultural life, with three concert halls, the National Theatre concert halls, the National Theatre (containing 3 theatres), the National (containing 3 theatres), the National Film Theatre and the Hayward Art Film Theatre and the Hayward Art gallery. A fairly recent addition is the gallery. A fairly recent addition is the lively Museum of the Moving Image.lively Museum of the Moving Image.

The South Bank enjoys both the The South Bank enjoys both the strengths and weaknesses of its strengths and weaknesses of its position a a national cultural centre.position a a national cultural centre.

All over the country there are millions of All over the country there are millions of people engaged in amateur music, art and people engaged in amateur music, art and theatre. For example, for more than 200 theatre. For example, for more than 200 years, the Royal Academy in London has held years, the Royal Academy in London has held an annual Summer Exhibition, for which an annual Summer Exhibition, for which many painter or sculptor may enter their many painter or sculptor may enter their work.work.

Virtually, every town and suburb has some Virtually, every town and suburb has some form of amateur music group, a choir, an form of amateur music group, a choir, an orchestra or even neighbours who form a orchestra or even neighbours who form a string quartet. string quartet.

All over the country there are amateur choral All over the country there are amateur choral groups, ranging from the local village church groups, ranging from the local village church choir through to highly selective and choir through to highly selective and internationally known choir, like Bach Choir. internationally known choir, like Bach Choir.

Stanraer, Scotland, its amateur drama Stanraer, Scotland, its amateur drama and opera groups put on a major and opera groups put on a major opera and a play each year, plus a opera and a play each year, plus a pantomime and one or two minor pantomime and one or two minor productions.productions.

Stranraer takes place on the south-west Stranraer takes place on the south-west tip of Scotland, is geographically far tip of Scotland, is geographically far from the mainstream of national life, from the mainstream of national life, but such activities suggest real but such activities suggest real community participation.community participation.

In many market towns and cities all over In many market towns and cities all over Britain, roughly 200 cultural festivals are Britain, roughly 200 cultural festivals are held each year. The choice of what music held each year. The choice of what music or drama to perform may not always be or drama to perform may not always be very adventurous, nor the quality very very adventurous, nor the quality very high, but these festivals provide a lively high, but these festivals provide a lively form in which local people can celebrate form in which local people can celebrate not only their own local arts and culture, not only their own local arts and culture, but also invite visiting performers of but also invite visiting performers of national standing.national standing.

People do these things for fun, because they People do these things for fun, because they can express their self actualization can express their self actualization through cultural performance.through cultural performance.

STYLESTYLE

DRESS CODE

RURAL IDEAL

NOSTALGIA AND MODERNITY

STYLESTYLENostalgia and ModernityNostalgia and ModernityTradition and creativity are in conflict. Much Tradition and creativity are in conflict. Much

of Britain, in creeping Neo-Classical of Britain, in creeping Neo-Classical revival, its love of the country-cottage revival, its love of the country-cottage look, the old-fashioned dress style of the look, the old-fashioned dress style of the upper class , says much about the way the upper class , says much about the way the British perceive themselves.British perceive themselves.

During the 1980s British nostalgia grew During the 1980s British nostalgia grew more than ever. 41 heritage centres were more than ever. 41 heritage centres were established. The people visited those established. The people visited those places considered as ‘historic houses’. places considered as ‘historic houses’.

The styles of Post-Modern and Neo-Classical The styles of Post-Modern and Neo-Classical were associated in people’s minds with were associated in people’s minds with private development in the way that high-private development in the way that high-rise cheap concrete buildings were thought rise cheap concrete buildings were thought of as the architecture of the welfare state.of as the architecture of the welfare state.

However nostalgic the British may be, foreign However nostalgic the British may be, foreign modern influences have been immensely modern influences have been immensely important in shaping popular culture since important in shaping popular culture since 1945. as a result of the US pr3esence during 1945. as a result of the US pr3esence during and after the war, Britain was invaded by and after the war, Britain was invaded by American culture-symbolized by chewing American culture-symbolized by chewing gum, jazz, flashy cars and mass production.gum, jazz, flashy cars and mass production.

Dress CodesDress CodesBeing so traditionally minded, the Being so traditionally minded, the British are less fashion-conscious than British are less fashion-conscious than

other Europeans. The majority dress other Europeans. The majority dress conservatively rather than conservatively rather than fashionably.fashionably.

Most people do not imitate top society. Most people do not imitate top society. Nevertheless, the 1980s was a Nevertheless, the 1980s was a decade when wealth and power were decade when wealth and power were strongly expressed an echo of the strongly expressed an echo of the dominant political ideas of the dominant political ideas of the Thatcher decade.Thatcher decade.

The old upper class will continue to dress as The old upper class will continue to dress as it always has, but there may be a swing in it always has, but there may be a swing in the 1990s back to a more classless the 1990s back to a more classless informal look more in keeping with informal look more in keeping with Britain’s greater integration into Europe.Britain’s greater integration into Europe.

This does not mean that the British are This does not mean that the British are merely going to adopt ‘Eurostyle’. As merely going to adopt ‘Eurostyle’. As noted, Britain has a strongly individualistic noted, Britain has a strongly individualistic culture. The British may be among the culture. The British may be among the least smartly dressed people in Europe, least smartly dressed people in Europe, but they wear but they wear whatwhat they want they want whenwhen they they want. There is as great tolerance of want. There is as great tolerance of personal appearance as anywhere in personal appearance as anywhere in Europe.Europe.

The Rural IdealThe Rural IdealMany cultures are reflecting age, gender, Many cultures are reflecting age, gender,

class, ethnicity and social outlook. class, ethnicity and social outlook.

There is a divide between the cultures of There is a divide between the cultures of the controlling majority and those of the controlling majority and those of the protesting minority, people who feel the protesting minority, people who feel comparatively weak.comparatively weak.

One of the most striking aspects of One of the most striking aspects of popular mainstream culture in Britain is popular mainstream culture in Britain is the love of the countryside.the love of the countryside.

As a nation, the British have made a mental As a nation, the British have made a mental retreat from the urban environment. They retreat from the urban environment. They have a deep nostalgia for an idealized world have a deep nostalgia for an idealized world of neat hedgerows, cottages and great of neat hedgerows, cottages and great country houses, surrounded by parkland, country houses, surrounded by parkland, that clever eighteenth century style of that clever eighteenth century style of gardening that looked ‘natural’.gardening that looked ‘natural’.

This sense of nostalgia and traditionalism is This sense of nostalgia and traditionalism is also expressed in appearances, especially also expressed in appearances, especially in the home environment.in the home environment.

SOCIAL PROFILESOCIAL PROFILE

GENDER

ETHNICDIMENSION

DISTINCTION OF SPEECH

SOCIAL CLASS

FAMILY

SOCIAL PROFILE

SOCIAL PROFILESOCIAL PROFILEIntroduction Introduction

In general, the population of the Great Britain In general, the population of the Great Britain is stable. It was predicted that until 2025 is stable. It was predicted that until 2025 the number of people will not more than 57 the number of people will not more than 57 million.million.

As already noted, the population is unevenly As already noted, the population is unevenly distributed across the land, and there has distributed across the land, and there has been an insistent drift to the south and been an insistent drift to the south and south east since the 1980s.south east since the 1980s.

Since the middle of the century fertility has Since the middle of the century fertility has fluctuated, rapidly increasing and fluctuated, rapidly increasing and decreasing (up to 30 per cent variation) in decreasing (up to 30 per cent variation) in a single decade. This has serious a single decade. This has serious implications for health and education implications for health and education services, and for employment.services, and for employment.

Overall, the ‘baby boom’ that followed the Overall, the ‘baby boom’ that followed the end of WW II, followed by an overall end of WW II, followed by an overall decline in births (to slightly under decline in births (to slightly under replenishment level) during the 1970s, is replenishment level) during the 1970s, is leading to major changes in balance leading to major changes in balance between age groups.between age groups.

The higher birth rate of the 1960s The higher birth rate of the 1960s exacerbated unemployment levels in exacerbated unemployment levels in 1980s, since there were 30% more young 1980s, since there were 30% more young people leaving school than a decade people leaving school than a decade previously.previously.

In the period 1971—81 the number of In the period 1971—81 the number of infants (0—4 age group) fell by 34% (to infants (0—4 age group) fell by 34% (to become 17.7% of the total population).become 17.7% of the total population).

Primary school enrolment in 1986 was 26% Primary school enrolment in 1986 was 26% lower than in 1971.lower than in 1971.

The British population is already one of the The British population is already one of the oldest in Europe, and it is slowly getting oldest in Europe, and it is slowly getting older. In 1990 the median age in Britain older. In 1990 the median age in Britain was 36 but it will rise to 41 by 2020. at the was 36 but it will rise to 41 by 2020. at the end of the 1990s the number of end of the 1990s the number of pensioners will begin to rise rapidly, and pensioners will begin to rise rapidly, and the workforce will shrink.the workforce will shrink.

One result that by 2020 there will be twice One result that by 2020 there will be twice as many people aged 85 or over as in as many people aged 85 or over as in 1990.1990.

A disproportionate number of the old, A disproportionate number of the old, incidentally, choose to retire to the south incidentally, choose to retire to the south coast and East Anglia, creating regional coast and East Anglia, creating regional imbalancesimbalances

In the 1980s there were too many In the 1980s there were too many school leavers, but in the 1990s school leavers, but in the 1990s there will be too few to fill the job there will be too few to fill the job vacancies created by retirement.vacancies created by retirement.

This could have important implications This could have important implications for some of the presently for some of the presently unemployed, for the fuller unemployed, for the fuller employment if women and for employment if women and for deferring retirement until a later age, deferring retirement until a later age, a logical step for those who wish to a logical step for those who wish to continue working in view of the continue working in view of the better health most enjoy today.better health most enjoy today.

Britain is also changing ethnically. There Britain is also changing ethnically. There used to be an assumption that the British used to be an assumption that the British were nearly all Anglo-Saxon, in spite of the were nearly all Anglo-Saxon, in spite of the substantial immigration of people from substantial immigration of people from continental Europe during the first half of continental Europe during the first half of the century.the century.

Since black people from the Caribbean were Since black people from the Caribbean were recruited to fill the job vacancies during recruited to fill the job vacancies during the 1950s over two million Afro-Caribbean the 1950s over two million Afro-Caribbean and Asian people have come to live and and Asian people have come to live and work in Britain, becoming 5.7% of Britain’s work in Britain, becoming 5.7% of Britain’s population by 1990.population by 1990.

FamilyFamilyThe nuclear family is the basic unit of The nuclear family is the basic unit of

society, it is usually pictured as a society, it is usually pictured as a married couple with two children, and married couple with two children, and perhaps their grandmother, or perhaps their grandmother, or ‘granny’, in the background.‘granny’, in the background.

In fact, it is expected that by the year In fact, it is expected that by the year 2000 only half the children born in 2000 only half the children born in Britain will grow up in a conventional Britain will grow up in a conventional family with parents already married family with parents already married after they have grown up.after they have grown up.

Social attitude and behavior are Social attitude and behavior are undoubtedly changing. The number undoubtedly changing. The number of people living alone has risen of people living alone has risen significantly, from one in ten in 1951 significantly, from one in ten in 1951 to one in four thirty years later.to one in four thirty years later.

By the end of this century it is By the end of this century it is expected to rise to one in three. In expected to rise to one in three. In the same period the proportion of the same period the proportion of households containing 5 or more households containing 5 or more people has dropped from one in five people has dropped from one in five to fewer than one in ten.to fewer than one in ten.

There is an increasing proportion of There is an increasing proportion of men and women living together men and women living together before marriage.before marriage.

In 1961 only 1% of first time married In 1961 only 1% of first time married couples had previously been living couples had previously been living together, compared with 24% in together, compared with 24% in 1988. By the year 2000 it is estimated 1988. By the year 2000 it is estimated that most couples had previously that most couples had previously been living together before marrying. been living together before marrying.

This does not mean that there are This does not mean that there are fewer marriages in Britain.fewer marriages in Britain.

Research shows that the rate is highest among Research shows that the rate is highest among those on a low income and those who marry those on a low income and those who marry very young, under the age 24.very young, under the age 24.

The preference of pursuit of career rather than The preference of pursuit of career rather than marriage was characteristic of the 1980s. marriage was characteristic of the 1980s. Personal development must also partly Personal development must also partly explain the growing divorce rate. Alongside a explain the growing divorce rate. Alongside a social acceptance of divorce greater today social acceptance of divorce greater today than in the 1950s and 1960s, women have than in the 1950s and 1960s, women have been increasingly dissatisfied by the been increasingly dissatisfied by the traditional expectations of woman’s role in traditional expectations of woman’s role in marriage. marriage.

One inevitable consequence of the climbing One inevitable consequence of the climbing divorce rate has been the rise of single divorce rate has been the rise of single parent families.parent families.

The great majority of single parents are The great majority of single parents are women. Children are the main victims. One women. Children are the main victims. One in three children under the age of five has in three children under the age of five has divorce parents. divorce parents.

There has also been an increase in babies born There has also been an increase in babies born outside marriage. It is a sign of both increase outside marriage. It is a sign of both increase in numbers and changing social attitudes in numbers and changing social attitudes that these babies are now described as ‘non-that these babies are now described as ‘non-marital’marital’

The remaining non-marital births are to single The remaining non-marital births are to single mothers, with the rate being highest in areas of mothers, with the rate being highest in areas of high unemployment and the greatest poverty, high unemployment and the greatest poverty, suggesting to some analysts that the birth of a child suggesting to some analysts that the birth of a child gives a woman in such circumstances someone to gives a woman in such circumstances someone to love, a purpose in life and also state assistance.love, a purpose in life and also state assistance.

There is also ethnic dimension. On account of the There is also ethnic dimension. On account of the traditional weakness of family life resulting from traditional weakness of family life resulting from centuries of slavery, 43.4% of West Indian families centuries of slavery, 43.4% of West Indian families are single-parent families.are single-parent families.

For some members of the Conservative Party, such For some members of the Conservative Party, such statistics are evidences of moral decline, and they statistics are evidences of moral decline, and they argue the need to return to traditional values.argue the need to return to traditional values.

It would be safer to say that moral values are It would be safer to say that moral values are changing, with less attention on traditional changing, with less attention on traditional definitions of immorality, and greater definitions of immorality, and greater emphasis on personal morality being rooted emphasis on personal morality being rooted in kindness and respect for others.in kindness and respect for others.

It is too easy simply to blame a moral decline It is too easy simply to blame a moral decline on the failure to uphold family values. There on the failure to uphold family values. There are other things which must be considered are other things which must be considered to understand what is going on in society to understand what is going on in society and why. A fundamental one is the matter of and why. A fundamental one is the matter of social class. social class.

• Social ClassSocial ClassBritain has a deeply individualistic society. Britain has a deeply individualistic society.

Nevertheless, it is also described as having a class-Nevertheless, it is also described as having a class-ridden one. ridden one.

Most people are classified according to their work Most people are classified according to their work occupations, falling into two broad groups, as in occupations, falling into two broad groups, as in other industrialized societies, the middle class (white other industrialized societies, the middle class (white collar workers) and the working class (blue collar collar workers) and the working class (blue collar workers).workers).

The kind of work done not only indicates education and The kind of work done not only indicates education and how much is earned, but also the kind of social how much is earned, but also the kind of social contact that is usual. People tend to mix with each contact that is usual. People tend to mix with each other, as do professionals (doctors, lawyers) and other, as do professionals (doctors, lawyers) and managers. managers.

Since 1950s there has been a massive Since 1950s there has been a massive growth of the middle class. It embraces a growth of the middle class. It embraces a range of people from senior professionals, range of people from senior professionals, for examples judges, senior medical for examples judges, senior medical specialists and senior civil servants, specialists and senior civil servants, through to clerical workers – in other through to clerical workers – in other words, almost all people who earn their words, almost all people who earn their living in a non manual way. To this extent, living in a non manual way. To this extent, the middle class embodies much variety the middle class embodies much variety and cannot claim a single identity.and cannot claim a single identity.

The sense of social class or group is affected The sense of social class or group is affected

by social circle, education and by social circle, education and comparative wealth, although these do not comparative wealth, although these do not necessarily work together.necessarily work together.

Beyond the middle class lies a small Beyond the middle class lies a small but powerful upper class. It is but powerful upper class. It is separated by three things: property, separated by three things: property, network and power.network and power.

The core of the class is probably only The core of the class is probably only between 25,000 and 50,000 strong, between 25,000 and 50,000 strong, but they control key areas of capital but they control key areas of capital in the national economy. Members of in the national economy. Members of the upper class share a very specific the upper class share a very specific identity. identity.

• GenderGenderIn spite of the considerable change in social In spite of the considerable change in social

attitudes since 1945, and particularly since attitudes since 1945, and particularly since the feminist revolution which began in the the feminist revolution which began in the 1960s, the women are still significantly 1960s, the women are still significantly disadvantaged. disadvantaged.

In fact, the women have increasingly In fact, the women have increasingly entered employment. In 1971, 52% of entered employment. In 1971, 52% of women between ages of 25 and 44 were women between ages of 25 and 44 were economically active, a figure which rose to economically active, a figure which rose to 70% by 1989, and is set to rise to 75% or 70% by 1989, and is set to rise to 75% or more in 1990s. Nevertheless, their position more in 1990s. Nevertheless, their position relative to men in employment has relative to men in employment has improved only slightly. improved only slightly.

Discrimination ranges well beyond Discrimination ranges well beyond government. No woman has ever been government. No woman has ever been appointed as a police Chief Constable, appointed as a police Chief Constable, MPs, Permanent Secretary, or trade union MPs, Permanent Secretary, or trade union leaders.leaders.

Women are paid less than men. Although Women are paid less than men. Although the Equal Opportunities Act, requiring the Equal Opportunities Act, requiring equal pay and conditions for women, came equal pay and conditions for women, came into effect in 1975, little has changed since into effect in 1975, little has changed since then.then.

The shortfall in manpower will push public The shortfall in manpower will push public opinion towards giving women greater opinion towards giving women greater freedom to work. freedom to work.

• The Ethnic DimensionThe Ethnic DimensionThe ethnic minority communities in The ethnic minority communities in

Britain are about 5.7% of the total Britain are about 5.7% of the total population but are likely to rise to population but are likely to rise to about 7% in the early years of the about 7% in the early years of the 2121stst century, on account of their birth century, on account of their birth rate.rate.

Black immigrants first started coming Black immigrants first started coming to Britain in substantial numbers to Britain in substantial numbers from 1948 onwards, in response to from 1948 onwards, in response to labor shortages. They were the labor shortages. They were the target of discrimination in class and target of discrimination in class and status.status.

In the mid 1960s the government introduced In the mid 1960s the government introduced

the first of three Race Relations Acts in the first of three Race Relations Acts in order to eliminate racial discrimination. At order to eliminate racial discrimination. At the same time, however, laws were the same time, however, laws were introduced to restrict immigration.introduced to restrict immigration.

Since then immigrants and emigrants have Since then immigrants and emigrants have nearly balanced.nearly balanced.

The ethnic minority communities feel that The ethnic minority communities feel that they face hostility not only from the white they face hostility not only from the white people amongst whom they live but also people amongst whom they live but also from the authorities.from the authorities.

Religion in Britain

•The established ChurchThe Church of England occupies both a

political role and a spiritual one. The organization is referred to as ‘the Church of England’ when considering its place in the constitution or life of the nation, and as ‘the Anglican church’ when its spiritual or theological identity is at issue.

• Religion and HeritageMethodists, Presbyterians, Baptists and

Quakers share much the same struggle as Anglican and Roman Catholics to retain the interest of the population at large. At all levels of society, Britain’s churches are involved in its cultural life.

Most British people believe that there are many events considered as religious heritage, such as rituals, pilgrimages, and visits done by certain religions.

● World religionsImmigrant communities who arrived in Britain from

colonies and ex-colonies in Asia, West Africa and the Caribbean in the 50s and 60s tended to concentrate to particular areas –notably London , Birmingham, Glasgow and the big industrial towns of northern England, and this led to large communities of Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs in these areas.

Glasgow, Newcastle and Leeds have sizeable Muslim population. Britain’s Muslim population is predominantly Sunni, with around 25,000 Shias.