Upload
others
View
0
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Global Research Journal On Mathematics And Science Education ISSN 2278-0769 V1N2
99
CULTURAL INTERPRETATIONS OF CAUSES OF
LIGHTNING BY PUPILS FROM COMMUNITIES
IN KENYA. *Mark I. O. Okere
* Fred N. Keraro,
*Zephania Anditi
Abstract The construction of new knowledge in science is strongly
influenced by prior knowledge that is conceptions gained prior to the
new learning. But knowledge construction takes place in a cultural
context created by for example, social and economic class, religion,
geographical location, ethnicity and language. The cultural context
could be influencing pupils’ learning of science in Kenya. This study
investigated the extent to which primary and secondary school pupils
believe in cultural interpretations of the causes of lightning. Cross-
sectional survey research design was used. The target population was
Form one pupils in nine districts selected from Nyanza, Rift Valley,
Central, Eastern and Coast Provinces in Kenya. The nine districts were
selected purposively to represent 9 different ethnic communities from
the five provinces. A total of 806 secondary school pupils participated.
The pupils were drawn from 30 secondary schools .A questionnaire was
used to gather information from pupils. Data were analised using both
qualitative and quantitative techniques. The findings from this study
inform curriculum developers of some of the cultural beliefs that are
likely to influence the learning of the phenomenon of lightning. It is
recommended that teachers discuss cultural interpretations of scientific
concepts before introducing them in their lessons.
Keywords: Science, Culture, Beliefs, Lightning.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Mark I. O. Okere*, Fred N. Keraro, and Zephania Anditi, Egerton University,
Department of Curriculum, Instruction and Educational Management
Global Research Journal On Mathematics And Science Education ISSN 2278-0769 V1N2
100
Introduction
The individual in a traditional culture should be made to see the
merits and demerits of science, the similarities and the differences
between his worlds view vis-a-avis science such that he can use
the knowledge gained to make wise decisions in his daily life
(Ogawa, 1986). Ausubel, Novak and Hensian (1978) have argued
that the construction of new knowledge in science is strongly
influenced by prior knowledge that is conceptions gained prior to
the new learning. Knowledge construction takes place in a
cultural context created by, for example, social and economic
class, religion, geographical location, ethnicity and language.
.In addition to race and language, other significant factors
influence the construction of meaning and therefore are part of
cultural identity. These include economic and education levels,
occupation, geographic location, gender religion and philosophy
(Geertz, 1973).
In cultural anthropology, teaching science is viewed as cultural
transmission (Spindler, 1987) and learning science as culture
acquisition (Wolcott, 1991), where culture means “an ordered
system of meaning and symbols, in terms of which social
interaction takes place “(Geertz, 1973 p.5). In past studies,
different attributes of culture have been selected to focus on a
particular interest in multicultural or cross-cultural science
education (Baker&Taylor, 1995; Barba, 1993). For instance,
Maddock(1981,p.20) listed “beliefs, attitudes, technologies,
languages, leadership authority structures”,Ogawa(1986)
addressed culture’s view of humans and nature and it’s view of
thinking;Aikenhead(1996) conceptualized culture according to the
norms, values, beliefs, expectations and conventional actions of a
group. In our study we conceptualized culture to subsume beliefs,
expectations and conventional actions of a group. The
Global Research Journal On Mathematics And Science Education ISSN 2278-0769 V1N2
101
phenomenon of lightning is subsumed under beliefs. This
definition is adopted because in Kenya there are various ethnic
groups with different beliefs about causes of lightning. Furnham
(1992) identified several powerful subgroups that influence the
learning of science including the family, peers, the school, the
mass media and the physical, social and economic environment.
There is widespread acceptance in the international science
education research community that students at all levels of
schooling all over the world have a diversity of ideas prior to
formal learning (Driver, 1989; Zietsman& Naidoo, 1979).
According to Pfundt and Duit (1994) the conceptions about
physical phenomena are formed early in life as children try to
make sense of the physical world. The persistence of these
conceptions have been observed even after the formal study of
science (Champagne, Klopper &Anderson, 1980; Caramazza,
McCloskey&Green,1981;Clement,1982;Osborne&Wittrock,1983,
1985;Halloun&Hestenes,1985).The highly robust nature of these
preconceptions appears to indicate that they are deeply rooted in
students’ cognitive structures and makes plausible the idea that
they are based upon “alternative frameworks” (Lynch,1995).
Conceptions of lightning
Neo (2008) studied the effect of a cross – cultural instructional
approach on learners’ conceptions of lightning and attitudes
towards science. The study explored Basotho conceptions of
lightning and thunder in terms of nature of lightning, protection
against lightning, animalistic/humanistic behaviour of lightning
and nature of wounds inflicted by lightning. Fictitious stories
were developed around the above themes and learners asked to
respond to them by agreeing or disagreeing with statements in the
stories. Ample space was also provided for the learners to express
their own views and explanations of the incidences in the stories.
Global Research Journal On Mathematics And Science Education ISSN 2278-0769 V1N2
102
A quasi-Solomon-3-Group design was adopted where two of the
three groups were exposed to the cross-cultural instructional
approach. The approach entails using a combination of knowledge
about lightning prevailing in the learners’ socio-cultural
environment with school science. The learners were introduced to
the science of lightning as presented in the Lesotho Junior
Science Curriculum. The findings were that; before being exposed
to the cross-cultural instructional materials, learners had both
scientific and traditional conceptions of lightning and thunder, but
after the intervention, some learners from both the experimental
and control groups accepted both the scientific and traditional
explanations about how lightning occurs, an instance of
simultaneous collateral learning (Jegede, 1995). Nkopane (2006)
also studied learners’ conceptions of lightning. The learners were
from five of some of the tribes that live in Johannesburg, South
Africa. The research attempted to elicit, describe and assess the
learners’ process of learning Western conceptions of lightning. A
total of 33 participants responded to a questionnaire and 16 were
interviewed about the causes of lightning. The learners responded
by saying that they believe that lightning is a result of witchcraft,
it demonstrates the anger of ancestors or it is used by god to
demonstrate its existence. The findings suggested that the
learners’ African conception is a hindrance to the learning of
science because learners’ cultural identity is often very different
from the culture of conventional science.
According to Ogawa (1989 cited by Snively and Corsiglia, 2001)
most of the African conceptions of lightning originate from
indigenous communities, and are transferred from generation to
generation merely by invisible or non-formal settings .du
Toit(1997,p.12) said “ To understand the place of science in any
society one has to look holistically at the general make up, world-
Global Research Journal On Mathematics And Science Education ISSN 2278-0769 V1N2
103
view, belief systems, relationships and contexts in which such
society stands. Understanding science in Africa is impossible
without coming to grips with what can symbolically be called the
soul of Africa. Neither can it be understood without taking the
physical context of poverty and illiteracy into account”.
Purpose and objectives of the study
The purpose of the study was to investigate the extent to which
Form one (first grade secondary school cycle in Kenya) school
pupils believe in cultural interpretations of causes of lightning.
. The study was guided by the following objectives:
(i) To find out if secondary school pupils believe in cultural
interpretations of the causes of lightning.
(ii) .To compare pupils’ beliefs in cultural interpretations of
lightning from various ethnic communities.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided the study.
1: Do secondary school pupils believe in cultural
interpretations of causes of lightning?
2: Do pupils’ beliefs in cultural interpretations of causes of
lightning depend on ethnicity?
Methodology
The cross-sectional survey research design was used in this study
to gather pupils’ beliefs in cultural interpretations of causes of
lightning. The population in this study included pupils, Form One
pupils (average age of 14 years) in the nine districts that
participated in the study. The accessible population comprised
pupils in the 30 secondary schools from which the sample was
drawn.
Five provinces were selected randomly for investigation. These
are, Nyanza, Rift Valley, Central, Eastern and Coast, in Kenya.
The districts were selected purposively. This was to ensure that
the majority of the pupils from each district represented a specific
Global Research Journal On Mathematics And Science Education ISSN 2278-0769 V1N2
104
ethnic community. Purposive sampling was also used in selecting
schools. The aim was to sample schools from rural settings where
beliefs in cultural interpretations of scientific phenomena are
common. All the secondary schools sampled were provincial
boarding, single sex. The aim was to have approximately equal
numbers of boys and girls in the sample.
Only one form one stream was used in each secondary school.
The streams were selected using simple random sampling
technique. A total of 806 secondary participated in the study.
The questionnaire used contained 6 items which gave
suggestions concerning cultural interpretations of the physical
phenomena of heat, lightning, rainbow and evaporation. The
pupils were asked to indicate whether or not they agreed with the
cultural interpretations by ticking YES or NO in the two boxes
which were provided. They were further asked to explain why
they agreed or disagreed with suggestions given. Responses to
only one of the items are reported in this paper. These are beliefs
in cultural interpretations of causes of lightning. The
questionnaire was administered to the pupils over a period of 30
minutes. The period was found adequate for the pupils to answer
the items. The administration of the questionnaire was conducted
by the researchers with the assistance of the class teachers.
Results.
Causes of Lightning
Pupils’ beliefs in cultural interpretations of lightning were
investigated using the following question:
Question: Thunder
Below are some of the causes of lightning suggested by different
communities in Kenya.
(i) Red cock that accompanies rain
(ii) Wearing of red garments when it is raining.
Global Research Journal On Mathematics And Science Education ISSN 2278-0769 V1N2
105
(iii) Settling of boundary disputes
(iv) The devil is fighting God
(v) Presence of a lizard
Do you agree with any of the above suggestions?
YES NO
If none of the above, state the belief of the cause of lightning in
your community.
________________________________________________
Causes of Lightning
Numbers and percentages of communities’ beliefs:
Table 1:Bomet -Kipsigis Cultural Beliefs
Explanation N Agree Disagree
Gods fighting each other 1 0 1
Settling land disputes 35 30 5
Leaning on the wall when it is raining 1 0 2
Red cock that accompanies rain 23 12 11
Devil is fighting God 2 0 2
God is angry with people 14 6 8
Wearing red garments when it is raining 7 4 3
Making noise when it is raining 2 2 0
Walking in rain 5 1 4
Holding sharp objects 8 2 6
Satan is fighting with his wife 1 0 1
Presence of a lizard 4 4 0
Ancestors are annoyed with the living 2 2 0
Holding a shiny reflector 3 0 3
A person’s misdeeds 4 2 2
Caused by witchcraft 1 0 1
Sheltering under a tree 8 6 2
Walking bare feet in water 3 2 1
Throwing objects on the power lines, it can
cause a short circuit leading to fire
1 0 1
TOTAL 127 74 53
% 100 58.3 41.7
Global Research Journal On Mathematics And Science Education ISSN 2278-0769 V1N2
106
Table 2: Nandi – Nandi Cultural Beliefs
Explanation N Agree Disagree
Wearing red garments 36 19 17
Red cock that accompanies rain 16 8 8
Settling boundary disputes 13 11 2
Presence of a lizard 6 5 1
Walking in water 3 1 2
God is angry with people’s bad deeds 3 1 2
Devil is fighting God 3 1 2
Sheltering under a tree 6 6 0
Leaning on the wall 4 3 1
Walking on water barefoot 5 4 1
Holding a sharp metal 2 1 1
Ancestors are angry with the living 1 1 0
A person may send it to you 1 1 0
Peeping through the window 1 1 0
Sitting on stones of a fire place 1 1 0
TOTAL 101 64 37
% 100 63.4 36.6
Table 3: Nyeri –Kikuyu Cultural Beliefs
Explanation N Agree Disagree
It occurs to strike evil people 1 0 1
Wearing of red garments 18 5 13
Devil is fighting God 4 0 4
Leaning on walls 2 2 0
God fighting his wife 1 0 1
Red cock that accompanies rain 1 0 1
When ancestor are angry 1 0 1
Women in heaven quarreling their husbands 3 0 3
It is God’s anger 2 0 2
Standing near a tree 3 2 1
Making noise when it is raining 1 0 1
Global Research Journal On Mathematics And Science Education ISSN 2278-0769 V1N2
107
Switching on lights when raining 1 0 1
TOTAL 38 9 29
% 100 23.7 76.3
Table 4: Kisii –Abagusi Cultural Beliefs
Explanation N N N %
Walking bare foot in water 3 3 0 0.0
Fetching water from the roofs 2 1 1 50.0
Holding sharp objects pointing to the
sky
12 7 5 41.7
Wearing red garment 33 22 11 33.3
Settling boundary dispute 2 2 0 0.0
Walking in the rain 14 12 2 14.3
Sheltering under a tree 11 9 2 18.2
Touching metal 1 1 0 0.0
Presence of a lizard 3 1 2 66.7
Switching radio or TV on when it is
raining
2 2 0 0.0
Sitting near a tall building 1 1 0 0.0
Red cock that accompanies rain 10 7 3 30.0
God is fighting his wife 2 0 2 100.0
Gods are angry with people 2 0 2 100.0
Leaning against the wall 2 0 2 100.0
Swearing for false witness 1 1 0 0.0
Devil is fighting God 1 1 0 0.0
Witchcraft 1 0 1 100.0
Reading a book when it is raining 1 0 1 100.0
TOTAL 104 70 34 32.7
% 100 67.3
Table 5: Rachuonyo – Luo Cultural Beliefs
Explanation N Agree Disagree
Wearing red garments 34 22 12
Drinking rain water 3 3 0
Walking in rain bare foot 4 4 0
Playing in rain water 12 9 3
Leaning on walls 3 3 0
Global Research Journal On Mathematics And Science Education ISSN 2278-0769 V1N2
108
Red cock that accompanies rain 21 10 11
Sheltering under a tree 18 15 3
Settling boundary disputes 1 1 0
Presence of a lizard 5 3 2
Devil is fighting God 2 2 0
Making noise when it is raining 3 2 1
God is showing his anger 3 1 2
Carrying sharp objects when walking in
rain
5 3 2
Lightning is due to witchcraft 2 1 1
TOTAL 114 77 37
% 100 67.5 32.5
Table 6: Embu – Embu Cultural Beliefs
Explanation N Agree Disagree
Devil is fighting God 5 3 2
Devil spreading his blankets 1 0 1
Red cock that accompanies rain 3 2 1
Wearing of red garments 28 13 15
Caused by God 2 2 0
Moon and star fighting over king’s daughter 1 0 1
God is punishing people in hell 1 0 1
Settling boundary disputes 3 2 1
God is angry with people’s bad deeds 1 0 1
A sign of rainfall 9 9 0
Walking bare foot 1 1 0
Carrying sharp objects 1 1 0
God is fighting angels 1 0 1
Lighting come from heaven 7 6 1
It comes from the forest 2 0 2
Sheltering under a tree 1 0 1
TOTAL 71 39 32
% 100 54.9 45.1
Global Research Journal On Mathematics And Science Education ISSN 2278-0769 V1N2
109
Table 7: Meru South – Chuka Cultural Beliefs
Explanation N Agree Disagree
It is caused by rain 21 17 4
It occurs near the forest 1 1 0
Wearing red garments 26 7 19
Red cock that accompanies rain 3 2 1
Indicates planting period 1 1 0
Sitting under a tree 4 3 1
It is caused by thunder 3 2 1
Devil is fighting God 6 3 3
It can be caused by sun when it is very hot 1 0 1
It is caused by god 3 2 1
It is an argument between grandmother and her
husband
1 0 1
God is sharpening his knife producing sparks 1 0 1
Winds from different directions hit each other 1 1 0
God is fighting his wife 2 1 1
God is angry because of our sins 4 0 4
Sun and clouds are fighting 1 0 1
To stop fight between moon and sun 1 1 1
Angels fighting and throwing things 1 0 1
God is taking photographs 1 0 1
TOTAL 127 41 41
% 100 50.0 50.0
Table 8: Kilifi - Giriama Cultural Beliefs
Explanation N Agree Disagree
Red cock that accompanies rain 12 8 4
Wearing red garments when it is raining 14 4 10
Devil is fighting God 4 2 2
Presence of a lizard 3 2 1
Sitting under a tree 2 1 1
It is caused by coming of rains 9 5 4
It is caused by tall buildings 1 1 0
Lightning is caused by thunder 3 3 0
Sign of danger 1 1 0
Rolling of stones above the clouds 1 0 1
Walking on rain water 1 1 0
Leaning on a wall 1 1 0
Holding sharp objects upwards 1 1 0
Global Research Journal On Mathematics And Science Education ISSN 2278-0769 V1N2
110
Ancestors are annoyed with the living 2 1 1
Caused by God 5 2 3
It is a sign of God’s anger 3 0 3
TOTAL 63 33 30
% 100 52.4 47.6
Table 9: Kwale – Digo Cultural Beliefs
Explanation N Agree Disagree
Wearing red garments 24 15 9
Hiding under trees 4 4 0
Red cock that accompanies rain 5 0 5
God’s anger because of peoples sins 6 2 4
Water tides 1 0 1
Angels fighting 1 0 1
Brought by a lot of rain 4 1 3
Lightning fire when it is raining 1 0 1
Making noise when it is raining 1 0 1
Caused by tall trees 1 0 1
Sitting under a tall building 2 1 1
Devil is fighting God 3 2 1
Working in the farm when it is raining 1 0 1
Settling boundary disputes 3 2 1
God is quarrelling his wife 1 0 1
Switching on radio when it is raining 1 1 0
God brings lightning 2 0 2
TOTAL 61 28 33
45.9% 54.1%
Sample Responses
(a) Scientific Responses
(i) Lightning is caused when positively charged clouds
come into contact with negatively charged clouds
sparking static electricity which is observed.
(b) Partially Scientific Responses
(i) Lightning is caused when two different clouds with
different charges come into contact and due to the
high friction, it causes lightning.
Global Research Journal On Mathematics And Science Education ISSN 2278-0769 V1N2
111
(c) Cultural Responses
(i) Lightning appears when devil is fighting God.
(ii) Red garments attract lightning
(iii) Lightning strikes to settle land boundary disputes.
(iv) Lightning appears when God is angry because of
peoples’ sins.
(v) Lightning is a sign that ancestors are annoyed with
the living.
(vi) Non-Scientific Responses
(i) The red garments are not appropriate wearing them
when there is lightning because red garments attract
lightning more easily.
It is noted from tables 1 – 9 that in 8 out of the 9 ethnic
communities investigated, red colour is believed to be the main
cause of lightning. Belief in red cock as the cause of lightning is
also quite high among the Abagusi, Luo, Kipsigis, Nandi and
Giriama ethnic communities. A high number of pupils in Bomet
district (35 out of 127) gave the cause of lightning as settling of
boundary disputes. These results suggest that some of the cultural
beliefs about cause of lightning are common among various
ethnic communities, but others are confined to specific
communities. In 7 out of the 9 ethnic communities, the percentage
of pupils that agreed with the cultural interpretations of causes of
lightning was at least 50. This implies that schooling does not
eradicate pupils’ beliefs in cultural interpretations of causes of
lightning. This is because Form one pupils have completed 8
years of Primary Education, and when the research was being
conducted they were in the middle of their first year in secondary
school.
Discussion
Lewis (2003) argued that students rely on intuitive
conceptions to explain events not specifically studied in class.
Intuitive conceptions refer to ideas developed as the result
of interacting with the natural world. He gave an example of
pupils who explained that wool has the ability of being able
Global Research Journal On Mathematics And Science Education ISSN 2278-0769 V1N2
112
to warm things up so that a cold object wrapped in wool
would spontaneously become warmer. In our study, we realized
that some of the pupils were using intuitive conceptions to
explain why they believed in cultural interpretations of causes of
lightning.. For example, some of them said that they had
witnessed an event where a person who sheltered under a tree was
struck by lightning
Anamuah-Mensah (1998) explored the extent of native
science beliefs among students in secondary schools and
tertiary institutions. The study revealed that native science
beliefs seem to be held firmly by quite a substantial
proportion of students. Results from our study supported
Anamuah-Mensah’s findings. For example, in seven out of the
nine districts at least 50 percent of the pupils believed in the
cultural interpretations of causes of lightning. This implies that
education does not eradicate pupils’ beliefs in cultural
interpretations.
Ogunniyi (1984) observed that gender, tribe or level of
education of the people does not have any significant
influence on their world view. This does not agree with our
results, because in some of the ethnic communities we
studied, some of the cultural beliefs were common among various
ethnic communities but others were confined within specific
communities. Ogunniyi also suggested that the scientific and
African world views are not necessarily mutually exclusive
of each other, for example, it is possible to hold a scientific
as well as a traditional view of the world, perhaps in the
same way scientists in the West hold the scientific and the
Christian world view. This suggestion agrees with our findings.
In our study we noted that some pupils held both scientific
meanings of causes of lightning and the cultural
interpretations, for example, some said, lightning takes place
when positively charged clouds collide with negatively charged
clouds. But they also believed that lightning is attracted by red
Global Research Journal On Mathematics And Science Education ISSN 2278-0769 V1N2
113
garments. Neo (2008) studied conceptions of lightning held by
Lesotho Junior Science Curriculum pupils and found that the
pupils had both scientific and traditional conceptions of lightning
and thunder.
Nkopane (2006) studied Grade 8 learners’ alternative conceptions
of lightning in Johannesburg South Africa, and found that learners
believed that lightning is a result of: witchcraft, it demonstrates
the anger of ancestors, or it is used by god to demonstrate its
existence. These findings are in agreement with some of the
reasons given by pupils from some of the communities about the
causes of lightning. For example, pupils form two of the districts
said that light is a result of witchcraft, pupils from four of the
districts said that light demonstrates the anger of ancestors and
pupils from seven of the districts said that lightning is used by
god to demonstrate its existence. du Toit (1997) pointed out that
for one to understand the place of science in any society one has
to look holistically at the general make up, world-view, and belief
systems in which such society stands. This suggestion is in
agreement with our findings because the reasons given by pupils
about the causes of lightning varied from one community to
another.
Conclusions
(i) The first objective of the study was to find out if
secondary school pupils
believe in cultural interpretations of causes of lightning.
Empirical data have shown that a high percentage of
pupils from the communities studied believe in the
cultural interpretations of causes of lightning.
(ii) Objective two was to find out if pupils’ beliefs in
cultural interpretations of causes of lightning depend
on ethnicity. Empirical data have shown that there
is a relationship between pupils’ beliefs in cultural
interpretations of causes of lightning and ethnicity.
Some of the beliefs are common among various
Global Research Journal On Mathematics And Science Education ISSN 2278-0769 V1N2
114
ethnic communities while some of the beliefs are
confined within specific communities. This implies
that community is the major contributing factor to
pupils’ beliefs in cultural interpretations of cause of
lightning.
(iii) Some of the findings from this study agree with the
findings from other previous researches done in
Africa on pupil’ beliefs in causes of lightning
,however, the study has revealed some beliefs about
causes of lightning that have not been discovered by
other studies. .
Recommendations (i) Cultural beliefs in interpretations of scientific phenomena
should be considered when science curricula are being
developed. Teachers should be made aware of such
beliefs so that they may use them as advance organizers
before introducing the topics whose conceptualizations are
likely to be affected by the cultural interpretations.
(ii) There should be a two-pronged attack on reducing the
influence of cultural beliefs in science learning. First, the
pupils should be made aware of such beliefs and their
limitations. Second, adult literacy curricular should
incorporate cultural beliefs of scientific phenomena. This
will make the public aware of the limitations of such
beliefs.
Referencess
Aikenhead, G.S. (1996).Science education: Border crossing into
the subculture of science Studies in Science Education, 27, 1-52.
Anamuah-Mensah, J. (1998). Native science beliefs among
Ghanaian students. International Journal of Science Education.
Vol. 20 No.1, 115-124.
Ausubel, D.P., Novak, J.D, &Henesian, H. (1978). Educational
psychology: A cognitive View New York, sssNY: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston.
Global Research Journal On Mathematics And Science Education ISSN 2278-0769 V1N2
115
Baker, D.A. & Taylor, P.C.S. (1995). ‘The Effect of Culture on
the Learning of Science in Non-Western Countries: The
Results of an Integrated Research Review: International Journal
of Science Education 17, 695-704.
Barba, R.H. (1993). ‘A study of Culturally Syntonic Variables in
the Bilingual/ Bicultural Science Classroom’, Journal of
Research in Science Teaching 30 1053-1071.
Caramazza, A., McCloskey, M. & Green, B.(11981). Naïve
beliefs in sophisticated subjects: misconceptions about
trajectories of objects. Cognation.9 (2), 117-123.
Champagne, A.B., Klopper, L.E. & Anderson, J.H. (1980).
Factors influencing the learning of classical mechanics.
American Journal of Physics, 48, 1074-1079.
Clement, J. (1982). Students’ preconceptions in introductory
mechanics. American Journal of Physics, 50, 66-71.
Driver, R. (1989). Changing conceptions. In Adey, P. et al. Eds.
Adolescent Development and School Science. (pp.79-99).
London. The Falmer Press.
du Toit, C.W. (1997). Faith Science and African Culture.
Proceedings of Faith Seminar of the South African Science and
Religion Forum(SASRF) of the Research Institute for Theology
and Religion, 10- 32,Unisa,South Africa.
Furnham, A. (1992). ‘Lay Understanding of Science’, Studies in
Science Education 20, 29-64.
Geertz, C. (1973). The Interpretations of Culture, Basic Books,
New York.
Global Research Journal On Mathematics And Science Education ISSN 2278-0769 V1N2
116
Halloun, I.A. & Hestenes, D. (1985). The initial state of college
physics students. American Journal of Physics, 53, 1043-1055.
Jegede, O.J. (1995). Collateral Learning and The Eco- cultural
Paradigm in Science and Mathematics Education in Africa.
Studies in Science Education, 25, 97-137
Lewis, E. L. & Linn, M. C. (2003). Heat Energy and
Temperature Concepts of Adolescents Adults and Experts:
Implications for Curriculum Improvements. Journal of Research
in Science Teaching. Vol.40, Supplement, pp. 5155-5175.
Lynch, P.P. (1995). Students’ alternative frameworks: Towards a
linguistic and cultural interpretation. International Journal of
Science Education. 17 (1), 107-118
Neo(2008). The effect of a cross- cultural instructional approach
on learners’ conceptions of lightning and attitudes towards
science. PhD Dissertation: Department of Didactics, University of
Western Cape, South Africa.
Nkopane (2006 ). Identifying and finding the impact of Grade 8
learners’ alternative conceptions of lightning. A research report
submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of
Witwaterstrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfillment of the
requirements of the degree of Master of Science.
Ogawa, M. (1986). Towards a new rationale of science
education in non-Western Society European Journal of
Science Education Vol.8 pp 113-119.
Ogunniyi,M.B. (1984). Are the gods dead? Testing for the
relative influence of supernatural forces among Yoruba
Global Research Journal On Mathematics And Science Education ISSN 2278-0769 V1N2
117
youths, Working Paper No. 2, submitted to International
Development Research Centre (IDRC) Ottawa, Canada.
Osborne, R.J.& Wittrock, M.C. (1983).Learning Science – a
generative process. Science Education, 67, 489-508.
Pfundt, H. & Duit, R. (1994). Bibliography of Students’
Alternative Frameworks in Science Education (3rd
ed). Kiel,
Germany: University of Kiel
Snively, G. and Corsiglia, J.(2001). Discovering Indigenous
Science. Implications for Science Education. Science Education,
85: 6- 34
Spinder, G. (1987). Education and cultural process:
Anthropological approaches (2nd
ed.)
Prospect Heights. IL: Waveland
Wolcott, H.H. (1991). Propriospect and the acquisition of culture.
Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 22, 251-273
Zietsman, A. & Naidoo, S. (1997). Girls’ Understanding of
Concepts of Thermal Properties of Matter. Abridged research.
Rep. 32.Nairobi: Academy of science.
******