Culture AND Sustainable Rural Development

E U R A C A D E M Y A S S O C I A T I O NE U R O P E A N A C A D E M Y F O R S U S T A I N A B L E R U R A L D E V E L O P M E N T

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Culture AND SustainableRural Development

E U R A C A D E M Y T H E M A T I C G U I D E S E R I E S

THIS PROJECT HAS BEEN CO-FUNDED BY THE EUROPEAN COMMISSION,DIRECTORATE GENERAL EDUCATION AND CULTURE, CULTURE 2000PROGRAMME

ISBN 97896088634-5-3

CULTURE AND SUSTAINABLE RURAL DEVELOPMENT i

E U R A C A D E M Y T h e m a t i c G u i d e S i x

EURACADEMY ASSOCIATION

European Academy

for Sustainable Rural Development

THEMATIC GUIDE SIX

Culture andSustainable Rural Development

written by Fouli Papageorgiou

EURACADEMY THEMATIC GUIDE SERIES

EURACADEMY ASSOCIATIONEuropean Academy for Sustainable Rural Development

THEMATIC GUIDE SIX Culture and Sustainable Rural Development

Written by: Fouli Papageorgiou

With text contributions by: (in alphabetical order):Joan Asby, Michel Colardelle, Stefanos Dodouras, Jane Downes, Peter Howard, Mauricio Maggi, KatrinaSiivonen

Case studies were offered by:Joan Asby, Eleonora T. Boneva, Michel Colardelle, Stefanos Dodouras, Louisa Karapidaki, Mauricio Maggi,Katrina Siivonen, Aphrodite Sorotou, Kiril Topalov

Case studies editing: Vasilis Tsipidis

Copyright Euracademy Association

European Academy for Sustainable Rural Development

Published by Euracademy Association, in the context of the CULT RURAL project, with support from theEuropean Commission

Athens, July 2007

ISBN 97896088634-5-3

European Academy for Sustainable Rural Development17 Empedocleous street, GR11635 Athens, Greecetel: +30210 7525080www.euracademy.org

This publication reflects the views only of the authors and the Commission cannot be held responsible forany use which may be made of the information contained therein


CULTURE AND SUSTAINABLE RURAL DEVELOPMENTii

CULTURE AND SUSTAINABLE RURAL DEVELOPMENT iii


PrefacePART I: Setting the SceneCChhaapptteerr 11.. RRuurraall HHeerriittaaggee,, RRuurraall CCuullttuurree aanndd GGlloobbaall CCuullttuurree

Definition of terms

Approaching the concept of culture

The value of rural cultural heritage

Global culture in the rural context

Culture as an agent of change

CChhaapptteerr 22.. CCuullttuurree aanndd SSuussttaaiinnaabbllee RRuurraall DDeevveellooppmmeenntt

Concepts and Principles

Rural development and cultural capital

Cultural environments

Community involvement

Integrated rural development policy

PART II: : Preserving and Strengthening Rural Culture as an Agent of Development

CChhaapptteerr 33.. TThhee PPrreesseerrvvaattiioonn ooff CCuullttuurree:: tthhee rruurraall mmuusseeuumm ooff tthhee 2211sstt cceennttuurryy

The role of rural museum

Best practice for a rural museum

Different types of rural museums

The expectations from the rural museum of the 21st century

Conclusion

Case study 3.1. The Skansen Museum of Stockholm, Sweden

Case study 3.2. The Ecomuseum of Terraces and the Vine, Italy

Case study 3.3. The thematic museum of Saint-Cyr-sur-Menthon, Ain, France

Case study 3.4. The Ethnographic Museum of Alexandroupolis, Greece

Case study 3.5. Frutigetum, Finland

Case study 3.6. The Open-Air Water Power Museum in Dimitsana, Greece

CChhaapptteerr 44.. TThhee CCoonnttrriibbuuttiioonn ooff CCuullttuurree iinn tthhee LLooccaall EEccoonnoommiicc AAggeennddaa

Culture - A new factor of economic development

Culture-based tourism Cultural goods

An overview

Case study 4.1. Cultural and Natural Heritage in Kamnik, Slovenia

Case study 4.2. Dolenjska - Bela Krajina heritage trail, Slovenia

Case study 4.3. Culture Heritage of the Land that Sings and Dances, Latvia

Case study 4.4. The Kalamata International Dance Festival

Case study 4.5. Panegyria, Greece

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The role of cultural agent

Local distinctiveness

Raising awareness about local distinctiveness

Involving the community in local development

Case study 5.1. England in Particular - The Common Ground

Case study 5.2. Landscape & Environment - Dino Park, Lodz, Poland

Case study 5.3. Modern Constructions of the Local Identity, Bulgaria

Case study 5.4. Local development work and participation of local inhabitants (three

different cases), Finland

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Case study 5.5. In Search of Local Identity: Children's Workshop for Mummer (kukeri) Masks,Bulgaria

PART III: Planning AheadCChhaapptteerr 66.. PPllaannnniinngg RRuurraall DDeevveellooppmmeenntt wwiitthh aa FFooccuuss oonn CCuullttuurree

Cultural diversity as an objective of local development planning

A framework for local cultural policies

Drawing a cultural strategy to guide rural development planning

Implementing a cultural strategy by selectinb and planning development actions

Linking to the national and European policies

Case study 6.1. Ethnology and Rural Development in the Municipality of Ljubjana, Slovenia

Case study 6.2. The Heart of Neolithic Orkney World Heritage Site, Scotland

Case study 6.3. Resources Development of non-agricultural sites in Rural Areas, Poland

Case study 6.4. Agricultural Institutes and the protection of cultural heritage in Finland

Case study 6.5. Regeneration of Molinos Teruel, Spain

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Euracademy Association is a pan-European, non-profit membership organisation devoted to capacity-building ofrural communities in Europe. The Association brings together planners, researchers and practitioners of ruraldevelopment from a host of European countries. A Summer Academy on a theme pertinent to sustainable rural

development is organised every year in a different location; also, a Thematic Guide is published every year and a distancelearning course is run, on the same theme as the Summer Academy. In addition, the Association organises conferences,undertakes research and coordinates EC-funded projects with a view to building up a body of knowledge on sustainablerural development. These activities aim to prompt lifelong learning opportunities amongst members of rural communi-ties, by using a variety of educational means.

This is the Sixth Thematic Guide in the Euracademy series. It has been used as a reference tool in the Sixth SummerAcademy, held in Chania, Crete, Greece from 17 to 26 August 2007. This Thematic Guide has been revised in the light ofthe discussions in the summer academy and enriched with examples brought in by participants. It aims to provoke thereader's thinking on such key questions as:

What do we mean by culture in a rural setting? What is the relationship between modern culture and cultural her-itage?

What is the contribution of culture in the sustainable development of rural areas? Are the benefits economic, socialor other?

What are the conditions to integrate successfully local culture in the economic agenda of a rural territory?

What is the role of the rural museum in preserving local cultural heritage and contributing to sustainable develop-ment?

How can one offer education for sustainable rural development?

How can rural communities become cultural agents and take their own culture in their hands?

What are the main elements for putting together a cultural strategy as part of an integrated approach to rural devel-opment?

For the Euracademy Association, this issue is part of the broader challenge of ssuussttaaiinnaabbllee rruurraall ddeevveellooppmmeenntt. Itinevitably cross-relates to, or overlaps with, themes of previous Summer Academies, e.g.

DDeevveellooppiinngg SSuussttaaiinnaabbllee RRuurraall TToouurriissmm.

SSoocciiaall CCaappiittaall aanndd SSuussttaaiinnaabbllee RRuurraall DDeevveellooppmmeenntt

This Guide has three parts:

PPaarrtt II:: SSEETTTTIINNGG TTHHEE SSCCEENNEE.. In this Part, rural heritage, rural culture and global culture are discussed and culture isexamined as an agent of change in rural areas and as a factor impacting the sustainable development of rural areas..

PPaarrtt IIII:: PPRREESSEERRVVIINNGG AANNDD SSTTRREENNGGTTHHEENNIINNGG RRUURRAALL CCUULLTTUURREE AASS AANN AAGGEENNTT OOFF DDEEVVEELLOOPPMMEENNTT. In this Part, the focus ison the preservation and strengthening of rural culture, examining the role of the rural museum in the 21st centu-ry, the many ways in which culture can stimulate local economic development and the contribution of rural com-munities to sustainable development as 'agents' of culture.

PPaarrtt IIIIII:: PPLLAANNNNIINNGG AAHHEEAADD, examines the links among local, national and European cultural policies and planningframes, arguing that cultural diversity should be an objective of local cultural strategies and a crucial input to localdevelopment planning.

Good reading!

The Euracademy Association

P R E F A C E


CULTURE AND SUSTAINABLE RURAL DEVELOPMENTvi

Part I: Setting the SceneC H A P T E R 1.

Rural Heritage, Rural Culture and GlobalCulture

Definition of terms1.1 This introductory chapter aims to provide anoverview of the various terms related to culture andheritage, to enhance our understanding of the corre-sponding concepts and of their relationship to ruraldevelopment. These terms have their origin in anthro-pological research, which has studied and revealed thefeatures of indigenous civilisations, past and contempo-rary, all over the world. Hence, for many writers in the19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries, thewords culture and civilisation became interchangeable.In contemporary society, culture and cultural heritagetook on additional meanings, moving to a more holisticapproach to these concepts: an approach that takesaccount of the sociological, political, and aestheticaspects in parallel to the anthropological and ethno-graphic ones. In the context of the recently agreedAgenda 21 for Culture, the concepts of culture and cul-tural heritage have been transposed in the field of poli-cy making with noteworthy dynamism, enabling us toconsider culture as a vital component of local develop-ment, and as will be discussed in the next chapter, ofrural development.

Approaching the concept of culture1.2 TThhee ddeeffiinniittiioonn ooff ccuullttuurree. The term culture receivesa variety of interpretations in the literature. Originallythe term derives from the Latin cultura stemming fromcolere, meaning: ‘to cultivate’ or ‘to till the soil’ (Hall etal, 2003:7). Thus, culture has been connected to culti-vating the mind through learning (the scholar) or culti-vating the arts (the artist). Beyond this, the anthropolo-gists, by studying primitive communities, were the firstto appreciate that culture is also defined by a set ofsymbolic meanings that people use to make sense ofthe world around them, and of certain rules and sharedbeliefs that enable them to interact with each other andlive as a community. Culture, in this sense, includes thevalues, religious beliefs, norms, social rules, languagesand protocols people use to relate to each other, as wellas their patterns of behaviour and even the materialproducts they create. This perspective has been trans-posed to contemporary societies and is today adoptedby both ethnographers and sociologists.

1.3 The approach to the definition of culture taken by

the poet T.S. Elliot in his classical work on this subject(Elliot, 1948) is worth noting. According to Elliot, culturehas different associations according to whether we havein mind the development of an individual, a group orthe society as a whole. However, these three levels areinterdependent - the culture of the individual dependsupon the group and the culture of the various groupsdepend upon the culture of the society which thesegroups belong to. Therefore it is the culture of societythat is fundamental and it is the meaning of culture inrelation to the whole society that must be examinedfirst.

1.4 It is also worth noting the work of the French soci-ologist Bourdieu (1984) who studied the participation ofpeople in the part of culture that is marked by aesthet-ic and literary creation and expression, in other words,the creative arts and literature. The distinction between‘high culture’ and ‘low culture’ is used in association todifferent population groups, who, according toBourdieu’s research, were found to patronise differentforms of art and literature. This distinction has dominat-ed public policy for the arts in the 20th century, with‘high culture taking priority, as being patronised by thebest educated parts of society. In contrast, the culturalindustries that cater for mass taste, have been oftenassociated with popular culture’, i.e. the culture of themajority. Today, the concept of ‘cultural diversity’ whichrecognises and values the contribution of all sectors ofsociety in cultural production has taken precedence inpolicy thinking, as will be discussed in Chapter 6.

1.5. All the above approaches have been put together ina definition provided by Guillaumin (1988:p.41) which isrepresentative of the holistic approach to culture:

“the totality of the knowledge and practices both intel-lectual and material of each of the particular groups ofa society, and of a society itself as a whole. From foodto dress, from household techniques to industrial tech-niques, from forms of politeness to mass media, fromwork rhythm to the learning of family rules, all humanpractices, all invented and manufactured materials areconcerned and constitute in their relationship, culture”.

By accepting the above definition, it becomes obviousthat there is no normative difference between ‘rural’and ‘urban’ cultures. Culture is a universal concept,which takes meaning from the society it emanates from.


CULTURE AND SUSTAINABLE RURAL DEVELOPMENT 1

CULTURE AND SUSTAINABLE RURAL DEVELOPMENT2


Rural communities, therefore, define their own culturein relation to the societies they are part of: the local orregional society, the national society or the global soci-ety. Needless to say that an individual as well as a com-munity may participate in more than one societies.

intangible products. All aspects that provide us withinformation about rural people's lifestyles, beliefs, ethicsand aesthetics, ways of using their land and of living har-moniously with their surrounding environment, habitsand customs, architecture and arts (fine, applied andperforming), songs and festivities, rituals and myths, areincluded. Michel Colardelle (2007) answers the question‘what is heritage?’ as follows:

“…The word ‘heritage’ underlies a double process: onthe one hand, the process of shaping it by communitiesand individuals, not in order to pass it on, but first of allto live it out and to live out of it; and on the other hand,the process of selecting fragments, remains and wit-nesses, which are to serve as references for local identi-ties and lives of the present and future generations. Itis a dual process, which has less to do with logic and rea-son, and more with feelings - memory rather than his-tory, an ideological statement rather than a methodical-ly constructed work. Rural heritage refers more specifi-cally to a type of territory where agricultural and pas-toral resources are essential, with a large part of eco-nomic activity based on them or linked, directly or indi-rectly to them. This heritage can therefore be econom-ic and technical (vineyards, cattle farming, oyster parks,etc), social (rituals, fairs, celebrations, etc), ethnologicalor ethnographic, historic, and also archaeological. A her-itage object is thus determined, not according to itsartistic interest, but because of its ‘symbolic’, and evenits ‘denotational’ value; no doubt, too, that ‘immaterial’heritage as understood in the UNESCO ProtectionConvention, matters most in the rural field: tales andlegends, popular music, vernacular languages, reflect orconfirm practices associated with the cycle of seasonsand with the expression of solidarity within village com-munities.”

1.9 In the 19th and early 20th centuries, organisationsfor the preservation of heritage were founded as part ofnational cultural policy, within Europe and beyond.Museums, theme parks and other heritage institutionsbecame a necessary public amenity, underlining theidentity of societies, sustaining the status of the nationto the outside world, and preserving unity on the basisof a shared culture. The open museum, initiated byHazelius in Sweden in the 19th century as a private non-profit initiative is a characteristic example of the move-ment to preserve heritage, and in particular rural her-itage. Similar open air museums, which reconstruct vil-lages, village life and the connection of the village tonatural resources, sprung all around Europe, celebratingrural heritage. Collections of everyday life objects foundtheir home in countless local museums in European vil-lages; agricultural museums show the means and meth-ods for cultivating the land and eco-museums representthe close links between rural culture, natural environ-ment and the local economy. Countless designations ofnational and world heritage sites, preservation ordersplaced in rural settlements of outstanding architecturalvalue, folklore and art festivals organised in mostregions, production of traditional handicrafts for mar-kets outside their place of origin, have all given rural her-

1.6 An important characteristic of our contemporarysocieties, due to the great movements of populationsthrough migration, is multiculturalism. Different cul-tures, being characterised by their own values, beliefs,artefacts, customs etc., are increasingly present in bothurban and rural societies across Europe. Culture takes ona different meaning as ‘inclusive culture’: i.e. acceptingthe migrant groups’ right for cultural expression as wellas taking a positive stance towards cross-fertilisationbetween the cultures of indigenous and migrant com-munities. Cultural policy in rural areas, as will be dis-cussed in Chapter 6. needs to accept social inclusion asa vital component of cultural diversity in a rural territo-ry.

The value of rural cultural heritage1.7 TThhee ddeeffiinniittiioonn ooff rruurraall hheerriittaaggee. It is stated byUNESCO that

“having at one time referred exclusively to the monu-mental remains of cultures, heritage as a concept hasgradually come to include new categories such as theintangible, ethnographic, industrial heritage as well asnatural heritage. The concept of heritage in our timeaccordingly is an open one, reflecting living cultureevery bit as much as that of the past.” (UNESCO, 2001)

Such a radical, dynamic and all-embracing definition ofheritage opens new horizons, giving rural heritage theplace in cultural policy it deserves and connecting it toall aspects of rural development.

1.8 Heritage is manifested through its tangible and

Preservation of traditional craftsmanship is only part of rural culture

itage a wide visibility.

1.10 Thus, rural heritage was recognised as a source foreconomic development during the last part of the 20thcentury. The current interest in rural cultural heritage isalso the result of the growing demand by internationaltourists for places with a special interest, cultural andnatural, to enhance their leisure activities. All overEurope, countries are realising, to a greater or lesserextent, the economic benefits of rural tourism (seeThematic Guide One1) searching for possibilities toexpand their tourism product through cultural heritage.Investing in cultural heritage, by restoring it and makingit more accessible to the wider public, has alreadyproved very profitable. However, it would be wrong toconnect cultural heritage to the development oftourism unconditionally and without considering otherdevelopment options too. Chapter 4 discusses thisdilemma in more detail.

1.11 The question of commercialisation of rural culturalheritage has been the subject of a continuing debate,approached both from a philosophical and an econom-ic development point of view. The involvement of localcommunities in the decisions about using cultural her-itage for local economic development has emerged as aprocess that might possibly safeguard the interests ofthe communities themselves, while establishing a soundand balanced basis for exploiting cultural heritage foreconomic purposes. Chapters 4 and 5 present morearguments on this debate.



Traditional habitats of contemporary rural communities, such as theSarakatsani in Greece, offer space for both identity building and cultural

tourism.

emotional, historical, aesthetic, scientific etc. Smith(2006) provides a typology of heritage values, as fol-lows:1. Intrinsic values are based on the views and experi-

ences of cultural heritage by the individual who is an‘insider’ of the local culture.

2. Instrumental values are associated with the social oreconomic aspects of heritage.

3. Institutional values reflect the processes and tech-niques used by institutions to create public value.

It is thus important to understand how heritage influ-ences the daily lives of people, their social organisation,their economic development and the policies at localand national level. Agenda 21 for Culture (see Chapter6) provides a framework for turning heritage values tolocal policies. Based on the UNESCO universal declara-tion on Cultural Diversity, Agenda 21 also draws clearanalogies between cultural and ecological questions.

1.13 Rural heritage represents indeed a merging of thenatural and cultural elements of rural life, which havealways been inseparable features of rural communities.On the natural environment humans have dependedfor food, shelter, raw materials, and locomotion; more-over, they changed the natural environment throughtheir activities, and in turn the environment dictatedtheir potential for survival. Still, it must be recognisedthat these two elements, nature and culture, havebeen studied separately by researchers, who tend to bespecialised in natural ecology or culture. The concept of‘cultural environments’ (see Chapter 2) links these twoelements in a common framework, with significantresearch and policy implications, stressing the need toview rural territories in a comprehensive way, throughthe constant interaction of man and environment.

1.14 An additional sign of the appreciation of the closelinks between natural environment and cultural her-itage is the analogy between natural ecology and cul-ture which underlies the ‘cultural ecosystems’ concept,introduced by UNESCO. The anthropologists JulianSteward (1955) and Leslie White (1949) firstly used theterm ‘ecosystems approach’ to describe societies asunits interconnected to the whole ecological system.The term ecosystem was originally used to describeboth the biodiversity and the habitat of a place.Changes in one of the ecosystem's parts could immedi-ately generate changes in another (Preucel andHodder, 1996:24). In parallel to natural ecosystems, cul-tural ecosystems have been recently defined (UNESCO2003) as the totality of cultural heritage, past and con-temporary, and its relationship to the social and institu-tional networks that produce or regulate cultural pro-duction and the local communities’ access to it. Thecultural ecosystems have been closely connected withthe need for cultural diversity and policies protectingsuch diversity at local level.

1.12 A key issue in the debate around rural heritage isthe need to understand its meaning and importancefor rural communities. The heritage of a place has a dif-ferent value for different people, according to theirpurposes. Thus, local communities value their heritagedifferently from ethnographers or tourists. Also her-itage may be attributed a variety of values - symbolic,

1 Euracademy Association, Developing Sustainable Rural Tourism, Athens 2003

Global culture in the rural context1.15 TThhee ddeeffiinniittiioonn ooff gglloobbaall ccuullttuurree.. Global culture isone of the many expressions of globalisation. The termglobalisation describes the growing political, social, cul-tural, economic and technological inter-connectednessand inter-dependence of the world today. It has beenargued that as markets and people become more acces-sible to one another the world is getting smaller. The‘global village’ has been coined as early as the late 1940sto describe the effect of electronic mass media in cre-ating a world culture and in collapsing barriers in humancommunication (see box below). As communicationtechnologies advance, cultures continue to overlap andinfluence each other. In addition, an increase in interna-tional trade has created an economic interdependencebetween many states. This process has effects on theenvironment, on culture, on political systems, on eco-nomic development and prosperity, and on humanphysical well-being in societies around the world.

1.16 Some people see globalisation as a threat to localand national cultures, others see it as an opportunity totranscend borders and benefit from other cultures. Tosome people it means that everyone is a citizen of theglobal community and to others it means that non-developed countries and regions stand to lose theirautonomy, both economic and cultural, as global eco-nomic interests take advantage of the formers' vulner-able situation.

1.17 According to Crane (2003) there are four modelsfor understanding cultural globalisation:

the cultural imperialism thesis which views culturalglobalisation as a kind of cultural domination by pow-erful nations over weaker nations; and, in a morerecent version, the media imperialism thesis whichargues that cultural globalisation is the result of thedomination over global media channels by interna-tional media corporations;

the cultural flows or network model in which culturalglobalisation is conceptualised as occurring through

networks that have no clearly defined centres orperipheries;

the reception theory which examines the responsesto cultural globalisation of publics in different coun-tries and regions, and

a model of national and urban strategies toward cul-tural globalisation, including the preservation ofnational and local cultures, resistance to global cul-ture and well as the globalisation of national and localcultures.

1.18 Each of these four models is useful for explainingspecific aspects of cultural globalisation and the conse-quences that result from it. The best-known model ofcultural globalisation is cultural imperialism, a theorythat emerged in the 1960s. This model focuses uponthe roles of ‘western’ governments (mostly USA) and ofmultinational and transnational corporations in the dis-semination of different forms of global culture. It claimsthat a certain type of mass culture, especially related tothe mass media, is diffused from rich and powerfulcountries that are located at the ‘centre’ of the world'spolitical, economic and cultural system to poorer andless developed countries on the ‘periphery’ of the sys-tem. This theory, however, has undermined thestrength of local and national cultures, the power ofnetworks of cultural agents and the influence of theemerging consciousness of local governments regard-ing the role of culture in achieving sustainable develop-ment. These aspects are expressed by the other modelsput forward by Crane.

1.19 In spite of its weaknesses, cultural imperialism, re-conceptualised as media imperialism, remains a usefulperspective because it can be used to analyse the extentto which some national actors have more impact onglobal culture than others, and therefore are shapingand reshaping cultural values, identities, and percep-tions. Given that the scope and influence of global cul-ture is rapidly expanding, these are important issues. Incontrast, the reception model has been used to explainresponses to cultural globalisation by publics in differentcountries. This theory thinks of audiences as respondingactively rather than passively to mass-mediated culture



GGlloobbaall vviillllaaggee, as a term, was introduced in 1948 byWyndham Lewis and re-introduced in 1962 by H. M.Mc Luhan, to describe how electronic mass mediacollapse space and time barriers in human commu-nication, enabling people to interact and live on aglobal scale. In this sense, the globe has been turnedinto a village by the electronic mass media. Today,the gglloobbaall vviillllaaggee is mostly used as a metaphor todescribe the Internet and World Wide Web. TheInternet globalises communication by allowing usersfrom around the world to connect with each other.Similarly, web-connected computers enable peopleto link their web sites together. This new reality hasimplications for forming new sociological structureswithin the context of culture. An example of thisphenomenon is The Global Sports Village.Source: Wikipedia

For some globalisation is a threat to local and national cultures

Within a society Between societies

• Invention

• Culture loss

• Diffusion

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• Transculturation

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Ingroup – outgroup dynamics

and that different national, ethnic, and racial groupsinterpret the same materials differently. This modeldoes not view globally disseminated culture as a threatto national or local identities. Multiculturalism ratherthan cultural imperialism is perceived as the dominanttrend.

1.20 The network model offers an alternative concep-tion of the transmission process, as a set of influencesthat are not necessarily originating in the same place orflowing in the same direction. Receivers may also beoriginators. The effect of these cultural flows is likely tobe cultural hybridisation rather than homogenisation.This model is complementary to the fourth approach,which focuses on the strategies used by national or localgovernments and cultural organisations to respond tocultural globalisation by strengthening and protectingthe indigenous cultural basis; and by facilitating the dif-fusion of local and national cultures to global audiences.On the basis of this perspective, cultural globalisation isa process that involves competition and negotiation asorganisations and audiences attempt to preserve and/orproject their cultures in global space. Different countriesand regions vary in their emphasis upon preservation ofculture as compared to production of culture for globalconsumption.

1.21 Rural people live in the same world as the ones inurban areas. They buy what is available in the globalmarket, they dress according to the global fashiontrends, they have mobile telephones, satellite and cableTV, they use the internet. The latter globalises commu-nication by allowing users from around the world toconnect with each other via chat rooms, blogs, interac-tive websites and other www novelties. Rural people andespecially the younger generation are not an exception.Access to internet is as much an educational activity asit is a leisure one. Global icons, ideas and cultural prod-ucts (such as music and films) arrive in rural areasthrough the internet.

1.22 The fact the rural societies are in contact with glob-al culture via the internet does not necessarily mean

that they become homogenised or assimilated in a larg-er and complex global community. We should remem-ber the definition of culture presented in the beginningof this chapter: an individual may belong to several cul-tural groups and several ‘societies’ - the local, thenational or the global ones. It is not unusual to seeyoung people in rural Greece flock a rock concert oneday and go to a traditional fair, singing and dancingunder the sounds of traditional music the next day. Welive in an era of negotiation, and culture is no differentfrom other aspects of social and economic life. Ruralculture has to negotiate with other, non-indigenous cul-tures in order to survive. This can be more easilyachieved if rural culture becomes a feature of integrat-ed development, contributing both to economic gainsand sustainability.



Contact with global culture does not necessarily result to loss of identity

Culture as an agent of change1.23 Culture is both susceptible to change and resistingit. The dynamic processes which characterise society, i.e.models of interaction between people and the forma-tion of groups or networks, sometimes encourage theacceptance of new ideas while at other times encouragestability (O'Neil, 2006). Three main sources of culturalchange can be observed:

1. Internal forces which dictate change, such as tech-nological advancement (invention of new tools, ener-gy sources etc) or cultural evolution or loss (when oldcultural patterns are being replaced by new ones).

2. External influences, usually through the contact withother cultures.

3. Changes in the natural environment, which mayimpose changes for the sake of survival.

O'Neil (2006) provides a model of the different mecha-nisms of change:

1.24 In rural areas, the resistance to change is oftenquoted as a factor affecting the pace of development,putting the blame on adherence to traditions and estab-lished attitudes and practices. At the same time, ruralcommunities are exposed to multiculturalism, not onlyby being exposed to global communication and globalcultural influences but also due to intensive migration



The tractor museum in Benevento, Italy, combines historywith modern technology.

Questions arising from Chapter 1 to reflect on

1. How would you define, in the context of the rural area you live, work or are familiar with, localculture and global culture?

2. Does global culture influence the people in your area and how?

3. Do young people and older people have different cultural preferences? Describe how.

4. What makes up for you the rural cultural heritage of your area? Describe all those elements youbelieve that make up such heritage.

5. What is the value of this heritage for you personally and for the economy and social cohesion ofthe area?

6. How is cultural heritage connected to natural heritage from your own point of view, in yourcountry or in your region?

7. Are the people of your area proud of their cultural heritage and if not what would you do tostrengthen their pride?

8. Have you noticed your own culture changing through the years? How? Which factors contributeto that change?

from less developed to more developed countries. Inthis context, culture is increasingly being considered asan important agent of social stability and well being(UNESCO, 2003). Besides being a valuable component ofeconomic development, culture is also seen as a media-tor of social inclusion and social cohesion, an agent ofchange in attitudes and practices that are necessary forachieving tolerance, co-existence and cooperationamong the constituent groups of the present-daydiverse societies.



Concepts and Principles2.1 We examine in this chapter certain concepts andprinciples that define sustainable development, and inparticular rural development. We look at its constituentparts and the role culture can play in the re-definition ofsustainability, as recently debated in the context ofAgenda 21 for Culture.

2.2 RRuurraall DDeevveellooppmmeenntt.. In Thematic Guides One andTwo, rural development was defined as a deliberateprocess of sustained economic, social, political, culturaland environment change, designed to improve thequality of life of the local population of a rural region.The key points of this definition are:

The emphasis on a deliberate and sustained process.Rural development is not a short-term concern but itneeds to be pursued over a long period and in adeliberate way. An important issue to consider is howrural societies can sustain their culture and their iden-tities to build social cohesion and enhance their well-being in the long run.

The emphasis on the word ‘change’. Rural develop-ment is about deliberate change in order to makethings better rather than about protecting the statusquo. The mentality of change and innovation is basedon values, attitudes and norms which form part ofthe culture of the individual and the rural society.

The focus on improving the life of the local popula-tion. Too much of the so-called regional develop-ment (which incorporates usually rural development)is still dominated by infrastructure needs or bench-marking of economic development targets. Themodern concept of rural development has a primeemphasis on the needs of the rural populationincluding economic, social, cultural and governanceneeds.

2.3 SSuussttaaiinnaabbllee ddeevveellooppmmeenntt is, according to thefamous Brundtland definition, one that “…meets theneeds of the present without compromising the abilityof future generations to meet their own needs…”(WCED, 1987). However, the issue of achieving a sus-tainable future is not only restricted to natural resourcesand/or economic welfare. Social issues were included inthe sustainability concept already by Brundtland. In the1990s the ‘triangle’ of sustainable development wasconsolidated (economic concern + social inclusion +environment) and is used today in local, national andglobal strategies as a pattern for analysis and publicaction.

TThhee ‘‘TTrriiaannggllee’’ ooff SSuussttaaiinnaabbllee DDeevveellooppmmeenntt

2.4 The Rio declaration of 1992 on Environment andDevelopment set an agenda of sustainable developmentfor the 21st century, in which environmental concernsare firmly linked to sustainable development practices ofnations and regions. Agenda 21 is a comprehensive planof action to be taken globally, nationally and locally byorganisations of the United Nations system, govern-ments, and major groups in every area in which humanactivity impacts on the environment. Agenda 21includes, under Principle 22, a special reference to localcultures: local communities are assigned a vital role insustainable development, and states are asked to recog-nise and duly support their identity, culture and inter-ests and enable their effective participation in theachievement of sustainable development.

2.5 However, the breakthrough came with Agenda 21for Culture, “an undertaking by cities and local govern-ments for cultural development” which was agreed inBarcelona on 8th May 2004, by local authorities from allover the world, to substantiate their commitment tohuman rights, cultural diversity, sustainability and partic-ipatory democracy. A report published by UNESCO in2006 admits that there is a strong basis for claiming thatculture shall become the fourth pillar of development.At the same time it is recognised that a lot of effort isneeded to raise awareness on the cultural dimension ofhuman development and secure a solid role for culturein local development policy.

Economy Social In Inclusion

Environment

C H A P T E R 2.

Culture and Sustainable RuralDevelopment



2.6 The fourth pillar of sustainable development has itsorigins in the work of Jon Hawkes (2001) which definesthe essential role culture must play in public planning.Although Agenda 21 for Culture was primarily addressedto cities, it has been subsequently extended to include‘districts’ denoting wider territories where rural areasmay also be incorporated.

TThhee ‘‘SSqquuaarree’’ ooff SSuussttaaiinnaabbllee DDeevveellooppmmeenntt

Rural development and cultural capital2.8 TThhee ddeeffiinniittiioonn ooff ccaappiittaall.. According to Throsby(2003) the definition of capital as goods which, whencombined with other inputs (especially labour) gives riseto further goods, has been fundamental to the inter-pretation of production processes in economics formore that two hundred years. In the context of ruraldevelopment or local development more generally, dif-ferent kinds of capital can be identified. As discussed inThematic Guide Four, these are the physical capital, theenvironmental capital, the cultural capital, the humancapital and the social capital.

2.9 CCuullttuurraall ccaappiittaall has received several definitions,which focus on its tangible or intangible characteristics.Tangible cultural capital takes the form of artworks andartefacts, such as heritage buildings, archaeologicalsites, paintings and sculptures or crafts. Intangible cul-tural capital comprises artworks which exist as publicgoods, such as music and literature, as well as the inher-ited traditions, values, beliefs etc. which constitute thecollective consciousness and identity of a group(Throsby, 2003). Cultural capital is both an economicconcept, incorporating economic ‘goods’, and a socialconcept, based on the consciousness of individuals andcommunities about their own culture and its normativestructures.

2.10 Cultural capital is closely linked to social capital. Thelatter is represented by the nature and extent of per-sonal networks and institutional relationships within acommunity, created on the basis of trust (see ThematicGuide 4). It has been suggested that cultural capital maybe seen as a ‘substance’ or a ‘quality’ of social capital(Jeannotte 2003) while social capital is explained by cul-tural factors, such as the shared values and understand-ings that facilitate cooperative behaviour and supportcollective action. In this way, it is not always easy to sep-arate cultural from social capital, because values, cus-toms and beliefs that influence and shape humanbehaviour are central to both.

2.11. Cultural capital as a component of rural develop-ment has therefore several functions. It takes an eco-

2.7 Thus, cultural issues that have for a long time beenneglected or given low priority in the sustainabilitydebate, started to have a growing presence in develop-ment policies in the 21st century. Yet, one issue that stillremains unresolved is how culture can effectively inter-sect with development agendas that undergo manypressures from different economic, environmental andpolitical lobbies. An integrated approach to rural devel-opment, which takes account of all the dimensions ofsustainability -economic, social, environmental, cultural,political- needs to be re-emphasised, alongside the prin-ciples of Agenda 21 for Culture.

Culture

Economy Social

Inclusion

Environment

Governance

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT TIMELINE

UN Conference on Human Environment, Stockholm, 1972

This Conference gave rise to a first generation of environmental policies and

emphasised the link between environment and economy.

UN World Commission on Environment &

Development, 1987

The UN Commission defined sustainable development and boosted the

concept of sustainability into the political agendas of most nations.

UN “Earth Summit”, Rio de Janeiro, 1992 The UN Summit set out Agenda 21 as a blueprint for action in the 21st

century, linking inexorably environmental protection with sustainability.

UN World Summit on Sustainable Development,

Johannesburg, 2002

The UN Summit did not produce a clear statement regarding the progress

that has been made since the Earth Summit. In contrast, there were mixed reactions and fears of putting the concept of sustainable development at risk.

Universal Forum of Cultures –Barcelona 2004

The IV Porto Allegre Forum of Local Authorities for Social Inclusion agreed on

the Agenda 21 for Culture as a guiding document for public cultural policies

and as a contribution to the cultural development of humanity.

nomic value, which may arise from the number of visi-tors to a historic building or a festival, the number oftourists attracted to the area due to its cultural assets,the increase of property values, the revenue from arte-facts etc.; or a social value, based on collective memo-ry, common identity and shared values within a ruralcommunity; or a symbolic value, based on continuity ofhistory, uniqueness, spiritual ties with the built and nat-ural environment, a sense of place, i.e. all those factorsthat define ‘local distinctiveness’ (see Chapter 5); andfinally an aesthetic or artistic value, which gives the par-ticular cultural product a wider significance, beyond theterritory where it is produced.

Cultural environments2.12 Cultural capital in rural areas incorporates the par-ticular relationship of rural inhabitants with the environ-ment and the natural resources, in all four dimensionsdescribed above, i.e. the economic, social, symbolic andaesthetic. Environmental management, landscape for-mation and landscape aesthetics become part of thecultural capital of a rural community. This special char-acter of rural cultural capital gave rise to the term ‘cul-tural environments’ (Downs, 2006). The term has beenused from Scandinavia to Australia to embrace orenhance the inseparability of humans and the environ-ment, and has been proposed for wider use as a man-agement and research tool. Within this concept, intan-gible aspects of cultural heritage can be consideredalongside monuments and artefacts, cultural spaces andthe environment, and studied as llaannddssccaappee. In this con-text, environment is no longer seen in solely functionalterms as something which determines human behaviouror simply as a backdrop for action. Instead, how land-scape is shaped through human practice (such as reli-gion, agriculture and animal husbandry, for example)and the qualities of landscape, as defined through expe-riential approaches are topics that make sense to thecommunities that live within a landscape as well as tothe visitors.

2.13 The concept of cultural environments is in harmo-ny with the definition of landscape that is included inthe European Landscape Convention: “an area as per-ceived by people, whose character is the result of theaction and interaction of natural and/or human factors”(Council of Europe, 2000, article 1a). Cultural environ-ments constitute a global concern in terms of manage-ment, economy, fragile natural and cultural ecosystemsand sustainability. How the economic benefits of cultur-al environments can be maximised and realised throughtheir contribution to sustainable rural development is asubject that needs to be further explored throughresearch and practice - again an important aspect of theEuropean Landscape Convention.

2.14 Most environments have been impacted upon andshaped by humans. Such a formation of landscapesthrough human action impacts the future use of land-scapes. This approach puts sustainability very much tothe forefront: the past good and bad uses of the land-scapes should be considered in thinking about future

land use by communities. It is thus important to demon-strate the value of researching past communities andtheir ecological strategies to present day communities.

2.15 How people have sustained and renewed them-selves and their environments over time as part of acomplex ecological dynamic can be demonstrated byartefacts and material culture, architecture, landscapeand the paleo-environment. Also, periods of crisis -vary-ing from natural events such as the effects of major vol-canic events, climate deterioration and sea levelchanges, to changes relating to wider political and eco-nomic causes and trends which have catastrophic localand regional effect can be studied. In Scotland, forinstance, examples such as the Highland clearances and‘boom and bust’ industries such as industrial use of sea-weed and the intensive herring industry, have immedi-ate relevance to both the communities and the naturalenvironment. These phenomena inform our under-standing of the self-adjusting mechanisms operating inthe wider ecological system and therefore informresearch into, and policy on, sustainability and renewa-bility.

2.16 Traditionally, the ‘cultural’ and ‘natural’ aspectsof the environment have been managed by separatebodies employing different approaches. The concept ofcultural environments links the two aspects together,and puts forward the argument for their common man-agement, to achieve sustainable development. Theoption of tourism for the development of cultural envi-ronments is also considered as the most obvious one,because the combination of authentic built heritageand natural-looking landscapes are commonly the ele-ments of the required tourist experience. The benefitsand threats of this option need to be considered care-fully, alongside other uses of the land such as agricul-ture or land development and the need for the protec-tion of both cultural and natural elements of the envi-ronment and the identities of the communities that livein them.



Traditional cultivation of olive trees in terraces, Greece,forms part of a cultural landscape

2.17 This can be achieved only through a wider strategyfor the development of methods and procedures tomeasure, map, monitor and manage cultural environ-ments, and for bringing together these methods andprocedures with those which deal with human percep-tions of identity and place. Capacity in cultural heritagemanagement and practices must be built and sustained.

2.19 A bottom-up approach to rural development hasgained support at the level of policy too, as shown bythe success of the LEADER Initiative. However, theimplementation of LEADER as well as rural regenerationschemes, have revealed that an important condition ofsuccess in such an approach is to raise the awarenessand the skills of local people to both appreciate andmanage their natural and cultural assets. Yet, it shouldbe noted that these very communities may have to dealwith substantial social issues such as poverty, unem-ployment, social exclusion, lack of public facilities andservices (e.g. education, health etc). Rural communitiesneed guidance and capacity building to become capableof leading their own future, without jeopardising twoimportant aspects of their development potential: theircultural diversity and local distinctiveness.

Integrated rural development policy2.20 The emphasis in European rural policies has shiftedover the past two decades to a wider concern of peo-ple's well being, including local economy, environmentand socio-cultural factors. Rural development hasbecome a central policy issue, replacing previous poli-cies and measures that focused on agriculture, such asthe CAP and the Structural Funds. The Cork declarationin 1996 called for a simpler but more integrated ruraldevelopment policy. Agenda 2000, the major policyframework for the management of the Union between2000 and 2006 officially recognised rural developmentas the second pillar of the Common Agricultural Policy.The Rural Development Regulation 1257/1999 offeredmember states and regions a menu of 22 measureswhich they could use to design their rural developmentprogrammes, including agriculture restructuring, man-agement of the environment and rural developmentbeyond the farm. In addition to these mainstream ruraldevelopment programmes, the Community InitiativeLEADER continued in its third generation (LEADER+) fos-tering innovative and bottom up approaches to localintegrated rural development.

2.21 In the document “Rural Development Policy Post2006” (see Thematic Guide Three), the EuropeanCommission (2004b) sets out options for the possiblebasis of the rural development regime to apply from2007 onwards. A proposal for a new regulation wasadopted in 2004, introducing a single rural developmentfund from 2007 onwards, taking a more strategicapproach and encouraging national governments toprepare rural development strategies. Four categoriesof measures should be included in such strategies:measures to improve the competitiveness of the pri-mary sector; land management schemes; measures todiversify the rural economy and improve the quality oflife in rural areas; and the LEADER (bottom up)approach.

2.22 The integrated rural development policy and pro-grammes initiated by the EC during the 1990s includedsocio-cultural aspects in their remit, provided that suchaspects helped to build the local employment basis andcontributed to the diversification and sustainability of

Community involvement2.18 Since the 1990s it has been widely recognised thata community-based approach to rural development isessential for achieving sustainability. Community-baseddevelopment planning is important for two reasons:firstly to avoid conflicts and tensions that are likely tooccur if local development is not compatible with thecommunity's desires and objectives, especially whenoutside interests take control of investment and eco-nomic activity; and secondly because local pride andconfidence is seen as an important precursor to localcohesion, regeneration and sustainable economic devel-opment. However, to achieve endogenous develop-ment and consolidate the role of local communities asrural development agents, two conditions should bemet:

Firstly, the sustainability objectives become clear tothe local community, so that they can control theextent to which their own heritage and culture isthreatened by outside interests and excessive com-mercialisation.

Secondly, the rural communities do not becomeintroverted by adhering solely to past experiencesand heritage, but remain open to new technologiesand the challenges posed by globalisation on localand national economies. The modernisation of ruralareas and their ability to cope and compete in theglobal arena does not necessarily imply the loss oftheir cultural heritage and cultural identity.



Eco-museums helps to preserve and promote the local natural andcultural heritage (Marqueze, France)

the local economy. The most common method to con-vert cultural assets to economic assets has beentourism, and this was particularly encouraged by theLEADER initiative. The danger of marginalising the localculture through commercialisation, thus affecting thecohesion and integrity of rural communities has beenbalanced by the involvement of local communities inthe management of local development programmes.

2.23 The mainstreaming of the LEADER initiative inFinland through the POMO programme has given sever-al good practice examples of a bottom-up, integratedapproach to rural development, which took account ofthe local traditions and culture. These examples howev-er cannot be generalised, because Finland has a highlydeveloped civil society at the local level, which wasactively involved in the implementation of POMO, withpower to exercise control on the selected local develop-ment options (see Thematic Guide Four).

2.24 In addition to the widening of the rural develop-ment remit, the cultural policy of the EC paid attentionto culture as an employment generator and openlydeclared that the strengthening of national and localidentities would be an advantage for the cohesion ofthe Union, allowing the citizens of the Union toexchange cultural aspects and strengthen their creativi-ty and cultural cross-fertilisation. The acceptance ofmulticulturalism while building at the same time localand national identities has become a central issue inEuropean policies. The Culture 2000 CommunityProgramme which was initially established for sevenyears (2000-2006) and subsequently renewed by theCulture Programme 2007-2013, deals with these issues.The main objective of the Culture Programme is to helpenhance the cultural area shared by Europeans, developcultural cooperation and encourage the emergence ofEuropean citizenship. The Culture Programme continuesalong the Culture 2000 footsteps, providing funding tolocal and national actors encouraging cultural innova-tion and creativity.

2.25 In conclusion, we note that with the emergence ofsustainability concerns in the political agendas ofEuropean nations, a number of issues have come to thefore. Primary among these has been the coordinationand successful integration of economic, environmentaland socio-cultural policies. However, as the scope ofsustainability concerns grows, it becomes more complexto communicate them to the local and national stake-holders, while significant variations in the perception ofthese concerns at national, regional and local levelthreaten to undermine the very notion of sustainabledevelopment (Dodouras, 2006). Culture is moving - at afast pace - to the centre of sustainability policies. Theproposed by UNESCO ‘square’ model of sustainabledevelopment (see above) places the intrinsic values ofculture that are important for human development,democratic governance and global understanding at aprominent place in the development agenda (UNESCO,2006).



Cultural tourism has provided opportunities for local developmentin many rural areas of Europe

Children should become familiar from an early agewith their local heritage



Questions arising from Chapter 2 to reflect on

1. Thinking of a rural area you know well, how would you propose to integrate culture in sus-tainable rural development? Provide examples.

2. Find and describe examples that illustrate the "square of sustainable development" in yourarea.

3. Identify the natural and cultural features of a "cultural environment" you know well. Describehow these interact.

4. How are local communities in your area involved in the control and preservation of their cul-tural heritage, especially in relation to local policies and action taken by local or nationalauthorities?

5. Do you know of or have you become involved in a local initiative (e.g. a LEADER project) thatbrings local culture into the framework of local development, using a bottom-up approach?Describe how.



The role of rural museum 3.1 Let us have first the definition of a museum, accord-ing to ICOM (International Council of Museums) Statutes(article 2, para. 1):

“a museum is a non-profit making, permanent institu-tion in the service of society and of its development,and open to the public, which acquires, conserves,researches, communicates and exhibits, for purposes ofstudy, education and enjoyment, material evidence ofpeople and their environment.”

3.2 During the 20th century, a great number of muse-ums were founded, often of a rather small size, but alsoat times somewhat ambitious, either in rural environ-ments or in towns and cities, with subjects based on therural world; a well known example of the latter is the for-mer National Museum of Popular Traditions and Arts inParis; or the National Museum of Agriculture inBudapest. Such museums were initially born out of theawareness that a world was drawing to its close, andthat priceless memory was being lost due to the adventof economic globalisation. Today, these museums expe-rience a transformation of their roles, in view of thedrastic changes in their audiences, following rural exo-dus, immigration, the phenomenon of ‘rurbanisation’and the power of the culture brought about by TV andleisure/ entertainment complexes.

3.3 What is a rural museum? It may be a museum ofagriculture, a museum of rural life or a museum estab-lished in the countryside, whatever its theme may be;and perhaps also a museum of art, even contemporaryart. As already mentioned above, there are also manymuseums of agriculture or rural life in urban environ-ments. None of these categories should be excluded ifwe wish to obtain and sustain a chain of complementa-ry heritage places. Moreover, the museum can be relat-ed to an outstanding site (natural, archaeological, archi-tectural) which makes it more interesting for the visitor

by creating a direct relationship between the collec-tions, the architecture and the environment, thus pro-viding the very much sought after context to the col-lections. An interesting example is given by the museumrecently built in the farm of the Planons in Saint-Cyr-sur-Menthon (Ain), which combines the advantages of anextended thematic package (country life, farming andcattle raising in the Bresse region), a protected historicfarm building and its location in a region that owes itsdevelopment to high quality agricultural products (the‘poultry from Bresse’, an official origin label) and on gas-tronomy (see Case Study 3.3).

3.4 At a time of energy crises and climatic changes, theissue of sustainable development takes on addedmomentum. The rural museums may offer an alterna-tive viewpoint to contribute to the sustainability effort:they increase our awareness of past times and tech-niques that were more energy-saving than those oftoday, including organic agriculture. This approach canbe also linked to the growing interest of consumers inorganic and ‘genuine’ products, which enjoy a varyingdegree of encouragement from Governments throughthe multiplication of Quality and Origin labels.Furthermore, the rural museum may play a role in pre-serving biodiversity, as shown by the following example:in Dampierre-sur-Boutonne (Charente-maritime) a farmmuseum contributes to the preservation of an animalspecies under threat, the ‘baudet du Poitou’, a smallsturdy donkey which would probably have disappearedwithout the farm. But it can be also argued that such apreservation plays a role as an ‘identity shelter’ (the‘smaller homeland’) to countenance the fears inducedby globalisation. Or, one may wonder, does it merelyreflect nostalgia in connection with a resistance tochange which is a feature in every society? We havealready touched upon these issues in Chapter 1, and itshould be stressed that the answers are not easy or uni-versal. Every society, both government and the people,

Part II: Preserving andStrengthening Rural Culture as

an Agent of DevelopmentC H A P T E R 3.

The Preservation of Culture: the rural museumof the 21st century

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3.8 Every museum type that we mention in this chapterhas its own usefulness and specialisation. What mattersmost is to avoid thematic or museographic redundan-cies, and to set up networks of complementary activitiesand sites. Scale, however, is a separate issue. The humanscale of a museum has to be safeguarded, but this hasconsequences on its management, especially regardingthe recruitment of competent professional staff. InFrance, Heritage Offices have been set up at districtlevel to manage museums and monuments, ensuring ascale that is manageable, but also big enough to enablepooling of professional competences. This is an excel-lent solution, which also allows urban museums to belinked up with thematic rural museums. A good exampleis Musee Dauphinois, in the district of Isere.

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3.9 In the field or rural heritage, the prevailing approachto museum collections should be ‘holistic’, linking theearth and climate conditions to production techniqueson the one hand and, on the other hand, to myths andpopular beliefs. Also, a multidisciplinary or cross-discipli-nary approach is necessary to carry forward the prevail-ing lesson of the past - that is, adaptation to the envi-ronment and to the needs of societies which were lessspecialised than ours, but by no means less complex orrefined. Besides, the museum can play a specific part inresearch, as a place that remains constantly sensitive tochange and, therefore, to the emergence of new waysof life and modes of social organisation that overridethe old ones, which however, without the museum,would sink into oblivion. Museums, as research institu-tions, need to undertake comparative analysis and takea critical stance towards heritage, on the basis of scien-tific criteria.

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3.10 A danger threatening the rural museum is that of‘localism’ -i.e. refusing to see the similarities between alocal situation and those in neighbouring places, or even

have to make their choices and guard themselvesagainst a false reality, on which such nostalgia may rest.

3.5 The rural museum has to answer, first of all, thequestion of heritage preservation. Let us examine whatwe mean by heritage preservation. Does it deal with thepreservation of past know-how and empirical knowl-edge, with a view to reuse them or implement them inthe present time? The aim would then be to preservethe processes that lead to heritage items rather thancollect solely the ‘material witnesses’ of such heritage.We need to refer, for example, to signals or methods ofassessing the best timing of rural activities, (e.g. theappropriate time to harvest, etc.) which, by their verynature cannot be ‘stored’ in a museum but need to beinterpreted and illustrated through descriptions, photo-graphs, drawings, films, etc; that is, by employing a vari-ety of media that transform the very concept of arte-fact by additional, imaginative documentation, whichbecomes as important as, and even more importantthan the item itself.

3.6 The rural museum has to deal with the problemwhich, sooner or later, awaits every cultural institution,let alone a heritage institution: that of changes within itsaudience, an audience that does no longer consist of‘experts’ and is characterised by a lack of familiarity withor knowledge of heritage, thus making the exhibitedheritage alien to them, difficult to understand and unin-teresting. Long and short distance migration, changes inbasic knowledge offered by the formal or informal edu-cation system, and the ‘rurbanisation’ process, exposethe museum to people who will become interested inheritage only if it takes the form of a big quiz-like game.At best, heritage is taken into account in a processwhere a sort of ‘tinkering’ is used to ‘re-fabricate’ iden-tity and to highlight linkages with the environment andsociety. Although this method of popularising heritagemay involve a danger of excessive codification ofexhibits, contemporary media, as already mentioned,may be proved very supportive. Let us also considerthat, in our times, a museum needs to compete withother cultural institutions and industries, such as thecinema, multimedia, big entertainment complexes etc,which, because of their economic power and having noheritage expenses to meet, are in a position to dedicatetheir whole financial means to developing innovativetechnology and accustom audiences to a kind of sophis-tication that is financially out of reach for rural muse-ums. The latter thus experience growing difficulty tosurvive in terms of ‘box office’. Another consequence ofthis technical ‘decoupling’ is the increasing generationsgap, resulting to rural museums receiving more visitorsof a mature age, as the younger generation becomesattracted to other activities, not related to heritage.

Best practice for rural museums3.7 As a response to the issues raised above, we may lista few ‘best practice’ features, many of which, in fact,are not specifically related to rural museums.



New approaches to museography introduce new technologiesfor better interpretation of the theme of the museum

(Forest Museum, Landes, France)

‘ ‘

the administrative culture of each country. Sponsoringis an alternative funding possibility which although amarginal one, should nevertheless not be excluded.Furthermore some commercial activity has also provedbeneficiary in some museums, especially private ones,sustained through the sale of objects inspired by thecollections.

Different types of rural museums3.14 Contemporary rural museums range from largecollections, covering many of the categories below, tovery small establishments addressing either a particularlocation or a particular subject (e.g. an agricultural prod-uct or a distinguished person). The collections of ruralmuseums include fine arts, applied arts, craft, archaeol-ogy, anthropology, ethnology, history (cultural, military,natural etc), science and technology, children's arts,numismatics, botanical and zoological interests, philate-ly, and more. Within these categories many museumsspecialise further, e.g. museums of modern art, localhistory, agriculture or geology. Here we list selectivelyfive types (or profiles) of rural museums: the ethno-graphic museum, the open air museum, the technolog-ical museum, the art museum, and the eco-museum.

TThhee eetthhnnooggrraapphhiicc mmuusseeuumm

3.15 Ethnographic (or ‘folklore’) museums collect andexhibit material and information related to the origins,distribution, technology, religion, language and socialstructures of racial, regional or national divisions ofhumanity. They belong to what we call ‘general muse-ums’ since they house objects that contain informationon various societal aspects. Their scientific backgroundrelates more to cultural anthropology, history and soci-ology. Ethnographic museums range from very bigestablishments (there is usually in every country anational ethnographic museum, based in the capitalcity) to very small ones, to be found in villages or in thecountryside. The latter are created through a variety ofinitiatives: they may be the result of an initiative from anacademic and research institution (e.g. the museum of

remote places and places with similar needs. This callsfor establishing a close link between the short termviews (of the individual) with the long term views (of thecommunity). Societal evolution must be also taken intoaccount as well as social attitudes, which in the face ofchange form an essential factor of evolution, in particu-lar in rural communities (who remain less extrovertedthan urban communities regarding the use of newmedia).

TThhee rriigghhtt mmuusseeoollooggyy

3.11 This is an important field, but the most difficult ofall to suggest guidelines. Problems related to the neces-sary re-contextualisation of artefacts which are only‘torn away’ fragments of wider environments and situa-tions, need to be addressed. One may use dynamic dis-play methods, that would question rather than affirmthe meaning of the object (‘breakaway museology’according to Jacques Hainard). New technology andmulti-media devices may help towards this end, remain-ing constantly receptive to visitors' questions. The clas-sic system of permanent exhibitions is gradually beingabandoned in favour of ‘evolving’ exhibitions, comple-mented by temporary exhibitions. This new practiceallows more flexibility to museums, multiplies opportu-nities for experimentation and gradually builds up diver-sity and loyalty amidst audiences. It entails, however,not only financial problems, but also heritage accessproblems, as it may at times make the ‘treasures’ of thepermanent collection of museums inaccessible.

TThhee rriigghhtt mmeeddiiaattiioonn

3.12 The diversity of the cultural background of audi-ences and the limited knowledge of heritage by presentday visitors, as already discussed, makes it necessary tointroduce ‘mediators’ in the rural museum. Mediationshould be provided by competent and committed pro-fessionals, who will be ready to help visitors understandthe ‘signs’ that make up the cultural vocabulary cap-tured by the museum. The establishment of relation-ships with local events (ploughing, harvest and festivals)is just as necessary. It contributes to a better communi-cation with the wider public, caters for a growingdemand for festive events and fosters the creation ofsocial links between visitors and local people. The sameoccurs with workshops - educational or not. It should bealso kept in mind that senior citizens are increasing innumbers and will probably play an important role asmuseum audiences in the coming decades, if they areattracted by appropriate audience policies.

TThhee rriigghhtt ffuunndd-rraaiissiinngg

3.13 To achieve the viability of a rural museum, thequestion of funding must be addressed. In some cases(e.g. often in eco-museums or in some cases in ethno-graphic museums too) the investment is sharedbetween the public and the private sector. This wouldbe an ideal solution, because public funding providesregular resources, whereas private funding leads togreater dynamism and adaptability. The possibility ofjoint funding of museums however, depends greatly on



Traditional spaces can accommodate modern methods ofobject presentation with good results (CULT-RURAL exhibition

on "Landscape Stories")



TThhee sscciieennccee aanndd tteecchhnnoollooggyy mmuusseeuumm

3.17 Museums of science and technology are concernedwith the development and application of scientific ideasand novel (for their time) instruments. Like museums ofnatural science and natural history, science museumshave their origins in the Enlightenment. Some of themdeveloped from the collections of learned societies,others from private collections (e.g the Teylers Museumat Haarlem, Netherlands) in the 18th century. A laterdevelopment in these museums focused on the appli-cations of science, so that museums began to preservethe material evidence of technological development.Some science and technology museums now concen-trate on demonstrating old methods for processingagricultural products (e.g. water mills, silk farms etc)emphasising the preservation of the production processrather than the end products themselves (see Case-Study 3.7).

TThhee aarrtt mmuusseeuumm

3.18 An art museum, also known as an art gallery, is aspace for the exhibition of usually visual art, and prima-rily paintings, illustrations and sculpture. Collections ofdrawings and old master prints are often not displayedon the walls, but kept in a print room. There may be alsocollections of applied art, including ceramics, metal-work, furniture, book art and other types of artistichandicrafts. A rural art museum is sometimes dedicatedto one or more (famous or not) local artists (e.g. themuseum of painter Theofilos in Lesbos, Greece). It is alsocommon in some countries (e.g. UK, Germany, Austriaetc) to convert manor houses or castles to museums,exhibiting the furniture and art collections of the origi-nal owners.

TThhee eeccoo-mmuusseeuumm

3.19 The eco-museum represents an importantadvancement in the evolution of rural museums, fortwo reasons: firstly, because it displays heritage in itsnatural and social context (without the need to ‘re-con-textualise’ it, as already discussed); and secondlybecause it relates heritage to sustainable local develop-ment directly. Usually defined as museums focused onthe diversity of a territory, on its heritage and on itspopulation, eco-museums were first set up in France atthe beginning of the 1970’s (following significant initialefforts in the United States at the end of the previousdecade) in response to increasing demand for arenewed profile of rural museums, with a notable socialrole. Eco-museums then spread quickly, especially inEurope, although their practical accomplishments werenot always consistent with the aims and expectations ofthe museologists who had launched the idea.

3.20 Like other rural museums, an eco-museum can bethe solution to conserve heritage which would other-wise be destined to disappear and make it available forcollective use. The heritage displayed by an eco-muse-um, however, is usually quite different from that of anordinary museum and does not stop at a collection ofphysical items -in some cases there is not such a collec-tion. In this case, the heritage is made up of a series of

TThhee ooppeenn aaiirr mmuusseeuumm

3.16 Open air museums re-erect original old buildings inlarge outdoor sites, usually in settings that re-createlandscapes of the past. The first open air museum wasset up by King Oscar II of Norway, and opened in 1881.In 1891 Arthur Hazelius founded the famous SkansenMuseum in Stockholm, which became the model forsubsequent open air museums in Northern and EasternEurope, and eventually in other parts of the world. Mostopen air museums are located in regions where woodenarchitecture prevails, as wooden structures may betranslocated relatively easily, without substantial loss ofauthenticity. Modern open air museums, such theSkansen Museum in Szetendre, Hungary, recreate intheir establishments old trades and skills, organise edu-cational visits, festivals and tours, trying to recreate notonly the built and natural environment of traditional vil-lages but also the life in them and the products thatwere typical of their economy (see Case Study 3.1).

the olive in Crete); or an initiative of an individual col-lector of folklore objects (e.g. the ethnographic muse-um of Alexandroupolis, Greece); or the initiative of anNGO (e.g. the ethnographic museum of Komotini,Greece); or a joint initiative between a local NGO and aresearch institute or a local authority (e.g. the museumof bread, in Farsala, Greece); or a joint effort between alocal authority and a dedicated individual (e.g. themuseum of the village of Abony in Hungary); or anyother initiative of the private and public sector (see CaseStudies 3.5, 3.6).

The Folklore Museum of Komotini, Greece, is a typical rural muse-um, created on the initiative of a local NGO



local aims with the possibilities offered by regional,national and European experts and administrators; andshould also build local development on endogenousresources and especially on the ‘capital’ created by localculture. An interesting example of an Italian eco-muse-um is presented in Case Study 3.2.

The expectations from the rural museumof the 21st century3.22 To summarise the main points of the discussionpresented in this chapter, we quote in the box belowthe features of the museum of the 21st century, asproposed by Black (2005). Then, we highlight some of

material and non-material (intangible) elements whichare part -either by geographic placement or due to theopinion of the local residents- of a certain territory; andof the relationships that inter-link these elements, whichhave historically shaped a certain landscape, lending vis-ibility and meaning to local heritage. This approach cre-ates a completely new situation for conserving rural her-itage and making it directly accessible to both local res-idents and tourists.

3.21 Maurizio Maggi (2002) defines the eco-museum asa special kind of museum, based on an agreement bywhich a local community takes care of a place. Theterms used in this statement are explained as follows:

agreement means a long term commitment, notnecessarily an obligation by the law;

local community means a local authority and a localpopulation jointly;

take care means that an ethical commitment and avision for future local development are adopted;

place means not just a territory but complex layers ofcultural, social and environmental values whichdefine a unique local heritage.

The emphasis is placed on the eco-museum's role as ameans for tackling certain challenges, not as an end initself. To achieve this, the eco-museum needs to set inmotion certain mechanisms in local societies: activatinglocal networks, empowering the local population anddrawing attention to the local heritage, strengtheningthe residents' ‘sense of place’ (see Chapter 5). To tack-le the issue of local development, the eco-museumneeds to create a strategy. For this, it should reconcile

Eco-museums conserve rural heritage and contribute to localdevelopment too (Eco-museum of Chestnut, Toscana, Italy)

The 21st century rural museum is expected to be:

an object treasure-house significant to the rural communities

an agent for physical, economic, cultural and social regeneration

accessible to all - intellectually, physically, socially, culturally, economically - enabling them to enjoy and makeuse of its materials

relevant to the rural society, with the local community in product development and delivery, and with a core aimof improving rural people's lives

a celebrant of cultural diversity by developing understanding, provoking thoughts, and challenging opinions bymeans of exhibitions, activity and other forms of communication

a promoter of social cohesion and a bridger of social capital

a promoter of social inclusion by treating everyone with fairness and respect

proactive in supporting neighbourhood and community renewal

proactive in developing, working and managing projects with other museums and agents and developing linksand networks for future collaborations with individuals and organisations that have compatible aims

a resource for structured educational use and lifelong learning, and integral to the learning community by usingits collections and expertise to contribute to teaching and research both within the academic world and beyond

a rural community meeting place

a tourist attraction

an income generator

an exemplar of quality service provision and value for money

Source: Graham Black (2005)

the roles a rural museum is expected to play as an agentof local development.

TThhee mmuusseeuumm aass aa ffooccaall ppooiinntt ffoorr tthhee llooccaall ccoommmmuunniittyy

3.23 The rural museum, more than any other type ofmuseum, should build an enduring relationship with itslocal community. Such a process requires confidencebuilding and provision of opportunities to local people,to be actively involved in the running of the museumand its activities. The museum should prove that it existsfirstly for the local community, whose culture it repre-sents, and secondly for the outside visitors.

TThhee mmuusseeuumm aass aa hhuubb ffoorr rreesseeaarrcchh

3.24 Museums have had a long history of providing edu-cational services to the public. What is less well known istheir role and involvement in research. Rural museumscan, and in many cases do, play a significant researchrole in the natural and cultural heritage fields in severalways. Museums can provide facilities to universityresearchers and students; joint appointments can bemade based on collaboration between museums anduniversities and in most museums many research staffhold adjunct appointments or are affiliated with univer-sities as research fellows. Research builds up a body ofknowledge providing a systematic understanding ofrural cultural heritage, contributing to the appreciationof such heritage and eventually becoming the tool forits best possible use. Research can also provide the evi-dence necessary to ensure that we make sustainable useof our heritage.

TThhee mmuusseeuumm eexxhhiibbiittiioonnss aanndd nneeww tteecchhnnoollooggyy

3.25 New technology can offer valuable aids in theinterpretation and contextualisation of museumexhibits, as already mentioned. Multiple wall projections,virtual 3D images, multimedia tools handled by the visi-tor are few of the media that modern technology canput in the service of a museum. Such media, alreadyused is several museums worldwide, revolutionise themuseum experience while improving public access -through better understanding- to rural heritage.Designed to enhance visitors' interaction with museumcollections, the new technology and visualisation toolscan expand the potential of an exhibition and work as atool for the achievement of the best possible displayand information provision. As already mentioned, thecreative use of technology in exhibitions allows muse-ums to put artefacts in context, to explain complexideas, to provide links with historical events or places orto provide simulated experiences. Technology can alsobecome a great tool for learning delivered in museums,both formal and informal.

TThhee mmuusseeuumm aass aa mmuullttii-aaccttiivviittyy cceennttrree

3.26 The rural museum is the ideal place to developactivities that address both the visitors and the localcommunity. Many museums in Europe and elsewherehave multi-purpose public spaces as a feature of theirplanning. A multi-purpose space extends the function ofthe museum by providing a space that can be used formuseum events, exhibition openings, film showings,

lectures or seminars, and it is also available to groups orindividuals to use (or rent) for similar activities. There aremany cases where museums organise regular seminarsfor children and adults, such as fine and applied art sem-inars, theatre, dance and music performances, confer-ences etc. Local communities' festivals and celebrations(see Case Study 3.4) can be organised in collaborationwith the museum, bringing new audiences and newcommunity support to the latter. Making space availablefor multiple use in the museum may offer a much need-ed venue to the local community, at the same time pro-viding a local heritage dimension to community recre-ational activities.

3.27 The museum shop is also a part of the rural muse-um that could play a role in learning and accessing infor-mation. Practice has shown that shops are an extensionof a museum visit. They enhance the museum visit byoffering a recreational experience through shopping;and they may provide visitors with further stimulation tolearn more about and appreciate further the local cul-ture. Furthermore, museum shops can be a source ofincome both for the museum itself and the local people,as the latter could be employed for the production ofsouvenirs, such as traditional handicrafts, copies of orig-inal items of the museum collection etc

Conclusion3.28 At a time when the balance of wealth is changingin the world and western economic supremacy is draw-ing to its close, European countries need to reconsiderthe priorities on their agendas. The question whetherwe should go on dedicating substantial amounts ofmoney to rural museums, which, some people claim, areobsolete in the context of the ‘global village’, is an immi-nent one. The answer to this question depends on howEuropean countries envisage their future; and whetherequal opportunities and democracy as capital issues, jus-



A section for interactive visitor engagement through newtechnology and specially designed games adds a lot to the

museum experience



tify the preservation of heritage. As we know, the prac-tice of democracy directly depends on citizens' level ofinformation and education. In a society that becomesmore and more complex, a major question is whetherdecisions made about key issues are really accepted andunderstood at the local level. If we have doubts aboutthis, then we must seriously ponder on the educationalrole of the rural museum, comparing it with othermeans of education, formal and informal. Further tothis, we need to consider the active role that a ruralmuseum can play in the preservation of the social fabricof rural communities, thus providing an antidote to theurbanisation and the ‘rurbanisation’ process that havebeen going on for some time, affecting most memberstates of the European Union.

The museum shop is also a part of the rural museum that couldplay a role in learning and accessing information

Questions arising fromChapter 3 to reflect on:

1. What types of sites, natural orcultural, are particularly fit toestablish a rural museum inyour area? And what would bethe message of such a muse-um?

2. How could the involvement oflocal inhabitants in the opera-tion of a rural museum be fos-tered?

3. What could be done in orderthat the rural museum plays apart in the strengthening ofcross-generation solidarities?

4. What themes should be pro-moted in a rural museum with-in the remit of sustainabledevelopment?

5. How can the rural museuminfluence tourists so as to con-tribute to the decrease of nui-sance due to their presence ina rural environment?

6. Draw a list of types of eventswhich a rural museum wouldundertake, according to itstheme and standing, in orderto promote social cohesionand solidarity in its area

7. What can the economic aimsof a rural museum be?

8. What measures may be imple-mented to increase the num-ber of visitors of such a muse-um?

9. Can there be conflict betweenthe social and economic aimsof a rural museum? How cansuch a conflict be solved as thecase may be?

Skansen is the first open air museum and zoologicalgarden in the world. It is located in Sweden on theisland Djurgarden in Stockholm. It was founded in

1891 by Artur Hazelius (1833-1901) with the intentionto showcase the way of life in the different parts ofSweden before the industrial era, and the natural habi-tat of Scandinavia including animals and plants from dif-ferent parts of the country.

The 19th century was a period of great change through-out Europe and Sweden was no exception. Its rural wayof life was rapidly giving way to an industrialised societyand many feared that the country's many traditionalcustoms and occupations may be lost to history. ArturHazelius, who had previously founded the NordicMuseum on the island of Djurgarden near the centre ofStockholm, inspired by the open-air museum foundedby King Oscar II in Kristiania in 1881, created his open-airmuseum on the hill that dominates the island. Skansenbecame the model for other early open-air museums inScandinavia and later ones elsewhere. The name‘Skansen’ has also been used as a noun to refer to otheropen-air museums and collections of historic structures,particularly in Central and Eastern Europe, but also in theUnited States, e.g. Old World Wisconsin and Fairplay,Colorado.

The many exhibits over the 75 acre site (300.000 sq.m.)include a full replica of an average 19th-century town,in which craftsmen in traditional dress, such as tanners,

shoemakers, silversmiths, bakers and glass-blowers,demonstrate their skills in period surroundings. There iseven a small patch growing tobacco used for the mak-ing of cigarettes. There is also an open-air zoo contain-ing a wide range of Scandinavian animals (as well assome non-Scandinavian ones due to their popularity).

In early December the site's central Bollnas square ishost to a popular Christmas market that has been heldsince 1903, attracting around 25.000 visitors each week-end.

Since 1897, Skansen has been served by the SkansensBergbana, a funicular railway on the northwest side ofthe Skansen hill.

For more information:

http://www.skansen.se

After extensive travelling, Hazelius bought around 150houses from all over the country (as well as one struc-ture from Telemark in Norway) and had them shippedpiece by piece to the museum, where they were rebuiltto provide a unique picture of traditional Sweden. Onlythree of the buildings in the museum are not original,and were painstakingly copied from examples he hadfound. All of the buildings are open to visitors and showthe full range of Swedish life, from the SkogaholmManor house built in 1680 to the 16th century Alvrosfarmhouse.



Case Study 3.1. The Skansen Museum of Stockholm, Sweden

Storage kiosks in the Skansen Museum of Stockholm

A traditional farmhouse in the Skansen Museum of Stockholm

The Ecomuseo dei Terrazzamenti e della Vite (theEco-museum of Terraces and the Vine) is situatedin Cortemilia, a hill area in the province of Cuneo.

The area of Cortemilia, a little town with just over 2000inhabitants, is intensely covered with terraces, whichare, however, now abandoned. The whole BormidaValley made headlines in the 1980's due to pollutioncaused by just one factory, which had considerablydeteriorated the entire natural environment of the val-ley floor and consequently the economic and social sit-uation of the region. After strong protests, the factorywas closed but the decline, especially in social anddemographic terms, continued.

In 1994, severe flooding caused a landslide that riskeddestroying part of the town. Restoration work was car-ried out and, taking advantage of the law on eco-muse-ums, the year after the decision was taken to recoverthe heritage made up of terraces, once used to growvines. Initially the project did not mobilise the residents,who had been long-since resigned to its gradual decline,and the municipal council failed to understand the pro-ject's potential, seeing it as nothing more than a sourceof extra income. Encouraged by the tenacity of hisdirector, the project progressed step by step. At thebeginning, the eco-museum limited its activity to therecovery of part of a small but strikingly spectacular ter-raced slope, with its paths, dry stone buildings, cultiva-tions and the restoration of an historical building in themiddle of the town to house the ‘Ecomuseo’. The build-ing opened to visitors in 2001, and houses a themedsection devoted to the landscapes and communities ofthe world characterised by dry stone constructions; areading room; and a projection and conference room.

Little by little, interest was aroused in the terraced land-scape, previously ignored or classed as a residue fromthe past. Dynamic in its research and in the national andinternational collaborations, the Eco-museo then under-



took to recover an abandoned and degraded residentialand farming structure overlooking the town (MonteUliveto), transforming it into an active meeting place forthe organisation of various activities linked with the localculture but also with productive aspects such as that ofhigh quality wine. The project represented a very impor-tant development for the relaunch of local wine pro-duction.

Following the re-qualification of the vineyards of MonteOliveto and the subsequent grape harvest in 2002, thefirst wine was made under the name of the eco-muse-um, the label of which bears the name and logo of theeco-museum.

The 27th symposium of ‘Vinum’ (2003), the mostimportant wine event in Piedmont, hosted the productsof a group of winegrowers, united under the label ofProduttori Associati dei Terrazzamenti della ValleBormida. The winegrowers involved in the project thendecided that the work carried out in the vineyardsshould be supervised by agricultural experts to improvethe winemaking process. This attention to quality,unthinkable in an area previously linked mainly to thedevastating effects of the pollution of the RiverBormida, is an important process.

The Ecomuseo is also committed to conserving andtransmitting knowledge. In 2002, the first edition of aliterary prise for children's books, ‘Il Gigante delleLanghe’ (The Giant of the Langhe) was introduced. Itsaim was to operate on a symbolic level, creating imagi-nary meanings in relation to the terraced landscape. Theaward ceremony has now become a regional event andthe jury comprises artists and writers of national recog-nition.

The management of the eco-museum uses a local coop-erative to accomplish educational projects. Summercamps are arranged into three sections: small architec-ture; creativity; and farming the landscape of the ter-races. Every workshop includes an introduction to theeco-museum, a direct discovery of the territory, withexcursions and on-site inspections, and a manual activi-ty part, with the creation of a product linked with theterritory.

The Ecomuseo dei Terrazzamenti e della Vite provides agood example of how it is effective, as well as possible,to reassess the local heritage, making it an elementrecognised by the inhabitants and one that contributesto social cohesion and economic activity.

For more information contact:

Maurizio Maggi, [email protected]

Case Study 3.2. The eco-museum of Terraces and the Vine, Italy

Eco-museums often comprise traditional buildings,like the old mill shown here

The Department (region) of Ain is located half-waybetween Lyons and Burgundy, a region whichenjoys international fame for its gastronomy. Its

Conseil General recently acquired the estate of the Farmof Planons, in the village of Saint-Cyr-sur-Menthon,where it opened a new museum in 2006. This museumis part of a Departmental Heritage Office which alsoincludes the Museum of the History of Resistance, andtwo local museums dedicated to the smaller regions ofBugey-Valromey and Revermont. This grouping makes itpossible to optimise management, by pooling the pro-motion, maintenance and administrative expenses,while keeping the functions of management and anima-tion decentralised. The plan was to group on this site allelements related to agriculture and the rural world, inorder to form a specialised point of reference. Besides,this thematic choice reflects a financial choice, based onthe reputation of Bresse poultry, which has become anofficial quality and origin label, and on the fame ofregional gastronomy, which is manifested in the pres-ence of several ‘multi-star’ Chefs.

Modern in its design, this museum is made up of sever-al parts which complement each other. The first part isthe farm itself, a listed historic monument which is oneof the oldest civil edifices of the Department, and offersa good outlook on the vernacular techniques and archi-tectural forms, in particular stud-works, ‘pise’ (rammed-clay) barns, a Saracen fireplace and a drier on a gallerywhich is both functional and remarkably aesthetic. Inthe farm, the museography is kept to a minimum: thepoint is chiefly to display original or at least equivalentfurniture and tools based on an eighteenth centuryinventory relating to this place. Visitors can use an audioguide to hear comments on this inventory, with anappropriate directional lighting system which is coordi-nated so as to highlight the corresponding items as thecommentary proceeds. Smaller temporary exhibitionscan be displayed in adjacent agricultural buildings.

The second element is the estate, a wide territory, thesurface of which is used to display examples of agricul-ture (corn) and animal farming (poultry), with living ani-mals, gardens, orchards, fields and pastures, equippedwith appropriate signs that are convenient to guide vis-itors, especially young people who lack knowledge onagriculture and more generally on country life. Visitinggroups can easily turn to competent mediators forinformation.

The third element is the museum. It includes a vastentrance hall, a shop, a permanent exhibition area andsmaller temporary exhibitions rooms, together with ananimation area with a documentation centre, a confer-ence room and workshops. The main hall is used to dis-play the collections related to regional dress and its his-tory, as an illustration of the evolution of the regionalsociety; and to all that concerns food, from productionto cooking habits and to gastronomy. The adjacentbuildings display more specialised thematic presenta-tions, which may even be contemporary art exhibitions.


Edouard de Laubrie, [email protected]



A view of the arcade of the museum of Saint-Cyr-sur-Menthon,

Case Study 3.3. The thematic museum of Saint-Cyr-sur-Menthon, Ain, France

‘ ‘

‘

It is not uncommon for individuals with an interest inand dedication to cultural heritage, to turn their col-lections of artefacts and research results into muse-

ums. Such a museum is the Ethnographic Museum ofThrace in Alexandroupolis.

The museum collection comprises objects belonging tonative residents and refugees, which characterise anddetermine the character of their local history. It alsoincludes testimonies: thousands of personal storieswhich survived the sweeping waves of history, indicatethe people's wounds and their healing, complete themosaic of history, and their narration re-establishes theresidents' relation with the land of Thrace.

The exhibits are part of the owner's, AngelikiGiannakidou's, private collection and consist of researchmaterial and objects of all the social groups living inThrace. A great variety of objects are exhibited so thatthe visitor can be informed about the economic andsocial life of the region of Thrace from the late 7th cen-tury till the beginning of the 20th century. The displaysand galleries are complemented by audiovisual material(music, sounds and videos). The videos have been pro-duced in cooperation with historians and architects.

music, they can also purchase items inspired by the richThracian popular tradition.

The museum aims to continue the study of the con-temporary cultural heritage of Thrace, so that it can bea starting point for the re-evaluation of tradition, plac-ing emphasis on educational activities directed towardsyoung people and children in particular. The museumhas been organising tours of historic interest since thesecond month of its operation and is also the venue oflocal history seminars and educational programs.

In addition to the educational programmes for the stu-dents of primary and secondary education which areheld in the museum, educational projects are alsoorganised. The museum's objective is to function as aliving cell in the Thracian land, associating tradition -itsmemory and knowledge- with the current social issues,enabling us to identify ourselves with a universal ideal ofculture, thus providing the enthusiasm for the preserva-tion of our own heritage.


http://www.emthrace.org/en/

In the covered courtyard of the museum, where semi-nars take place, visitors may obtain access to the data-base of digitalised maps of the wider geographical areaof Thrace and names of refugees that came to Thrace in1922. This database serves not only as a point of refer-ence and a source of information for the people ofThrace, but also constitutes the core of many researchand educational projects.

There is also a coffee-shop in the courtyard where visi-tors can savour traditional local specialities; and a salespoint where, in addition to books and CDs of Thracian



The Ethnographic Museum of Alexandroupolis

Cultivating the Thracian land, photo from the museum's collection

Case Study 3.4. The Ethnographic Museum of Alexandroupolis, Greece

Ademonstration garden with a large number offruit cultivars2 is being built on the Lohja Islandlocated in Lohja Lake Southern Finland. The gar-

den will be called ‘Lohjansaaren Frutigetum’ i.e ‘LohjaIsland Frutigetum’ and is expected to open to the firstvisitors in the summer of 2009.

The innovative project consists of a non-commercialdemonstrative garden into which all the perennial fruitplants with wood stem will be collected. The idea is thatanyone interested in fruit plants may come and see theplants, but also taste fruit that can be grown in most ofthe Southern part of Finland. Frutigetum offers infor-mation and a lot to see to the devotees of gardens. Thegarden is built according to the botanical rules. So it canserve as a demo garden for the professional gardenersand researchers as well.

Frutigetum is expected to act as a sort of open airmuseum: all the old fruit cultivars which have beengrown in Lohja district and in the surroundings are col-lected in the Frutigetum. For instance, old apple, pearand plum cultivars from the ex-nursery garden of Ahtialaand Kirkniemi manor are amongst the ‘exhibits’.

The cultivars which are already disappearing give a dis-tinctive character to the garden and at the same timetell about the rich garden culture of this area. Besidesthese, more than 200 old apple cultivars from otherparts of Finland are collected too. For example, 40 pear,60 plum, 30 cherry and 20 decoration apple cultivarsfrom Finland and from similar growing conditionsabroad are prepared to be planted. Bilberry bushes, seabuckthorns, saskatoons, lemon climbing plants,grapevines, various currants and gooseberries will alsofind a place in the garden.

The plants form groups to make it easier for the visitorsto find a certain cultivar. The garden is made as beauti-ful as possible with the help of flower plants and a smallwater pool in its middle.

The idea behind the Frutigetum is to preserve old culti-vars and give visitors the opportunity to see them, tastethe fruit and get to know the history of the cultivars. Itis also hoped that the garden will increase gardening asa hobby and fruit growing will start to interest newyoung entrepreneurs. Finally, the garden managementintends to provide practical work experience to youngpeople who will be given the chance to help the profes-sional gardeners.


Pirjo Sjogren, [email protected]

http://www.hiisinet.fi/lohjansaaristo



Case Study 3.5. Frutigetum, Finland

Frutigetum encourages visitors to learn more aboutthe history of cultivars

2 A cultivar is a cultivated plant that has been selected and given a uniquename because of its decorative or useful characteristics.

The Open-air Water Power Museum in Dimitsana,presents the use and importance of water-powerin traditional rural societies, by portraying the basic

pre-industrial techniques that use water as the mainsource of power for production purposes.

On a site of 1,000 sq. m., in the midst of dense vegeta-tion and abundant running water, infrastructure andwater-powered equipment have been restored to meetthe operational requirements of the museum. Each ofthe restored traditional workshop buildings houses apermanent exhibition whose theme is relevant to theworkshop's original use: a filling-tub and a flour-mill, themiller's residence, the raki still, the tanner's house andthe powder mill.

The visitor may see the various water-powered equip-ment in use, and their final products, in an interactiveway. For example, in the flour-mill the visitor can throwgrains of corn into the hopper and observe how theseare ground by the millstones and fall into the flour tub.Comprehensive information panels as well as multime-dia are used throughout the exhibition to provide tech-nical, ethnographic and historical information about thewater-powered equipment, reflecting the technologicaldevelopments and the cultural identity of the widerregion of Dimitsana up to the first half of the 20th cen-tury.

The Open-Air Water Power Museum opened to the pub-lic in the summer of 1997. The project was co-financedby the Second Community Support Framework and theRegion of the Peloponnese. Research in the wider areaof the River Lousios has identified more than 100 water-mills, providing evidence of the technology used by tra-ditional communities to cover their energy needs sincethe 16th century. These establishments were left to fallinto ruins during the 20th century, as the area was grad-ually abandoned. In 1986, ETBA Bank's CulturalFoundation (currently the Piraeus Bank Group's CulturalFoundation) commenced an extensive programme ofethnological research, which led to the creation of theOpen-Air Water Power Museum.

By that time Dimitsana, once hosting 8,000 inhabitants,had a population of only 400, while its nearby gorge hadbeen totally neglected. Reconstruction of the water millwas carried out with respect, so that the interventions inthe casings did not alter their authentic form.Meanwhile, the permanent machinery in the workshopswas restored to its original use.

The purpose of the Open-Air Water Power Museum hasbeen to rescue and exhibit a unique example of tradi-tional technology, while contributing to the enhance-ment of the -until recently abandoned - area, by pro-moting alternative forms of tourism.

The Open-Air Water Power Museum is visited by manypeople, especially school groups, and has received theEuropa Nostra award. In 2003 it was included in theEuropean Commission's booklet of the 27 most suc-cessful projects co-financed by the European Union inGreece.


http://www.piop.gr



Case Study 3.6. The Open-air Water Power Museum in Dimitsana, Greece

Plan of the Open-air Water Power Museum



Culture - a new factor of economicdevelopment4.1 In the past, culture was not considered as an impor-tant source of economic activity, and indeed econo-mists were rather suspicious of the economic value ofcultural activities, for a number of reasons:

Cultural activities, often based on enhancing andexploiting existing heritage were seen as regressive,forging an attachment to the past rather than anenthusiasm for building the future. Consequently,the emphasis on cultural heritage was often con-nected to a territory's resistance to the globalisationof economy and culture.

Most of the cultural services were financed by publicfunds and consequently the spending on culture hasbeen considered as ‘deficit funding’ rather than as‘investment funding’ which yields economic returns.

Many economists also viewed culture and the econo-my as separate realms: culture, with its symbolicaspect and lack of utilitarian dimension was set apartfrom the essence of economic theory and its utilitar-ian outlook.

4.2 It is only from the end of the 1980s that culturereceived attention as a source of productive activity,which can generate jobs and wealth to the benefit ofnational and local economies. The flourishing of the cre-ative industries over the past three decades and thebroadening of the concept of cultural services toinclude a wide range of creative and heritage activities,not only brought in the cultural scene the private sectorin a dynamic way, but also questioned the image of cul-ture as a non-earner of income. Also, it is becomingmore and more accepted that culture, as a system ofvalues and norms, can influence the functioning of theeconomy, at least indirectly; followed by the recognitionthat culture is itself a result of economic history (OECD,2005).

4.3 In public policy, the new role of culture in the localeconomic agenda has been recognised through the‘cultural diversity’ concept, introduced by UNESCO(2001, 2005) as an important component of local devel-opment. One of the dimensions of cultural diversity isthat it brings together the efforts of the public, the pri-vate and the voluntary sectors to support a culture-based economy. Also, the role of multiple actors, includ-ing the cultural industries, is recognised by local author-ities around the world as a lever to local development in

the statement of Agenda 21 for Culture; and by theOECD, in its publication on Culture and LocalDevelopment (2005). The latter transfers the term ‘cul-tural economy’ from the national to the local level, toexplain how the particular nature of local resources andknow-how can influence the creation and updating of‘cultural products’ that are symbols of the territoriesthat produce them, and therefore ‘idiosyncratic’ - i.e.unique.

4.4 The real challenge for any local development agen-da is not only to acknowledge the contribution of cul-ture to the local economy, but also to identify ways toachieve and maintain its positive social and economicimpacts, and avoid the negative ones. It is important toconsider the ways in which culture can benefit the localeconomy. We can identify three main types of input:through tourism; through the production and export ofcreative products or ‘goods’; and through the creationof cultural infrastructure. These inputs are of courseinter-related, as most activities that constitute the localeconomy are. For example, to develop tourism, a soundcultural infrastructure is needed, while cultural goodscan enhance the economic results of tourism by addingvalue to it.

4.5 When assessing the economic value and potential ofculture, we firstly need to define the existing culturalresources, activities and goods that can contribute tolocal development. The traditional definition of culturalassets includes the heritage (built and natural) and theperforming and visual arts. Heritage is demonstrated inarchaeological sites, designated buildings or villages /parts of towns under preservation order, monuments,places and buildings of historical or architectural inter-est, landscapes of outstanding natural beauty or nation-al parts etc. Museums should be also included here, asthey are closely connected with heritage. The perform-ing arts may include all types of performances (theatre,dance, concerts) either of local character or performedby invited/touring performers; festivals are also impor-tant events which can have either a local or national/international scope (see for example Case Study 4.4).Similarly exhibitions may be locally inspired or may beregional / national events and beyond; or they may takethe form of a fair or market, where local goods andcrafts are presented and sold.

4.6 Within the existing resources, we should also includecultural products such as crafts, fashion, digital images,etc, which combine an important aesthetic and symbol-



C H A P T E R 4.

The Contribution of Culture to the LocalEconomic Agenda



ic value with their utilitarian nature; and we should notleave out the products of the cultural industries thatinclude books, records and films, as well as audiovisualand photographic output. The products of the culturalindustries have been expanded in some countries (e.g.UK) to include design, fashion, musical instruments,architecture, advertising etc, leading to the broadernotion of the ‘creative industries’. Cultural products takeon growing importance in our days being both part ofthe production process (through the use of culturalresources) and of the final consumption.

4.7 Culture can also contribute to the local economyindirectly, through thevalues, ways of thinkingand behaviours that arecharacteristic of regions,territories or villages. Thework of Narayan andPritchett (1997) providessome interesting exam-ples: in their study Centsand Sociability theyshowed how economicperformance of rural ter-ritories was affected bysuch cultural elements asthe ways a person relatesto family or outsiders.

4.8 Given that a large partof the cultural assets ofan area are under public control or protection, to max-imise the benefits of cultural resources it is important toexercise a partly-regulated policy by local authorities,which should, however, be based on three principles:

The existence of a cultural strategy that forms part ofthe local development strategy of the area (asemphasised in various other chapters of this Guide).

The active encouragement of cultural entrepreneur-ship, as well as the culture of entrepreneurship in thearea.

The forging of strong links and long-term partner-ships between the heritage, the artistic and the com-mercial sectors, and between the private enterprises,the non-profit associations (NGOs) and the publicauthorities.

4.9 The issue of the local cultural strategy will be takenup in detail in Chapter 6. Here we will discuss in moredetail the other two aspects. We may consider that theentrepreneurial culture is part of the wider culture of acommunity or a territory. The entrepreneurial cultureinvolves all those qualities and skills that make individu-als, organisations, communities and societies creative,flexible and able to adapt to economic and socialchange. The entrepreneurial culture is also linked to thecapacity to conceive and nourish projects, while a busi-ness culture consists of carrying out these project (Katz,1999). The capacity of a rural territory to sustain a pro-ductive activity does not depend only on the availabilityof investment, the agricultural or industrial capital or

availability of management capacities. It also dependson the values that the community is imbued with, andwhich may or may not make its members apt to encour-age initiatives. The introduction of new technologiesand a new ‘technical culture’ is often suggested as arecipe to encourage entrepreneurship in rural areas(OECD, 2002).

4.10 The encouragement of partnerships at the locallevel has been the policy of the EU Community InitiativeLEADER which made it compulsory for a rural territory toform its own Local Action Group (LAG) in order to receivethe financial benefits of the European Commission.

Such partnerships provedin many cases successfuland in other cases artifi-cial and dissolved imme-diately after the end offunding. Genuine part-nerships usually developover a long period oftime, starting from infor-mal networks within com-munities, which build‘social capital’. The closerelationship found byresearchers betweensocial capital and eco-nomic development(Barro, 1999, Paxton,2002) has been attrib-

uted to the proper functioning of democracy at thelocal level, as trust (the main ingredient upon whichsocial capital is built) has positive effects on democra-cy. This brings forward the issue of community involve-ment in decisions about local development, which canbuild trust, thus facilitating partnerships, especiallybetween the private and public sectors (see alsoChapter 5).

Culture-based tourism4.11 The most visible contribution of culture to localdevelopment lies in its ability to attract tourists, and thepositive effects tourism is expected to have on incomesand employment. Several studies, since the beginningof the 1980s, attempted to demonstrate the impact ofculture on local development through tourism. At thelocal level, such studies, besides identifying the positiveeffects of culture, have also sought to justify majorinvestments in the area: restoring a monument, organ-ising a festival, creating a museum affect a territory'seconomic prospects and often create high expecta-tions. The studies showed that such expectations havenot always come true.

4.12 The economic benefits of cultural activities are usu-ally judged by the revenue they generate. Such revenuefalls into three types:

Direct spending by visitors, i.e. spending at a site or anevent. This may include entrance fees, catering andaccommodation services, purchase of souvenirs etc.

Historic towns are a reference point for cultural tourism



Indirect spending, i.e spending by businesses thatprovide the above goods and services, as producersof cultural goods and services or as producers oftourism services.

Induced spending (spin-offs) i.e. spending sparked bythese indirect business expenditures (e.g. ordersplaced by cultural or tourism businesses with theirsuppliers will generate further orders to yet otherbusinesses). This is usually called the ‘multiplier’effect of direct and indirect spending.

4.13 The importance of the positive effects that culturemay have on a territory is demonstrated through theassessment of impact. Economic impact can be forecastby direct estimation or using the multiplier formula.However, impact assessments do not only cover theeconomic dimension, but also social aspects, which tendto be classified by economists as ‘indirect economicimpact’ (European Task Force on Culture andDevelopment, 1997). Impact analysis has to make tradeoffs between different types of information (e.g. num-ber of visitors, jobs created or sustained, businessturnover, net benefit for the territory etc) and take alsoaccount of the reasons which justify the result. Socialand environmental impact needs to be taken intoaccount as well: loss of cultural identity due to excesscommercialisation of culture; takeover by large compa-nies and multinationals, thus pushing local businesses tomarginal positions; chan-nelling the local labourforce to unskilled jobs;deterioration of the culturaland natural sites that formthe objects of visitor attrac-tion (e.g. through erosion),etc.

4.14 Identifying the contri-bution of different culturalactivities to local develop-ment and the conditionsunder which such contribu-tion will be positive, will beannulled, or even becomenegative is indeed a chal-lenge. The OECD study(2005) proposes four criteria to assess the developmentpotential of cultural activities:

their permanence

the degree of participation by local people in additionto tourists

the territory's capacity to produce all the goods andservices demanded (i.e. to sustain endogenousdevelopment)

the interdependence of the cultural activities.

4.15 The lifecycle of a cultural asset or product is also animportant factor to consider when exploring the contri-bution of culture to the local economic agenda. We candistinguish between the long term and the short termassets. A heritage site, for example, is a long term asset,linked closely to the local communities of the surround-

ing area, especially if the quality of life of the latterdepends on the economic potential of the former. Theefficient protection and management of a region's cul-tural assets depend at least partly on the ability of thelocal people to become aware of their significance andshare the responsibility for their appreciation, conserva-tion and promotion. Activities related to such assetshave understandably a great potential, because theycan lead to revenue generation and subsequently toinvestments.

4.16 On the other hand, it has been argued by someeconomists that short-term cultural products, like fairsor festivals, do not have the same effects because oftheir temporary nature, often resulting to a significantdeficit. However, to assess the impact of a cultural activ-ity such as a festival to the local economy, one shouldlook at its interdependence with other cultural, educa-tional and economic activities to which festivals maygive rise. Case study 4.4. is a good example of the posi-tive effects of the Kalamata Dance Festival on the devel-opment of the wider territory of Kalamata: the festivalhas become a permanent activity for about 15 yearsnow, drawing international tourism into the area, whileat the same time it has helped to establish a DanceSchool in the town which has already built a fine repu-tation.

4.17 The significance of involving local people and com-munities in the process oflocal development has beenalready emphasised inChapter 2 and in the pres-ent chapter. The commit-ment and participation ofthe local community is vitalto sustaining the culturalactivities themselves (con-serving heritage attractions,raising money for invest-ments, mobilising volun-teers, preventing environ-mental deterioration etc)and also to maintainingactivities throughout theyear, which will benefit thelocal people as much (or

even more) as the tourists. Involving the local commu-nity gives them a sense of ownership of the develop-ment effort, which is particularly important when sucheffort is based upon local culture.

4.18 Endogenous development is the type of economicdevelopment that is mostly engineered by the localpopulation on the basis of local resources. Although thisis not always possible in rural areas, where the diversehuman skills needed for development are not in abun-dance and investment capital may not be available inthe required volume, it is a central objective of sustain-able development to exploit all endogenous (local)resources before taking advantage of outside ones. Thisis why it is often advisable for rural areas to start smallprojects and try out the capacity of the local communi-

Cultural activities are a vital component of communitycelebrations and fairs in rural areas.

ties for the development of culture-based tourism,before embarking in ambitious ventures, of which localpeople may lose control.

4.19 Cultural activities have a greater impact if they aremutually reinforcing, taking advantage in this way of theso called ‘crowding in’ effects. We saw above, in theCase Study of Kalamata, that a festival, which is not byitself a sustainable activity, gave rise to their activities,beyond tourism, such as art education, offering perma-nent social benefits to the local community. Moreover,by encouraging a number of complementary activitiesin a location, a ‘chain’ of attractions is formed, capableto keep the tourists in the area for the longest possibleperiod.

4.20 Another question which is often raised in relationto exploiting heritage for economic development is thenature of tourists and to what extent these tourists areprepared to respect the heritage site, avoid destructionand also respect the culture of the local communities.The OECD study (2005) offers some advice on this:

“Give priority to quality over quantity targets, recog-nising that spending per visitor is more importantthan the number of visitors.

Encourage cultural over amusement or recreationaluses for the site, so as to attract serious tourists asopposed to casual sightseers.

Maintain some control over pricing mechanisms,which means controlling real estate prices and nego-tiating restraint agreement.”

Although the above may sound somewhat elitist, it isadvisable to always keep in mind the type ofvisitor/tourist one wishes to attract to a heritage site orcultural activity more generally, and organise the condi-tions for participation accordingly, so that localresources are not exposed to undue stress.

4.21 Having the profile of tourist in mind, several alter-native forms of tourism have started to develop. Theseforms address ‘niche markets’ and tend to attract moreresponsible tourists. Examples, under the general termof rural tourism (see Thematic Guide One) include ‘Eco-tourism’, ‘Green Tourism’, ‘Farm Tourism’, ‘SportsTourism’, ‘Adventure Tourism’, ‘Archaeological Tourism’

etc, all based upon the cultural resources of a naturalarea and its communities, offering low-scale but sus-tainable economic results (Hall and Lew, 1998).

Cultural goods4.22 Although everyone agrees that it is difficult todefine cultural goods precisely, it is suggested to recog-nise them as goods that are continuously being updat-ed to incorporate new references and knowledge(OECD, 2005). Even things like handicrafts undergo con-stant adjustment to reflect new technical achievementsand changes in taste. Technological innovation is indeeda challenge for rural areas, firstly because they do nothave as good an access to it as urban areas have; andsecondly because new technologies have allowed origi-nal cultural products to be copied, industrially producedand marketed at very low prices, thus undermining theauthentic products and discouraging their productionby local people. The example of Crete is characteristic ofthe problem: traditional woven products and lace sold incrafts shops are manufactured in Taiwan or Korea andsold to tourists without a mention of the origin of theirproduction. They are indeed exact copies of the originalitems and only a trained eye can tell that they are notauthentic. The price they are being sold at is only a frac-tion of the authentic items' price. This has resulted inCretan women abandoning the loom and knitting,because even charging low wages could not achieve acomparable price to the imported items.

4.23 The situation described above has led to an inter-esting development in Crete: small firms have been setup which produce modern versions of traditional items,mostly woven or embroidered. These goods do not pre-tend to be handmade items, and use the traditionaldesigns or variations of these designs in more modernversions to create a different kind of cultural good,which is representing the heritage of Crete but is adapt-ed to contemporary needs and the demand of the mar-ket. These goods are bought by Cretans and touristsalike. Some of these firms have diversified their designand improved the aesthetic results of their products tosuch an extent that their brand name is sought after inthe domestic and foreign markets as a design productof value. A few firms have gone into fashion design, onsimilar lines, with comparable success.

4.24 One of the main factors that determine the contri-bution of cultural goods to the local economy, like anyother goods, is their distribution. Tourism is a significantsource of clients, at least for some of these goods thatare destined for the visitor as souvenirs, making theirdistribution easy. However, if such goods can reach awider market, the right distribution channels must beidentified and used. Furthermore, there are two meth-ods that may help the rural cultural goods reach a widermarket: labelling and the information society.

Labelling has been initially connected with the pro-tection of cultural products and the safeguarding oftheir authenticity. However, there is a great deal ofcontroversy over such protection. Debates within the



Responsible tourism development is a top priority for many ruralcommunities (Orkney, Scotland)

European Commission and in the World TradeOrganisation have done little to move this idea for-ward. An alternative approach has been favoured bysome countries which have introduced labels allow-ing creators to achieve greater visibility and to makeuse of existing protection mechanisms in their owncountry. An example of this is the ‘Living HeritageEnterprise’ label in France. The intention behindlabelling is to recognise the specific features of acraft or an enterprise; and highlight the originality ofthe knowledge, skills and artistic input, as well as itseconomic vulnerability.

The opportunities offered by the information societyis another factor that can help the viability and eco-nomic success of cultural products. ICT can highlightthe quality of cultural products, make them knownthrough the internet and encourage networkingbetween producers and their suppliers, distributionchains and other producers of complementary cul-tural goods. In Thematic Guide Two, it has beenshown how the skilful use of ICT may help rural soci-eties and rural enterprises to face technical, financialand cultural barriers. An overview

4.25 The contribution of culture to the local develop-ment agenda can be summarised under a number ofheadings, as follows:

community regeneration - strengthening of commu-nity ties;

economic regeneration;

environmental protection;

encouragement of the creativity of local people;

improvement of social services, e.g. health and socialcare, etc;

employment opportunities;

investment ;

socio-cultural exchange between local people andvisitors or consumers of cultural goods;

direct and multiplier effects of tourism. (Dodourasand James, 2006).

4.26 The means through which culture is likely to influ-ence local development can be also summarised: (i) bybuilding consensus and improving collaboration - duringthe different phases of development - between theinvolved stakeholders; (ii) by creating an environmentthat is attractive for both the locals and the visitors; and(iii) by influencing and promoting a favourable image ofthe local area and its products.

4.27 Reflecting on the main outcomes of Chapter 2, wecan observe that the difficulty in dealing with sustain-able development with a focus on culture lies in movingaway from old ideas rather than understanding newones. Culture can significantly contribute to sustainablelocal development under certain conditions: increasedpublic awareness of the cultural heritage and the valueof creativity; efficient management of the culturalresources; and involvement of local communities in themanagement of their cultural assets (ICOMOS, 2002)



Tourism is a significant source of clients for cultural goods

A local open market of handicrafts in Malmo, Sweden, adds lifeto the historic centre of the city



Questions arising from Chapter 4to reflect on

1. Make a list of the long and short-term culturalassets in your area, and the cultural goods thatare produced, be them traditional or modern.How are they connected to economic activitiesgenerating income for the local communities?

2. Has your area developed tourism based on its cul-tural heritage or modern cultural products? Ifnot, choose another area where this has hap-pened. Describe the processes of developing cul-ture-based tourism. Who started the idea? Who isinvolved now? How is the culture of the arealinked to tourism?

3. Can you think of two examples of direct econom-ic return of tourism to the local community andtwo examples of multipliers?

4. Is the local population involved in the decisions todevelop tourism? What was the process of involv-ing the population?

5. Can you think of any cultural goods that are pro-duced in your area, the production of whichdepend on tourism? Is there a question ofauthenticity? Are there copies of the authenticitems in the market? How have the local peoplehandled issues of authenticity?

6. Are local enterprises, either those connected totourism or to the production of cultural products,using the internet? How are they using it in rela-tion to the promotion of their business?

7. Are there any labels in your country to pro-tect/make visible certain cultural products or cul-tural enterprises? If yes, can you describe them?

The cover of Tourist Guide Three: Sportspeople and athletes

The cover of Tourist Guide One: Families and preschool children



Kamnik is an old town surrounded by green hillsand the high peaks of the Kamnik - Savinj Alps.It is only 23 kilometres away from Ljubljana, the

capital city of Slovenia. This is a region with rich cul-tural and natural heritage. As a result, many and dif-ferent types of tourists visit the region every year.

In order to promote its image as a popular touristdestination, the local Agency for Tourism andBusiness Development has published tourist guidesfor distinct groups of tourists, i.e. families with pre-school children (Tourist Guide One), groups of schoolchildren and other youth groups (Tourist Guide Two),and for recreational tourists, sportspeople, athletes,and seekers of sports activities for groups (TouristGuide Three). The fourth tourist guide is designed totarget the pensioners.

Tourist Guide One was designed as a picture book,with illustrations, short texts, riddles, tasks, questionsand photos. Its title is ‘Maja explores Kamnik and itssurroundings’. The main figure is a small girl namedMaja, who is very interested in learning new thingsabout her region and then present them to othersmall children.

The second tourist guide has been adapted to thecurriculum of many local schools and is suitable forcultural and sports days, particularly for multi-daycamps. It is also useful for individual explorers andavailable for children with special needs.

The Kamnik region is considered as the cradle ofsome top Slovenian athletes. Tourist Guide Three pro-poses various adventures for all age groups, e.g. fromexperiences full of adrenalin to complete relaxation.

All guides provide valuable information relating to theregion's cultural and natural heritage, e.g. castles,museums, friary, old houses, park, spa centre, valleys,ecological farms, etc. In addition, a map with infor-mation about events, places to eat and drink, dis-counts, service providers and their programmes,advertisements, etc is included in all tourist guides.

The local Agency for Tourism and BusinessDevelopment believes that these guides will help todevelop the local tourism industry, raise awareness ofthe local culture and promote sustainable rural devel-opment in Kamnik commune.


Adela Ramovs, [email protected]

www.kamnik-tourism.si,

Case study 4.1.Cultural and Natural Heritage in Kamnik, Slovenia



It all started in 1990 with the Integrated RuralDevelopment and Village Renovation Programme(CRPOV). With the support of FAO3 and the Bavarian

Ministry for Agriculture, CRPOV used a bottom-upapproach, targeting initially 14 local project-areas todevelop 25 Wine Trails around the country, involving thelocal communities in the process. Not all of these trailswere commercially successful, but they helped to startthe local development process.

Some years later, the Regional Chamber of Commerceof the region of Dolenjska and Bela Krajina accepted aninvitation by a consortium -who in 1996 securedEuropean Union funding- to launch two pilot projects tocreate Heritage Trails in Slovenia and Bulgaria respec-tively.

The project team defined a Heritage Trail as ‘a regionalnetwork of natural and cultural heritage sites, which iscreated within a well-defined product identity, in orderto support an interesting and varied tourist visit of up toone week’. The team studied a range of heritage sites;identified those sites that might attract visitors; andworked closely with the landowners and with local peo-ple to decide whether the sites had the capacity toreceive visitors. For the Slovenian Dolenjska and BelaKrajina Heritage Trail some 150 sites were identified and28 were selected for inclusion in a heritage trail system.

A major result of this work was the creation of a region-al partnership of 32 organisations from the public, pri-vate and NGO sectors, which signed an agreement toco-operate in the Dolenjska and Bela Krajina HeritageTrail's implementation phases of marketing and productdevelopment. For marketing purposes, a commercialpartner - Kompas Novo mesto, was brought into thepartnership in 2001. Kompas was to act as the market-ing agency on behalf of the HT partnership.

Tthe official launch of the product was in 1997, at theWorld Travel Market in London, but things started mov-ing only four years later, when the support of a touristindustry adviser was sought, and a much more profes-sional presence was achieved in London, supported bythe Slovenian Tourism Board. Further research and mar-keting effort went into the promotion of the trail in thefollowing years.

This HT partnership, working under the umbrella of theRegional Chamber of Commerce, is now 13 years old,and is still going strong. Some useful conclusions havecome out from this initiative. Because the HT was pre-ceded by the work by the CRPOV project, a community-based approach to development had already been built,and tourism was established as a component of a mixedeconomy. This created a hope of sustainability,

strengthened by the local communities' support for adiversified economy. The following are some key con-clusions:

a) Heritage-based tourism, if it is to be sustainable,must, fitrstly show respect for the carrying capacity ofheritage resources; and secondly, secure the involve-ment of rural communities and their commitment totourism development.

b) Rural tourism products have to be adjusted to fitniche market demands that are highly competitive inter-nationally. Thus market awareness and understandingmust be built-in early in the development process.

c) New tourist destinations are very difficult to launchinternationally, even if they have high accessibility,unless they can be linked to existing tourism models ortourism magnets. d) The ‘gateway’ is critical in a newproduct formulation, whether this is an airport, seaport,railway station etc. A gateway within an attractive her-itage city (like Ljubljana) adds great value to the finalproduct.

e) Continuity and calibre of personnel is of real impor-tance: the project manager's role has been critical overthe years of the HT development.

f) Multi-layer support at local, regional, national, andinternational levels from a range of stakeholders, includ-ing small rural operatives, and major agencies, has con-solidated success.

For more information, contact:

Dr. Marko Koscak, Heritage Trail Manager,

[email protected]

Case Study 4.2.Dolenjska - Bela Krajina heritage trail, Slovenia

Slovenian manor house, part of the Heritage Trail

3 Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations



Case Study 4.3.Culture Heritage of the Land that Sings and Dances, Latvia

Non-Latvians may find it hard to comprehend theimportance of the Latvian Song and DanceFestival that takes place in Riga once every five

years, and takes over the hearts and minds of the entirenation. The simple fact is that the festival is inextricablybound with Latvia's veryidentity.

Latvian folksongs, Dainas,can be traced back manycenturies and it is estimatedthat over 1.2 million exist -making Latvian oral traditionone of the richest in theworld. Dainas are character-istically made up of quat-rains, or four-lined stanzas,

and their topics usually include philosophies on life, love,the world order and the important rites of passage sur-rounding birth, marriage and death.

Latvians organised their first Song Festival in Riga in1873 in which 45 choirs and 1019 participants took part.

At the 2003 Song andDance Festival over 30,000participants, 300 differentchoirs, more than 500dance groups, plus 57 brassbands, three symphonicorchestras and one cham-ber orchestra took part.Much of the aim of the fes-tival was to help foster inLatvians a sense of nationalidentity - and this certainlyworked, as in 1918, duringthe aftermath of the FirstWorld War and the RussianRevolution, Latvia declared

itself an independent state.

Each region of Latvia developed its own distinctive tra-ditions regarding costumes. Tied as they were to theirhomes and lands, farmers were acquainted only withtheir immediate vicinity but were ignorant of the tradi-tions and practices or more distant villages. Everythingnecessary for fashioning the national costumes accord-ing to regional traditions was found at home. As long asthese traditions were observed, the national costumesretained their distinctive designs. Home-made costumesfor daily wear preserved traditional features longer thandid festive costumes, which were more susceptible toinfluences from the city. Exceptions were some regionsin Kurzeme-Nica, Rucava, and Alsunga, where festivecostumes remained unchanged until the mid-twentiethcentury, although ordinary garments were storebought. Traditions governing national costumes are stillalive in these regions.

The Latvian Song and Dance Festival was recentlybestowed the title of ‘Masterpiece of the Oral andIntangible Heritage of Humanity’ by UNESCO. The lastfestival took place in Mezaparks and Skonto Stadium inRiga, 5th-12th of July 2008.


http://www.li.lv/en/,

http://www.dziesmusvetki2008.lv

Folk dancing is very popular in Latvia



Case Study 4.4.The Kalamata International Dance Festival

If one has to describe a festival highly encouraged andsupported by the local authorities of the area thathosts it, this is definitely the Kalamata International

Dance Festival.

Kalamata, situated in the Southern part of thePeloponnese, is a beautiful rural area almost three and ahalf hours' drive from Athens. Knowing that performingarts and especially the art ofdance, had no real future inthe Greek periphery, sincemost of the dance schools,dance companies and the-atres have been gathered inAthens and Thessaloniki, theinauguration of the Festivalthirteen years ago repre-sented an encouraging ini-tiative for the Greek and theInternational Dance world.

Since then the KalamataInternational Dance Festivalhas been a key event nation-ally and internationally andlead to the establishment ofthe city's InternationalDance Centre. The Centrewas founded in the spring of1995, charged with support-ing and promoting the artof dance via research, edu-cation, artistic activities andcreativity.

After thirteen years of activepresence in the Greek dancescene, thanks to the supportof the local authorities, theKalamata Festival hasearned itself a special placeon the festival map of theMediterranean South, andbuilt bridges to international dance creativity.

A number of influential figures, whose work is shapingthe history of contemporary dance made their firstGreek appearance at Kalamata, while the Festival hasalso taken care to promote and support Greek creativityin the field by commissioning works from talented Greekchoreographers and supporting new companies in theirexperimental explorations.

Another part of the Festival is the seminars and talksaimed at dance students and professionals alike, whileother parallel activities include publications and videodance productions.

From the very start, the Festival was programmed withtwo considerations in mind: the wide range of trends in

contemporary dance and the ever-larger audiences thisart-form attracts. Today, thirteen years on, everyevening sees a widely-varied international audienceenthusiastically respond to the call of the Festival.

The Festival is funded by the Ministry of Culture and theMunicipality of Kalamata.


http://www.kalamatadancefestival.gr

The Batcheva Dance Company at the Kalamata festival



Traditional food is served at panegyria

Case Study 4.5.Panegyria, Greece

Panegyria, a word deriving from the ancient Greekphrase ðÜíôåò áãåßñïíôáé (=all celebrate) aremainly associated with Saints' days and holy cele-

brations of the Greek Orthodox Church. They have botha sacred and social character as they are events whichon the one hand strengthen religious identity and onthe other hand offer opportunities for socialisation andentertainment. They vary in duration, but they cannotlast less than two days.

The most exciting panegyria are the ones at remotechurches and monasteries, many of which involve a longwalk over the hills, such as the celebrations of churchesdedicated to Profitis Ilias (Prophet Elijah), built at moun-tain tops.

Although customs differ from one region to another,the first day of a panegyri usually starts at sunset, andthe festivities mark the eve of the ‘official’ Saint's day.The celebrations begin with an ‘esperinos’ - a vesper orevening service. At the end of this, five loaves of tradi-tional sweet bread which have been blessed by thepriest and cut into big pieces are brought round in abasket and shared among the participants. Then the

serious feasting begins! The rural churches usually havea separate building (often larger than the church itself)where the food is cooked. There will be long tables,where everyone will eat (in shifts, as there is neverenough room for all the people at once!). Those waitingoutside for their turn to eat will be entertained by musi-cians. When everyone has eaten, the music and tradi-tional dances continue until well into the night. The fol-lowing morning the atmosphere is more serious. In thechurch there is a solemn leturgy (mass), which beginsvery early.

The panegyria in parish churches in the villages are morerestrained, but hospitality is still essential! Here the priestis likely to announce after the morning service thateveryone is invited for coffee in the local cafe.

This type of celebrations are points of reference for therural population, as the days of panegyria are usuallyholidays (in some cases the only holidays) and they areassociated with various social activities. Being customspassed on from generation to generation, panegyriadepict the social cohesion and local identity of an areaeven in present days.

Panegyria are also com-bined with fairs: they offera great opportunity fortrade, as during a panegyripeople from all the sur-rounding areas come tocelebrate and local traderscan sell their goods to largecrowds. Therefore, beyondtheir sacred and social char-acter, panegyria can beexcellent occasions forstrengthening the localeconomy.

For more information conact:

Louisa Karapidaki, [email protected]



Local distinctiveness5.4 The term local distinctiveness has been recentlyused widely to describe what is also referred to as ‘senseof place’. Local distinctiveness embodies all that makesa place unique, in terms of nature and culture, history

local activities, through, for example, legislation andgovernment policy. International organisations exercisealso influence, through the global economy, the cultur-al industries or political intervention (e.g. the EuropeanCommission).

5.3 These levels cannot be separated and individualsmay, in their different roles, function at different levels.Thus, interaction between the levels also takes place.According to Barth, at the micro level people formulatetheir own local identities and culture in constant inter-action with their surroundings, while local organisationsdefine local cultures in reciprocity with their widernational and international organisations. In this context,some tension may arise within local communities andbetween communities and their wider national andglobal cultural environments, if local and/or national andinternational organisations produce identities andimages that are in conflict with the realities of everydaylife in the rural (local) place.



The role of cultural agent5.1. We have already talked about mobilising and involv-ing local communities in local development, taking as astarting point the local culture and identity. We willexamine in this chapter these qualities and features ofrural communities, which, forming part of their culture,can become the springboard for local development.Rural communities become ‘cultural agents’ in thesense that they, as culture producers, develop and proj-ect these parts of their culture that can be shared withothers, providing economic value. Under this frame-work, a number of issues emerge, which are crucial forunderstanding the cultural agent's role and the processof activating this role while pursuing local developmentobjectives. These issues examine:

Rural communities as producers of culture.

Raising awareness of rural communities' own cultureand its value.

Local identity building through heritage or contem-porary cultural production.

Building on the area's distinctiveness to promotelocal development.

Culture as a facilitator of collective action.

Interaction between the two roles of rural communi-ties, namely those of cultural agents and local devel-opment agents

Effects of multiculturalism on local culture and localdevelopment.

5.2 To put the role of local communities as culturalagents into context, it is useful to refer to the concep-tual model of the Norwegian anthropologist FredrikBarth (1994) who examined ethnicity in everyday life ofpeople and in the activities of organisations at differentlevels. According to Barth, we need to refer to three lev-els of cultural environment in order to understand howlocal cultural processes develop:

a) The micro level concerns the everyday life of individ-uals. At this level cultural entities with clear borders donot exist; on the contrary, individuals differ betweenthem and also one individual can in different situationsand at different times assume different identities.

b) The middle level concerns local communities andtheir organisation models, socially and administratively.The impetus here is to create a ‘sense of community’and motivate people to reach a common goal.

c) The macro level concerns actors in national and inter-national organisations who create the framework for

Local distinctiveness is about the unique, the familiar,the sense of history and local identity

C H A P T E R 5.

Mobilising Rural Communities as CulturalAgents



and perceptions. It is a dynamic concept, changing asplaces change, including the invisible as well as the visi-ble: symbols, festivals and legends, hedgerows, hills andhouses (Clifford and King, 2006). Locality is important indefining distinctiveness: archaeology, architecture,landscape, language, food, folklore, events and allthings that interact with one another at the level of thestreet, the neighbourhood, the community. CommonGround, a non-profit association dedicated to makinglocal distinctiveness more visible, describes locality asshown in the box.

Unfortunately, much of the fact-gathering, analysis andpolicy making leave out the very things that make aplace distinct, the things that make people love theirplace and identify with it.

Raising awareness about localdistinctiveness5.6 The largest part of the distinctiveness of a rural placestems, therefore, from the cultural heritage of the localcommunities. All rural areas have a distinct cultural andhistoric heritage and living ‘folk’ culture, which is cele-brated with traditional folk music, song, dance, andstory telling and through the preservation and interpre-tation of local history and built heritage. These activitiesenhance community pride, encourage local people toparticipate in their community, share their knowledgeand experience and celebrate their own folk traditions.However often local people:

Do not have the knowledge to undertake the techni-cal aspects of researching or safeguarding their her-itage.

Do not have the confidence to perform in public -dancing, storytelling or playing an instrument.

Can also believe that what is important to them local-ly to celebrate is not interesting to visitors or tourists.

Do not appreciate the steps to be taken to interpret,package and market local heritage and culture, sothat they become the ‘cultural agents’ of their local-ity.

It is very important, therefore, to spend time with localpeople helping them to develop a more professionalapproach to cultural activities, encouraging more peo-ple to participate. This applies to the activities them-selves; to the festivals and events at which local peoplecan showcase these activities. It also pays to try and

5.5 According to the above definition, distinctiveness isnot the same as diversity, and involves much more thanvariety. Just as nature is always experimenting, a localitymust also be open to change. However, as change mayenrich the locality, it may also deplete its richness. Massproduction, fashion, increased mobility, promotion ofcorporate identity, are just a few factors that havebrought to rural areas uniform shop fronts, farm build-ings, factories, forests and front doors, while intensivefarming has created a bland, unfriendly countryside. Insuch an environment, it is the detail, the little thingsthat make the difference in the ‘sense of place’ wehave. It is the unusual, the special, the idiosyncratic orthe rare that may be important factors in giving a placea sense of itself. But it is also the commonplace -thelocally abundant plants, the wall-building materials, theaccents and dialects- that defines the context whichprovides the ‘binding force’ for the unusual.

The human scale defines locality

LLOOCCAALLIITTYY

Scale is important, as is the question who definesit. We are talking of a fineness of grain -the neigh-bourhood, the locality, the parish, the housingestate, the village, the suburb, perhaps even thestreet, as defined by those who live and work andplay there…..

When things are looked at on a larger scale, sen-sitivity is lost. People become "the public"; streetsand fields become "sites"; woods and streamsbecome "natural resources". These abstractionsrender professionals forgetful of lives, livelihoodsand places. "Regions" are generally defined fromthe outside in; they are about form and function;they are academic, institutional or political cre-ations. Locality needs to be defined from theinside…

While we have made the world smaller with trains,boats, planes, cars we still have to pace most ofour activities to our own size and our own walk-ing. It is at this scale and speed that we see andsavour most.

Source: Celebrating Local Distinctiveness, Cliffordand King, 2006.



engage local businesses, helping them realise the bene-fits of highlighting to potential visitors the range andspecial nature of local culture and heritage. The exam-ple of PLANED provides an illustration of how this can beachieved (Asby, 2007).

5.7 PLANED is a local partnership in Pembrokeshire, WestWales, which has taken the form of a non-profit associ-ation, helping local communities to become their own‘cultural agents’ and ‘local community agents’. Localpride and confidence is seen as an important precursorto local cohesion, regeneration and sustainable eco-nomic development. Thus, the organisation is assistinglocal people to value, celebrate and gain economic ben-efit from their heritage and culture through a numberof local projects. One of them is ‘Sense of Place’,described below in the box.

5.8 Celebration is also important to communities, toraise awareness about their own culture and strengthentheir identity. This can be done through heritage exhi-bitions, festivals, competitions and re-enactments ofhistorical events. However, when such celebrationsbecome a tourist attraction, the whole process maybecome degraded and results, regarding the local iden-tity building, not as expected. An example is provided bythe island of Gotland, in Sweden, where the local com-munities used to organise a ‘medieval festival’ includingre-enactment of an important historical event, dressedup in medieval cloths, singing and dancing traditionalsongs and eating and drinking traditional specialities.This festival, which was initiated by local people to cele-brate the end of the tourist season for the island andthe return to their normal, off-peak occupations, wasdiscovered by tourists and a new wave of tourism wasset in motion, based exactly on this festival. However,following this development, the festival lost most of itsmeaning for local people, since it became a consump-tive good for outsiders.

5.9 Tourism has been accused to be a threat to local dis-tinctiveness and local cultural identity. Rural placesexperiencing a high load of tourists risk adapting theirculture to the demands of global tourism, at the cost oflosing their cultural identity. Global tourists look forsomething different and original. This may be found ina place where it is possible to create the atmosphere ofpast times, as seen from the perspective of globaltourists. This type of demand may lead to either loss ofauthentic local culture or ‘freezing’ it to death.

• In the first case, commercialisation may lead to imita-tions of cultural activities or products, which havebeen created for mass production, pretending tolook like the authentic, but being far removed fromit. This has been also discussed in Chapter 4, in rela-tion to cultural goods that are destined for thetourist market.

• In the second case, the danger is that local culturewill be protected to death, adhering to a ‘frozen’past. The image of a ‘frozen’ culture is contradictoryto the varied, heterogeneous and dynamic everydaylife of the rural community. Although the image of an

SSEENNSSEE OOFF PPLLAACCEE pprroojjeecctt

1. In each of the participating villages, a group ofinterested members of the community are assistedto research their local heritage and plan local bi-lin-gual heritage leaflets, which provide vital informa-tion on the area. The leaflets contain illustrations bylocal artists. The historical and natural historyresearch also provides information for interpretativepanels which are situated, together with car parkingin amenity areas, in the heart of the communities.This process has been excellent in bringing togetherthe often Welsh speaking indigenous local popula-tion and Non-Welsh into the area.

2. In the same villages, local people frequently haveidentified special heritage sites in need of safe-guarding which could form the basis of rural tourismtrails. Whilst many of these sites are important tolocal people, they have not rated highly on the agen-das of key heritage/ conservation agencies; howev-er, as a source of local pride, an opportunity forencouraging tourists into rural areas and as resourcefor skills training, they have proved invaluable.

3. From the village centre amenity areas, the localfootpath network can be accessed, providing atourism resource for walking and cycling holidays.Wherever possible, it also provides access to localhistoric sites that have been identified as importantto the community.

4. The practical work offered a major training oppor-tunity to up-skill local building workers, because ofan almost total lack of heritage restoration skills inthe area. 25 building companies are now successful-ly tendering for heritage restoration work in thearea. Two historic sites were purchased by the localauthority.

5. Well attended heritage workshops include the"Recording Your Oral Past". In one community,Carew, this has led to a major oral history project"Changing Times in Carew" which has involved thewhole community, young and old alike.

6. A number of communities have identified a spe-cial interest in military history, therefore, a group hasbeen established that is producing a user-friendlyguide to assist the work of local people in theirresearch. So far the chronological military history of20 communities has been compiled. It is anticipatedthat this work will lead to thematic routes and aniche military heritage tourism product.

7. Two ballad competitions have been held to revivethe art of ballad writing and performing. The ideacame from the re-enactment of a local historicevent - the Rebecca Riots, when news was passedthrough word of mouth and local ballad singers. Abi-lingual ballad writing and singing competitionattracted 30 entries.

authentic culture with roots in former lifestyles isimportant for many rural inhabitants, especially foridentifying with their home region, we have toaccept that culture is living and changing, and refusalto adapt continuously is destined to undermine thelocal culture itself. The image of the past is just onepart of the authentic, heterogeneous and changingcultural process that takes place at the local level inrural territories.

Involving the community in localdevelopment5.10 Local development is built on partnerships, andone of the basic partners is usually the local authority.Public participation in decisions that concern localdevelopment has emerged as a major issue of localdemocracy in the last 40 or so years. However, involvinglocal communities in decisions about their developmentis not a simple matter. It requires, firstly, that both com-munity members and administrators have the capacityto enter a dialogue and negotiate productively over pos-sible differences of view and opinion; and secondly, itrequires awareness of the different means and methodsby which such participation will become effective inlocal development terms. People can be involved in localdevelopment mainly in three ways:

• By taking part in the decisions drawn by politiciansand technocrats, through public participation proce-dures.

• By taking business initiatives themselves, workingtogether as individuals and businesses to improve theeconomy and quality of their lives.

• By taking collective action, setting up and participat-ing in voluntary organisations of the third sector.

5.11 Let us take the first option, i.e involving people indialogue with the authorities, aiming at reaching a con-sensus in decisions about local development. The fol-lowing diagram presents the ‘Ladder’ of public partici-pation, which was initially introduced by Arnstein andadjusted to modern governance requirements by oth-ers, such as Paul (1987) and Pretty (1995). The first stepof the ladder refers to information divulged to commu-

nity members, the second step to consultation, thethird to partnership and the fourth to empowerment ofthe community for self-mobilisation. The ideal level, asfar as the authorities are concerned, is partnership,where joint decisions are taken with representatives ofthe community. As far as the community is concernedhowever, the ideal level is self-mobilisation, where theycan impact their future directly, by undertaking localdevelopment initiatives.

5.12 Another important issue in the course of localdevelopment is the building of partnerships, theencouragement of collective action and the creation ofsocial capital in a community. Social capital has beenaddressed at length in Thematic Guide Four. Here, wewill emphasise some basic points:

Social capital strengthens the relationships within thelocal community, making its members more capableto address their collective needs and take action.

Rural movements promote the participation of civilsociety in the processes of planning, decision-makingand implementation of rural development.

Local partnerships, bringing together many differentactors from the public and private sectors, have beenproved to be more effective in terms of local devel-opment, than single organisations.

5.13 However, to embark on partnerships, it is necessaryfor a rural community to have established a collectivebody that would be capable of representing the inter-ests of the community in public decisions. The ruralmovement in Finland provides an example of theprocess of building social capital in rural communitiesthrough the establishment of a representative collectivebody, the village association (see box below).

5.14 Building partnerships at local level, implies that acommon vision, a common understanding and commoncultural awareness exist among all partners. A methodfor reaching this awareness is the futures workshops(Jungk & Mullert 1987) used in Finland.

In these workshops both local inhabitants and otheragents from different regional organisations work joint-ly to understand and develop further local cultural pro-



Futures workshops help to create a common visionamong partners

Public participation in policy decisions: THE “LADDER”

SELF-MOBILISATIONThe citizens are encouraged and empoweredto take initiatives, with support from government,NGOs or private companies

PARTNERSHIPThe citizens are invited to participate indecisions through external agencies

CONSULTATIONThe opinions of the citizens are sought, butwithout obligation to take them on board

INFORMATIONThe citizens are informed about what has beendecided/happened

duction. In the workshop, all the participants have anequal opportunity to influence the direction of culturalchange in their own locality. The work is always collec-tive, and requires collaboration with different actorsfrom the public, private and voluntary sectors involvedin the process. The strength of the method is that itmakes possible to reach both individual and organisa-tional views for constructing a common future.

5.15 The work of futures workshops is part of the localinteractive cultural process, organised to reach a com-mon target. The working process results in common cul-tural products and cultural images or identities of localcommunities defined by all the different actors involvedin the process. The basic task of futures workshops is tocreate new ideas for constructing the future of a select-ed sphere of life in cooperation with other people. Forthis purpose it has its own special working structure andprinciples for action. The development work in work-shops consists mainly of discussions and the writing ofexercises, which are transparent for all participants. Themethod has the following principles:

empowerment of each member and cooperationwith other people in the workshop;

work based on the analysis of the present state ofaffairs of a topic;

open and rich creation of different ideas concerningthe possible futures of the selected topic within adefined time horizon;

evaluation of the ideas that emerge;

formulation of a concrete action plan, through whichit is possible to reach the desired future from thepresent situation;

commitment of participants to realise action plans.

5.16 As an epilogue to this chapter, it may be worthrepeating that the basic quality of culture is change.Central questions considering the changing culture ofrural communities are: who defines the direction ofchanges of culture in different localities? Are changesdefined by local inhabitants, or by local, national orinternational organisations? Is the defining power most-ly on micro, middle or macro level using the terms ofFredrik Barth? A message, instead of answers, would bethat it is important to empower local inhabitants to takepart in a cultural process where their own local cultureand identities are defined. When acting upon this prin-ciple, local inhabitants will more easily be committed tocultural changes that are necessary and may be plannedby local administration. Thus it may become possible tocreate a culturally sustainable change, which takes intoconsideration the cultural welfare and sovereignty ofthe local communities (Siivonen 2002a; Siivonen2002b).



Appreciation of cultural heritage starts from early age,through the active involvement of children.

TThhee VViillllaaggee mmoovveemmeenntt iinn FFiinnllaanndd

During the 1980s, the village movement took shapein Finland. Village committees were established, opento all village residents, to cover almost the wholecountry. Cooperation, voluntary work (‘talkoot’ inFinnish) and influencing the decision makers at dif-ferent government levels were among the aims ofthe movement. The self-esteem of the villages wasrestored, although the results in practice were limit-ed to free expression of opinion and joint voluntarywork.

In the 1990s the village committees were trans-formed to associations and cooperatives to make itpossible to use public funds. Funding came from dif-ferent EU initiatives and projects, and in the 21st cen-tury, the Finnish government also provided signifi-cant part of this. The associations started concretedevelopment work, taking economic risks as well.Today, 2300 villages of the total of 3900 in Finlandhave a village association.

Questions arising from Chapter 5 to reflect on:

1. Have you promoted local identity though your own work? How?

2. Have local inhabitants in your area been involved in the creation of local identities? How?

3. What is the relationship between local cultural production and local development actors in your area?

4. Have community involvement techniques been used in your area to encourage local cultural production?Please describe them.

5. If not, what do you think could be the benefits of using community involvement techniques (such as thefutures workshops, for example) in local cultural production?



Common Ground, based in Shaftesbury, Dorset, is acharity that plays a unique role in linking natureand culture. The local, as the charity explains, is

where we work, live and play; yet ordinary lives, every-day nature, commonplace histories are often taken forgranted. Common Ground has championed involve-ment and celebration as one starting point for localaction and pioneered the idea of local distinctiveness -the particular weave of places with ordinary culture,everyday nature, commonplace buildings and land-scapes.

The idea of local distinctiveness is now commonly usedin the fields of design, planning, tourism, heritage andthe natural environment.

Common Ground believes that our localities need ourconstant attention, and its task is to excite people -locals and visitors - with ways of getting under the sur-face of places, offering a way of looking at localities, akind of evolving celebration along with ideas for effect-ing change.

The aspiration of Common Ground is to elevate the smallthings which make a place important to people, encour-aging them to become involved in making their sur-roundings better for nature as well as daily life. Throughits projects, publications, exhibitions and eventsCommon Ground has gained an international reputationfor ‘innovation and creativity, coupled with excellenceand accessibility’. It has also been awarded the firstPrudential Award for Visual Arts, a Schumacher Awardand the Special Glenfiddich Award.

In May 2006 the book ENGLAND IN PARTICULAR - a kindof encyclopaedia of local distinctiveness was launched,extensively championing the importance of variegation,with England as the example. This book is a counterblastagainst loss and uniformity, and a celebration of justsome of the distinctive details that cumulatively makeEngland.


www.commonground.org.uk,

www.england-in-particular.info

Cover of the Common Ground Publication: England in Particular

Case Study 5.1.England in Particular - The Common Ground



cational films. Currently, the owners are preparing newactivities and attractions, such as modelling of insectsusing silicone and resin, an activity that can assistschoolchildren in understanding how insects can seeand breathe.

In the central part of the area, there is a huge play-ground for children with a separate archaeological site.Children can make their own excavations in the sandand unearth a dinosaur's skeleton or other pieces of fos-sils. In the end, they are awarded a Treasure Diggerdiploma. In the archaeological site, children are giventhe tasks of real archaeologists and the lucky ones caneven find a piece of gold or even pieces of teeth of pre-historic sharks.

The Kolacinek Dino Park lures visitors with its charmingbotanical garden and the 19th century country manorhouse that once belonged to Maria Walewska, famousfor her love affair with Napoleon Bonaparte. Thefounders' ambitious goal is to bring back the historicbuilding to its original magnificence. Another strongpoint of the Dino Park is the friendly, homely and relax-ing atmosphere. Briefly, the Dino Park is a typical exam-ple of how passion and determination can act as vehi-cles for putting ideas into practice and help promotesustainable development.


Malgorzata Pilawska, [email protected]

While exploring the Polish cultural and naturalheritage, tourists can find an unusual place,located in Central Poland. This place is called

Dino Park and it is situated 40 kilometres from Lodz in acharming and pictorial village called Kolacinek. The areawhere the Park is, has been shaped and sculpted exquis-itely by the withdrawing Scandinavian glacier thousandsof years ago. As such, it is extremely rich of natural anddiverse ‘prints’ of the last ice age.

Due to its scenic location and clean waters of the tinyMroga River, the area has been given the status of anational nature reserve. Visitors and scientists can findthere many unique species of trees like aged ash trees,oak trees or horse chestnuts.

It is this unique landscape that inspired the developersof Dino Park to create reconstructions of animals thatlived millions years ago. Scientists, palaeontologists andgeologists indeed seem to agree that the idea and loca-tion of Dino Park fits nicely in this landscape shaped bythe glacier.

In this location, Mr. and Mrs. Wegrzynowskis - bothAgriculture Academy graduates - decided to create aunique Jurassic and botanical garden and called itdiminutively Dino Park. The names and figures of tricer-atops, tyrannosaurus rex, dilophosaurus sound familiarto many people, who now have the opportunity to find20 full-size figures of dinosaurs, both carnivorous andherbivorous ones, in the Kolacinek village.

The Dino Park can offer a variety of experiences to bothyoung and adult visitors. Visitors can see all dinosaurs ondisplay and walk along the Dino trail, to discover thesecrets of palaeontology, helped by tour guides. Theseguided tours lead visitors to various education points. Inone of these, the fossil museum, visitors can examinethe unique fossils and other prehistoric artefacts whichare on display. Another point includes a theatre for edu-

The Park is a popular family attraction

The playground for children in Dino Park

Case Study 5.2.Landscape & Environment - Dino Park, Lodz, Poland

The Bread Museum provides an excellent example ofhow local communities are not simply involved in thedevelopment process but also act as the igniting pointfor it. The Museum represents the power and need oflocal citizens to maintain the local traditions alive.

For more information contact

Louisa Karapidaki, [email protected]



The Bread Museum in Amphikleia is a specialisedmuseum whose main exhibit, bread, is examined inrelation to the local history, community, tradition

and customs, taking also into account the local partic-ularities formulated by the town's geographical positionand climate and the advances in agricultural technology.

The idea for a cultural initiative was borne out the will ofa group of local people who were looking for ways tohelp revive their area, an area that was once very richbut later suffered from general decline. Specifically itwas the Cultural and Dance Association of Amphikleiathat approached the Hellenic Folklore Research Centre,for help. The Centre undertook extensive ethnographicresearch into the area where it discovered Amphikleia'srich tradition in decorative bread-making, and which ledto the creation of this charming rural museum.

The Museum, through its collections attempts to sensi-tise the local community on culture issues and providesan institution for the creative use of the culture heritageof the area.

The Museum, which reflects the regional ethnography,carries out systematic research in order to collect infor-mation for its thematic units and documentation mate-rial from oral tradition. The exhibition does not look, asit happens in other museums, like an orderly storageplace of the past. Instead itfollows a modern museo-logical approach to provideeducational services for thepublic. Each item has itsown identity and becomesa witness pursued by activ-ities of the local communi-ty.

The permanent exhibitionof the Museum presentsthe bread cycle ‘from seedto flour’, cultivation, collec-tion, production, measur-ing, transportation, grind-ing and from ‘flour to bread’ preparation, moulding,decoration, baking. The exhibition is completed withtwo more units, ‘bread in the life style’ and ‘bread intime’. Finally, there is some reference to bread in theeveryday life in Amphikleia.

Furthermore, the exhibition has a narrative nature thatallows the presentation of specialised themes, like theone of Hesiod's plough and of the consecrated bread.

Another collection displayed, that of the CulturalAssociation ‘Dadiotiki Estia’ consists of utensils, textilesand embroidery, folk costumes, bread varieties etc. andconstitutes the core of the exhibits that have beenselected as representative of an extensive cultural her-itage.

Case Study 5.3.The Bread Museum, Greece

of cultural affairs. Some of new cultural activities werealso used as tourist attractions.

Equally important is the fact that local people formednetworks, were they were able to negotiate and formtogether both common elements to cultural identitiesand renewed local cultural activities. Finally, the projectassisted in the integration of cultural affairs in localadministration and local strategic development. That is,it dealt with the ways in which cultural strategies can beconnected to the comprehensive strategic develop-ment process of the whole municipality or town.


Contact Katriina Siivonen, [email protected]



The municipalities in Southwestern Finland realisedthe importance of cultural strategies

The empowerment and participation of local inhabi-tants is crucial for the success of local developmentprojects. The following case studies are useful

examples on local development initiatives and participa-tion of local inhabitants.

Volter Kilpi literature festival in Kustavi,Finland The creation of Volter Kilpi literature festival started as alocal development project financed partly by EU andpartly by local and national sources. It took place firsttime in 1999 and is now an annual event of Kustavi.

The goal for setting up the Literature festival was to raisethe profile of Kustavi. The chosen strategy was to do soby associating Kustavi with literature, thus the idea ofthe festival was introduced. For this project to standany chances of success, active participation by localpeople into the planning process of the project andconsequently the literature festival was actively sought.The project management established several workinggroups, which were functioning in different areas ofactivities. Local entrepreneurs, teachers, authorities andcultural enthusiasts were active in these groups. Theproject management organised also a group with spe-cialists from universities, the library of Turku university,tourism organisations and from Volter Kilpi literatureassociation. All of these groups gave their viewpoints tothe development of the festival.

The audience of the festival consists mainly of summerresidents of Kustavi and visitors from nearby cities andother parts of Finland. Over time the festival has gainedits place as part of the local culture and as part of thelocal identification process. It has also led to variousrelated activities which all help preserve Kustavi’s her-itage: Local schools have used the works of Volter Kilpiin their education; local adults started to read the booksof Volter Kilpi in a local literature circle and a small groupof women sews costumes based on an old model whichare subsequently used during the literature festival.

‘Culture as a resource of countryside’The project Culture as a resource for the countrysidewas carried out in 21 municipalities in the Region ofSouthwest Finland in 2003-2005. The aim of the projectwas to assist 21 rural municipalities in the formation oftheir strategic development plans.

One of the end results of the project was the publicationof a book that included all cultural strategies drafted byparticipating municipalities. However, the main out-come was a range of new, renewed and intensified localcultural activities, which have increased after the proj-ect. Many of the participants have also experiencedcloser co-operation with other active people in the field

Case Study 5.4.Local development work and participation of local inhabitants, Finland



Exhibitions are part of the Games

Kukeri masks

In ancient times the old Thracians held the Kukeri(mummers) ritual games in honour of god Dionysus.That is why these games are also known as the

Dionysus' games. The Kukeri dancers consist of variouscharacters, whose roles are expressed by the masks -Dionysus, satyrs, tsar, harachari, plyuvkachi, startzi, pesy-atzi, etc.

These Games are one of the main traditional New Yearcelebrations in Western Bulgaria. The character of thistradition has not changed much for a century, when itwas first observed and registered for academic purpos-es. It has however adapted to modern times. For exam-ple, in the past, only boys were allowed to participate inthe masked games. Their participation in the survakars'groups secured them the status of eligible young men(between 14 and 16 years of age) fit for marriage.Today, men of every age, women, girls and children canalso perform in the Game's scenario. Also, in past times,the winter (and spring) masked Games had a purelysanctioning function in the transition from one age sta-tus to another. Today, they are more and more culturalentertainments of carnival type.

In March 2007, in a village situated in the municipal dis-trict of Kovachevtzi, which is the administrative centreof 13 villages with population of 3500 people, tookplace the first national workshop for mask making. Inthis workshop participants learnt how to make "kopanki"and "lik" masks. The masks created during this firstnational workshop were used by the participants of thefirst Municipal Festival "The valley of the masks" in March2007, while in June 2007 they became available for pub-lic display.

This initiative was organised within the context of a proj-ect co-financed by the European CULTURE 2000 pro-gramme. The project team intends to organise moreworkshops in the near future and attract more partici-

pants. Moreover, the project team plans to establish anetwork of regional museums, community centres andmunicipal buildings, where a collection of masks will beaccommodated and displayed.

The local population recognise the Games as a main ele-ment of their local identity and the mask-making initia-tive added value to them.

The Games are marked by a series of activities- work-shops, parades, exhibitions - and there are plans to pro-mote this festival at a European and international level.


Leonora Boneva, [email protected]

Case Study 5.5.In Search of Local Identity: Children's Workshop for Mummer (kukeri) Masks, Bulgaria

Cultural diversity as an objective of localdevelopment planning6.1 As mentioned in previous chapters, cultural diversi-ty has emerged as a significant concept at the turn ofthe 21st century, especially as it related to local devel-opment planning. Cultural diversity is a keyword nowin the international debates on cultural policy. Also,such terms as cultural development, cultural participa-tion, cultural vitality or cultural democracy are widelyused by local governments when planning local devel-opment. A commitment to support cultural diversityhas gained momentum, following the approval ofUNESCO"s Declaration (2001) and Convention (2005) oncultural diversity and the approval of Agenda 21 forCulture (2004). According to the Convention:



understood as a possibility to improve the capacitiesand quality of life of inhabitants, in all the dimensionsof human existence (Laaksonen, in UNESCO, 2006). Thisapproach is closely connected to the idea of ‘culturalecosystems’ or ‘cultural ecology’ which allows theimplementation of cultural diversity considerations intopolicies. A cultural ecosystem is encompassing thetotality of local cultural characteristics, human capaci-ties for cultural production, local networks that pro-mote culture and the interventions of the culturalindustries and local government.

A framework for local cultural policies 6.4 The new architecture of effective policies for cul-tural diversity is based on the potential of culturalecosystems and incorporates, according to Mercer (inUNESCO, 2006), the following features:

Forming part of wider policy frameworks and policyobjectives, such as rural regeneration schemes,capacity building, retraining and job creation initia-tives for the creative industries or civic education,community governance and citizenship developmentstrategies.

Following an approach to cultural diversity which isinter-departmental, inter-governmental and interdis-ciplinary, so that resources may be combined andcomplemented and cultural planning becomes partof an integrated local area planning.

Understanding the dynamic and cross-fertilisingnature of the relationship between public fundedculture and the broader commercial and creativeindustries.

Accepting the key role of economic developmentlogics as part of a general shift from ‘deficit funding’to an ‘investment approach’ to culture. This newapproach has been called, in the context of culturaldiversity, ‘productive diversity’ and has been provedby research in some countries (e.g. Australia) to leadto innovation and capacity building for sustainabilityin a creative knowledge economy.

Taking up evaluation of the impacts of cultural diver-sity policies on local development, through the con-struction and application of performance indicators.Local governments in several European and Americancountries have actually started doing this.

6.2 The above definition is made more specific by theERICarts Institute in preparation of the 2007 UNESCOWorld Report on Cultural Diversity. Three elements areemphasised in making the previous definition morespecific: (a) the pluralistic identity and origin of culturalcreators, producers, distributors and audiences; (b) thediversity of artistic and other cultural content whichdiverse audiences can have access to; and (c) thediversity of actors which are involved in decision-mak-ing and funding cultural development. It is alsoemphasised, in the same context, that actions to sup-port and promote cultural diversity achieve sustainabili-ty only when a local basis is secured: history, geogra-phy, characteristics of the population and vitality ofthe civil society are the elements, among other things,that define the local basis.

6.3 Culture can even be considered as the goal todevelopment at the local level, if development is

Part III: Planning AheadC H A P T E R 6.

Planning Rural Development with a Focuson Culture

"Cultural diversity refers to the manifold ways inwhich the cultures of groups and societies findexpression. These expressions are passed on withinand among groups and societies. Cultural diversity ismade manifest not only through the varied ways inwhich the cultural heritage of humanity is expressed,augmented and transmitted through the variety ofcultural expressions, but also through diverse modesof artistic creation, production, dissemination, distri-bution and enjoyment, whatever the means andtechnologies used" (Article 4.1)



6.5 Although the above concepts and guidelines havebeen formulated principally for cities, they apply alsoto rural areas, with some modifications A framework

for local cultural policies is proposed by UNESCO, asshown in the box, modified slightly to apply to ruralareas:

6.6 As already mentioned in previous chapters, the for-mulation of a cultural strategy is the first step to incor-porating culture in rural local development planning.This is however a rather novel concept, which has notyet found wide application, especially in rural areas. Agood practice example is provided by the UK. Althoughthere is no national cultural policy in written form, thereis an emergent structure for such a policy at local level(including rural areas) building upon the encourage-ment of every local authority to develop a Local CulturalStrategy. This is not a statutory requirement, but localauthorities without a cultural strategy will not be in astrong position to apply, for example, for NationalLottery funding to support cultural projects or culturalinfrastructure. The existence of a cultural strategy is alsoa Best Value Performance Indicator which is used inauditing and inspection of the service delivery arrange-ments of local government by the National AuditCommission and can have significant implications forthe funding of cultural services from central govern-ment.

Drawing a cultural strategy to guide ruraldevelopment planning

6.7 When drawing a local cultural strategy, it is vital toanalyse local resources, to elaborate a common vision ofpotential development with a focus on culture, and toplan the necessary investments. Three things should betaken into account in the provisions of the strategy:

The first concerns the influence culture has on theway the local community and local economy is organ-ised: this reflects to a large extent the existence ofsocial capital in the community, the formation ofwhich, as has been discussed in Chapters 2, 4 and 5is aided greatly by the local cultural capital and thecultural identity of the community.

The second concerns the community's willingness forexperimentation and the ability of rural actors tothink in terms of, and undertake projects which inte-grate culture and heritage in the local economicdevelopment process.

The third concerns the role culture plays in a given

FFrraammeewwoorrkk ffoorr llooccaall ccuullttuurraall ppoolliicciieessCCuullttuurraall pprraaccttiicceess aanndd iinnffrraassttrruuccttuurree

1. Definition of culture and cultural diversity / identity

2. Diversity of cultural supply. Cultural facilities and events

3. Audiences and users

4. Policies and programmes to promote citizen participation in culture

CCuullttuurree aanndd ssoocciiaall iinncclluussiioonn

5. Policies and programmes on culture and education

6. Policies and programmes on culture and equality of opportunity

7. Policies and programmes on gender equality

8. Policies and programmes to promote the role of civil society in cultural life

CCuullttuurree,, tteerrrriittoorryy aanndd ppuubblliicc aarreeaass

9. Policies and programmes on culture and rural planning / rural regeneration

10. Use of public spaces for cultural projects

11. Territorial balance of the cultural supply in the region

CCuullttuurree aanndd eeccoonnoommyy

12. Policies and programmes which associate culture and economic development

13. Diversity of economic and financial instruments in support of culture

14. Policies and programmes on culture, local media and Information & Communication Technologies (ICT)

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15. Recognition and implementation of cultural rights at the local level

16. Adhesion to the Agenda 21 for Culture

17. Competencies in culture of local governments, derived from national or regional legislation

18. Bestowment of responsibilities for culture on Local government, through the appointment of specialist staff orset up of a culture department

19. Formulation of a local cultural strategy. Mission and objectives

20. Encouragement of participative structures, such as culture councils for groups of rural communities (at theadministrative level that suits each country)

21. Evaluation of cultural policies.



A workshop of the Cult-Rural project in Stockholm

territory as an agent of social cohesion and socialintegration.

6.8 The idea of a project is often said to lie at the basisof local development experiments. Projects require aninitiative-oriented culture among the local actors (andespecially young people) coupled by the will to investtime, effort and capital. Projects allow local agents tocommunicate with each other, including the publicauthorities, individuals and local NGOs, to strengthenand even reconstruct the identity of their place, to keepimportant economic activities in the hands of the localcommunity and attract new (e.g. tourism), to generatepositive images for the community, re-forge bondsbetween people and communities and develop therequired complementarities, whether of a commercialor non-market nature (OECD, 2005).

6.9 The implementation of projects which build on thecultural heritage and identity of rural communities hasbeen promoted actively by the LEADER Programme withvery good results in some cases. The work of PLANED, acommunity led partnership in the region ofPembrokeshire, West Wales, provides several examplesof a project-driven cultural strategy which involves dif-ferent sections of the local communities in culture-based local development initiatives, with emphasis onentrepreneurship (see also Chapter 5 and Case Study6.2). The success of local initiatives is not, of course,guaranteed. A number of important factors that deter-mine their success should be taken into account, suchas:

Developing a culture-based product that has a valuefor both local people/producers and visitors/con-sumers (e.g. tourism product) based on heritage orcontemporary culture.

Making sure that there is community involvementand community control over the implementation ofthe project.

Promoting ‘new aesthetics’ for the consumer /visitorrather than repeating old and worn out models.

Developing infrastructure and facilities that are use-ful for the local community in the long-term, and atthe same time serve the visitors/ consumers.

Sustaining traditional skills that can be used for thepreservation of local heritage and for the productionof art and craft objects, both traditional and modern.

Creating employment for local people, especially theyoung.

Promoting a culture of entrepreneurship.

Making sure that appropriate training becomes avail-able to local people, allowing them to build theircapacity to take active part in projects.

Making the area known to a wide audience, workingon the ambition to influence the wider culture of thenation or the world.

6.10 The culture of a territory has the option to favouror not the social integration of all members of a com-munity, including minorities defined on the basis of ori-gin, ethnicity, language or personal history (e.g. disabil-

ity, homelessness, addiction etc). A sustainable devel-opment strategy should, however, make sure that socialintegration is promoted and the mutual understandingand cooperation between different social groups is cul-tivated. Culture can play a major role in this respect,although such a role should not be taken for granted,but actively assisted. Although the Council of Europe, intheir 1977 Report painted a rather favourable picture ofthe effects culture can have on social inclusion, the real-ity is rather different. Diverse cultural groups often seekto differentiate themselves from others exactly becausetheir cultural signs do not coincide. The example of aproject carried out in the island of Santorini, Greece, onthe social integration of the large immigrant communi-ty of the island through culture, gave us an indication ofthe necessary components of such a strategy:

Raising the visibility of the minority culture is the firststep to make such a culture known to the local com-munity. Culture facilitates acceptance of othersthrough increased familiarity.

Promoting networking between the different cultur-al groups and with those local actors that can influ-ence the community, e.g. local authority or NGOs.

Building the capacity of the minority cultural groupsto express their culture, exercise their creativity andreinforce their identity.

Creating opportunities for joint production of culturebetween the minority and majority groups of thecommunity, so that at least part of the local culturalproduct is shared by all.

Implementing a cultural strategy byselecting and planning developmentactions6.11 The deployment of cultural activities and culturalproducts in the implementation of a local developmentstrategy is expected to focus mostly on three types ofaction (see also Chapter 4): attracting tourism (day visi-tors or longer-staying tourists); producing creativeproducts; and creating cultural infrastructure. Thesetypes of action could be paralleled to sub-sectors of theculture economy of the area. It would be advisable totry and include in a local strategy all three types of



action, if possible, in order to diversify the cultural prod-uct of the area, address more that one markets and cre-ate inter-dependencies and cross-benefits between thesub-sectors of the cultural economy.

6.12 Tourism is the single activity that dominates cul-ture-focused development thinking, and rural develop-ment planning more generally, because for many con-stitutes the obvious solution to earn revenue out of thelocal heritage. Local heritage sites, natural or cultural,museums, monuments, buildings or complexes of archi-tectural or historic interest, attract visitors. If local facil-ities for accommodation and food are provided, thenthe visitors may become tourists, and stay longer. This isthe principle that has dominated the advent of ruraltourism, and many areas have benefited from it.However, rural tourism, as discussed at length inThematic Guide One, is a complex economic phenome-non, in a sector that is highly competitive and unstable.A separate local strategy for the development oftourism is necessary, which involves a variety of activi-ties, investment and controls, let alone that it needs tobe integrated in a wider regional strategy and a nation-al strategy as well.

6.13 The link between culture and creativity also holdsprospects for local development. The crafts industry,which is closely related to heritage, is an example thatinterlinks closely with tourism. Also modern designinspired by heritage has proved a worthy diversificationof the art and crafts sector, as vividly shown by the sil-ver jewellery crafts in Greece, Bulgaria, Spain and else-where. Some territories famous for a certain type ofcraft (e.g. porcelain, woodcraft, metal) have invited dis-tinguished modern artists to re-design motifs andforms, so that they appeal to the contemporary con-sumer. These linkages between arts, culture and creativ-ity have been noted by Clustering Alliance (2004) insome rural communities. The examples they list, all fromUSA experience, are thought provoking: they rangefrom a plumbing fixture company that has artists-in-res-idence in rural areas around Wisconsin to design newproduct lines with an artistic dimension; to a firm inOhio, which helps local food processing companiesdesign imaginative labelling and tell stories about theirproducts, thus creating brand recognition and makingthem more attractive and localised. Indeed food anddrink are very particular cultural products, which canearn an autonomous place in the local economy, as isthe case with appellation d'origin controlee. Mediaproducts should also find a place in the local culturalstrategy, in a dual function: as publicity material, to aidtourism or the promotion of other cultural products ofthe area; and as autonomous products, in audio-visualor printed form, recording the heritage (music, dance,photos, heritage sites etc) or contemporary culturalachievements of the local communities and their mem-bers.

6.14 Creating the right infrastructure for new culturalactivities is the most challenging action of all, probablybecause it involves immediate investment.Infrastructure can range from the creation of a local

museum; to building a network of local footpaths; torefurbishing a disused building for cultural use; andmany more. The rehabilitation of old buildings, or evenformer industrial sites or farm complexes, has beengiven particular attention recently in terms of the cul-tural uses they may host and the role they may play inthe regeneration of declining areas. Although the exam-ples come mostly from urban regeneration sites, ruralregeneration may well benefit from such actions, whereabandoned or disused buildings and complexes arepresent. The case of Friche Bell de Mai in Marseille hasshown that by offering studio space to artists in therefurbished buildings, the whole area came into life,eventually becoming a creativity centre, fostering artis-tic collaborations and giving rise to new initiatives, notonly in the visual but also in the performing arts.

6.15 A local strategy should also introduce planning thenecessary actions in stages. At an initial stage, theinvolvement of the local people should be facilitatedthrough information material, workshops, discussionsand campaigns. As mentioned in Chapter 5, often localpeople do not have the knowledge or the self-confi-dence to start local development activities based ontheir culture; and they do not have a picture of therange of cultural activities and cultural products that canbe produced/offered in their area, in relation to thecapacities within the community and the demand forthese activities/products outside the community.

6.16 A second step would be to mobilise the local net-works and exploit the social capital that is already in exis-tence. The close links between social capital and cultur-al identity in rural areas makes it imperative to build thecultural strategy on the existing social capital, trying atthe same time to increase its range and coveragethrough the cultural activities themselves. Social capital,as discussed in Thematic Guide Four, can both providesolutions for the improvement of business and qualityof life in rural communities. The examples from Finlandare many, ranging from the building of a local sportscentre/community centre through personal labour anddonation of materials by villagers; to installing opticallines to increase internet speed and potential for localbusinesses and homes, enhanced by setting up a village

The handicrafts industry is closely related to heritage and interlinksclosely with tourism



cooperative to manage and fund the process.

6.17 A third step would be to plan the cultural activitiesand goods that will be supported by the cultural strate-gy and relate them to other aspects of local develop-ment, especially employment, quality of life and preser-vation of local culture and identity. Expert advice will begenerally needed for this. The term cultural activitiesembraces a large variety of actions: restoring a monu-ment, organising a festival, creating a museum, bringout a publication about the area or encouraging theproduction of culturalgoods (art and crafts, digitalimages, fashion, food etc)are some of the activities.Planning the activitiesmeans that the necessaryinvestment has to besecured, the humanresources recruited (fromthe community or outsideit), the right marketing setin place and the inter-con-necting facilities and servic-es identified and planned aswell. For example, if cultureis to become the launchingground for tourism, thecomplementary facilities ofaccommodation and catering, and services like trans-port, must be secured. The local enterprises must becontacted and an audit performed in the area to findout how many of the necessary facilities are already pro-vided, what is the target and how can it be reachedthrough the encouragement of new enterprises, includ-ing the incentives that are available for businesses toreach the target.

6.18 A fourth step would involve the allocation ofresponsibilities for the implementation of cultural activ-ities. A share will be certainly taken by the public sector-local government-, another share is expected to betaken by non-profit organisations with a local basis(NGOs) and a considerable share will be taken by localenterprises. A business plan for each activity should thenbe conducted with a balance sheet of the expectedinvestment and running costs vis-a-vis the expectedrevenue for at least five years; and a marketing plan forthe same period, giving niche markets a good consider-ation.

6.19 A fourth step would be to exploit the advantagesof ICT and take part in the ‘global village’. This involvesan effort to avoid an introverted cultural strategy andopen up a window to the world, by offering works of anappealing and meaningful culture which, although hav-ing strong local roots, is open to outside influences andtakes part in the national and international debate. Thiswould help to make the cultural activities and goodsoffered locally relevant and accessible to young and old,local and non-local people.

Linking to the national and Europeanpolicies

6.20 According to OECD, the importance of the contri-bution of cultural activities to local developmentdepends on whether such activities “reveal and dissem-inate values and reference points capable to encouragelocal actors, individually or collectively, to think towardsthe future, devise new plans and projects and pool theirdefences against the unforeseen”. In other words, cul-

tural activities are means forempowering local commu-nities, helping them to plantheir own development.However, localities cannotplan their future in isolation,because they constituteparts of wider systems -regional, national and glob-al. Local plans need to belinked to national andEuropean policies, so thatthey can benefit fromthem.

6.21 Governments can playa role, especially in training,in providing information on

cultural product markets or on doing research neededto maintain and adapt heritage and artistic knowledgeand know-how. They also provide substantial fundingfor project and for creating the infrastructure and serv-ices needed to launch cultural activities. We list a num-ber of conditions that make the contribution ofGovernment more meaningful at the local level:

By ensuring that ministries and departments under-stand and accept responsibility for cultural develop-ment and facilitate through legislation and regula-tions such development.

By fostering an environment (technical, economic,educational etc) that supports the cultural initiativesat the local level, e.g. through training, classifyingand protecting heritage resources, helping certainprofessions to survive and pass on their know-howetc.

By establishing a decentralising decision-makingframework, where local authorities and other stake-holders can debate the development issues them-selves and with central authorities.

By offering incentives in the form of contracts, fund-ing competitions, loans, joint ventures organisations,seed capital etc.

By avoiding, at any cost, the bureaucratisation of cul-ture through a centralised approach to local initia-tives, which does not recognise the particularities ofthe different localities.

6.22 The contribution of the European Union has notbeen negligible in this respect. Through CommunityInitiatives like LEADER or the integrated rural develop-

Euracademy summer school in Ukraine: Planning rural developmentneeds participatory processes and capacity building


CULTURE AND SUSTAINABLE RURAL DEVELOPMENT V54

ment schemes of the 3rd Community SupportFramework, guidelines have been generated, based onexperience, that have helped several countries to main-stream territorial rural development plans in their poli-cies. Culture has had a significant role in these plans,although mostly in relation to the development oftourism and mostly by exploiting the cultural heritage ofthe territories. The breakthrough will come, however,when culture is recognised by central authorities as alever of social and economic development, not solely asfar the past heritage is concerned, but also by exploitingcontemporary cultural production and the values thatmobilise a community to work towards its own develop-ment.

Culture is recognised by local authorities of Drama, Greece,as a lever for social and economic development

Questions arising from Chapter 6 to reflect on:

1. Make a list of the cultural assets of your area that could be utilised to form a local developmentplan.

2. How is the local heritage exploited for local development today in your area?

3. What are the new cultural activities or cultural goods that can be produced and/or promotedto assist further the development of your area?

4. Define the steps that rural communities in your area should take to form a cultural strategy, aspart of an integrated development plan.

5. Identify the various stakeholders that have vested interests in the development of new culturalactivities and cultural products in your area.

6. How funding can be secured for the implementation of the actions of your cultural strategy?Which are the sources you foresee?

7. Can you describe three ways in which the internet can play an important role in helping thecultural strategy of your area take a national and global dimension?



The rural, so called ‘green zone’ of the Municipalityof Ljubljana, comprises two thirds of its land, i.e.the hilly eastern part (the Besnica stream valley,

Jance and Lipoglava), the northern part (Tosko celo,Smarna gora and Racica), the Ljubljana Marshes and theflat lands around the Sava River. The larger part of theland is covered with fields and meadows, the remainingwith forest.

The Service for Agricultural and Administrative Matters,which operates within the Department for EconomicDevelopment and Tourism in the Municipality ofLjubljana, is in charge of agricultural and rural develop-ment including the assignment of space for recreationand leisure activities, as well as for the development ofrural produce. The main long-term aim of the develop-ment activity is the promotion of the local culture, pur-suit of further economic development, environmentalprotection and improvement of quality of life of thelocal society.

Nevertheless, it was recognised that local stakeholdersshould become more involved in the developmentprocess. In 2002, within the framework of the new pro-gramme called ‘Co-habitation of the Countryside andRural Areas’, new developmental objectives were setthat took into consideration the need to involve a widerrange of stakeholders. As part of this effort objectivesincluded, inter alia, the establishment of eco-farms,educational eco-centres and the improvement oftourist amenities and infrastructure.

territory of the Municipality of Ljubljana was carried outin 2001, in cooperation with the Department forEthnology and Cultural Anthropology from the Facultyof Arts in Ljubljana. It was felt that similar research proj-ects would enable planners, decision- and policy-makersto develop new and innovative rural development plans.Specifically, the main aims of such ethnological researchwas the promotion of the local culture, traditions andpride, improvement of the local area as a popular touristdestination, promotion of the local goods in the globalmarket, enhancement of tourist facilities, educationalprogrammes to increase environmental and culturalawareness, etc.

Since 2002, ethnology has become an integral part ofrural development in the Municipality of Ljubljana.Several outputs have been delivered addressing topicssuch as handicrafts (e.g. a publication on the art ofMaking Paper Flowers), gastronomy (e.g. a booklet onthe Milling Tradition and Gastronomy) and, above all,tourism (e.g. seminar series on architectural heritage,visual identity, tourist infrastructures, etc.).

The overall goal is to increase local people's awarenessof their local environment and culture, attract moreinvestment and consider alternative options for thefuture sustainable development of the area. Throughthis research, it has been strongly emphasised that localheritage is a key tool in achieving the previously men-tioned goals.


Maruska Markovcic

[email protected]

In 2003, the ‘Co-habitation of the Countryside and RuralAreas’ became a joint programme of five municipalities,i.e. Ljubljana, Grosuplje, Ig, Ivancna Gorica and Skofljica,and is now under the supervision of the Institute forRural Development (CIZA). Nevertheless, for realprogress to happen, planners decision-makers agreed itwas necessary to become familiar with the lifestyles ofthe local people. The first ethnological research on the

Case Study 6.1.Ethnology & Rural Development in the Municipality of Ljubljana, Slovenia

The goal of the initiative is to increase the sense of placefor the citizens

Ljubljana has a rich cultural history



"The Heart of Neolithic Orkney” was nominated byHistoric Scotland for World Heritage status andwas inscribed by UNESCO as a World Heritage

Site (WHS) in 1999. The inscription comprises six discreteprehistoric Neolithic monuments located on westMainland, the largest of the Orkney islands, Scotland- allc. 5000 years old.

Since inscription the challenges and reality of managingand researching the Orkney WHS have been focused onlandscape and the setting of the WHS. The most con-tentious issue about the inscription (in recognition ofthe richness of remains from all periods of the past andthe particular nature of the cultural and natural envi-ronment) is that the Orkney islands as a whole shouldhave been designated as a cultural landscape. However,the inscription concerns discrete monuments located inone part of Orkney all of which belong to the same peri-od of prehistory. It was feared that the restricted natureof the inscription could have an adverse effect on theSite in terms of management, particularly in respect ofthe overall aim of the management plan to increasepeople's enjoyment, and in the balance between safe-guarding the site and sustainable development of thearea.

The Orkney WHS is, of course, in a contested landscape.In the tiny area of the inner buffer zones many stake-holders are represented; landowners include HistoricScotland, the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds,and Orkney Islands Council, plus many private landown-ers who live in the area. With the exception of the Sitesthemselves, all the land is farmed.

Tourism is of central economic importance to Orkneypeople, whose famous archaeology is the main reasonfor tourists deciding to visit the islands. A recent reportdemonstrated a conservative estimate of £6.4 millionrepresenting 180 (full time equivalent) jobs directlyattributable currently to archaeology through tourism.

While agricultural incomes are flat-lined, there is atourism boom in Orkney. Surveys for Visit Scotland showvisitor numbers to be up by 30% since the WHS inscrip-tion. A related house-building boom has occurred;house prices have leapt up in the intervening years. Inaddition, subsidies attached to putting up large wind-mills and the enhanced prices paid for electricity fromrenewables make their development an attractive medi-um-term proposition for landowners with money toinvest.

However there is a tension between this expectationand the desire of Historic Scotland to limit damage tothe monuments by stabilising or lowering visitor num-bers as some of the sites have reached carrying capaci-ty, and site management is focused on limiting orreducing numbers of visitors. Archaeological excavation,designed from the outset as a visitor attraction in itsown right, has the potential to be built into manage-ment plans to increase carrying capacity and divert visi-tor erosion from the popular WHS monuments. Theexcavations draw many visitors, both resident Orcadiansand tourists, and play a very important role in access andinterpretation.

Archaeological research has shown the importance oflandscape and topography as part of the experience ofthe prehistoric communities including the lochs, fieldsand hills surrounding the monuments themselves.Research undertaken in the WHS since the inscription,has furthered the aims to conceive of and research theWHS as a ‘cultural landscape’ and provide tangible evi-dence of ‘setting’. This is reflected in emerging govern-ment policy, and indeed The Heart of Neolithic Orkney isnow referred to as a ‘protected landscape’ in theScottish Executive's Rural Development Programme forScotland (2007 -2013).

Despite all stakeholders having conservation at theirheart, it is undoubted that some parts of the WHS cur-rently look worse than before WHS inscription. This isdue to a proliferation of fencing for various purposes,new prominent walkways, and increasing signage. But acollective decision by managers, researchers and com-munity to treat the WHS as a landscape, and to makecreate central visitor facilities in the village of Stennesswhich will form a gateway to the WHS and provide trans-port for visitors to all parts of the WHS, will answer manyof the issues raised in a more sustainable manner.


Jane Downes, [email protected]

Case Study 6.2.The Heart of Neolithic Orkney World Heritage Site, Scotland

Archaeological excavation, designed as a visitor attraction isone of the ideas used in Orkeny WHS management



At present, the development of non-agriculturalactivities in rural areas is one of the main process-es that are likely to create a contemporary

European model of living and working in the country.Thanks to diversification of production and supportingentrepreneurship along with economical and business(non-agricultural) initiatives it will be possible to utiliseefficiently and effectively the socio-economic potentialof many rural areas of Poland.

In order to achieve this aim it is necessary to take up aseries of measures for the development of non-agricul-tural facilities and technical infrastructure in Polish ruralareas, e.g. telecommunication, water and canal nets,transport infrastructure, tourist services, etc. Theseimprovements will be the basis that will facilitate andstimulate the diversification of economic activitiesbeyond traditional frame. Local self-government shouldplay a crucial role at this stage having at their disposalEuropean funds for the period 2007-2013.

Furthermore, the wise use of a region's socio-culturaland environmental resources could have some positiveeffects on the life of the local community. The develop-ment of tourist industry should be considered as themost important vehicle for alternative non-agriculturalactivities. Common coordinated policy of tourist infra-structure development on rural areas has alreadybrought positive results.

One of the examples to follow is the creation of Sportand Recreation Centre ‘Szwacin’ near Kalisz. Its con-struction was jointly supervised by the local authorities,public bodies and social groups. Nowadays, it is a popu-lar leisure and recreation centre, which is eagerly visitedby individuals who participate in non-conventional,open-door activities such as tournaments, festivals,expeditions, bird-watching etc.

Case Study 6.3.Resources Development of Non-agricultural Infrastructure in Rural Areas, Poland

New recreation facilities were developed around theMurowaniec Reservoir in Kozminek. The water basin,which has only been used for agricultural purposes, willalso be used for leisure and recreation functions. Thenewly established Agro-tourist Association is responsiblefor the new resort, which is equipped with catering andleisure services.

The sustainable development of rural areas can also bepursued through education and culture. The branch ofWSINF (College of Computer Science) in Opatowek nearKalisz offers modern educational specialisations toyoung people from rural areas, which could help themto follow a career in areas not-related to agriculture.Also, WSINF contributed to the development of innova-tive facilities of secondary and vocational schools in theregion, e.g. fully equipped computer classes and labora-tories.

Likewise, the Museum of Industrial History in Opatowekappears to be one of the most successful cultural cen-tres of the Kalisz region. The post-industrial and historicbuildings of the museum became a common spaceused by the local community for various socio-culturalevents that are organised on a regular basis.

Further development and support of such institutionsshould form an integral part of any local developmentagenda.

For more information, contact:

Aniela Bednarek, [email protected]

The sustainable development of rural areas can also be pursuedthrough education and culture



There are 34 Agricultural Institutes around Finlandproviding vocational education and training forover 3000 students.

In 2006 the committee on agricultural education andtraining (excl. higher education) decided to create adevelopment strategy that secures high-quality educa-tional services for the rapidly changing agricultural sec-tor. The project was geared at examining the educa-tional needs of basic production as well as those ofother emerging forms of entrepreneurship based onfarming and nature. The aim was to make use of theexisting resources in education, information servicesand research to work more effectively together in orderto serve better the changing agricultural production andnew emerging sources of livelihood. This would alsomaintain the vitality of the countryside.

The strategy aspires that by 2015-2020:

Students in agricultural training institutes receivehigh-quality education that responds to the needs inthe regional economy and business.

The programmes provide skills that match the real,changed knowledge needs, in particular the ability toidentify new opportunities.

Agricultural education is cost-efficient and integratedwith the resources of other actors.

The division of work between educational depart-ments is highly developed and each one is specialisedand consolidated, departments work together withregards to education, as well as in research and infor-mation, thus forming learning centres which servethe surrounding society.

The development work was launched in the beginningof 2007. All agricultural institutes joined with each othercreating a network. They are all virtually connected bythe virtual village (http://www.virtuaali.info).

At the same time the whole education sector got a newstrategy for sustainable development which set severalimportant goals for building the future on ecologically,economically, and socio-culturally sustainable grounds.

Additionally, environmental criteria and certification ofeducational establishments were developed. The envi-ronmental criteria focused on the ecological aspect ofsustainable development, but in 2008 they wereextended to cover also the economic, social and cultur-al aspects. The criteria have been created as tools andincentives for the development of quality of teachingand effective operation. According to this strategy by2014, 15% of educational establishments should havereceived an external acknowledgement or certificate fortheir sustainable development activity. Within its ownstrategy, the institutes’ target for external sustainabilitycertification or acknowledgement was set for all 34 agri-cultural vocational education and training institutes.

Most of the agricultural institutes have a very long andinteresting history. The sites are usually historical withone or more of the buildings often being an old castle,a mansion, a stone cowshed or a mill. Some of the agri-cultural institutes are specialised in cultivating crackercrops or in keeping old Finnish cattle breeds. All this‘quiet knowledge’ is an important part of cultural her-itage. Culture is vital for developing a sense of identity,attachment to place, and social participation. The cul-tural sector also affects the economic climate of a coun-try or region, for example through culture and businessdevelopment. The cultural dimension of sustainabledevelopment at agricultural institutes is an unusedresource which needs to be utilised more fully.


Susanna Tauriainen, [email protected]

The main building of the Ahlman College is built in 1917. It used fora summer hotel.

The Equine College of Ypaja offers traditional skillsand horsemanship.

Case Study 6.4.Agricultural Institutes and the protection of cultural heritage in Finland



It is not dark yet in the small village of Molinos. Seatedon banks old people are chatting, young people arehaving a drink at the bar and children play. The

square is surrounded by renovated and illuminatedbuildings which represent around 1000 years of history.This is a typical Mediterranean scene. But it is a long wayto the sea: we are in the Maestrazgo, province of Teruel,the Eastern end of Sistema Iberico, one of the mostinaccessible regions of Spain.

“ This is what development finally is’ a resident exclaims,‘still it is animated at 9 p.m. in this village of 400 inhab-itants. Nobody was out of home so late some yearsago…”

People attending the Maestrazgo Development Centerare excited when they talk about the changes that havetaken place in the region during the last ten years.Molinos village is a LEADER programme pioneer: “Sincethe first democratic local elections in 1979, the munici-pality has counted on the idea of development throughculture’ explains Orencio Andres, Molinos Mayor. ‘Ofcourse we have invested in direct services too (socialand medical services, urban waste management, etc). -but everybody was conscious that if the ‘Grutas deCristal’ (Crystal Caves) were exploited we could have acontinuous source of income and the possibility to initi-ate other projects. Today, tourism attracts 40,000 peo-ple annually”.

It was necessary to retain these tourists and mainly tobring value to the village from something as singular asits identity. We considered that the town of Molinos hadalways been non-conformist: francmason in the 19thcentury, spiritualist at the beginning of the 20th, anar-chist in the 1930's, so that the village should be a pio-neer in local development. In 1986, encouraged by itscitizens, Molinos and the Instituto Aragones deArqueologia (Aragonese Institute of Archaeology), creat-ed a ‘Cultural Park’ with the aim to bring value and inte-grate its heritage in an interactive way.

With the support of Instituto Nacional de Empleo (theNational Employment Institute), a vocational trainingprogram was created where the young unemployedpeople got practical training for three years in carpen-try, stonecutting and other crafts. This workshop led tothe renovation of several public buildings to serve asmuseums and other public spaces. In one of these forexample the room that used to be the old laundries,houses now a ‘Museum of Ecosystems’, and anotherroom is dedicated to palaeontology; in the municipalhouse a museum dedicated to the painter EleuterioBlasco Ferrer, a friend of Picasso has been set up. Allover the valley, a botanical garden and different histor-ical pathways compose a network that links the small vil-lages.

Imagination and creativity are strengths for planningactivities: “The absence of vegetation allows to easilyobserve the geologic history of a region .… Scientistscome here to study the constitution of the SistemaIberico.” observes Javier Blasco, geographer and devel-opment agent.

This LEADER area has begun to attract an increasingnumber of people, mainly specialised tourists:researchers, college students, artists, ecologists, etc.Tourism promotion however does not constitute a pri-ority for local groups. ‘We do not agree with a policy of‘tourism whatever the cost’ insists Mateo Andres. ‘Thetourist dimension of the projects is important but thevalue of our heritage is oriented firstly to the local pop-ulation. We are looking for culture-people relationship,not to treat culture as object… heritage is a tool for thepromotion of the country resources, but also an impor-tant democracy input because of its role as a key to thecollective identity and the extension of the self-con-science’.

Over the past ten years “80 projects whose investmentsare between 7.000 and 100.000 (, and sum a total of1.200.000 ( have been developed in this area”, saysJavier Diaz, LEADER coordinator. “This is enormous for arural area that only has 5.400 inhabitants distributed innine villages…”. Very good results have animated thiscultural development strategy. The regeneration ofMolinos has been used to promote other initiatives, asthe Maestrazgo ‘Geological Park’.


Raul Abeledo [email protected]

One of the landmarks of Maestrazgo

Case Study 6.5.Regeneration of Molinos Teruel, Spain

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We offer below a reading list, which may help you to godeeper into the background of the subjects covered in

this Guide.

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The Thematic Guide has also used as bibliographical source the lecturesprepared for the 6th Summer Academy, all dated 2007, by:

Joan Asby,

Michel Colardelle,

Jane Downs

Peter Howard,

Mauricio Maggi

Fouli Papageorgiou

Katrina Siivonen



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