Culture and Society in Culture and Society in the Age of the Age of

EnlightenmentEnlightenment

Art in the Eighteenth Art in the Eighteenth CenturyCentury

• The Baroque and The Baroque and Neoclassical styles Neoclassical styles of the 17th century of the 17th century continued into the continued into the 1700’s, but by 1730 1700’s, but by 1730 a new style called a new style called Rococo had begun Rococo had begun to influence to influence architecture and the architecture and the decorative arts.decorative arts.

RococoRococo• Rococo was born in

France. • Rococo

characteristics show that it's an evolution of baroque, just as mannerism was an evolution of Renaissance.

• It stresses grace and gentle action.

• It fits harmoniously in the landscape, using reflections and mirrors to blur limits and create a world of dream.

• The word rococo is a combination of the words "rocaille" (stones) and "coquille" (shell), elements which inspire the first designs.

• What interests the creators is the irregular and undulated shape of the shells and sea stones as well as that of weeds and other vegetal forms.

• Most important is decoration.

• It tends to be totally free and asymmetric, based on irregular lines, and curves

• Topics are usually mundane and related to palace life.

Baroque Rococo

Antoine Watteau (1684 - 1721)

• Painted scenes of upper class luxury and sensual refined beauty.

• His paintings also reflected a sense of sadness over he transitory nature of beauty.

Antoine WatteauItalian Comedians, 1720

Embarkation for Cytheria - 1717Louvre, Paris

Pierrot (also

known as Gilles)

François BoucherFrançois Boucher

• FrançoisFrançois Boucher Boucher (1703-(1703-1770), French painter, 1770), French painter, noted for his pastoral and noted for his pastoral and mythological scenes, mythological scenes, whose work embodies the whose work embodies the frivolity and sensuousness frivolity and sensuousness of the rococo style.of the rococo style.

Jean-Honoré Jean-Honoré FragonardFragonard, , (1732-1806).(1732-1806).

• French painter whose French painter whose scenes of frivolity and scenes of frivolity and gallantry are among gallantry are among the most complete the most complete embodiments of the embodiments of the Rococo spirit. He was Rococo spirit. He was a pupil of Boucher. a pupil of Boucher.

The Swing1767Oil on canvas, 81 x 64 cmWallace Collection, London

Giovanni Battista Giovanni Battista TiepoloTiepolo

• Best Best exemplifies exemplifies the Rococo the Rococo sense of sense of enchantment enchantment and and exuberance.exuberance.

• His masterpiece is the ceiling fresco His masterpiece is the ceiling fresco of the “Four Continents” in the of the “Four Continents” in the Bishop’s Palace in Würzburg, Bishop’s Palace in Würzburg, Germany.Germany.

• The Rococo The Rococo works fits works fits perfectly with perfectly with the Baroque the Baroque architecture of architecture of the palace. the palace.

Allegory of the Planets and ContinentsAllegory of the Planets and Continents

Copying VersaillesCopying Versailles

The Bourbon Palace in Caserta, ItalyThe Bourbon Palace in Caserta, Italy

Schloss Nymphenburg, MunichSchloss Nymphenburg, Munich

The Hermitage, RussiaThe Hermitage, Russia

Balthasar Balthasar NeumannNeumann

• German architect who was the foremost master of the late Baroque style.

• In 1719 Neumann began directing construction of the new Residenz (palace) for the prince-bishop in Würzburg.

The ResidenzThe Residenz

• By the 1740s it had advanced far enough for the painter G.B. Tiepolo to decorate the palace's enormous ceilings.

• Neumann’s second Neumann’s second masterpiece is the masterpiece is the pilgrimage church pilgrimage church of the Fourteen of the Fourteen Saints –Saints –Vierzehnheiligen in Vierzehnheiligen in southern Germany.southern Germany.

Vierzehnheiligen ChurchVierzehnheiligen Church

• The Masterpiece of Dominikus The Masterpiece of Dominikus Zimmermann is the Wies Church Zimmermann is the Wies Church (Wieskirche) or “meadow church” in (Wieskirche) or “meadow church” in the Alps of Bavaria. the Alps of Bavaria.

MELK ABBEYMELK ABBEY

Jacques-Louis DavidJacques-Louis David

• He had his He had his first training first training with Boucher, with Boucher, a distant a distant relative.relative.

• David went to David went to Italy in 1775, Italy in 1775, having won having won the Prix de the Prix de Rome. Rome.

• In Italy, David was able to indulge In Italy, David was able to indulge his bent for the antique and came his bent for the antique and came into contact with the initiators of the into contact with the initiators of the new new ClassicalClassical revival. revival.

• In 1780 he returned to Paris, In 1780 he returned to Paris, and in the 1780s his position and in the 1780s his position was firmly established as the was firmly established as the embodiment of the social embodiment of the social and moral reaction from the and moral reaction from the frivolity of the Rococo. frivolity of the Rococo.

The Development The Development of Musicof Music

• The 17The 17thth and 18 and 18thth centuries were the centuries were the formative years of formative years of classical musicclassical music..

• The opera, oratorio, concerto The opera, oratorio, concerto and symphony were all and symphony were all developed at this time.developed at this time.

• The The ItaliansItalians led the led the way followed by the way followed by the Germans, Austrians Germans, Austrians and English.and English.

Teatro la FeniceTeatro la Fenice

Il principe ignoto Nessun dorma!... Tu pure, o Principessa, Nella tua fredda stanza Guardi le stelle Che tremano d'amore e di speranza. Ma il mio mistero è chiuso in me, Il nome mio nessun saprà! Solo quando la luce splenderà, Sulla tua bocca lo dirò fremente!... Ed il mio bacio scioglierà il silenzio Che ti fa mia!... Voci di donne Il nome suo nessun saprà... E noi dovremo, ahimè, morir!... Il principe ignoto Dilegua, o notte!... Tramontate, stelle!... All'alba vincerò!...

Nessun DormaNessun DormaThe Prince: Let no one sleep!... Let no one sleep! Even you, o Princess, in your cold room, watch the stars, that tremble with love and with hope.But my secret is hidden within me, my name no one shall know... No!...No!... On your mouth I will tell it when the light shines.And my kiss will dissolve the silence that makes you mine!...The Chorus of women No one will know his name and we must, alas, die.The Prince Vanish, o night! Set, stars! At dawn, I will win!

Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741)Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741)

La PrimaveraLa Primavera

• Most musicians, like Most musicians, like artists, relied on a artists, relied on a wealthy patron for wealthy patron for funding.funding.

The Baroque in MusicThe Baroque in Music• From 1600 to 1750 the From 1600 to 1750 the

leading musical form in leading musical form in Europe is Europe is called Baroquecalled Baroque

Baroque DefinedBaroque Defined• The English word The English word baroquebaroque is is

derived from the Italianderived from the Italian barocco barocco, , meaning meaning bizarrebizarre, though probably , though probably exuberantexuberant would be a better would be a better translation more accurately translation more accurately reflecting the sense.reflecting the sense.

Bach and HandelBach and Handel• The two artist who best The two artist who best

exemplify the Baroque exemplify the Baroque period were the geniuses period were the geniuses Bach and Handel.Bach and Handel.

Georg Friederich HändelGeorg Friederich Händel• Georg Friederich Georg Friederich

Händel was born in Händel was born in Halle (Germany), on Halle (Germany), on February 23rd,1685, February 23rd,1685, just a month before just a month before JS Bach was born in JS Bach was born in Eisenach, not so far Eisenach, not so far to the south.to the south.

• Handel's father intended him Handel's father intended him for the law, but his own for the law, but his own musical inclinations soon musical inclinations soon prevailed. prevailed.

• Following his studies in Following his studies in Germany, Handel went to Germany, Handel went to Italy where he spent more Italy where he spent more than three years, in Florence, than three years, in Florence, Rome, Naples and Venice. Rome, Naples and Venice.

• Handel left Italy early in 1710 and Handel left Italy early in 1710 and went to Hanover, where he was went to Hanover, where he was appointed Kapellmeister to the appointed Kapellmeister to the Elector, George Louis.Elector, George Louis.

• In 1705 George was In 1705 George was naturalized by Act of naturalized by Act of Parliament, and in August Parliament, and in August 1714 the death of Queen 1714 the death of Queen Anne made him King of Anne made him King of England. England.

• Handel,was to follow the Elector Handel,was to follow the Elector in adopting British nationality, in adopting British nationality, and indeed part of Handel's and indeed part of Handel's success in London was due to the success in London was due to the royal patronage of the Elector of royal patronage of the Elector of Hanover, now King George I. Hanover, now King George I.

Handel’s MessiahHandel’s MessiahHandel’s MessiahHandel’s Messiah

Johann Sebastian BachJohann Sebastian Bach• The different forms The different forms

and styles of the and styles of the baroque came baroque came together and were together and were brought to brought to perfectionperfection in the in the music of JS Bach. music of JS Bach.

• Johann Sebastian Johann Sebastian Bach came from a Bach came from a musical family musical family stretching back stretching back through many through many generations.generations.

• The Bachs were well-known The Bachs were well-known throughout their "home throughout their "home ground" of Thuringia in what ground" of Thuringia in what is now southeast Germany. is now southeast Germany.

• He left 48 Preludes and Fugues for the He left 48 Preludes and Fugues for the keyboard adopting the new "equal keyboard adopting the new "equal temperament" enabling all keys to be played temperament" enabling all keys to be played equally and modulation between keys.equally and modulation between keys.

• He left us the Art of the He left us the Art of the FugueFugue and the and the Goldberg Goldberg VariationsVariations, a set of 30 , a set of 30 Variations on a popular tune. Variations on a popular tune.

• He also left He also left numerous numerous collections of collections of chorale variations, chorale variations, canons, and fugues, canons, and fugues, as well as many as well as many pieces in more pieces in more standardized form standardized form such as preludes, such as preludes, sonatas and sonatas and concertos. concertos.

• Add to that, some 200 Add to that, some 200 cantatas, the Passions, and cantatas, the Passions, and the monumental B-Minor the monumental B-Minor MassMass

• After Bach music took a different After Bach music took a different turn. turn.

• The music was quite different in The music was quite different in character, expressing the new character, expressing the new "gallant" style which was lighter, "gallant" style which was lighter, with less stress on pure form - and with less stress on pure form - and having its own set of "clichés" having its own set of "clichés"

The Classical Period The Classical Period (1750-1830)(1750-1830)

• Here we find composers Here we find composers such as Haydn and Mozart, such as Haydn and Mozart, to be followed by the to be followed by the "romantic" composers such "romantic" composers such as Beethoven and as Beethoven and Tchaikovsky.Tchaikovsky.

FRANZ JOSEPH FRANZ JOSEPH HAYDNHAYDN

• Most of his creative life was Most of his creative life was spent in the service of the spent in the service of the EsterházyEsterházy family, writing family, writing pieces for their needs and pieces for their needs and desires.desires.

• For example, he For example, he composed over 125 composed over 125 trios for the trios for the baryton simply baryton simply because it was the because it was the instrument that instrument that Prince Nikolaus Prince Nikolaus played. played.

• By the 1780s, his music By the 1780s, his music had been published all had been published all over Europe, and he was over Europe, and he was well-regarded in the well-regarded in the music world. music world.

• Because of this, he was Because of this, he was invited to various cities invited to various cities and commissioned to and commissioned to write musical pieces for write musical pieces for premieres in those cities. premieres in those cities.

Wolfgang Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Amadeus Mozart

Johannes ChrysostomusJohannes ChrysostomusWolfgangus Theophilis Amadeus MozartWolfgangus Theophilis Amadeus Mozart

Once known as Wolferl (1756 – 1791)Once known as Wolferl (1756 – 1791)

• Mozart (1756-91) was an Mozart (1756-91) was an Austrian composer, a Austrian composer, a centrally important centrally important composer of the classical composer of the classical era, and one of the most era, and one of the most inspired composers in inspired composers in Western musical Western musical tradition.tradition.

• Born January 27, 1756, Born January 27, 1756, in in SalzburgSalzburg, he was , he was educated by his father, educated by his father, Leopold Mozart, who Leopold Mozart, who was concertmaster in the was concertmaster in the court orchestra of the court orchestra of the archbishop of Salzburg archbishop of Salzburg and a celebrated violinist and a celebrated violinist and composer.and composer.

LeopoldLeopold

• By the age of six By the age of six Mozart had become Mozart had become an accomplished an accomplished performer on the performer on the clavier, violin, and clavier, violin, and organ and was organ and was highly skilled in highly skilled in sight-reading and sight-reading and improvisation.improvisation.

• Five short piano pieces Five short piano pieces composed by Mozart when composed by Mozart when he was six years old are still he was six years old are still frequently played.frequently played.

• Mozart wrote masses, Mozart wrote masses, oratorios, symphonies, oratorios, symphonies, concertos, sonatas, and more, concertos, sonatas, and more, but he is best known for his but he is best known for his operasoperas. .

The Jupiter SymphonyThe Jupiter Symphony

Symphony number 40 - First movement

• These include These include • The Marriage of The Marriage of

FigaroFigaro (1786) (1786) • Don GiovanniDon Giovanni

(1787), and (1787), and

• The Magic FluteThe Magic Flute, , (1791). (1791).

Le Nozze di FigaroLe Nozze di Figaro

The Magic FluteThe Magic Flute

The Development of The Development of the Novelthe Novel

• The modern novel The modern novel developed in the developed in the Eighteenth century Eighteenth century from the medieval from the medieval romance stories and romance stories and picaresque tales of picaresque tales of the Renaissance, the Renaissance, such as Cervantes such as Cervantes Don QuixoteDon Quixote..

• The establishment The establishment of the modern novel of the modern novel as a vehicle for as a vehicle for fiction writing is fiction writing is generally attributed generally attributed to the to the English.English.

• Eighteenth-century writers, especially in England, used Eighteenth-century writers, especially in England, used this new form of literary expression to attack the this new form of literary expression to attack the hierocracies of the era and provide hierocracies of the era and provide sentimentalsentimental entertainment to growing numbers of readers.entertainment to growing numbers of readers.

• Novels such as Novels such as Samuel Samuel Richardson’s Richardson’s Pamela: or Pamela: or Virtue Virtue RewardedRewarded

• Henry Fielding’s Henry Fielding’s The History of The History of Tom JonesTom Jones: a : a Foundling Foundling were were very popular.very popular.

The Writing of HistoryThe Writing of History

• the most significant change the most significant change in writing histories in the in writing histories in the eighteenth century was the eighteenth century was the removal of removal of GodGod as a as a causative factor of change.causative factor of change.

• VoltaireVoltaire sought to sought to describe “the totality describe “the totality of past human of past human experience” in his experience” in his social history – social history – The Age of Louis The Age of Louis XIVXIV . .

• In Edward Gibbon's In Edward Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Decline and Fall of the Roman EmpireRoman Empire, the , the author gave the chief author gave the chief cause of the decline and cause of the decline and fall of the Romans as fall of the Romans as ChristianityChristianity and its and its teachings.teachings.

The High Culture of the The High Culture of the Eighteenth CenturyEighteenth Century

An Increased Readership: An Increased Readership: Newspapers and MagazinesNewspapers and Magazines

• High culture in eighteenth-High culture in eighteenth-century Europe was century Europe was characterized by the characterized by the enormous impact of the enormous impact of the book book publishingpublishing industry. industry.

• French publishers were French publishers were printing 1,600 titles a year by printing 1,600 titles a year by the 1780’s – many written the 1780’s – many written for the increasingly literate for the increasingly literate middle classmiddle class..

• Great BritainGreat Britain led the way in led the way in the eighteenth century in the eighteenth century in producing the literary form producing the literary form of magazines, newspapers of magazines, newspapers and novels.and novels.

Education and UniversitiesEducation and Universities

• Most universities in Most universities in eighteenth-century eighteenth-century Europe were elitist Europe were elitist and designed to and designed to serve the needs of serve the needs of the upper class.the upper class.

Cambridge University

• An important development in An important development in education in Europe in the education in Europe in the eighteenth century was a eighteenth century was a broader and more broader and more practicalpractical university curriculum by the university curriculum by the end of the century.end of the century.

Cesare Beccaria and Cesare Beccaria and Reform of Reform of

Punishment for CrimePunishment for Crime

• By the beginning of the eighteenth By the beginning of the eighteenth century, most European states had century, most European states had a a hierarchy of courtshierarchy of courts to deal with to deal with civil and criminal cases.civil and criminal cases.

• TortureTorture was still used as a means was still used as a means of extracting confession.of extracting confession.

• CapitalCapital punishment punishment was still common was still common in property as well in property as well as criminal cases.as criminal cases.

• Nobles were Nobles were executed by simple executed by simple beheading, but beheading, but common criminals common criminals were often were often torturedtortured..

Instruments of TortureInstruments of Torture

                  

• The punishment The punishment of crime in the of crime in the eighteenth eighteenth century was often century was often public and very public and very gruesomegruesome..

• Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794) in his Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794) in his essay essay On Crime and PunishmentOn Crime and Punishment called for an end to cruel and called for an end to cruel and unusual punishments including the unusual punishments including the use of capital punishment.use of capital punishment.

• Punishment should act as a Punishment should act as a deterrent.deterrent.

• By the end of the eighteenth By the end of the eighteenth century, corporal and capital century, corporal and capital punishment were on the punishment were on the declinedecline in the European legal system.in the European legal system.

Reforms in the Practice of Reforms in the Practice of MedicineMedicine

• There was a hierarchy There was a hierarchy of practitioners in of practitioners in medicine with the medicine with the university trained university trained PhysicianPhysician at the top. at the top.

• The Universities of The Universities of Leiden and Leiden and ViennaVienna surpassed Padua as the surpassed Padua as the new centers of medical new centers of medical training. training.

• Physicians were Physicians were licensedlicensed by the by the Royal Societies.Royal Societies.

• The Royal College of The Royal College of Physicians in England licensed Physicians in England licensed 100 physicians in the early 18100 physicians in the early 18 thth century and these doctors century and these doctors charged outrageously high fees.charged outrageously high fees.

• Most people Most people sought help from sought help from apothecaries, apothecaries, midwives, faith midwives, faith healers, barbers healers, barbers and and surgeonssurgeons..

• BleedingBleeding and purging were and purging were still common practices in the still common practices in the 1818thth century. century.

• Hospitals were more likely to Hospitals were more likely to cause disease than cure it.cause disease than cure it.

• By the end of the century By the end of the century Surgeons were being Surgeons were being licensed and licensed and reform reform effortsefforts were underway to were underway to clean up hospitals.clean up hospitals.

Popular CulturePopular Culture

Festivals, Carnival, and FairsFestivals, Carnival, and Fairs

• The local festivals, markets and The local festivals, markets and fairs were common forms of fairs were common forms of entertainment. entertainment.

• The The CarnivalCarnival before Lent was before Lent was an major event in the Catholic an major event in the Catholic nations. nations.

• The The CarnivalCarnival of the of the MediterraneanMediterranean world was world was a period of intense sexual a period of intense sexual activity and gross activity and gross excesses.excesses.

"Here we are immersed in the uproar of Carnival. It is

gratifying to see this people, as if

there were no misfortune and everything went

merrily – the square, the streets, the

theaters all with the same throngs and

murmuring.“

Gasparo LippomanoVenetian nobleman

Venice, Carnival 1797

• DrinkingDrinking was a was a popular pastime popular pastime with people with people gathering at the gathering at the local tavern for local tavern for drinking and drinking and gaming.gaming.

• Popular drinks Popular drinks of the lower of the lower classes were classes were Gin in England Gin in England and Vodka in and Vodka in Russia.Russia.

• Gin drinkingGin drinking in England in England became a major concern by became a major concern by the middle of the 1700s with the middle of the 1700s with consumption rising 2 to 5 consumption rising 2 to 5 million gallons. million gallons.

"In Gin Lane every circumstance of its horrid effects are brought to view…idleness, poverty, misery and ruin. Beer Street, its companion, was given as a contrast,

where the invigorating liquor is recommended in order to drive the other out of vogue."

• Popular culture Popular culture was abandoned was abandoned by the upper by the upper classes and a classes and a divide began to divide began to grow between grow between the upper and the upper and lower social lower social classes.classes.

Chapbooks and AlmanacsChapbooks and Almanacs

• The lower classes also had The lower classes also had their own forms of reading their own forms of reading for entertainment such as for entertainment such as chapbookschapbooks sold by peddlers. sold by peddlers.

Primary Education for the Primary Education for the MassesMasses

•   Literacy rates in eighteenth-Literacy rates in eighteenth-century Europe were century Europe were especially high in especially high in citiescities, but , but it is uncertain how many of it is uncertain how many of the lower class could read.the lower class could read.

Religion and the ChurchesReligion and the Churches

• The rise of skepticism The rise of skepticism and secularism left many and secularism left many questioning the authority questioning the authority of the Church.of the Church.

• But in eighteenth-century But in eighteenth-century Europe, Europe, churcheschurches, both , both Catholic and Protestant still Catholic and Protestant still played a major role in social played a major role in social and spiritual areas.and spiritual areas.

The Institutional ChurchThe Institutional Church

• The established churches in The established churches in Europe, both Catholic and Europe, both Catholic and Protestant were basically Protestant were basically conservative institutions that conservative institutions that upheld the upheld the social ordersocial order. .

Church and StateChurch and State• The basic geographic The basic geographic

patterns established patterns established following the wars of following the wars of religion continued to hold religion continued to hold true in the 18true in the 18thth century. century.

The Jesuit ExampleThe Jesuit Example• The The JesuitsJesuits continued to continued to

hold great power in the hold great power in the Catholic church and were Catholic church and were especially influential in especially influential in education.education.

The Suppression of the Jesuits The Suppression of the Jesuits (1750-1773)(1750-1773)

• By the middle of the century the By the middle of the century the Jesuits began to lose their power.Jesuits began to lose their power.

• The Portuguese king kicked the The Portuguese king kicked the Jesuits out of Paraguay and Jesuits out of Paraguay and ultimately out of Portugal all ultimately out of Portugal all together.together.

• The French and Spanish also The French and Spanish also turned against the Jesuits. turned against the Jesuits.

• The Society was disbanded by The Society was disbanded by Rome with the Rome with the Brief of Brief of SuppressionSuppression in 1773 – they will in 1773 – they will be restored in 1814.be restored in 1814.

Toleration and Religious Toleration and Religious MinoritiesMinorities

The Jews: Toleration or The Jews: Toleration or Conversion?Conversion?

• The Jews remained The Jews remained the despised religious the despised religious minority in Europe. minority in Europe.

• The largest number The largest number of Jews, the of Jews, the Ashkenazi, were Ashkenazi, were found in found in EasternEastern Europe.Europe.

• They were They were restricted in their restricted in their movements, movements, forced to live in forced to live in Ghettos, only Ghettos, only allowed certain allowed certain occupations and occupations and heavily taxed. heavily taxed.

• The Jews of eighteenth-The Jews of eighteenth-century Europe were most century Europe were most free in participating in free in participating in bankingbanking and commercial and commercial activities in tolerant cities.activities in tolerant cities.

• One of the most One of the most tolerant of tolerant of eighteenth-century eighteenth-century European monarchs European monarchs toward the Jews toward the Jews was was Joseph IIJoseph II of of Austria.Austria.

Popular ReligionPopular Religion

Catholic Piety: the SaintsCatholic Piety: the Saints

• Catholics remained on the Catholics remained on the whole very whole very traditionaltraditional in their in their religious practice, still religious practice, still believing in the importance of believing in the importance of relics, the intervention of saints, relics, the intervention of saints, and the Virgin Mary.and the Virgin Mary.

Protestant Protestant Revivalism: Revivalism:

Moravian Brothers Moravian Brothers and Wesleyansand Wesleyans

• Rationalism and Deism Rationalism and Deism had more of impact on had more of impact on ProtestantismProtestantism than than Catholicism.Catholicism.

• PietismPietism was a religious was a religious movement that was a movement that was a response to the stagnation response to the stagnation of Protestantism during of Protestantism during the eighteenth century.the eighteenth century.

• The Pietists, such as The Pietists, such as Nicholas von Zinzendorf and Nicholas von Zinzendorf and his his MoravianMoravian Brethren Brethren sought to have a more sought to have a more personal and emotional personal and emotional experience of God. experience of God.

John WesleyJohn Wesley• created and controlled his evangelical created and controlled his evangelical

Methodist church using Methodist church using revivalistrevivalist techniques of preaching to the masses techniques of preaching to the masses in fields. in fields.

• His Anglican Methodist societies His Anglican Methodist societies became an independent church after became an independent church after his death.his death.