CULTURAL CULTURAL RESOURCES RESOURCES INDICATORSINDICATORS

Prehistoric and Historic ArtifactsPrehistoric and Historic Artifacts

Field Offices Need to Be Field Offices Need to Be Able to Identify Cultural Able to Identify Cultural Resources in the FieldResources in the Field

Field Office personnel Field Office personnel must identify cultural must identify cultural resources to take them resources to take them into account.into account.

Sites registered with the Sites registered with the State can be identified State can be identified from the internet maps from the internet maps (which represents only a (which represents only a small portion of cultural small portion of cultural resources out there).resources out there).

To identify cultural To identify cultural resources in the field, resources in the field, you must know what the you must know what the indicators look like.indicators look like.

The Nature of IndicatorsThe Nature of Indicators

Indicators are usually things that are resistant to decay, Indicators are usually things that are resistant to decay, such as flint, glass, pottery, metal, brick and stone.such as flint, glass, pottery, metal, brick and stone.

Some indicators are very easy to spot in some Some indicators are very easy to spot in some deposits, and very difficult to spot in other deposits. deposits, and very difficult to spot in other deposits. Loess (windblown dust) covers more than a 1/3 of Loess (windblown dust) covers more than a 1/3 of Iowa. Anything larger than a fine grain of sand on a Iowa. Anything larger than a fine grain of sand on a loess deposit has a high probability of being a human loess deposit has a high probability of being a human artifact. Cultural sites are very easy to identify in such artifact. Cultural sites are very easy to identify in such an environment. However, cultural debris on glacial till an environment. However, cultural debris on glacial till (covering approximately 29% of Iowa) may be very (covering approximately 29% of Iowa) may be very difficult to spot in the jumble of glacial debris.difficult to spot in the jumble of glacial debris.

Prehistoric IndicatorsPrehistoric Indicators

One of the most One of the most common and easily common and easily spotted indicators of a spotted indicators of a prehistoric camp site is prehistoric camp site is fire cracked rock (FCR)fire cracked rock (FCR)

Hearths were lined with Hearths were lined with rock to provide thermal rock to provide thermal storage, and when hot, storage, and when hot, FCR was tossed into FCR was tossed into water filled containers to water filled containers to cook food.cook food.

How to Spot Fire Cracked How to Spot Fire Cracked RockRock FCR are broken rocks. FCR are broken rocks.

The breakage is due to The breakage is due to expansion and contraction expansion and contraction resulting from heating and resulting from heating and cooling, and by micro cooling, and by micro steam explosions from steam explosions from water trapped in a water trapped in a crystalline structure.crystalline structure.

FCR often shows cup FCR often shows cup shaped depressions on the shaped depressions on the fracture plane because fracture plane because FCR is broken from FCR is broken from internal stress.internal stress.

The FCR may be reddened The FCR may be reddened by ancient fires.by ancient fires.

Check carefully for other Check carefully for other kinds of indicators.kinds of indicators.

Chipped Flint IndicatorsChipped Flint Indicators

The products of flint The products of flint knapping are the second knapping are the second most likely indicator that most likely indicator that you will spot in the field.you will spot in the field.

Working flint is a Working flint is a subtractive process subtractive process which leaves abundant which leaves abundant long lasting waste.long lasting waste.

Flint (chert), obsidian, Flint (chert), obsidian, and glass are all silicon and glass are all silicon dioxide.dioxide.

Broken flint can provide Broken flint can provide a very sharp edge and a very sharp edge and was widely used for was widely used for tools.tools.

Flint Flakes are More Abundant Flint Flakes are More Abundant than Finely Worked Toolsthan Finely Worked Tools

Many flakes are struck Many flakes are struck off to produce one off to produce one projectile point.projectile point.

Therefore, you are more Therefore, you are more likely to find flakes than likely to find flakes than well made artifacts in well made artifacts in most campsites.most campsites.

The large blocks of flint The large blocks of flint from which flakes are from which flakes are struck are called cores.struck are called cores.

Cortex on Cores and FlakesCortex on Cores and Flakes

Cortex is a weathered Cortex is a weathered rind found on cores and rind found on cores and flakes during an early flakes during an early stage in lithic reduction.stage in lithic reduction.

The cortex originally The cortex originally covered the nodule of covered the nodule of flint if extracted from a flint if extracted from a limestone outcrop, or limestone outcrop, or weathered on the weathered on the surface of a flint cobble if surface of a flint cobble if taken from a gravel bar.taken from a gravel bar.

What to Look for in a FlakeWhat to Look for in a Flake

Often, when working for Often, when working for the government, we the government, we encounter flakes.encounter flakes.

Is a flake man-made, or Is a flake man-made, or the product of natural the product of natural processes?processes?

Flint knapping produces Flint knapping produces many flakes with a striking many flakes with a striking platform and a bulb of platform and a bulb of percussion. Natural percussion. Natural processes are less likely to processes are less likely to do so.do so.

Bifacial Flint ArtifactsBifacial Flint Artifacts

Bifacial flint artifacts are Bifacial flint artifacts are those that are flaked on those that are flaked on both sides.both sides.

These include projectile These include projectile points that are sought points that are sought after by amateur after by amateur collectors.collectors.

FCR and flakes are FCR and flakes are much more common.much more common.

Note that the color of flint Note that the color of flint is quite variable.is quite variable.

Quality of Flaking is VariableQuality of Flaking is Variable

The quality of flaking The quality of flaking was determined by the was determined by the technique and raw technique and raw material used.material used.

If a hammer stone was If a hammer stone was used to knap flint, the used to knap flint, the flakes were thicker and flakes were thicker and cruder than if an antler cruder than if an antler or wooden billet was or wooden billet was used.used.

Pressure flaking Pressure flaking produced the most produced the most refined tools. The flakes refined tools. The flakes were literally pushed off, were literally pushed off, sometimes using an sometimes using an antler tine.antler tine.

ScrapersScrapers

Scrapers are pieces Scrapers are pieces of flint with a plano-of flint with a plano-convex edge.convex edge.

One of their functions One of their functions was to work hides.was to work hides.

They are commonly They are commonly found on found on archeological sites.archeological sites.

Heat Treated FlintHeat Treated Flint

A higher quality of flint A higher quality of flint for knapping could be for knapping could be produced by heating. produced by heating. Flint was heated by Flint was heated by burying it in hot coals.burying it in hot coals.

Heat treated flint can Heat treated flint can sometimes be sometimes be identified by a reddish identified by a reddish color and glossy color and glossy appearance.appearance.

Ancient PotteryAncient Pottery

Pottery has been Pottery has been used locally for used locally for approximately 2,500 approximately 2,500 years.years.

Pottery can vary Pottery can vary widely in color.widely in color.

It is often difficult to It is often difficult to spot in the field spot in the field compared to FCR compared to FCR and flint flakes.and flint flakes.

How to Know if It Is PotteryHow to Know if It Is Pottery

Most pottery that you Most pottery that you find in the field is broken find in the field is broken into pieces (called pot into pieces (called pot shards).shards).

Check for temper (sand, Check for temper (sand, ground shell, etc.) added ground shell, etc.) added to the clay to prevent to the clay to prevent shrinking and cracking shrinking and cracking during firing.during firing.

Examine the exterior for Examine the exterior for impressed or incised impressed or incised decoration.decoration.

Ground Stone ToolsGround Stone Tools

A variety of ground stone A variety of ground stone tools are found on tools are found on archeological sites archeological sites including grinding including grinding stones, axes, shaft stones, axes, shaft abraders, and hoes.abraders, and hoes.

Most were made by Most were made by using one rock to peck using one rock to peck another rock into a rough another rock into a rough shape. The rough blank shape. The rough blank was abraded against was abraded against another rock until it was another rock until it was smoothed.smoothed.

A Crayon Made from OchreA Crayon Made from Ochre

Ochre (hematite) was Ochre (hematite) was collected and used collected and used as a pigment.as a pigment.

The ochre was The ochre was ground and the ground and the resulting iron oxide resulting iron oxide powder was mixed powder was mixed with grease and used with grease and used as paint.as paint.

Ochre Was Used as PaintOchre Was Used as Paint

Native Americans Native Americans were once referred to were once referred to as “red men.” This as “red men.” This derives from early derives from early explorers explorers encountering Native encountering Native Americans with red Americans with red body paint.body paint.

Historic IndicatorsHistoric Indicators

Prehistory is the time before written Prehistory is the time before written records. Prehistory ended only a few records. Prehistory ended only a few hundred years ago in Iowa.hundred years ago in Iowa.

History in Iowa began with French History in Iowa began with French Explorers and has continued to the Explorers and has continued to the present time.present time.

NRCS needs to take into account sites NRCS needs to take into account sites over 50 years of age.over 50 years of age.

The Library is Usually the The Library is Usually the Best Tool for Identifying Best Tool for Identifying Historical Sites Historical Sites

The library is that The library is that building filled with books building filled with books that we visit when our TV that we visit when our TV is broken for an is broken for an extended period of time.extended period of time.

The historical information The historical information found there is very found there is very valuable to you in valuable to you in discharging your cultural discharging your cultural resources duties.resources duties.

Check Your Local AtlasesCheck Your Local Atlases

You can usually find You can usually find useful atlases in the useful atlases in the genealogy section.genealogy section.

Ask the librarian if Ask the librarian if you are having you are having trouble locating trouble locating them.them.

Old Township and County Old Township and County Maps are ImportantMaps are Important

Old atlases and directories will Old atlases and directories will show where farmsteads and towns show where farmsteads and towns existed in the past.existed in the past.

Some of the older atlases are not Some of the older atlases are not complete (they may not have complete (they may not have shown lower economic status shown lower economic status farmsteads).farmsteads).

By examining atlases from a By examining atlases from a variety of time periods you can variety of time periods you can sometimes bracket the age of a sometimes bracket the age of a historic site.historic site.

Sometimes they have a history of Sometimes they have a history of your county, which provides a your county, which provides a useful way to acquaint yourself useful way to acquaint yourself with important events in your with important events in your county’s past.county’s past.

Photocopy Old MapsPhotocopy Old Maps

Rather than visiting Rather than visiting the library every time the library every time you have an you have an undertaking, it is undertaking, it is easier to photocopy easier to photocopy relevant maps and relevant maps and keep them in a Field keep them in a Field Office file.Office file.

This is a good project This is a good project to do when there is a to do when there is a bad weather day.bad weather day.

For Historic Sites Not on a For Historic Sites Not on a Map, Use Historic IndicatorsMap, Use Historic Indicators

The hard way to identify and date historic sites is to find The hard way to identify and date historic sites is to find and examine field indicators.and examine field indicators.

Historic as opposed to prehistoric sites, often have more Historic as opposed to prehistoric sites, often have more and a greater variety of artifacts.and a greater variety of artifacts.

Concentrations of brick, glass, ceramics, clinkers, nails, Concentrations of brick, glass, ceramics, clinkers, nails, rock, concrete, and linoleum fragments in a farm field rock, concrete, and linoleum fragments in a farm field often indicate the past presence of a farmstead.often indicate the past presence of a farmstead.

A few isolated specimens may only indicate a manure A few isolated specimens may only indicate a manure spreader passed by.spreader passed by.

Some artifacts indicate dates of occupation.Some artifacts indicate dates of occupation. Examine only surface artifacts. The State Office will Examine only surface artifacts. The State Office will

determine whether excavation will be done.determine whether excavation will be done.

Standing StructuresStanding Structures

These are the most These are the most spectacular and obvious spectacular and obvious indicators.indicators.

Log cabins are a house Log cabins are a house type reflecting an type reflecting an important period of Iowa important period of Iowa history.history.

Many are covered with Many are covered with siding, have more recent siding, have more recent additions and are not additions and are not easily recognized as log easily recognized as log cabins.cabins.

Log cabin tipsLog cabin tips

When an old house is When an old house is covered with siding, covered with siding, check the thicknesses of check the thicknesses of the window and door the window and door casements. They are casements. They are much thicker on a log much thicker on a log cabin than on a cabin than on a clapboard house.clapboard house.

Old log cabins were Old log cabins were caulked with lime mortar caulked with lime mortar rather than concrete.rather than concrete.

Glass as an Age IndicatorGlass as an Age Indicator

From 1880-1914 most bottles From 1880-1914 most bottles in the U.S. were made in in the U.S. were made in Germany. They used Germany. They used manganese oxide as a manganese oxide as a clearing agent, which clearing agent, which acquires a purple cast when acquires a purple cast when exposed to sunlight. Why did exposed to sunlight. Why did we stop importing it? WWI.we stop importing it? WWI.

American bottle makers used American bottle makers used selenium which produced a selenium which produced a straw yellow cast. Used from straw yellow cast. Used from 1914-late 1920’s1914-late 1920’s

American bottle makers American bottle makers switched to arsenic in the late switched to arsenic in the late 1920’s which stays clear in 1920’s which stays clear in the sunlightthe sunlight

Mason JarsMason Jars

Mason jars were first Mason jars were first patented in 1858.patented in 1858.

Mason jars labeled Mason jars labeled “Ball Brothers” date “Ball Brothers” date to post 1880’sto post 1880’s

Ground RimsGround Rims

Early glass molds left Early glass molds left jagged seams.jagged seams.

One solution was to file One solution was to file off the seams.off the seams.

This is called a “ground This is called a “ground rim” when the lip was rim” when the lip was filed down.filed down.

This was done from This was done from 1858 to ca. 1915.1858 to ca. 1915.

The lip will have a The lip will have a roughened and frosted roughened and frosted appearance.appearance.

Carnival and Depression Carnival and Depression GlassGlass

Carnival glass has a Carnival glass has a metallic sheen.metallic sheen.

The date range is The date range is 1890-1935.1890-1935.

Depression glass is Depression glass is pastel colored.pastel colored.

The date range is The date range is 1925-1940.1925-1940.

Historic CeramicsHistoric Ceramics

Historic ceramics may Historic ceramics may contain one or more contain one or more datable attributes.datable attributes.

Shell Edge 1820-1900Shell Edge 1820-1900 Hand painted floral Hand painted floral

designs 1830-1860designs 1830-1860 Transfer print 1830-1915Transfer print 1830-1915 Flow blue 1840-1860 and Flow blue 1840-1860 and

1890-19101890-1910

Yellow WareYellow Ware

Yellow ware refers to Yellow ware refers to utilitarian ware made utilitarian ware made with a yellow paste.with a yellow paste.

Undecorated 1827-Undecorated 1827-19401940

Brown glaze 1850-Brown glaze 1850-19401940

Sponged decoration Sponged decoration 1827-19401827-1940

Diagnostic Ceramic Diagnostic Ceramic Attributes Part 1Attributes Part 1 White ware (white porous White ware (white porous

earthen tableware) and earthen tableware) and “Ironstone” (white nonporous “Ironstone” (white nonporous earthen table ware): earthen table ware): undecorated items (became undecorated items (became more popular than decorated more popular than decorated ware CA. 1850). 1820-1900+ware CA. 1850). 1820-1900+

Shell edge 1820-1900.Shell edge 1820-1900. Hand painted floral designs Hand painted floral designs

1830-1860.1830-1860. Sponged decoration 1820-Sponged decoration 1820-

1940.1940. Cut stamped decoration Cut stamped decoration

(usually geometric or floral (usually geometric or floral patterns) 1860-1940.patterns) 1860-1940.

Transfer print-blue 1820-1915Transfer print-blue 1820-1915 Transfer print-dark blue Transfer print-dark blue

(“Staffordshire blue” or “old (“Staffordshire blue” or “old blue”) 1820-1835.blue”) 1820-1835.

Transfer print-brown or black Transfer print-brown or black (usually pre 1860’s) 1830-(usually pre 1860’s) 1830-1950.1950.

Transfer print-other colors Transfer print-other colors (usually pre 1860’s) 1830-(usually pre 1860’s) 1830-1950.1950.

Transfer print-flow (color will Transfer print-flow (color will appear to have “run”). appear to have “run”). Periods of popularity are Periods of popularity are 1840-1860, and 1890-1910.1840-1860, and 1890-1910.

Diagnostic Ceramic Diagnostic Ceramic Attributes Part 2Attributes Part 2

Late flow (in combination with Late flow (in combination with gilding and embossing) 1890-gilding and embossing) 1890-1912.1912.

Embossed (molded design-Embossed (molded design-raised above the surface 1850-raised above the surface 1850-1900.1900.

Decalcomania (a decal on top Decalcomania (a decal on top of the glaze) 1840-present.of the glaze) 1840-present.

Colored glaze (bright colors-Colored glaze (bright colors-Fiesta ware)1936-1973.Fiesta ware)1936-1973.

Ivory tinted glaze 1870-Ivory tinted glaze 1870-present.present.

Metallic rim band (gold and Metallic rim band (gold and silver)1885-present.silver)1885-present.

Annular (colored bands around Annular (colored bands around the vessel) 1820-1860.the vessel) 1820-1860.

Mocha (colored bands with a Mocha (colored bands with a fern-like pattern) 1820-1900.fern-like pattern) 1820-1900.

Tea leaf (hand painted leaf Tea leaf (hand painted leaf pattern in copper luster) pattern in copper luster) 1850-1910.1850-1910.

Gilded 1885-present.Gilded 1885-present. Porcelain (shiny white Porcelain (shiny white

nonporous earthen tableware- nonporous earthen tableware- oriental porcelain has a slight oriental porcelain has a slight blue or blue gray cast while blue or blue gray cast while bone china, unless an bone china, unless an intentional cream tint is intentional cream tint is added, is snow white. added, is snow white. Porcelain with iridescent Porcelain with iridescent luster 1920-present. luster 1920-present. Porcelain with “Made in Porcelain with “Made in Japan” printed on base of Japan” printed on base of vessel 1921-1940.vessel 1921-1940.

Diagnostic Ceramic Diagnostic Ceramic Attributes Part 3Attributes Part 3

Yellow Ware (porous and Yellow Ware (porous and nonporous yellow paste nonporous yellow paste utilitarian wares)utilitarian wares)

Undecorated yellow ware Undecorated yellow ware 1827-1940.1827-1940.

Brown glaze yellow ware Brown glaze yellow ware 1850-1940.1850-1940.

Rockingham Type yellow Rockingham Type yellow ware (mottled brown glaze ware (mottled brown glaze and embossed designs) and embossed designs) 1812-1920.1812-1920.

Sponged decorated yellow Sponged decorated yellow ware 1827-1940.ware 1827-1940.

Stoneware is nonporous gray, Stoneware is nonporous gray, brown, or tan paste utilitarian brown, or tan paste utilitarian ware. Stoneware was ware. Stoneware was obsolete after WWI because obsolete after WWI because of improving technology for of improving technology for preserving food.preserving food.

Bristol/Albany stoneware has Bristol/Albany stoneware has a thick white glaze on one a thick white glaze on one side and dark brown glaze on side and dark brown glaze on the other side, ca. 1880-1920.the other side, ca. 1880-1920.

Bristol/Bristol stoneware has Bristol/Bristol stoneware has a thick white glaze on both a thick white glaze on both surfaces, post 1920.surfaces, post 1920.

Glassware Part 1Glassware Part 1

Turn mold bottles have no Turn mold bottles have no seams and will exhibit seams and will exhibit horizontal striations, 1880-horizontal striations, 1880-1910.1910.

Ground rim on jar with screw Ground rim on jar with screw threads (lip will be rough and threads (lip will be rough and frosty looking) 1858-ca. 1915.frosty looking) 1858-ca. 1915.

Lipping tool bottle has a Lipping tool bottle has a lip/neck with seams only part lip/neck with seams only part of the way up the neck, and of the way up the neck, and not onto the rim. The neck not onto the rim. The neck may have horizontal may have horizontal striations.striations.

Cork closure finish on lipping Cork closure finish on lipping tool bottle, early 1870’s to ca. tool bottle, early 1870’s to ca. 1920.1920.

Crown cap finish (soda pop) Crown cap finish (soda pop) on lipping tool bottle, 1890’s-on lipping tool bottle, 1890’s-ca. 1920.ca. 1920.

Machine made or “regular Machine made or “regular made” bottle will have seams made” bottle will have seams all the way up and around the all the way up and around the rim.rim.

Machine made with cork Machine made with cork closure finish, 1903-ca. 1915.closure finish, 1903-ca. 1915.

Machine made with crown Machine made with crown cap finish, post 1903.cap finish, post 1903.

Machine made with pry off lid Machine made with pry off lid finish, post 1929.finish, post 1929.

Machine made with Machine made with continuous screw thread continuous screw thread finish, post 1919.finish, post 1919.

Glassware Part 2Glassware Part 2

Manganese oxide glass Manganese oxide glass (purple colored bottle (purple colored bottle glass), 1880-ca. 1914.glass), 1880-ca. 1914.

Selenium glass (straw Selenium glass (straw colored bottle glass), colored bottle glass), 1914-late 1920’s.1914-late 1920’s.

Arsenic glass Arsenic glass (permanently clear bottle (permanently clear bottle glass), post late 1920’s.glass), post late 1920’s.

““Federal law prohibits Federal law prohibits sale or reuse of this sale or reuse of this bottle” in embossed or bottle” in embossed or raised lettering on bottle, raised lettering on bottle, 1933-1964.1933-1964.

Applied color label Applied color label (painted label on soda (painted label on soda pop bottles), post 1934.pop bottles), post 1934.

Mason jars first Mason jars first patented, 1858.patented, 1858.

Mason jars first Mason jars first distributed by Ball distributed by Ball Brothers, 1880.Brothers, 1880.

Carnival glass tableware Carnival glass tableware (glass with a metallic (glass with a metallic sheen), 1890-1935.sheen), 1890-1935.

Depression glass Depression glass tableware (pastel colored tableware (pastel colored glass), 1925-1940.glass), 1925-1940.

Cautionary NotesCautionary Notes

People may have brought heirlooms that People may have brought heirlooms that were broken and discarded at the new were broken and discarded at the new farmstead, leading you to think the site is farmstead, leading you to think the site is older than it really is.older than it really is.

Look at a variety of datable artifacts, and Look at a variety of datable artifacts, and note where they cluster in time.note where they cluster in time.

Use atlases in the library and compare Use atlases in the library and compare that date to the date of the artifacts.that date to the date of the artifacts.