.'

Cultural Influences on the Choice of Rural Sanitation Technology in Islamic Countries

Amirali Karim Pirani

School of Architecture McGill University, Montreal

March, 1989

A thesis submitted ta the Faculty of Graduate Stlldie'\ and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

degree of Master of Architecture.

© Amirali Karim Pirani. 1989

~UJ..lVteA '­

of- KuRAL ISL AI-4/C-

/fIJ rJ... Ue,..;;C6 S c: '-ID {CE

Co UN r,€ , 65

ABSTRACT

Sanitation is an integral part of human settlements; it is one of the fundament.. ~

factors in the improvement of living and environmental conditions for rural

communities. But the Identlfication of social and cultural factors and their integration

Into rural samtation programs has proved difficult. This thesis investigates the

influence of sodo cultural factors on rural sanitation in Islamic cultures. Ir inc1udes

identification of relevant teachings in Islam, and a survey of sanitation practices in rural

areas of three Islarmc countries: Bangladesh, Pakistan and Egypr. It concludes by

Identtfying the key cultural elements that influence the selection of appropriate rural

sanitation technologies in Islamic countries.

ii

RESUME

L'hygiène publique fuit partie intégrante des colonies humames Dans les

communautés rurales, c'est l'un des facteurs essentiels à l'amélioration du rmlieu L't des

conditions de vie. Mais l'idennficatlon de facteur<; !'OCIaUX et culturels et leur

assimilation à des programmes d'hygiène publique en mIieu nIral se sont révélt5c~

difficiles. Cette thèse étudie l'influence des facteurs soclO-culturels sur l'hyglC~:nc

publique en milieu rural dans les cultures islamiques Elle comprend l'IdentificatIOn des

enseignements de l'Islam dans ce domaine, ainsi qu'une étude des me<;ures d'hygl~nc

en usage dans les zones rurales de trOis pays Islamiques: le Banglade ... h, le Pakl!'ltan cl

l'Egypte. Enfin, elle identifie les facteurs cultureb essertleb Influençant le chOIX tic

technologies sanitaires appropriées dans les pays islamiques.

III

Table of Contents

Abstract J~ésumé Ta bic of Contents Acknowlcdgements Lilit of lIlulitrations

Charter 1 Culture, Human Beha\-iour and Rural Sanitation

Rural Sa111tauon -- An Overvlew

Chapter 2

Culture, 1 Itunan BchavlOur and Rural Samtauon 1 Iypothc~l'" Mcthodology

11

III

IV

V

VI

Islamie Tcachings on Sanitation 15 Introduction

Chapter J

hlal11lc Doctnne COI1CCpb of Purity and Cleanhness ln blam Teachmg ... and GUldeline'i on Samtatlon Conclu'>lon

The Practice of Sanitation ln Selectcd Islamie Countries 30 IntroductIon

C1Mptcr -+

Gameranga, Bangladesh Rahaln:tterpara, Banglade~h Pakl~tan Daqalthya Province, Egypt Ycmen CorlClu'>lon

C()nclll~ion 67

AppCI1(jl'\ 1 Rural Sanitution Technologies T2

Appendl'\ 2 l\Iu~lilm in Rural Areas 95

Sou rt'('S of 1 lIust ra fions 10 1 Bibliogr4lphy 102

IV

Acknowlcdgemcnts

My sincere thanks to:

Professor Witold Rybczynski for his senSItIve and cnucal guidance, encouragement,

patience, and making himself available whenever needed.

The Aga Khan Foundation for makmg rny program pOSSible at McGillUnivcr'\lly

Dr. Mayling Simpson-Hebert, Ken Gibbs, and several devclopmg agencles and

organizations for shanng their research and expenence for the purpose of this the~I"i.

My friends and colleagues who took the ume to hsten. to discuss, and to comment 011

this research.

Finally, thanks to my farnily, for all the encouragement and prayers; especlally 10 Khald

for his strong support and help during the criucal stages of this the~is.

v

List of Illustrations

1 1 Reported percentages of the rural population ... of various countrie ... havlng aoequate cxcreta dlsp0"lal facilltie ... In 19RO. 3

3. 1 World map highlightmg l'ountnes undcr study. 31

J, '") Map of Bangladc\h \howlI1g locatIOn of Gameranga. 33

3 1 Lota. a coml11on water contalller. 36

3.-l Chcckli~t evaluatlon of sanltauon practice 10 Gameranga. 39

.\ 5 Map of Banglade .... h showlI1g locatlOn of Rahdmaterpara. 41

~ 6 International Volllniary ServIces latrine. 42

3 7 The Improved Pli Latnne. 43

.\ X Watcr Scal Latnne used of pilot proJcct 111 Rahamaterpara, Bangladesh. 44-

.~ 9 The Vletnal11e~e Type (DVC) latnne used in Rahamaterpara. Bangladesh. 45

-' 10 The Vcntllated Il11proved Pit Latrme used m Rahamaterpara, Bangladesh. 46

.\. 1 1 Check.li .... t evaluation of \anitatlon practlce 111 Rahamaterpara. 49

~ 1 ~ 1\1ap of Pal"'\tal1 ~how1I1g location of villagc\ lInder ~tlldy. 50

3. 1 3 A narrow ~treet III the village of Var. 51

'14- Open dram\ In .... treet" - a typical <;ltuatIon 111 many villages ln Paki ~tan. 51

~ 15 An overtlowlIlg pit 111 Mirpur Sakro from v.llIch hquid and ~olId waste 1\ collcctcd on a weekly ba\ls. 52

,16 E\tl.?nnr VIC\\' of the tOilet ~howll1g open1l1g 111 the wall from whcre the ~olid wa\le \\ l'ollceted. 54

~ 17 A huck.et "y\lt'111 tollet \Vith foot rest~ in Ghulamullah. 55

3.1 S A pour flush "y stem III an outhollse In Var. 56

.~ 19 A pour Illl"h ..;y..,tcm 111 :'\av Gorh. 56

\ 1

3.20 Extenor walls of dwellings in Mirpur Sakro. 57 3.21 A pour flush ~ystem in Var. "X

3.22 Checkhst evaluation of ~anitauon practlce ln Pakl'\tan. 59

3.23 Checklist evaluation of ~allltatlon practH.:e Jll Egypt. hl

3.24 The "long drop latnne" m Yemen. 63

3.25 CheckhM evaluatIon of sanIt:\tIon practH.:e III Ycmen. 6·l

4.1 Overall checkh:-.t evaluauon of samtatIon practiœ. (lX

5.1 Generic classification of samtatlon <;y~tem~. 73

5.2 The baSIC feature~ of a pit I.!trine. 75

5.3 The vented pit privy. 77

5.4 Reed Odourless Earth Closet. 79

5.5 VIDP latrine. XO

5.6 Hand-flu~hed waterseal latnne by NEER l, Indla. X2

5 7 The aqua-pnvy. X4

5.8 Double Vault Compo~tlng Tollet. X7

5 9 Isometric views of Double Vault Compo .... ting ToIlet X7

5.10 Gopuri Composting t0l1eL XX

5 Il Sopa Sandas. XX

5.12 POLIr Flu~h Compo<.,ung Toilet. XI)

5.13 Solar heated Double Vault Compo<.,tlng Latrine. HI)

5.14 Contmuous Compo<.,ung tOllet. 1) 1

5.15 The Mimmus Compo~tIng ToIlet. 'J2

5.16 Compmting Latrine of the Multrum type. ln

VII

61

62

6.3

World map ,11Owmg countrie'i WIth 50 percent or more Mushm populatIon.

DI!-.tribution<; and populations of Muslims in rural areas.

Dl,tribution~ and populations of MuslIms in rural areas.

vin

96

98

98

Chaptcr One

CULTURE, HUMAN BEHAVIOUR AND RURAL SANITATION

Rural Sanitation -- An Overview

Rural sanitation could be characterized as a situation where conventlonal <;ewage

disposaI does not exist; in other words, the use of sewerage has been rulcd out bccau<;c il i~

expensive in a given situation or because it is Impractical to introduce Dunng the la..,t threl!

decades, lack of sanitation has become a threat for developing countne<; and a conccrn for

the developing agencies. Does this imply that the problem ha<; emerged dunng the pa">t

severa! years, or that it never existed before? Looking 3.t lt from developmg countne.., pOInt

of view, the problem was never acknowledged or wa~ !lever a pnonty of any Immediate

concern. The situation could be classified in the category of 'non-awarene<,<,' on the part of

the general public, especially the rural communities, where the situation of inadequate

excreta di.,po<,al wa~ rarely considered to he a "problem" by the people themselves. People

In rural arcas gcncrally scek to dispose of their excreta as cheaply as possible, and in those

arca~ whcrc population den~ity is low, this activity is carried out without any large

Invcstments in waste disposaI facIlities.

This SItuation reqUIres more than sunply a techmcal and economical analysis to the

approach of pnmdmg adequate sanitation facllities. There is an element of deep-rooted

cultural values which needs to be responded in this process. Effective rural excreta

dl"pmal reqUlrc) Ihat people should begin 10 lInderstand the health hazards from excreta

and mca~lIrc'" that cOllld he taken to avoid these hazards. This becomes the most important

clement 10 the ,\Dproach towards samtation In the developing countries, where the major

portïon of population 15 of rural inhabitants.

Health problems in the rural areas of developing countries are widely discussed, and it

1<; II1terc~t1l1g to Ilote how much of these are attributed to the problern of madequate

sal1ltation. To dtc an example, in the rural town of Saldpur, Bangladesh, where there are

no ,'xcreta disposaI facilities, gastromtestinal diseases are the major cause of death 111

dl1ldrcn Para~illC mfectlOn of the town's population IS more or less tota1. 1 Taking the

developll1g l'Olll1tnes as a whole. 15 percent of rural people were estimated to have' excreta

dl~posal faCIIltlcs in 1975, as shown in FIgure 1.1. According to the WHO, the above

fIgure of 15 percent was reduced to 13 percent in 1980.2

Accordmg to LI World Bank report on water supply and sanitation, water and excreta are

pronunent factors ln the transmIssion of the more serious diseases in the developing world.

The report further says that gastrointestinal infections are the leading causes of both death

Percent of Rur41 PopulHlon wlth Sdnltolllon

~ 0-20

~ 21-40

0 41 -60

.. 61-80

_ 81-100

,

Fig. 1.1 Reported percentages of the rural populauons of various countncs havlng adcqualc cxcrrta dl ... po<;al facdlues 10 1980. The figures are opumlsllc esl1mates and sorne countncs have ~ower covcragc lhan .. hown

and disability in most deveIoping countries. In many areas, dlsea<;c\ rcIatcd to deJïcienclco.,

in water suppl y and waste disposaI are contnbutory caLl~es of most Infant dcalhs and abo

account for a large proportion of adult slckness.3

According to WorId Bank studies, diseases in dcveIop1l1g countncs typically take ahOlll

a tenth of the average person's potentmlly productive time in additIon to di<;ruptmg

education, physical development and other aspects of life LIfe expectancy ln any country

proves to be a reliable indicator of the overall state of health, IIfe expectancy 1\ now a 1)( )lH

fifty-three years in developing countnes wh Ile 11 is between seventy and ,>cventy-two in

more developed countries. The difference ma1l1Iy refleet\) the high mfant mortaIity rate m

the developing countries which is suspected to be due to inadcquate excreta dl',po~al

3

facilities. The <;eriousness of the problem is demonstrated by the alarming figures,

according ta WhlCh out of 2,000 million people in the developing world, 1,500 million are

without ba<;ic servIces. Of these 1,500, 1,100 to 1,200 million are in the rural areas.4 In

other words, more than 80 percent of the total rural population is without of proper waste

dispo~al and safe dnnkmg water. The pnmary airn of improvIng waste disposaI is to help

overcome the debilitauon and fatal diseases that affliet developing countries.

Safe and effective samtation is generally considered to he one of the two main

reqmrernents to achieve improved cornnlunity health. The purpose of providing adequate

sanitation facility is to improve the overall health conditions of the users. The United

Nations Orgamzatlon (UNO) has proposed to provide adequate sanitatÏon facilities by the

year 1990 WhlCh, 1<; also the end of the InternatIonal Dnnking Water Supply and Sanitati0n

Decade (1980- 1990). ln meetmg the goals during this decade, 1,670 millIon people in the

mral arcas of the world should be provlded Wlth the sanitation facihties,5 that is,

approximately, 600,000 pc'" ,Jle per day must receive new or irnproved facilities. 6

Rural sanllation is Ilot pnmanly a technical problem. There are a number of

incxpensivc and appropnate technologies WIth modIfications available for use in varied

situatlon'i Wagner and LmOlx m their 1958 publication, Excreta DisposaI for Rural

Are:!<; and Small ComrnunItles, have Identified In detail the various rural sanitation

optIOns whH.:h arc In use and have been modified to be used in the rural areas.

Accordmg ta Witold RybczynskI of McGiIl UniversIty, this publication marks a

watershed in mraI samtatlonJ Since then, there have been developments in modifying

the various technologies with the goal of maJang them simpler in installation, use and

maIntenance, and in climll1ating or reducing the handling of fresh excretu. Such

modifIcations were ma.inly necessary to accommodate the variable site situations and

4

requirements. Craincross and Feachem explain that the problem with mral s<lnitation 15

to encourage the rural population to use and maintain the faclhties. ln some countrics

there have been programmes to provide pit latrines in rural areas for at Ieast the past

seventy years. In general, the se projects have been unsuccessful, not becaw.e of a

problem of construction but because having been built, the latrines were either Ilot used

or not main tained. 8

There have been wide applications of sanitation projects in many regiom of the WOI Id,

but the number of successful schemes reported is much srnaller than those that have failed

to achieve only limited success. A central question WhlCh anses in the unplcmentatlOll nI li

new sanitation scherne is whether the people for whom thc.~e facdiuc5 arc IJltcnded, wIllusL'

them? And, how? Sanitation facllities, regtudless of the excellcnce of thcir c()n~tructlOIl

and function, shaH not achieve any objective if they arc not used.

Culture, Human Behavior and Rural Sanitation

Understanding cultural and traditional practices of a community i~ a fundamcntal

element in any sanitation project planmng. The Importance of cultural factor" ha~ hccn

appreciated and IS now bemg taken mto con~lderatIon more than evcr hcfore Il 1\

important that the planners and the agencle~ mvolvcd In ~anltal1()n \chemc \hould have a

sound knowledge of traditional values, cultural belicf\ and human hehavlor. According to

Vijay Kochar of Banaras Hmdu UmversIty, India, thc fullure\ In the pa\t arc due mainly to

the neglect of a whole range of cultural and behavlOral factor') In man-environ ment

relationships, aIl of WhlCh were originally sigmfied by the tcrm sanitation. Kochar furthcr

suggests that in the eyes of the technocrats, the word sal11talion ha') becomc '>yoonymou\

with a few technologicallOterventions, such as latnne'i, wateT ~urply, and more rcccntly,

5

water pollution contro1.9 Mayling Simps'Jn-Hebert, an American anthropologist, supports

thi~ argument. She maintams that it is not only important to identify the cultural elements

mfluencing the sanitation project, but is the mtegration of the knowledge into practice,

which is a big challenge for the planners. lO

Water and sanitation programs are no longer viewed as problems reqUlring engineering

or technical solutIons. If one were to lmplement a sanitation project without taking into

consideration or understanding human behavior, it would be purely an academic exercise.

It is not enough for engineers to know how to build improved sanitation systems, and for

health speCUùlsts to understand the relationship between the multitude of disease related to

water and ~anitation, and for planners and economists to know how to develop schemes

and projccts. 1 t lS particularly important to relate the intricate problems of water and

saoitauon programs to the importance of "software" in successful systems, which is to say

to understand the soclo-cultural factors and include the participation of the communities. 11

Lack of commUIllcatlon between users and planners usually rcsults in the rejection or

mi~use of technologies that are to be adapted to existing local behavior and values. It is

easier to change technology th.lO to change behaviour, and it is more difficult to determine

cultural acccptabIlity than tcchnical feasibility. Dr. DaVId Bradley of the London School of

llygiene and TropIcal Medlcll1e, has stated:

"No matter how much we have learned about the engineering details of alternative samtatIon systems and the related health aspects, unless these findings can he translated to the target population in a way they can understand accept, this IS mostly an academic cxercise."12

Samtation and hygiene arc, more than anythlOg, parts of a way of life. The technology

selccted for rural samtation must be 50 selected and adapted as to become part of the

6

existing rurallifestyle. This can be achieved by incorporating useful components of the

local culture into sanitation programmes. Kochar observes that. in a mml mllIcu. ~al1ltation

is more a matter of ethical, educational and aesthetIc, and ~tatllS values than Il is a mattcr of

epiderniological gains. 13 People are inclined to perceive and cmphasm: cultural v.llllCS

associated with sanitary innovation than its health implicatIons or technology.

What do wc really mean by social and cultural factor~" 1 Iow do thc!:>e valllcs influence

defecation habits? And what is the significance of aIl thlS to sClcntlfic s.lllltatlon

programmes? Many societies have culturally pattern cd bchefs about what 1<; c1can and wh al

is dirty; it is important to understand the localldea of 'cleanlincss' and 'pollutton' The

cultural concepts of cleanliness and dirtme~<;, punty and pollutton 111 many <.,oclcl1e<; may

not necessarily bear any rf>semblance to modem mcdlcal concept<; of clcanhnc!:>!:>; and pUllty

and pollution may simply refer to ritual ~tates rather than phY!:>lcal one!:> The loglC of ritual

purity and danger cioes not coincide wtth the loglc of epldemiology, although 10 !:>OIllC ca\e~

the practices themselves may he compatible In Hmdu culture, frc(jucnt hatlllng, carcful

cooking and other din aVOIdance could probahly corre<.,pond WLlh g()(xl .... clenutïe hygicllc.

By the process of inversion, common III many cultures, dm may he u\cd ln nlual cIcantng

practices. But there IS no agreement betwecn sCIence and muaI on the ,>uhJcct of what .'>

dangerous and polluting. HaIT, nail panng\, and footpnnt~ do not Intcrc~t puhiie health

workers. While in many cultures, feces may not be regarded a,> parttcularly threatenlng. 1t1

How do these values influence defecation habits? Sometime~ thc,>e values empha~l/c

the importance of avoîding contact with excreta, or wlth obJect!:> that have had contact wah

them, the untouchability aspect Someumes they also encourage <.,ccreey and anonymlly III

defecation. The latter may be dlfferent frorn pnvacy in the we'itern <.,en\c, III that the ohjcet

may be to avoid having a sorccrer trace one's fcces and u<;c them agalll~t onc. Biding III

7

the bush during defecation may he a more effective way of doing this than using a pit

latrine, where one's wastes can he easily trace.

Two major world religions, Islam and Hinduism, have their own concepts of

cleanliness and purity as parts of their religious ideologies. In most of the Muslim world,

concepts of clean and dirty, and purity and pollution, are weil developed and have a strong

effeet upon personal and hOllsehold hygiene.

Simpson -Hebert 1Il her studies in Iran, observes that the concepts of dirtiness and

cleanlincs~ involve neatnes~ and orderliness as weil as c1eanliness. Personal hygiene is an

important clement In the concept of cleanliness and requires that the body have no oclour

~Ind that hody halr whlch may relain dm, odour or gIve a dlsorderly appearance be

rcmoved. Flowlf1g water IS consldered to be clean and safe for drinking, even when the

f10w I~ slow and may contain pollutants of one kllld or the other. Stagnant water on the

other hand 15 con~I(lercd to be dmy. The left hand used for anal cleansing IS never used for

olher purpme~ hke eatlOg or ~hakIng hands. ThIS IS., In short, the "dmy" hand no matter

how weIl lt 15 wa~hed. It is eS5entIal, therefore, to look Into traditional categories of

cleanlmess and dirtInes5, purity and pollution before embarking on a carnpmgn to motivate

people to accept a project in Improved water supply and sanitation, or to change their

behavlOr to comply WIth new ~tandards of "c1eanlIness",15

Likewise 1I1 Bangladesh, the definition of cleanliness and din does not derive from a

notion of hygiene, based on germ theory. It is a complex religious concept based on the

symbolic caregones of purity and pollution. The people follow ~tnctly the gUldelines of

personal cleanliness latd down In great detail in Islanuc teachmgs. Toilet training and

8

cleaning are important for the people in the context of ritual purity. Water is lIsed for anal

cleaning with the left hand only.16

In many cultures, taboo factors have considerable influences on the prnctlce of

sanitation and hygiene. The faet that the taboo nature of human exneta inlublts dl~cllssilln

of relevant cultural beliefs which influence tradiuon,ù behavlour, meall!'l that the planncl!'I

cannot penetrate this banier to know more about the cultural belrct" Thl" lack of

communication between commumties and planners usually re!'lults \Il the rCJectlol1 or ml\lI~C

of technologies when these cannot be adapted to existing local behavlOr values 17 In a

World Bank financed proJect, the supervision ml\Slon found that mmt of thc toile!'> had

subsequently fallen into dlsu~e. Architects deahng wnh educatlOn and urh;lIl prnJcct\ havI.'

often observed privies that are blocked by stones, corn eobs, cement bag parer, etc. lIsed

for anal cleansing. It hardly needs to be stated that defecatiol1 1\ a very per~onal aet, habll"

associated with lt are learned early in lIfe; and IS an important flx:al pomt of conccrn

between mother and chlid. The nIral peasant 15 loath to change per\onal hablt~ and Will

resist such pressures as may be brought to hear from OUt',H.\c unIe,,\ he 1\ cnnvlIlced of the

superionty of the alternative method. The bchavloral change rcquircd of the lI~er~ may he

too great to accomphsh in a short penod of ume. The change from lI"mg a field or river ln

using a pit privy for human wastes disposalls much greater than the change from a watef­

seal slab to an aqua pnvy.18

Any change in the defecation practices, considered deslrable by the health authontlc~,

must take full account of social attitudes and habits Thl~ 1<; amply IlIu\trated hy the

reluctance of the North Americans, for example, being u<;ed to the <,lttmg ro<'ltlOn, to he

faced with a necessity to squat dunng defccation; or the urbamte who contlnuc\ 10 practiœ

indiscrimmate defecation along the river banh desplte alternative faclhtlc,> bcmg avallahlc Jll

9

hi') home, an occurrence, not uncommon in many parts of Asia. Such nonns are not

changed simply in respon~e to the installation of alternative places to c.iefecate; it takes

considerable length of time and apprectation of reasons bchmd the need for change before

old habits are altered. 19 It 1<; casier to change technology than to change behaviour and it is

more dlfficult to detcrmme cultural acceptabllity than technicaI feasibllity. It IS usually less

fnlltfuI to try to rc-cducatc people than to mexhfy designs so that they suit the users'

rcqUlrcment~ hetter

In U ganda, dunng the late 194Os, people were afraid to use latrines because the Ir fixed

locatIons would provlde sorcerer~ WIth easy access to the excreta for hostile purposes, and

hccau~e the fcce~ of anothcr m contact wlth one's own cou Id bnng about contammatIOn.

DefecatiOn at random In the bush was thcrefore consldered the safer alternative. In dealing

WIth the problcm III It~ cultural context, the Bntl~h MedIcal Services persuadea people to

bore latnnc!'> of !'>uch a depth that the excreta would be out of the sorcerer's reach, and

advlsed covcring the fecal matter ufter each defecanon, to prevent contamInation. In this

way they Incorporatcd thelr knowIcdge of the cultural p:tttem of resistance mto their

s:tmtatlon system wlthout de~troyIng Important cultural behefs. 20

The main concern should he whether new sanitation facihnes WIll bc used or not. The

objective will not be achieved If the facIlIties are not used. Women may praye to be an

Important factor as In certam cases household latrines may be entrrely aVOIded by the maIes

in a society 11l1s may be due to a taboo, or a belief that menstrual blood could be

stcnlizmg to males who u~e the same latrines.21 Mary Elmendorf. an Amencan

anthropologlst, suggests that the location and types of latnnes should be planned after

consultatIOn with the women to cnsure access ta water whlch is needed for a sanitary

facili ty .22

10

The collective experiences of rural water supply and the samtauon schcmes. mostly

from rural areas, suggest mat social and cultural factors m planmng and Hllplementing

projects are indeed Important, but rarely present msumlOuntable oh~tade'\ 10 projcci

success. Failures in the past have been largel) duc to lINlffiC'lcnt UlH.kr.,landl ng of local

culture and social structure.23 Michael McGarry of IDRC, support., thc argulllcnt by '\aylllg

that it is necessary to have an adequate understandmg of the socIal. cullllrai and

organizational characteristÏcs of the commul1lty wlth which onc I~ workmg 2\ IndllclIlg

change within the tradlt10nal society may weIl be a slow and ardUOll., prm:c.,,\, hut I~

possIble. A rapid change may be only superficlal, and thereforc, ~hon-hvcd Thc

introduction of a technology wimout ensuring thm the user understands and acccpt'\ the

reasons he IS expected to alter hiS habIts, IS bound 10 meet wuh fatlure 1\1 the long mn,

desplte an initial burst of enthusiasm or respectful but Ignorant concurrence wuh the Id ca .

Moreover, in many cases, the users and the planners helong to dIffcrenl .,Irata of .,OCICly

Latrines WhiCh may look Ideal 10 a planner may appear mappropnale and 1I11u.,ahlc ln Ihose

for whom they have been provided .

Hypothesis

It is an accepted fact that culture affects the ch01ee of sal1ltatIon leehnology in rural arca.,

and that the integrauon of cultural factors into the ImplementatIon procc~.., of any rural

sanitation project IS of great Importance. In Islam, there IS a grcat deal of cmpha~l~ on

persona! hyglene and punficatlon, both on phy~ICal and ~ymbohc leveh, and religluu",

doctrine covers aspects of personal hygiene In the mo~t mmute delail.

Given mis, a uniforrn attitude toward the practiee of ~anitatJon could he expected in

Muslim cultures, based on the teachings and gUldehne'i of the rehgiou ... doctrine. Thl')

11

the<;is investigates the validity of this assumption and attempts to detennine the extent of

Muslim religious influence on the practice of rorai sanitation.

Mcthodology

Chapter Two incl udes a brief review of the religion of Islam and describes the teachings

and guidelmes for the practIce of personal hygiene and sanitation as sanctioned by the

religion. This chapter also Identifies key elements influencmg the practice of sanitation.

Chapter Three presents case studies and discusses the pracuce of rural san nation ln

selected Mushm countnes, whlch are: Pakistan, Bangladesh and Egypt. Also mcluded in

the chapter is a hmItcd case study of Yemen, where a tradiuonal samtation system is

cxammed. The case studies presented are discussed in the light of Chapter Two by the

fonnulatlon of a checklist, to detennule the extent to WhlCh the mdividual case accords with

- or diverges from - the teachmgs and gUldelines.

Finally, Chapter Four forms the conclusion of the thesls by synthesizing the checklist

of the indlvldual case studles discussed in Chapter Three and retums to a consideration of

the hypothe~ls. It aiso IdentIfies key cultural elements and makes recommendations for

future research in the field of rural sannation.

12

Reference Notes

1 Amold Pac,ey, cd., SamtaUon ln DeveloDIn~ Countncs. (John Wlley and Som, \97H), pg 2

2 Sandy Crurncross and Richard Fcecham, EnVl!'onmcntal H,a1th Englllccnng ID the TnJL)Il·~. An IntroductQry Text (John Wlley and Som, 1978), pg 109

3 David Ho',vell Joncs, ed, Waler Supply and Wa~te Dlspo~al (1 ran\porL.llHm, W,llcr, antl Telccommunlcatlons Department of the World Bank 19HO) pg, \0

4 Ibid pg.9

5 IbId. pg. 10

6 Sandy CmrncT"oss and Richard Fcccham, EnvlronmentaI Health Englllcenng III the TrOUII.::'. An Introductory Text (John Wlley and Sons, 1978), pg 107

7 Wltold Rybc.lynskl, "Onslte Sy~tems for Developmg Area<;", m1ndlvldUJI On\l!t: Wil~l~l,,'r Sy\tl'lIl'" ed ,Nma I. McClclland (Ann Arbor SCIence) pg 111

8 Sandy Cmrncro~s and RIchard Fccch..un, EnvlronmcntallkaIth Englll(:l'flllg III thç TrOIlIl:>, An Introductory Texl (John Wiley and Som, 1978)

9 VIJay Kochar, "Culture and Hygcnc m Rural W~ ... t Bengal' , In Sanlt;\tIO'l III DcveloDlllg COllntn~'~d. Arnold Pacey (John Wilcy and SOI1<;, 1978) pg 176-177

10 Mayhng Simpson-Herbert, "Water and S..IIlltatIOn Cultureal Con'>lderatlon,>", In Water .)fIt! Silllill1!l!l.

ECQnomlC and Soc!ol.Q.g.K.aLP~ (Academlc Pre,>,; loc 19X4) pg. 173

Il Mary Elm"ndorf and Raymond Isley, ' Puhllc and Pnvate Rùle ... of Women III W..Iler Supply .\11<1 SanltallOn Programs", I~ HumJn Qq;anl/:Itlon. Vol 42 (3 Fall 19X1) pg 195

12 TransportatIon, Water and TdccommUil1c,aLIon Dcpartrnent 01 the World Bank SO<.IU-tulturai A~l!~ Water SUDDly and Excret<l DIsDQsal. (World Bank 19XO) pg III

13 VIJay Kochar, "Culture and Hygene In Rural W~,>t Bcngal", In ~!Ion In [)çvçIODll1l!f'()lIntflç~ ~'li. Arnold Pacey (John Wllcy and Son<;, 1978) pg IK2

14 Donald CurtIS, "VaJues of Latnne U,>cP.> and Admtnl'>trator ..... , In SJnIt;JtIQII 11\ Dcv.,;loDlIIg ('.ill.w.W~ Arnold Pucey (John Wllcy and Son,>, 1978) pg 173

15 Mayhng Simpson-Herbert, "Water and Saflltatlon Culturcal Con'>lderatJon~", In Y!J.Ucr and Sallal1on. EconomlC and SoclOloglcal Perspcctlves, (Academlc Prc~~ lnc 19H04) pg.l78

16 JIlka Kotalova, Per50nal and Domcsttc Hygcne In Rural Banglatlc)h (Swcdl<.,h fntcrnal10nal Development Agency, 1984) pg 18

13

i .. 17 Tran'iportatJon, WaLer and TelecommuflIcatJon Dcpartment of Ùle World Bank, Sopo-cultural Aspects of

Waler SuVVly and Excreta DIsposai (World Bank 1980). pg. 1JI

IX TramportaLlon, Water and TelecommunrcatlOn Departme'1t Pubhc UlIhues Notes, BehavlOraI Aspects of PIQlect Work ln Water SUDDly und Waslc DI5po5al (World Bank 1980)

19 MJ(.Jwel Mc.Garry, "W~te CollectJon m Hot Chmates A Tech fliC al and Economical Appraisal", In

Willer, WUS[ç) ,m(\ HcaIth ln HOl Clrmates cd, RIchard Feachem, Mlchaell\1cGarry and Duncan Mara. (John Wrlcy and Son,» pg 241

20 TramporLallOn, Willer and TclccommunlcaUon Dcpartmcnt of the World Bank, SoclO-cultural Aspects of Water SUDply ilnd Excreta DI)[>05,\I. (World Bank 1980). pg 2

21 Maylrng Slmp'\on-Hcrhcrt, "Willer and Sanrtallon. Culturcal ConsideratIons", In \Valer and SaIt~tlon: E<':QnQJnIC and SQUQloglCul Per5DcçJlves. (Academie Press Inc. 1984) pg 175

22 Mdry Elmcndorl and Raymond I.>lcy, " PublIc and Pnvatc Roles of Women In Waler Supply and Sanltallon Program,,", ln Human Qrganllauon. Vol. 42 (3 Fall 1983) pg 200

21 Maylrng Smlp~cn·Herbcrt, "Willer and Sar,Hallon Cu1tureal ConSIderatIOns", m Water and SaltatIOn: ELOnorDic und S!x IQIQ~lçal PerspectIves. (Academie Press {nc. 1984) pg IR7

24 Michael McGarry, "Wa.,>te Collecllon m HOl Chmal('s A Techllleal and Economleal Apprrusal", ln

WIller. Wa~lçs and Health ln Ho~ C1lmate:i. cd., Richard Feaehem, MIchael MeGarry and Duncan fv1ara. (John Vv'llcy dml Son,,) 11g 243

14

Chapter Two

ISLAMIC TEACHINGS ON SANITATION

Introduction

Given the broad geographical spectrum of Islamic countries and the praclIce of

sanitation in the rural areas of thosc countries, it becomes imperati'fe to understand what is

the role of religion in this praetice. Islam IS a complete way of life, and as dlscll~.,cd III

Chapter One, religion and culture have a lot of IOtluence on the practIce of sanItatlOn 111 the

rural areas. This chapter reviews the religIOn of Islam and defines and IdentIfies the

relevant teachings and guidelines for the practlce of samtation and per..,onal hygiene.

Islamic Doctrine

Islam, one of the world's major religions, was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad In

the seventh eentury, in Arabia. ll1e term "Islam" in Arabie literally mean~ "~urrender", and

a Muslim (believer). accepts to surrender in the will of Allah, (God). The religion

comprises an uncompromising monotheism and strict adherence to ~peclfIcd religlou'i

15

practicc~. ft i\ ob~erved bya number of cultures and countries in Africa, Asia and Europe.

In dlffercnt pa .. '"!,> of the world, the religioH encountered different cultures where it created a

~uitablc place for !t<,clf wlthw thc cXIstmg of social and cultural environment.

MlJslim~ can be divldcd into nine differcnt cultures covenng the geographical span from

northwc<,t Afnca to wutheast ASla. Throughout the nine cultural areas, there are three

hac.,Ic way~ of livIng -- nomadlc, rural, and urban -- with obvious overlapping and

interactIon among thc thrce. The socio-economic culture patterns of the three areas are

dlsunct, and the Ifltcrpretatlon;, of Islam differ, particularly between the urban and the rural

sectors. Accordmg to R tchard W ccke~, and American writer, thls division 10 Mushm

~oclety dcfinc<.; two hlams: the Islam of the CIty and the folk Islam of the rural camp)

Thclf dJlfcrencc 1\ most apparent 111 the understanding and practice of relIgion. Among

edl1catcd Muslims throughollt the world, there is awareness of the fonnal structure of Islam

and its ba~lc tCIlI't,>, dcspuc the existence of sectarianism.

Islam I~ a relIgIon and il way of life, extendmg into ail areas of a community's existence

and actlvlty. It !la~ three maIn aspects: religious, politlcal and cultural, which ovcrlap and

mtcract wIth one anolhcr. As a culture, Islam has developed over the centunes a system of

laws and cll~toms to whlch Ils followers are expccted to adhere. The rehglOus Iaws and

lepslatlOn coyer all areas of polltical, eCOn01TIlC, SOCIal and personallife to the minlltest

detail. These laws are considered by most of the c0mmumty ta have been divinely revealed

through the Qllran, and are followed by Muslims af al! tunes and in aIl places.2

The doctrines JO Islam are ba~ed on the Quran . which is the main source of Islamic

doctnne and practlce. According to Islam, the Quran 15: the consummate and final

revelauon of G~xi to man, and must be made the primary source of law and indeed the sole

16

director of human life. In a real sense, the Quran is a unique system of law which has

inspired the Muslims by iis guiding principles and is the cornerstone on which the cdilkc

ofIslamic civilization has been built,3 During the Prophet's lifetime, the rchgious and

political guide for Muslims was provided by him through the QIlI(/fl and by I1lS extra­

Qurank words and behaviollf, known as the Sunnalz. After the Prophct's dcath, the Qurall

remained the source of laws and on issues where theQurall was not dcar and ~xphcit.

people referred to the Sunnah; the Prophet's saymgs, actIons and tcaching'i came to be

known as Hadith.

Shari'a

The technical JslamÏc wOfd that best conveys the sense of Islanuc law, \Il b<..1th ils

character and constitution, is Shari'a .. Literally, it means "the way to the water holc" hut

also include~ the meaning of the "right path".4 Primanly, Shan'a IS the palh ordaincd hy

God for man to follow and that path is followed by adhering to the tcadllllg'i and gllldcline ...

in the Quran. Shari'a, theœfore, forms the basis of religIon for Muslil11'i Il comtltute~ a

system of duties Ùlat are incumbent upon a Mu~lim by vlrtuc of lus/hcr rclIgloll~ bdict\.

The Shari'a considers ordinances regarding worship and ntuaI on an cquul footmg wHh

poJitical aild legaI rules.5

Shari'a became the basb for the Sunnah as ernbodicd in the tradition) of lIadil'h It

does not make distinctions between religious and civll matters; lt 1<; the aspect of <,rx:ia!,

polltical, economic and IeJigious life. Its wide scope, wlllch respondc. to <,cveral J<;peCl\ oi

everyday life, has a degree of flexiblhly when dealing wnh diver<;c <,ltualIon<, of t.!I1fcrent

Islamic cultures. Schacht, a German scholar; ob!'crvc ... that thcrc 1<, no lJrlllonnay lfl the

deve10pment of isiami.<.: law at any point of lts history; from the oul'>ct, the "uDlcef matter ()I

which it was createà varied from place to place, and these geographlcal dIfTcrcnec<; ac<:o~nt

17

for much of the diversities that exist.6 Islam spread among many groups and it

encountered a variety of customs which were treated by the people as law. As long as

these customary laws, adat, dld not conflict directly with .Shari'a, Muslim proselytizers

made little effort to change them. Today in nearly a11 Muslim socleties there is bath adat

and Shari'a.7

Concepts of Purity and Cleanliness in Islam

TIte contention that Islam is mNe an orthopraxy -- right practice -- than an orthodoxy -­

right belief -- does not mean that matters of doctnne and belicf are unimportant. Rather,

thcy are incorporated mlO performance in a configuration of worship and daily life. Islam

places great importance on punfication and cleanliness which are known as TaJl[Jra.

"Punfication", accordlOg to Prophet Muhammad, His half the faith". He has also said, "the

key to paradisc IS prayer and the key ta prayer is purification".

Purification is eonsldered to be both spiritual and physical. Spiritual purification is

achicved through an aware, dedicated life through whieh kindness, concem forothers,

gratitude and openness to God and sen suivit y to moral issues dominate. Physical

purifie.llIon is achlcved by means of specifie rituahzed aets and is rnruntained by avoidance

of physlcal fonns of lmpurities. Unless one is in astate ofpurity, one may not perform

any religiolls nte~ and ntu~tls. There are varying degrees of impurity and even a minor

contamination bars on~ from the ritual privileges Following are a few ex amples of the

ways in WhlCh punficauon coneems surface in everyday life.

The nght hand is considered to be clean, whereas the left is unclean and genera11y

inausplclOUS. Since it is the !eft hand that ma)' retain actuaI, physieal pollution because of

lts use in toilet operations and other tasks that bring believers in unpleasant but necessary

18

contact with filth. Other beliefs of this kind include that one should enter a privy with the

left foot frrst and leave with the right foot tirst. On the other hand, one enters a mosque

with right foot fIfst and exits with the left foot first.8

Forms of Impurities

Pollution in Shari'a cou Id be described to be of two types. The impurity which is

external to the person is caI!ed fUljasa, and the other one is called Iwdath WlllCh is causcd

by person's engaging in or experiencing certain activities. NlljlL<1a is somc fonn of

impurity that becomes attached ta the skin of a persan or sOli:; the c10thcs or praycr place

It may not be caused by a believer but must be rernoved before ntual punty t'oultl \x~

achieved. Examples of najasa are wet discharges from humam. or ammal .. , likc urll1C,

blood, pus and feces. Sweat, milk, sali va and tears from lIVIng animah arc con .. adcrcd to

be cIean. Vv'ine and all other alcoholic bcverages are najar;a. Discharges from pigs and

dogs are considered impure, although it is acceptable to wash the Impure matter from c10th

or a prayer or the skin, or until the stain and smell are removcd.

Hadath is oftwo types, minor and major. Minor Izadarh is caused by ~leeplllg,

fainting, evacuating urine or feces, brl!aking wind, mtoxicat10n, tOllching of the human

genitals with the palm of the hand and skm contuct bctween mutually rnarriagcablc pcr<,oll<,.

Sleeping and fainting may sound hke strange circumstances, hut they both render the

person vulnerable to hadnth because of lack of control. Major hadath 1"> contractcd hy

seminal emission, whether 0r not intentional; female orga<;m, on)y if wct <,ccrctlOn

accompanies it; sexual mtercourse, whether lIcit or ilhCIt; men~truatIO!l; and pnlit panum

bleeding. It should he underlined that Islam does not considci ~exuality a~ cVII in any way,

in fact, marital sex is con':>idered a fonn of worship.

19

Removing Impurities

Minor hadath is removed by means of ablutions, caUed wudu as prescribed in the

Quran:

o believers, when you stand up to pray wash your faces, and your hands up to the elbows, and wipe your heads, and your feet up to the ankles. If you are defilcd, purify yourselves; but if you are sick or on a journey, or If any of you cornes from the privy, or you have touched women, and you can find no water, then have a recourse to wholesome du~t and wipe your faces and your hands with itY

Major luuJath IS removed by means of a full and careful bath known as ghusl, which

like ablutions proceeds in a regulatcd manner. In addition to a ritualized bath, close

attention is paid to mouth and teeth. There is a special procedure to follow when water is

not available; It l~ called tayammum and means using clean sand, soil or dust. One simply

pats the dry, c1ean materiJ.I and proceeds \Vith the motions of wudu, or minor ablutIon.

Tayammum IS precedes prayer. Unlike ablution with water, it cannot preserve the

worshlpper in a ritually pure state, even in the absence of hadath 10

This conslderauon of purification is preliminary to a consideration of Islam's major

dcvotional duties PunficatIon, then, both loglcally and temporally precedl'!s worship. It

IS, in faet, a sort of cntry lOto sacred tune and space. As one washes. one is symbolically

as weIl a<; physic~ùly, separated from the mundane marks of nonnai living and working and

made new for the consciou!' entry into the preserlce of God.

Teuchings und Guidelines on Sanitation

Thcre are speciflc teachings and gllldelines developed in the Shari'a conceming the

practice of sanitation. The Prophet dunng his lifetime conveyed and preached through his

acttons and sayings. the importance of personal hygiene. There is a degree of variation in

20

the practice and acceptance of teachings due to the local environmental and culrur:.ù

behaviours in various Muslim cultures, influencing the teachings to mcx1ify them tn local

circumstances. In general, the following discussion on personal hygiene wlth regards to

sanitation is an overview of the concepts laid down in the Shan'a as weI 1 a ... tc.1dung\

developed by Islamic theologians. ll1e discuSSIon include~: u~c of watcr :11 ter dcfccatlnn;

orientation during defecation; consideration of location and the pnvacy factor and

cleansing.

(a) Use ofWater

Water has been regarded as the symbol of punty in Islam and there have bcen many

instances where use of water in the practice of sal1ltation has becn emphasiscd.

Mohammad al-Bukhan (810 - 870 AD) the most famous Muslirn scholar l'rom Bukhara,

now part of Iran, is wldely known for his collections of lIadith. for the lise of water.

Bukhari cites the following traditions:

Narrated Ibn Abbas' Once the Prophet emered a lavatory and 1 placcd water for his ablution. He asked, "Who placed it?" He wa~ informcd accordingly and so he smd, "0, ADah' make hlm (Ibn Abbas) a IClU'ned scholar in religion (I~;lam)." Il

Narrated Anas Ibn MalIk: "Whenever Allah\ Apo~ùe wcnt to answcr the cali of nature, 1 aJong with anùther boy used to accompany him with a tumbler full of water. (Hisham commented, 'So that he might wash his private parts wlth iL')." 12

Muhammad ASlm, a Pakistul1l scholar, in his book, FIQhU-<rSunnah. (a compilation of

Sunnah) mentions that it is accepmble to clean oneself WIth water or with any other ~olId

material after defecation. ASlm cites the Hadalz and say.., that it IS ncce<;~:uy to c.;Iean

oneself with three stone~; hc also says that the Prophet u'Icd to clean him'lclf wÎth water.

Asim concludes that lt lS better to use both water and stones, but If one ha<; to select

21

between the two one should use water. 13 Islahi, a Pakistani writer, ernphaslzes water as

the only cleanmg agent. He argues that water is not available, an alternative agent for

cleaning could be earth. 14 As lhscussed earlier, this aet of using materials other than water

to clcan onc~clf IS tcnned as tayammum.

Muhammad Aigamadl, a scholar from Saucli Arabia, suggests that it IS appropriate to

use olhcr matcnals 10 c1ean oneself If one IS un able to find water; his reference to "other

matcnal" sand. ASIn1 a~serts that It IS important to assure the unavailabihty of water before

perfom1mg tbIS practIcc (rayammum ).15 Islahi adds to this by saying that tayammum

becornes invalld once water IS found. 16 In other word~, on findmg water, the person

~hould use it to clean hlmself even though he had performed tayarnmum în lts absence.

Bukhari cites an ex ample where the Prophet hlmself used stone~ to c1ean himself:

Narrated Abu Huraira: 1 followed the Prophet while he was going to answer the caU of nature. He used not LO look this way or that. So, when 1 approached near him he said to me, "Fetch for me sorne stones for cleaning the private parts (or said something sirnilar), and do not bring li bone of a plcce of dung." 50 1 brought the stones in the corner of my gam1cnt and placed them by his slde and 1 then went away from him. When he finished (from answering the caU of nature) he used them.".17

Asim furthcr refces to a verse in the Quran which says that God likes people who keep

themselves cIean; according to him, this verse concems people who use water to clean

lhemselves. 18 There are traditions where water was also used to avoid pollution created by

the insamtary condItions. Bukhari cites as foUows:

Narrated Anas Ibn Malik: The Prophet saw a Bedouin rnaking water in the mosque and told people not to disturb hirn. When he finished, the Prophet asked for some water and poured it over (the urine ).19

22

Narrated Ai~ha the rnother of faithful believers: A child was brought to Allah's Apostle and it urinated on the garment of the Prophet. The Prophet asked for water and poured It over the soiled place.10

Asim explains that one should sprinkle sorne water on the part of cloth in the area of thr

genitalorgan so as to avoid any doubts that the cloth may be soiled.

(b) Orientation

With regards to orientation, Bukhari cites a Hadith WhlCh c1early explams the posuion

of a person while answcring the calI of nnture:

If anyone of you goes to an open space for answenng the call of nature he should neilher face nor tum his back towards the Qibla;21 he should either face the east or the west. 22

Bukhari further explains that there is an exception in the case where where one is

screened by a building or a wall or any other obstructIon. This condition docs not apply,

however, in a toilet which IS located within the home.21 Islahl also ~uggc~t~ that one

should not have the sun nor the moon in front or in back of one\elf whJ\e defecatmg.24

Bukhari cites the following tmehtion whîch has not appeared m the collee lIon of Iladith

Narrated Abdullah bin Umar: People say. whenever you ~lt for answering the calI of nature, you should not face the Qlbla or Balt­ui-Maqdis (in JerusaJem). 1 toid them, "Once 1 went up the roof of our house and 1 saw AUah's Apostle answering the calI of na~urc while sitting on two bricks facing Bait-uI-Maqdls but there, was a screen covering him."25

(c) Location & Privacy

The place of defacation should he such that the person is not see:n by anybody ehe

during the activity. According to a Hadith, the Prophet used to go far away in the field~ to

23

an~wer the calI of nature so that nobody could see him.26 Bukhari cites a Hadith where

women have heen referrcd regardwg privacy:

Narrated Aisha: The wlves of the Prophet used to go to AI-Mansai; a vast open place (near Baqia at Medina) to answer the call of nature at night. Umar 27 used to say to the Prophet, "Let your wives he veiled," but Allah's Apostle did not do so.28

From the above tradition It appears that the notion of pnvacy is not gender based but is

equally applicable 1O both the males and the females.

For defecaùon one ~hould locate a soft ground cond!ùon where the urine is absorbed by

the soil rather than splashcs on one's body or clothes. Islahi adds to this by saying that the

spnnkles of urine on a per~on would result in a state of impurity. He also adds that one

should not paso; the urme inlo a hole in the ground as that could be the hVIl1g place for an

animal. One ~hould not defecate in places that used by people for other actIviùes; according

to ASlm, d1ls ha~ œcn prohibiled by the Prophet. Islahl confirms this by saymg that one

!'>hould avolù places under the shadow of a tree where people usually sît and m a pond or a

nver from where waler is fctched. One should also aVOId places where people perform

ablution; near a &,'Taveyard or a mosque; on a pathway or a street and in a stagnant body of

water or a Ilowing river. 29

(d) Cleansin~

One should use only the left hand in cleansing one self after defecation. After cIeansing

the hand should be rubbed with eanh to make it dean.3o Bukhari cites a tradition:

Narrated by Abu QaL.1ba: The Prophet said, "Whenever anyone of you make warer he should nOL ... dean his private parts with his right hand ..... ".31

24

(e) Body Position

Asim observes that it is not advisable to urinate in a standing position as there are

possibilities for getting drops of urine on parts of body. and the standlllg posture shol1ld hl'

avoided unless there is a physical probJem wHh squatting.JZ Khalr-ul-Baslm, a Pa"'l~tan

writer in his book Daana-e-Kauneen explains that to pass unne in a '\tanding po-;turc, thcrc

is a possibility of last drops not flowing out aIl at once. Sueh a ~ll11atlon t'rcates a state of

irnpurity for the person}3

Narrated by Hudhaifa: "Once the Prophet went to the dumps of sorne people and passed urine while standing. He then asked for water and 50 1 brought it to him and he perfonned ablution. "y4

Conclusion

This chapter ha,; put forward a number of aspects of sanitatIon which have rcccived

attentIon in the teachings out\tned by Islam. The empha~ls on c1eanlmess, 111 general, IS

very strong. Specific teachings and guidelines on c1ean:ng oneself aCter defccal10n are

explicit. Rules concerning personal behavlOur, body pO~lllon and rcqlllfed pO~lurc indicatc

the exten~ to which the teachmgs influence thiS actlvlty.

The concept of onentation raises a few questions sinee two different opinions have

arisen. Histonans and theologians tend to have developed a rigld fuie 1r1 this regard.

Whereas the traditions cited by Bukhari demonstrate <;ome flexlbtllly. Aceording to Ali

Asani, Assistant Professor for Indo Mushm Culture,> at Harvard Univer<;ity, the onentation

of the toilet has no relevance with the religlOus doctn ne. ft,; connotatIon could be

interpreted as a matter of respect towards the dIrection III whlch Mu,>lim~ pray.3.5 A'> far a,>

the :tetual practice of defecation lS concerned, the follO\.vmg chapter,> wIll Idenufy the

extent to which these teachings are known and followed. The me of water ha~ bccn

25

regarded as an irreplaceable cleaning agent in the practice of correct sanitation. Although in

certain circumstance~ its altemate has been suggested, nevertheless, it maintains its

importance a...<, the prime ingredient in the proper practice of sanitation. For example, if one

1"1 III a state of impunty and ha, to offer prayers, the non-availabihty of water for ablution

should not refram the behever from achleeving punty. A rituaI, wudu with sand or mud

serves the purpose and the person achieves the state of purity for worship until water is

made avaJlable. The notion of privacy discussed here deals the issue of not being seen

while defccatmg; It I~ not mmed to any partIcular gender, and appears to be applicable to

both male and fcmale equally According to the tradItion wlth regards to privacy, the

concern r"ll~ed hy the compal11ons of the Prophet relatmg to privacy for women, dld not get

a favourable rc:-.ponse from the Prophct hlmself. It IS likely that there IS difference of

opl/11On belwccn the thcologJans and the traditions of the Prophet. ThIs tends to indicate

that the concept of pnvacy, e.g , veiling, may not totally be a religious concept and its

applIcatIons may have roots m cultures which have defined thresholds of pnvacy. In the

Middle East, for ex ample, the sec\usion of women fram certalll categories of men is an

Important factor III the ll~C of househakl space and the onentation of dwelling~ wlth respect

to one another, but thls IS not the case with every Muslim society, and Il does exists in

certain non-Mu~hm SOCletIes.

Il should be undcr~tood that Islamic worship, although demanding and frequent, is Ilot

designcd to Impose undue hardslup on the behevers. Tayammum is a good example of the

tlexlble preparation fOI worship For example, if one is in a state of impurity and has to

offcr prayers, the non availabIlity of water for ablution should not refrain the believer from

aclllcvclOg pUflty A ntual wudll , with sand or rnud, serves the purpose and the persan

achieve~ th~ statc of punty for worship until water is made avallable. One of the reasons

for relaung these kmds of detmb is to become aware of, and appreciate the hlamic attention

26

to life. Far from being considered an intrusion into everyday life. regulations likc thosc

connected to the Tahara, enable believers to live their lives fully aware of their relationship

to Goo. Being a servant of God requires that even the humblest activiues have a rirual

meaning, even if that meaning is an expression of avoidance of pollution.

The following chapter examines the rural sanitation practices in the hght of teachings

and guidelines discussed in this chapter.

27

" Reference Notes

1 Rlehard Wcckc'i, Mu~hm Peou1cs -- A World EthnogrUDhlc Survey, (Grcenwood Press, Connecueut).

2 PhIlip Kun Hall, Islam a Way of Ljfe, (UOiverslty of Minnesota, 1970) pg 37.

'3 Yvonne Haddad, "Mu:;llm<; ln Canada," ln Rcli~!Qn and Ethmclly cd. Harold coward and Leslie Kawamumh, (Wllfnd Launcr Umverslty Press, 1978) pg 76

4 Frcdrlck M Denny, An Introducuon 10 Islam, (Macmillan PubhshlOg Co., 1985) pg 216

5 Jean Loul'> Mlchon, "Rcllglou,> InSlJtutlon,>," III The Islamlc City cd R. B. Scrjeant, (UNESCO, 19XO)

6 ]m,cph Schac.,hl. An IntroductIon to IslarOic Law, (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1964).

7 Richard Wcckcs, Mushm PCOlllCS -- A World Ethnographie Survey, (Grcenwood Press, Connecticut).

X Frcdnck M. Dcnny, An Introduction LO Islam, (MacmIllan PubhshlOg Co., 1985) pg 99-100.

9 IbId, pg 103.

10 Ibid, pg 102.

1] Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahlh al-Bukhari, (Arafat PubIicatms, Lahore, 1938) (10:145) pg 106.

12 IbId, (15'152) pg 109.

1 ~ Muhammad ASlm, fllJ,h-us-Sunnah. vol 1, (Maktaba Chtrag Rah, PakIstan), pg 56.

14 Muhamm,ul Yusuf hlalll, A,>,un Flgh, Part 1, (lsIamlc Publishers Llmlted, PakIstan) pg 126.

15 Muhamm,ld ASlnl, fl<.}h-us-Sunnah, vol. 1, (Maktaba Chlrag Rah, Pakistan), pg 89.

16 Muh~,ml1lad YU'mf l,>\alll, AS'>;Jn Flqh, Part l, (Islmmc Pubhshers LImltcd, PakIstan) pg 202

17 Muhammad al-BlIkhan, S,lfuh al-Bukhari, (Arafat PublIcatlOs, Lahore, 1938) (20:157) pg 111.

IX Muhammad }\",m, FlqIHls-Sunna.h, vol 1, (Maktaba Chlrag Rah, Palmlan), pg 126.

Il) Muhammad al-BlIkhan, Sahlh al·Bukhan, (Arafat PublIcatms, Lahore, 1938) (60:218) pg 142.

20 Hml, (63 222) pg 1,,)4

21 Qlbla IS the dlreCIJOn of Ka'ba, a famous sanctuary of Islam Sltuated 10 the grcat mosque in Mecca. Musluns throughout the world face LOwards Ka'ba while praymg

22 Muhamm:ld aI-Bukhan, Sahlh al-Bukhan, (Arafat Publieatms, Lahore, 1938) (11:146) pg 107.

28

23 Ibid, pg 106.

24 Muhammad Yusuf Islahi, Assan FiQh, Part l, (Islamic Publishcrs Llmlted, Paklstnn) p~ lolO

25 Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhan, (Arafat Publicatms, Lahore, 1938) (12: 147) pg 107

26 Muhammad Yusuf Islahl, Assan FiQh, Part l, (Islamlc Pubhshers Llmltcd, Pakl~lan) pg 145-147.

27 Umar was the second cal1ph of Islam after Prophel's dcath.

28 Muhammad al-Bukhan, Sahlh al-Bukhan, (Arafat Publicatms, Lahore, 1938) (13'14X) pg 107

29 Muhammad Yusuf Islahl, Assan FIQh, Part T, (Islamlc Pubhshcrs LlmllCd, Pakistan) pg 151

30 Ibid, pg 160.

31 Muhammad al-Bukhan, Sahlh a1-Bukhan, (Arafat Pubhcatms, Lahore, 1938) (19: 156) pg III

32 Muhammad Asim, FiQh-us-S.l.IDilllh, vol. l, (Maktaba Chirag Rah. Pakl~tal1), pg 123-125.

33 Khaïr ui Bashir, Danaa-e-Kauncen, Pakistan. pg 72-75.

34 Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahlh al-Bukhari, (Arafat Pubhcallns, Lahore, 1938) (64 224) pg 144

35 Discussion with Ali Asani, ASSlstsnt Prof. for Indo-Muslim Culture, Harvard Umvcrslty, 19HX.

29

Introduction

Ch&pter Threp

THE PRACTICE OF SANITATIO,'f IN

SELECTED ISLAMIC COUNTHIES

This chapter descnbes hurnan behavior and living patterns related to sanitation and

personaI hygiene 10 ~eIected cornmunities of Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Egypt and a

traditional s~mltal1on system ln Yemen. It also takes into account, in sorne cases,

COl11l11UnltleS' respono;es to new sanitation technologies. ln Bangladesh, two villages are

l'\.amll1ed, one wlth respect to the day-ta-day practice ot samtation, the other as the site of a

sallltallon pIlot proJCLt ll11pIemented in 1981 by the Bangladesh Department of Public

1 kalth Engmeenng (hcreafter, DPHE), UNICEF, and WHO. In Pakistan, four villages

are ex~ml1ned thue were vl~1ted by the author for the purpose of this research. The study

looks 1I1to the settlement patterns and the sarutatlOll facilities of these villages and attempts

to hlghlight users' perceptions of sanitation. Fmally, a general overview of human

30

behavior towards the practice of sanitation is discu'Ised 111 the case of Daq.ùihya, a pt\.winrc

in Egypt, and a brief fevit~W of the sanitatlon system and its u~e in the hou~es of San'a in

Yemen.

,-----_._-----------------

- ----------------Fig. 3.1 World map htghhghtmg counrncs umkr study.

This chapter describes the conc\!pt of personal hygiene as practiced by the people and

reviews existing sanitation systems 10 certain areas. Source~ uf infomwtion have inc!udcJ

persona1 visits, existin:?; documentatio!1, and C'orrespondcflce. In the case of} lki~tan, a,

mentioned earlier, four villages weIe visite,d involving casuai wtervicw\, pholClgraphy, and

observations. It was by no means an easy ta~k to obtam infOIWa110n, a~ Jt 1l1volvcd a,klng

highly embarrassing questIons ~o p('o!Jle HI a fairly con~Jervative SOC!Cly In the ca<;e of

Bangladesh, documentation from the Swedlsh International Developmcnt Agen~y (SIDI\),

a joint document from DPHE-UNICEF-WHO, and corresponde 1CC with Ken Gibb\,

Resident Program Officer, UNICEF, PakIstan, pr~)Vided data. In the (,a~e of Egypt, a

3]

\Vodd BDnk report and cOfrespondence with Dr. Mayling Simpson-Hebert, an American

anthropologht, were the chief sources of information.

It is worth /T.entloning here thM olher "MusEr.1 countries were simultar.eously considered

[or inclusion in thlS stuc!y. The nonavailabiiity of documented information made the

selection very narrow. However the wlde range of infof!11uticn obtuined for the four

countne~l cO/l,)ldered hen~in Ic~è.s to m!eresting conclusions regarding identtfication of

f.lctors cnlCiaj tu îhe slxces!lful Implementation of sanitation projccts. It has Dot been

pO'itable to ~,tm.ldardjze a spel:;fic present;.ttinn format for dl! the case stuilles discussed in

titis chapler, primn.riiy due ro the wide ronge in the types or the required infom1ation.

The review of rural 'iallit:H1on ieCÎmologic:. in Appenàix 1 cover~ one aspect of the

broad field of rural samtation. The practice of personal hygiene and users' perceptions of

the over ail phenornena of rural s':lrliWn01l arc other important aspects of rural sanitation.

The 1970:> <;av..' the beginmng of s~rious consident1on of cultural, along with the socio­

cconornic, factors for QIl appropriate choice nf rurQI sanitation technology which introduced

a new dl'î1cnsi.on tü the" process ,)f planning and implementation of s:J.nitatlOn projects.

Exi~,'ng sitlliultlon technologies for rllraI appiications offer a variety of options applicable to

diffcrent environ men laI SItuations. These options have been 111 use in a number of

countries for a long time :md have already been evaluated on their pelfonnance.

Gameranga, Rangladesh

(a) Backgr~211nd

The discus'iion of the samtation practices in the village of Gameranga in Bangladesh is

based on a report published by the Sweclish International Development Agency in April

1984.1 JiL,<a Kotalova, the iluthor of this document, who works with SIDA, describes

32

Gameranga as lia piece of land which is densely cut by canals and richly dotted with pond"

of varied depths and sizes." Gameranga is situated ahollt 60 miles ~olllhwest of Dhaka.

the capital city of Bangladesh. The village has no e1ectncity or ll101orahk Illads; Il'\

populauon IS 1,903 (202 houlieholds) and IS entIrely Mll~hl11 The ma.lür occupatlon<, :II\.'

rice cultivation, fi~hmg, and the tapping of date palms. The village ha~ <,ea<,ol1al ollthrcak ...

of certain communicable diseases hke cholera, scabies, malaria, and lX)ils. Also, intc'Itlllai

infections, wonns and influenza are problems throughout the year .

(b) Water Supplv:

• Khulna

• ChIll1lgong

~ Fig 3.2 Map of Bangladesh show mg !ocatlOn of Gamcranga

Water sourceli for Gameranga commonly are canaJ..., pond.." tllhewclh, and ramwaler

Usage vanes with season, availability, and purpo~e. Though proximlty and quality of

33

water are the decisive factors, selection criteria include taste and appearance. Bactcriology

is not of concern in this process. The evaluation of qualit}' is ba~ed on the symbolic notion

of purity and Impurity which holds an Important place in Islam. Kotaiova quotes a

tradition attributed to the Prophet Mohammed, "Purity is half faith," and states that Islam

provides ilS followers wlth detailed gUldelines for hygienic behavior. For example, In her

observation, running water IS considercd pure by the people. If the water IS fetched from a

pool, the arca of the pool optImaIly should he not less than 100 cubits. If the pool is

smaller than that, the color, die taste and the smell of the water should not vary.

(c) EXcTeta Dispo<;al Facilitics

Accordmg to Kotalova, the village dœs not have uny proper system of excreta

dIsposaI. Therc are fcw latnnes whlch are uscd by the villagers. A latrine basically

conslsts of a bamboo construction over a hole or pit 10 an undergrowth behind a hut.

Sometime~, thi~ type of ~truçture is bUllt over a pond and screened by oid mats. A well-to­

do family Will commonly have a outhouse constructed of galvamzed iron sheets or wood.2

From the above dcscnpllon of the latrines, H could be assumed that therc are two types of

tOI lets in use' one IS the ~Implc pit latnne and the later one is the so-called overhang latrine.

Kotalova obscrve~ fhat, to control the smell, the pUIS dismfected by ash or paddy husk

aftcr defecation .

The selectIOn of the site for a latrine depends very much on visibllity and exposure of

the toilet to people other than the owners. Distance from the dwelling unit is of secondary

imponance. The sIte of a Iatrine IS beheved ta be frequenred by bad spirits, and is

therefore consulered d;mgerous. Kotalova ob~erves that the possession of a latrine reflects

the desirc to have a pnvate place for defecation, rather than to Improve hygiene.

34

In 1983, two water .. seallatrines were constructed by the govemment for a pnmary

school. Originally, the orientation of the latrines was such that the persc,n .. \'ollld haVl' 10

squat with his or her back towards Mecca. This was consldered a scnous tlaw wlw:h !cd

to the rebuilding of the latrines. Moreovtr, thcse water seallatrines werc kx:ated III the

middle of the scltool's playground, which proved to he an inlnb:tll1g factor for fem,lk

users, as the y not only disapproved of being seen on thelr way to the tOilet, but asking

their teachers for the key to the t011et was considered embarr,1ssing '\

(d) UrinaIs

UrinaIs are nonnally separate from latrines, bemg simply a small ~nc1osurc of oid mat-;.

usually set up in a secluded space near the house. In enclosed area are a pair \11' bricks

placed apart on the ground to act as footrests. This enclosure IS abo u,>eu by women as a

place for "showering". Kotalova says that the concept of havlI1g a separa te unnal doser ln

the house imphes that unne is not consldered ali defihng as are feccs by the villager-;, sinee

it requires uncovering a sma1Ier portion of the pnvate parts of the body.

(e) Excretion Patterns

According to Kotalova's observation, the people of Garneranga generally bchcve lhal

the feces of lactating infants are less dangcrous in tenns of impurity Impurity increa-;c<;

as soon as the child stans eating adult food. 4 Accordmg to Ken Glbb~ of UNICEF, the

people of Rahamaterpara in Banglade~h have a ~lmilar understanding Ile further ,>tatcs'

The health rmwfications of this cannot be overestimated Young children's excreta is in terms of concentratIon of pathogens, hlghly dangerous; since their digestive system is Immature and unable to break down pathogens 111 the same way as adults do.5

35

The toilet training and after-toilet cleaning of a child are considered important in view

of ritual purity. Water \S llsed for washing a:ter defecation. Washing is always done only

by the left hand since the neht hand IS usoo for activities like eating. Mothers arc very

relaxed about the toilet training of thcir children. Bcfore crawiing age, diapers made of old

clothing are u~ed and reuscd. At the crawlIng age, Infants are encouraged to defecate, in

the mommg or after a meal. lbe infants are held in a sIttmg positIon between their

mothcr's fcet. UrinatlOn IS also encouraged by holdIng the Infant in the air and letting him

paS5 the urine onto the ground. Kotalova says that the urine of chlldren up to 3 years of

age 15 tolerated on the floor and the beds. Four-year-old children are expected to go

01lt5idc the dwellmg umt but to caU thcir mothers to be washed and cleaned. The mother

bcnds the child and clcans hml Wlth her left hand whIle pounng water from a container. A

child is ,ùlowcd to dcfecatc ,mywhere in the open and the mother has to clean the area

where the feccs are dcposItcd, doinB so with rice straw ~r.d by pounng water over the spot

and smeanng the dirt with her foot.

Fig. 3.3 LOla, the most common contamer of water for sanllary purposes ln Pakistan an':! Bangladesh.

36

1--------

The defecation practice for adults -- both for men and women -- is as follows: A pitcher of

water with a spout (knowp as Iota ), as shown in Figure 3.3. is usually carried to the

iatrine for cleaning aftcr defecation. Squatung l'i the nOffilal position for this aCl1vlty and

the c]eansing, as mentioned earlier, is camed out ;';y the left hand wh de watcr I~ pourcd hy

the right. The hem of the gannent is usually used for drymg. nIe 1eft hand is thcn rubbcd

on the ground and thoroughly washed wlth water.

Urination is not restricted to fixed placc~. The undergrùwth behmd the huts is a

popular site. :Men normally squat down facing a trec or a wall, probably keeping in mind

that they must not face Mecca. Women nOffimlly do not relicvc themsclve~ Whlh: away

from home. When they do carry out this acuVIty, Il IS In an extremcly <;urreptHlOUs

manner, even inside their homes. Kotalova refers 10 a Hadith which lI11hcatc:-, that thc

urine of women is more poUuting than that of men This belicf has the con,>cqucncc of

different cleansing techmques bell1g employed by men and womcn Women always u,>c

water to clean themselves after urinatlon, whereas men would <;crapc a hlt of :-'011 to dry

themselves.6 ThIS alternative, adopted by men, is dlscusscd as the concept of TayammufIl

in Chapter Two. Defecation is not restncted to latnne~; random dt'fecatIon along thc hank ...

of rivers or canals is a cornrnon feature.

(f) Observations

According to Kotalt la the idiom of cleanliness and din JO Gameranga doc,> not derivc

from a Western notion of hygiene, based on g~rm theory, but is a complcx concept ha'icd

on symbolic categories of purity and pollutlon Contrary to medical '>Clcncc, ,>uch

categories encompass both physiologlCai and social states A bath or the wa,>hmg of a

particular part of the body is an act of purification from both malcrial and mental

defllements. PollutIon, i.e. din, is "matter out of place" hygicnIcally, ~ocially, and

37

psyehologically. It is associated with wrong doing and fonnlessness, and has the same

endangering cffect on the existll1g social structure as pathogenic organisms may have on

the human body. On the contrary, purity is an expression of righteousness -- the ideal

order and ~tructure of ~ociety.

The ritmù avoidancc of dm, and the required purifications motivated by a purity­

pollution bias, may in sorne cases coincIde with Western medical criteria. For example,

the major dUlly ntuai -- mldday Immersion in warer -- IS perceived as purification from

accumulatcd actual dirt, a coohng of one's head, and a symbolic punfication from

presumed SlnS. Aiso the nature of sorne cIeansing agents such as ashes, sun rays, mustard

011, the jUlce of the neem trce rnay he of sorne medlcal value.

Water, along with 011, IS a ubiquitous purifying agent a11 over rural Bangladesh. A

drop of OIIIS as precious as a grain of riee for the people. Mud is also regarded as a

punfymg agent for the villagers. It is a soap substitute for people who cannot afford il or

who use soap as littlc as possible as lt bicng comparatively an expenSlve hem. Though

du~t i5 regarded as a dmy substance, mud is considered to be a punfying material. In the

absence of 011, women apply mud on thelr head a~ a coohng agent. As mentioned earlier, it

15 a1so a cIeanscr for men ufter l'rmation. Mud is a1so used for ablution when water is

unavailablc. Tayammul1l 15 an Immediate substitutIon of usmg mud for bathmg after

scxualll1tcrcour~e. The mud is stored in a corner of the hut for dus purpose In a corner of

the hut. Early in the mornmg, the obligatory bath is taken in a canal or in a pond, or by

pouring water frorn a bucket over the head and the body.

38

WSummary

The observations and studies by Kotalova demonstrate the strength of trad1l1onal bclid:-

and religlous concepts that govern the people ()f Gameranga wlth respect to personal

hygiene and sanitanon In a number of situations, rdevance l'oult! be e~tahli~hed to the

Islamic teachings descnbed IfI Chapter Two, for cxample, the onentatlon of toilet\ ami the

act of Tayammum Lü .. ewlse, there are other ~1l11a1IOn\ whercin tradltlOnal helicl\ l'laya

vital role in the people's understanding of purity and Impurity The notion that a lamne i\

frequented by bad SpiritS result<; ln lts location being away from the dwelling llllU, willeh

cOllld be why latrines do not eXI~t III greater number~. In turn, defecation in fidd~ hy

children could be attrlbutcd to thls lack. Women\ mhlbuion,> again\t rellcving them~d\'L'\

while outside the home and the use of mud and Oll a,> purifylllg agellt,> arc pn:dollunantly

environmental and cultural III nature The concept,> and pef(.:cptlon~ conccrning pcr..,onal

hygiene and cleanhness a \ ob~erved ln the village of Gamcranga can \erve a,> typlcal

examples of the situation throughout that part of rural Banglade~h with \irnilar

socioeconomic and physical conditions.

(h) EvaluatIOn

1 USEOFWATER ORIENTATION LOCATION & CU:AN<;IN(J BOUY

1 PRIVACY l'f)..,/T/()N

PRACTICED • • • NOT PR.\CTICED •

PRACflCE VARIES •

INFORMATION NOT A V AlLABLE

FIg. 3.4 Chec.kltst cvaluaLJor. of samtallOn pracl1ce m Gameranga m the IJght of rclJglou\ tcac..hmgs.

39

The above checklist offers a brief evaluation of sanitation practice in Gameranga in light of

the teachings discussed in Chapter Two. The factors 'cleansing', 'body position', and

'orientat!On' appear to be in accord with the teachings, while the factor 'use of water'

~hows the gender-based vanation. The faet that orientation of the toHets for the primary

school was neglected during their construction, of the toilets , but rectified at a later stage,

leads lO one of two assumptions: Ignorance or lack of consensus on the part of the villagers

to lhis aspect. The element 'location and pnvacy' appears to be in conflict with the

teachings, as thcre are imtances of random defecation. Moreover, the factor 'privacy'

demonstrates a concept different [rom what has been related in the teachings discussed in

Chapter Two.

Rahamaterpara, Bangladesh

(a) Background

The discw~sIon of sanitation practice In the village of Rahamaterpara is based on a

survey report complled In 1983 by Ken R. Gibbs, Resident Program Officer for

UNICEF.? That report looks into the samtation pracncc of the VIllage and examines both

the users' perceptIons 'l!1d behavior patterns with respect to five dIfferent latrine types.

Rahamaterpara lies In the dI~trict of ChIttagong, about 160 miles from Dhaka, the

capital city of B,mgladcsh About 400 families reslde In this village, which has a

population of abOlit 2500 (1983), The overwhelmlllg majority -- eighty percent -- are

Mushms, and the rest are Hmdus. The primary occupations of the vlllagers are agriculture

and employment in a nearby jute factoI)'.

In Bangladesh the public sector has been involved in sanitation for rural an:as since

1953 with a vicw to identlfying latrines suitable for vanous socio-economic and geographic

40

FIg. 3.5 Map of Bangladesh showmg locatIOn 01 RahamalCrpara.

sItuations in rural parts of the country. ActlOn-rescarch pilot projccts werc propo..,ed for

three vIllages based on certaIn cntena, i.e., the Village <.,hould he part of an ongoillg

sanitation project, that it should be accessible by road, and that the populatIOn ..,hould

include a diverse socio-economic group. Rahamatcrpara wa!\ one of the VIllage,> cho<.,ell III

be part of this pilot project. which was undertaken by the Banglade..,h DepaItrnell1 of Puhlll

Health Engineering, in conjunction with UNICEF and the WIIO.

By September 1981, elghty latnne t!nito; of diffcrent type.., were lIl..,ta!kd. In !C)X'1, li

follow-up survey was carried out to evaluate the two year~ of operation. The fol!ow1l1g

latrine types were introduced into the village under thi') ..,cheme:

41

Installcd Surycycd

i. International Voluntary ..................... 15 10

II. Improved PIt with Chute ................. 20 10

III. Watcr Seal Latrine ........................... 20 10

IV. Victname-;e Double Vault Latrme ........ 5 5

v. Vcntilated Improved Pit ................... 20 10

(b) The International Voluntary Service .. Latrme

This latrine could best be dcscribed as undesirable ln Rahamaterpara; it was observed

to he the type lea~t lI~ed. The vIllagers disapproved of this latrine based on poor durabihty

of matcrial, ~mell, and safety, and back splash from falling excreta. In most cases the

(1latfoll11' had collap.,ed and defecatlon was perfonned by perching penlously near the

cnl111bIing edge of the exposed pit, wInch meant that the excreta feH on the pitched siope

and not directly into the water. Ken Gibbs report~ that there has been no case in which this

type had perfomled satI 'Ifactorily. from eIlher the point of view of structure or that of

r mm P.>.

/1 // .............

/ \

E { r L \ \ L l L

.;. \. J "- ---/

Fig .' (-, InlCmaLJonal Voluntary ServIces latnne.

42

health. He also says that the only reason that it was included in the test proJect was III

response to pressures for the use of appropnate local matenals. ~o that "dt' hl'ip-Iatrtnl's

could be introduced. TI'le survey in thls pilot projcct and ob-;crvatlOn" of the ... :ll11e kl!1d

elsewhere In Bangladesh show that thls type of latrinc does not perfnnn ~trul'tlllally and

does not meet health requirements. It smclls and allows cxcrcta to he ... ecn and \Vatcl tll

splashe from the pit onto the user. The sy~tem collapsed duc to ~trul'tural ('rohlem~ wlllch

allowed poultry access and was consldered a ùanger d1l1ùren and adult-; altke. Glbb ..

therefore finds that the International Voluntary Services Latrine I~ unsul'Cc~~flll and

re~ommends that its tnals and use should bc dlscontinued.

Cc) The Improved Pit Latrine

The improved pit latrine was used more often by the villagcr~ and, 111 compans\.m 10 the

previous type, wa~ perceived as bemg a satisfactory 'iolution. Thi.., type rcpre ... enled a gond

optlOn for adults, but few children used it. Sometimc<; the latnnc<; were found ln he III hall

condition. The assumptlon was that health education wa., madequately gcared to l'n'iure

that despite it not bemg a watcr-~eal type, 11 did requlre flu.,hlllg. Aho geometry of the

GfN~ro o.1Y.JYY1 ~ -~-~ J!..I~ ~---r"

pLAN -

Fig. 3.7 The Improved Pit latnne.

43

foot-rc.,t di<,couraged chIldren from sIttIng in a comfortable squattIng position, and hence

they dcfccatcd to the ~idc of the hole.!l OtherwIse, this toUet appears to have functioned

<,au.,factorily, and wllh minordc~ign modificatIOn\) Il could probably be used effectively.

id) Watt:r-Scal Latnne

The water-~eal latrine, hke the improved pit lJtrine, was able to satisfy the user in

performance. It wa<., untver!>ally accepted by aIl ilS users but, surprisingly, was not much

u<,cd hl' elthcr adult group. Gibbs say!'l that a possible explanation could be the poof

t)ualIty of 1(', ~upcr ... tructure!} -- an lmponant a ... pect, keepmg In mmd the neces..,ity of

pnvacy for thr vIllager~, e~pecially females, whlch can be used to improve the utilization of

the toilc:t The mamtenance of thiS type of latrine was observed to he good as lt was bcing

ll~cd hy cOl11parauvely better educated people.

_-1!t>_~

1 r--'

-.,/ ~ t'1LUtl<s,

§ J

'" 0 ~, 0

0 0 -~- f--~'N1 0 ~

.. ~

1 tf! ~ ~ W.ller St'al Lalnne used for piiOi projCCl ln RaharnaLerpara, Bangladesh.

(e) Vietnarnese Type

The Vietnamese type (OVe) laoine was met wnh a degree of dl~.,atl,facl1on l'rom ilS

users. The need for separation of feees and urine and clcan"ing waler wa, nol deally

understood by Its deSigners, whlch thus repre~entcd a harrie! 10 the aCl't'ptant'e of thi"

teehnology. Field observauons during the cour~e of the pilot pro.lect Ilhltc,lt~d Ihat me!>; 01

this latrine type employed both vaults ~mlUltaneollsly (one for male" and one fOi fcmab'!l.

farely, if ever, spread a~hes; and did not use defecation-holc cover .... Two re"po!lcit"nt\

expressed dlslike bascd on srncll, not ~urprising as the technology wa .. lIlupplOpnatc

Wah hlgh adult usage and average chlld lI~age of the five V lctnamc ... e latrinc ... , thcl!

condition was poof, aImost certain!y becau~e of confu~ion ovcr the Ilt'cd to ... t'parate l'en'.,

and urine: the very small defecation hole ... ize, and pos~ible ml ... tmdCNanding of the need to

cIean the platfonn, together wah a lack of appropnatc matenal ... tn undertakc .,uel! c1carllllg

It was known that three of the five Vletnamese latrine~ were modIlied ln en ... lIre a Jlorth-

south onentauon dunng defecatIon, as the latrine~ had origll1ally becn oncnted

lIlcorrectly.l0 This is obviollsly related 10 the concept of proper onenlatIon of the toIle\<'

1 1

+

Fig. 3.9 The Vletnamcse Type (DVe) latrme u'>Cd ln Rahamaterpara, Banglade\h

45

... ------------------------------------- ----

(i C., not in the direction of Mecca). As a result, the footrests were changed, and were

a~ymmetrically placed, which may have contributed to the relatively poor conditIons of

thc\c latrine,>.

(f) Vcntllated Improved Pit Latrine

The VIP latnne was greatly di~liked for three main reasons -- smelI, back splash, and

Jack of ... alcty for chiJdren -- yet Il was the most frequently used type in the pilot project.

The hypothe~l'> offercd by Gibbs is that the quality of the superstructure might affect the

rate of u ... agc.

The de~ign of the VIP latrine, which came from the Blair Imtitute in Harare,

Zimhabwc, was intendcd specifïcally to eliminate smell and fly nui<;ance. Yet smell was

the major rca~on for rejectIon of this type. Gibbs says that the VIP should he built wah an

nut~ldc black vent facing the ~un, with a cool dark superstructure facing away from the

... UIL Ilowevcr, tlm, was not the case in Rahamaterpara, where ail the vents were enclosed

'L lf (,IDf~r,",~ ,~1r.", '\' ,,~ rlt~.,.

Ill' , 10 1 hl' \'cntll.ltl?d Improwd Pit l,unne u~ed 10 Rahamatcrpara, Bangladc<;h.

l ,

by the superstructure and sorne were covered by tin cans to reducc t1y and lllosqU1l0

nuisance. These faets demonstrate a total lack of understanding on the part of the uscrs

who were re~ponsible for building the superstmcture.

Gibbs compares the VIP in Africa to that used in B'Ulgladcsh, saying thal il i~ not

possible for the latter to have deep pHS, as used in Afm:a. In Bangladesh the pits wcrc

shallow and contained water. Theoretically, this should not affcclthe vent performance,

but it will provide an environrnent for greaùy aggravated mosqUlIO brceulIlg. II

(g) Excreticn Patterns

The study closely observed the excretion patterns of the villagcrs keepll1g in Vlew Ihc

socio-cultural and religious behavior of the people. The factor of personal dcanlinc~s, an

integral part of the practice of sanitanon for Mushms, becomc~ a major conccrn whcn .~

latrine type does not respond 10 il. The "plashmg of water frOPllhc fa II mg cxcrcta mIn the

pit led the villagers to voice their dlshke for cert.un types of btnne 12 ClI'itomanly, a

Muslim may not pray unless hb body and clütlung are free of Impllntl~S An cqually

important concern IS the admittance of poultry mlo the Iatnne, a~ poultry l', very much part

of the household. The spread of cxcreta from the pOllItry's fcet i.., an unacceptable

situation. Any latnne which admlts the pouitry I~ of cour..,e, another unacceplablc type.

The factor of onentatIon of 10llets, duly regarded III the orthodox Clrcle'-. of the comrnullIty,

was not stnctly followed In Banglade~h; the latnne~ were round 10 he onented III aIl

directions. I3 It should be nOled that 111 the case of the Vletnamc<;e loilet'i, the orientation

turned out to be an Issue for their u~ers. The report ob ... crved thallhl<' mattcr ~houid only

be viewed as Important when an individual u~er mdicates Jt<; Importance

47

,. Privacy is an important aspect of defecation. The report indicated that a relationship

exists between the super structure quality of of working latrines and their usage by

females, irrespcctive of the latnne type, and it a1so acknowledges the requirement for the

pnvacy m the desIgn of the latrines -me dIrect result of such considerations would be the

maXImum use of the tolld by aduIt women. Moreover, the location could be an influennal

factor, for it IS undeslrable for the women to be seen going to the tOIlet -- which means, the

nearer the toilet I~ to the home, the more hkely it IS to be u~ed. It is unhkely that fmnilies

would accept the latnne inside the home even if the space permlts The report also indicates

th<tl the majority of adult users were fernales. PossIbiliues were that males relieved

themselves at the facilities at work or that those worlung in the agricultural field might weIl

have been mclhled to follow the former custom of relievmg themselves in the bushes on

thcir way to work.

(h) Evaluation

Though this case study has discussed the practice of sanitation in relation to various

technologIes it abo gives infonnation for evaluatlon in light of the religious teachings

dl~Cllsscd 10 Chapter Two. The factor 'orientation' bears a resemblance to the case of

Gamcranga where Il was neglected and th en addressed after the construction of the roilets.

The factors 'body pO~It10n', 'c1eansmg', and 'use of water' appear to be 10 accord with the

tcaclungs whde 'location and pnvacy' ral~es sorne concern. Agam, privacy takes a

connotatIon different from what has been Implied In the teachings and is gender based, as

was the case In Gameranga. Following IS a checklist evaluation of this case study:

48

1 USEOF WATER ORIENTATION UX'ATION 8.: CL fANSI:-.lC; nODY l PRIV AC"t POSIIION

PRACTICED • • • --NOT PRACTlCED

PRACfICE • • VARIES --!""-

INFORl\1ATION NOT A V AIL AB LE

--'

Fig 3.11 Check.lI"t cvaluauon of SJmtauon practlcc ln Rahamatcrpara hl the hght 01 rdlglOus tl'.~\(:IIIIl~';.

Pakistan

(a) Background

The examples from Pakistan involve four village~ located in the Di,>trict of Thatta III

SInd province: Mirpur Sakro, Nav Goth, Ghulamullah and Var. Theo.,e village) were

Vlslted by the author as part of thls research. TI1e vi~its Involved ca~llal interview,> wilh tilt:

local residents and ob<;ervauons of the samtalIon o;yo.,tem~ The Village,> werc <.,clcctt:d ha'>l'd

on the CUITent involvement of the Aga Khan Hou,>mg Board for Pakl,>tan which 1'>

lmproving sanitation conditions ofthese villageo; The Board i,> al,>o IIlvolvcd III improvillg.

housing and samtatIon condition~ in both urban and nlral area,> of Paki ... tan.

The four villages are situated within 1 0 mile~ of cach other and the people arc of '>ll11l1al

socio-economlC background. Keeping thl~ in Vlew, the vIllage,> have hccn dl,>cu,>,>ed

slmultaneomly. Nav Goth, In cornpanson to other three Village,>, ,'> a n:latlvdy IH':W

settlement, and this factor IS reflected In the hou'>Ing and ,>anlttltlon

49

The 'Icttlement pattern In Thatta is charactenzed by 'imall hamlets. The average densIty

of population I~ les~ than 50 persons per sq. km. Approximately 70% of the population

live ln ..,ettlcments whlch have populations of less than 500. 14 The Villages represent a

wldc <'pcctrum of charactemtic<, based on tradlt10nal hfe~tyles; high familialloyalties,

cxtrcmcly low per carIta incorne, heavy dependence on primary raw matenal. and pnmitive

agricultural pracUcc..,. l11ere I~ an extremely high degree of Illiteracy, and a poor hygemc

and <,al11laiion situation These villages have a domInant Muslirn population of 98%, the

lll:ljority of whom IS illvoived In agriculture, while the rest are in retaii trade, a secondary

activlly.

l' ... t, " /

", ,,\ ' 1

.--

-1 1

," Il

"

1 ) .... ;-'

-, (111"'''

t 111!!1!!''''

~ \ r'" 1 R

~: ~~ ~- ~ .... r: ~. . . ,

ri!! :-.12 \1.1(1 ni Pakl~lan ~howtng location 01 \ III.I!!~'''' unda ~llldy

50

Dwellings in the villages have a sinular pattern of space dIstribution. The court yard I~

an integral feature and accommodate!> v~mous funcnons of day-tn-day living. Mulu-

functional spaces dlctate the house forms in the villages House ... Hre alway!> inwanl-

looking. with high walls fornung the bound~ries. The entrance open!>. IIHo the court yard

away from the lIvIng space~ TOIlet and wa~hing faClhtle., an' nonnally located cln ... e to thL'

entrance, whI1e the cookmg area 1S located away from the washlllg an~as If the dwelhng 1"

served by two entrances, the tOilet and washing areas are pom1ally Ilx'ated ncar the

secondaryentrance. Brick, mud, cement concTete and wood arc the 1110\t common

construction materials. Whlch of the~e materials is used denote~ the eCOllOllUC statu., ot the

household.

r. 1

'-. ,

~:;:. ~' i ..,.-,1

t· '-• T

Fig 3 13 A narrow street m the Village of Var.

51

" 1

Fig. 3 14 Open draHl.~ In stree/.'! -- a typll.!! \IIWIIHIIJ

10 many Village, In Palu~tml

(h) Willer Suppl y

TuOc weil, are the eommon ~ources of water suppl Y 10 Nav Goth and var, while

\1lrpur ~akro and Ghulamullah have piped waler. A canal wh;ch runs nearby all these

vIllage,> and acl\ a.., a ~econdari or emergency suppl y of water. The plped water supply l~

n ...... tnctcd tn .... tandpipc .... 111 the communal ~paces of the village. Water is nonnally ~tored In

the dwellIng .... for hou .... ehold use In large earthenware contamers or in tanks. The storage IS

at a nUI1lOcr (lf Icy.:atJOn~ In the hou se depending on use. For example. waler used for

C()()hlllg and dnnkmi,!. i .... found near the cooking space; for use In the toi lets 15 ~tored mSlde

(Ir Ilcar the tollet.

ToIlet.., arc cnmmonly }(X'aled along the exterior wall of the home or. In sorne cases. a ....

an addition ln the hOll~e or l~ an out hou<;e. The location. according to the \'lllagcrs. should

a!lo", l'a..,y :l'Te ........ for melllocr .... of the family, and for guests, without intmdmg upon the

pm ,Il'Y lIt the hou ... ehold. Thi.., ha .... proved very practical whcn the toilet<; were vl\lled in

~ ...

, \ ,

,1 ~ / \ \

Il.'-' ~ 1 ~ \n lHcrlllm mg rllm Mlrpur Sakro from whlch liqwd and sohd \\ .I~(,· 1\ ll"i-'dùl on .t \\l'c"'ly ba.\IS

number of households. The other impurtant reasoning behllld slich a loc:lllon l~ that It 1"

clistornary to have the toilet away from the living spaces of the hou se.

In ail the villages, except for Nav Goth, the mo~t common sy~teTl1 to be l'ound \Va' the

Bucket Latrine. Pit Latrine were no longer in use and when they e\.l~ted, they h:iYr: I1t:L'n

upgraded to pour-tlu~h types. New pOur-flll~h toilet~ have ab!' heen lHtrodllced in the,\.'

villages by the Aga Khan HouslIlg Board for Pakl~tan. Soa"pit~ are located oUI'iidL' a

nllmber of houses. According to the villagers, the~e pits were u'\cd for pit latnnc'\ a long

ume ago. Sorne open draInS StIJl flow into the..;e soakpits from whlch the liquld wa\!\.' 1";

collected weekly or every ten days by the night soil collector'i See Figure .1. 15

(d) Bucket Latrine

According to the villagers, bucket latnne~ have hecn 111 CXl~tcnœ for many ycar\ :Ind

are still in use by many households. In Nav Goth, dm !'>y~tem doc..; not eXl!'>!, pcrhap'

bccause the VIllage is a new settlement. In the other threc vIllage..; the hucke! latnne l' very

common, primarily In poor famtlies.

There are number ofvariauons of the bucket latnne, dependlng ml the type (lI dwellmg

unit and to what extent the famIly is willing to Inve~t 111 the tOIle. ()ne 01 the type\

ob~erved Iii a small room. either attached to or detached l'rom the mal!1 hOll\e, and

accessible from the court yard. It con'\ists of a r~lI~ed platform whlch accormnodatL'\ two

footrests for the squattll1g po~ltion over a \Ioped chute made of concrete 1'h1\ chute \Iope\

down towards the extenor wall on the \treet 'Iide and mcct\ a fla! \l/rface "he wall ha\ an

openmg at the end of the chute whcre the excreta i\ depo\lted for col lcll 1< Hl (hgllre 1 1 (»

The opemng in the street-'Ilde wall varle\ according to the con,trU<.IJlHl of the hOll,e Jt 1\

normallyone meter above grade level and 'Iometimc\ even more, dependlf1g on the pIlTlth

53

... ------------------------------------------

Ievcl of the house. The urine is drained out through the same chute and flows down into an

open draIn which is found in ~treets throughout the village.

-- '7 __ .' __ _

Fig 3 16 Extcnor VICW of tOilet ~ho\\ mg opcnlng III Ù1C wall l'rom whcrc the ~lId wa. ... tc 1\ collcctcd

Th~ otha mo~l common variation of the hucket latnne l'i that with no exterior opening

t'or collection of excreta. ThiS tOllet consists of a room detached from the main dweIlmg

hut \\'lIh1l1 th~ cOllrtyard of the house and bUllt of the ~ame matenal as the house, and not

dl .... l1nglll~hahlc l'rom outside to a vI,itor. The floor IS concrete with a number of footrests

... pac~d apart for comfortable ~quatting positIOns. The floor is sloped to drain along the \vall

\\ hlCh 1<; the extenor wall of the dwelhng and the latrine. and whlch would be the back wall

ft) 1 the liser in a !'-l]u<lttlng position Sohd waste is deposited between the footrests on the

11001' of the tOilet whtl~ hquid wa~te dra1l1s out IntO .111 open drain or into an existing soak

pli \'ta a ,mali open dram lI1~ide the toilet. The t'eces is collected 011 il datly basls by

sweepers. According to the villagers, the provision of more than two footrests allows

different family members to use different spots for defecation. Commonly three footrests

were found in a toilet providing two spots for dcfecation. Water is llsed for ckansing arter

defecation which is drained out. This system, as a villager, obscrved, is not an H.kal one; al

the same time many households do not have the means to improvc thclr systcms duc to

other economic pressures. It appears that people may respond to a better system if it is

simple and cost effective.

"

< ~'.'J-' ,..., ,

f' .. ' $ ~ ;fo..,~

) / r/~~l"

Fig. 3.17 A bucket system toiJet Wlth foot rests ln

Ghulamullah.

55

(c) Pour-Flush Toilets

The pour-flush toilet is a recent introduction to these villages. It comprises a water-seal

pan (sirmlar to the Vietnamese type) and a single pit which is offset in most cases.

Sornctimes two or three toilets are connected ta a Iarger pit. Since the se are very recent

Intf()duction~ 10 the viIlages, the re~ult in terms of operation and use is yet to he deterrnmed.

The tOllet 15 flushed with water which is poured by hand and in sorne cases the

unavailabihty of water for flushmg tl-]e solid waste has created problems for users.

--, 1

Fig 3.18 A pour flush system 10 an outhouse m Var.

56

) ,

;;;;;;:;;;;;;;;;;;;;:;:-----~

Fig.3.19 A pour flush system in Nav Goth.

Most of the pour-flush systems have been installed by uprgrading the existing toiict

system which previously consisted eirher of pit or bucket latrines by using the same toilet

structure in the house. The pits are mainly located outside the lhvdhng unit and, III some

cases, in one corner of the court yard, as the situation dictates. Not al! the pits are propeily

covered; they often become an ideal garbage disposaI receptade.

r-------------~---------------------------------!

• . ,

Fig. 3.20 Extericr walls of dlwellings in Mirpw Salero showmg OJX!nmgs flom where soliil " .. aste is collected and the grOCIVes for the Itqu:d wa<;lC,

(Î) ExcretionYatl~

1

The activity of defcc'arion is not considered an important aspect of dmly life; hence

construction and maintenance of the toilet recelves least Importance in the hou,>e. Y ct thcre

are households that h~Vt: shovvn interest IP improving thei!" samtation faclliuc<." mainly

those with exposure to city life w()u!d likt: ta adopt bettcr lIVIng condllion'~ for thclr

childrtll. Sorne nt;'wly C'onstruc:ted bouse:, have provi~ions to add a pour-fllJ~h sy,>tem to

57

ti,elf toilets whenever possIble. Squatting is the nonnal position for defecation; the use of

fAelds, although not ve!)' common, IS still practIced by villagers, in which case water is not

alway~ camed to the place of defecation. Based on observations in other rural areas of

Pa!<J~tan, field ... arc commonly used a~ places fOI defecatlon, in which case water IS not

alway') used as a c1eaming agent. Especially in the northern parts of Pakistan mudballs are

commonly available as a subsritute for water after defecarion.

Fig 3.21 A pour flush system in Var.

58

Water i~ the prima.-y cleaning agent. after defeeatlol1 In hllllsehold!ol wtllch have lolll'h

It is either stored in the toilet or b canied 111 a ~.mall pal wllh a ~pout commnnly kllnwn a ...

Iota. AddItional water for f1ushing, if required, i~ ('htamed afler ddecatlotl. Tht: kit halld

is used for eleaning whJle water I~ JX)ured through the fora hy the nght ham\. The h;\l1(I ...

are then washed with ~oap III a dlfferent area wluch I~ nonmllly for wa~lllng al'ltlvlty only

The orientation of the tOilet is not stnctly followed.

(g) EvaluatIon

The case study demonstrates ~iJllIlar attitude toward the factor,;; nI' 'ckant,mg' and 'hody

position' WhlCh appear to he 111 accord wlth the teachmg~. 'Use of waler', aIthollgh a

regular practice in the toilet~, IS not consi~lently pracl1ced when field~ are lI"l'd lor

defecation. Moreover the example of northern area ... of Pakbtan where mlld hall" arl'

cornmonly used Imphe~ the vanatlon 111 tlm factor. Privacy i" agall1 a gender ha"ed l'''''lll'

while location for defecat on l~ In confhet with the teachll1g" The f()lIowlllg 1 ... Ihe chl'd,II\1

evaluation for thi~ case study'

LOCATION & ( 1.1 AN'>IN(, HOUY USEOFWATER ORIENTATION

PRIYACY 1>( >'> Il fi )"J

PRACfICED • • NO'! r'RACTICED •

l'RACfICE y tt,RIES • •

I~FORr..1ATIO~

'\;()T A YAILAF3LE

Fig. 3 22 Chçckh~t cvaluallon of sallltatlOn pracl1cc 10 Palmtan 10 the hght of rchglOu~ tcachlllg ...

59

Daqalihya Province, Egypt

(a) J3ack~round

The province of Daqalihya has a dominant Muslim population and is one of the two

provmce~ whcrc the World Bank has conducted stud~es lookmg on the soclo-cultural

Implicauons on rural samtal1on. 11l1s report 15 IS th.::- prime source ot mformatlon for thlS

'Itudy of 'IamtatlOn ln rural Egypt. Correspondence wlth Dr. Mayling Simpso.,· Hebert is

the other ~ource of informatIOn for thls study. The area under study is Daqa!ihya Province,

located do~e to Calf 0

The World Bank report descnbes eXlTetion patterns ln the Daqalihya province of Egypt

:1<; dl..,orgamzed and havmg a hlgh degree of mesponslbihty whlch IS demonstrated by the

vdlagcrs both ln practlce and hyglemc awarenes~ of proper <)anitatlon. Common places for

dcfecauon and unnauon are ~treet~, ~anals, a01ma! ~hed~ and fields This IS very tnuch part

of the normal IIfe pattern and l~ not çonsldered an unheaIrhy or unusual act. Moreover,

l'ccc.., ln the ~trects are not consldered a problem because dogs and chickens eat them

kl't'plng the streets relatlve!y free of the waste matter. 16

S lI11p"on- He ben observe~ thar women practice retentlon aIt day und only r L ~ve

Ihell1~e)ve~ aftcr dll~k or in the carly hours of the morning when they cannot be seen.

nunng the daylltne, women unnate in a stack of hay or refuse ,nside the hou<.,e near the

"-lichen or whcre the animal~ are kept ln the hOllse. Eith,::r water, the usua! ckansHlg agent

alter defccallon, l~ camed in llJUg for immedlatc cleansing, or c1eansmg is performed after

:lmvlllg home The \cft har.d h used \\-Ilh water for cleansing. People squat !mth tor

c1ean~lng and defecatlon TIll' report add~, that the polluted cleansing W31er is allowed 10

fal! on the tlttl"'l[ of the h0me Villages have practically ,10 know1cdge about the rebuonship

61..1

between samtation and disease. Street defecauon IS Sltl1ply ~een as a way of lIfl' and II'.

cleanliness or dlnme~s IS rarely questlOned. 17

Accordmg ta the World Bank report, villagers generally ~how lIlterest 111 havlIlg a

latnne constructed in thelr home~. Young adults express more l1ltcre~t than do ohkr adu\h

The mouvation for cOl1'itrucUon Iles in prestige rather than III hygiclllc Improvement ~1Ill'l'

ail home Improvements such as water pipes, hand pumps, electnctty ,md latnlll'~ elevatl' Ihl'

status of the household. Women are more Interestcd th an men In havll1g lalllllC\ Imide

Ihelr house" as that would aliow them to go at any ume III pnvacy The rl'pol t O\l'l'I Vl· ...

that sorne of the hou ... chold<; 'lirveyed, had latnne~ which wcre gener,lily III gond

condition. They were cIcan, and free of flle.., and lxlor Pnvaey lor wOll1en hlTol11e ... a

detemuning factor for the m ... tallatlon of a tOllet

(b) Evaluation

This case study, although bnef III dctall ... , provlde~ lIlfonnatJon Oll Ihe pracllee 01

~anitatJon for the purpo~e of evaluatlOn The factor.., 'u..,e of wald, 'clL'an"'lllg', and 'h()dy

l'osman' appcar to be In accordance WIth the teachll1g'" dl..,clI, .... cd III Chaptcr TWCl

1 L'SE or WATER UX'A J ION ,\ (II AN.,IN(,

!l( )1)\ OR 1 [i'oTATIOr-.;

l'RIVA( y 1>( )., III( )".;

l'RACTIC[/) • • • -':OT l'RACT 1([1) •

PR o\CTll [ VARIE)

. I\FOR\1ATIO\ • \OT A VAILABLE

Fig 3 23 Chcd..l.'>l cvaluauon of ~anllal1on pracucc ln Egypl ln the ltghl 01 rel IglOU" lcadllng,>

l 'Location and privacy' are in conflict with the teachings which appear to be totally

dl'iregarded. There is consideratIon of the notion of privacy which is again gender based,

havmg dlfferent connotation for elther sex. The factor 'orientaion' was not discussed and

hcnce could not he dctcnnmed. The evaluation checklist for this study is as above:

Yernen

(a) Excreta DI'ipo,>al Facihty

This case ~tudy pnmanly examines the tradition al system of sanÏtatIOn that has been in

eXIstence In Yernen SInce the medleval period. In the old part of the cIty of San'a, as in

other towns of Yemen, the houses are slender and tall, nsing five to nine stories From

narrOW'itreets. Eaeh floor has one or two lavatory-bathrooms located next to a vertJ::al

~hal't extending l'rom a rcceptacle at the street !evel to the uppennost bathroom as shown ln

the figure 3.24.

The feces drop via a hole in the squatting slab down the shaft to a receptacle, from

wllleh thcy arc collccted at frcquent intervals and brought to pubhc bath~ where they are

"pread on the roof to dry The dned feces are then used as fuel for buming and the ashes

arc ..,uIN~quently u,>ed as fcruhzer. The Uline 15 dramed away from the squatting slab to a

groovc III the ~tonc floor, From whence it pa~ses through an opemng in the outslde wall, to

run down a venIral drall1age ~urface on the outer face of the buildmg. These surfaces are

onen elcganrly ~h,lped and decorated. When the unne reaches the ground, that part of the

IIqllld not cvaporated on the way down is drained Into an underground drainage sump.

Anal dcansmg takes place on a paIr of square stones next 10 the squatting slab. The

used water IS dratned .lway m the same way as the unne. No liquids are th us led into the

Fig. 324 The "long drop" latnne ln Yernen.

"long drop" shaft or the receptac1e below. As San'a has a hot, dry cll/TIate the soltd

waste quickly dehydrates, which facilitates removal. 1H

(b) Evaluation

Although this case study does not Include information on hllman hchavlOr and lI\er

percepuons as In the previolls case studies, it neverthele\.., Indicatc.., thc rckvancc of Ihe

facotrs Idenutied in Chapter Two. The descnption of the \y\tcrn Indlcatc\ the U\C of w,lkr

for cleansing after defec,won and the Figure 3.24, Indll'ate.., the body po..,ltlon for

defecation is squatting. The l'areful conslderatlOn glven to totlet~ In hou..,c<; Indll'alc.., a kwl

of senousness towards samtatlOn whlch IS qUIte In contra"t to the prevlou\ ca\c ">tudlc.., alld

particularly mdlcates an adherence to the foclor of 'location and pnvacy'. Onentatlon J~ nol

discussed ln the case study under consideratIOn and therefore could not he a\\e,,\cd The

evaluatIon checklist for Yemen IS as follows·

63

LOCATION & CLEANSING BODY

u,>[ or· WATEI< ORIENTATION PRIVACY POSITION

1'1< ,\( 1 J( f /) • • • • 0.,;, 1 1 l'RA( 'I( f J)

l'I{ t\f Ile f \' ,\I<I! ...

l'\! (JI< 'lA Il' l'\j • :--" li t\ \'AII ,\/l! \:

fIg, 2'\ (hl'd"II~t cvaluallon of sanllauon prall!Ce III Yemen ln me llght of rellglOus tcachlOgs,

Conclusion

The chapter ha ... covered dlfferent cultures in four Mushm countries and ha<; attempted

to ddïne and Idcnnfy clement!. wtllch may bear influence over the choIce ofsamtation

technologie... The ... ilualion of Gameranga detib wnh the very nOliOIl of how vlllagers

IK'rl'ICve 'hygemc' V~ 'unhyglelllC' and the mfluence of taboo and tradition withm the

culture Religion ... eems to have a limilcd mfl uence on thelr practlce if compared to the

ntent of tcachlllg ... ddïned 111 Chapter Two.

ln Rahalll.itcrpara, people re~~onded to the opportUntty to interact wilh technology on

tlll' ha ... l\ of thelr practlcc and lJndcr~tandll1g Jf sanitation, Tradluonal and cultural

IIlflul'ncc\ helpcd them to e:\p:e\~. and at the same ume evaluate, thelr chOlee of wstem

\lnrcpvcr, Idl~lnU\ IIltlucncc ... come 1I1to play v.hen pe~ple's perception... of the teaclung<;

and gUldl'lJ/ll'\ are l'Ie.lr SOll1e[lmC~ [he~e perceptlOns of relJglOu... tcachlng ... are heavJly

IIltluellcl'd hy Ipl\'-' tradlllOll and tahoo ln the ca~e of Pakl~tan, the communlty dlscus~ed 1'"

III thl' prnCl'\\ pf adnptJn~ a \y~tem v. hlCh dlffer ... techmcally and operatIonally from \\ hat Il

The case of Daqalihya gives a very general pictllre of the state of sanital10n 1Il Egypl.

Human behavlOr has been highlighted which might involve the whole issue of the use nI'

the toilet for defecation and an apropriate technology whlch ~hould not attempt to totally

disregard local eus toms and the traditional praCtlcc of sanitatloll. The example nf Yemen

indicates consideration towards the Importance of proper samtatlOIl.

The study and observanon 111 these countncs con vey that although thesc are

predominanùy Mushm cultures, there are Influences other than religlOlls (In the praclH.:e 01

sanitation and personal hygtene. The chapter that follows denves conclu~lon ha~ed on thL'

findings in the case studies.

65

1 Jltka Kota]ova, ReDOn on Persona] and f)orncsuc HY~lCne ID Rural Ban~ladcsh (Swc<lIsh InternatlOnal Dcvcloprncnt Agency. 1984).

2 Ihld P 12.

3 H)J(I p. 12

4 fhHI P 28.

5 Ken Gibbs. ReD0rt on User PerceDIJons and Observed U:.c of Latnnes ID Rahamatenmra (UNICEF, WHO and Dcparuncnt 01 Puhllc Hclath EnglOcenng, Bangladc<,h, 1983)

6 J ILka Kotalova, ){cDOrt on PmQnal and DQmc~tJç HYl!lcne ID Rural Bangladesh (Swedlsh InternatIOnal Dcveloprncnt Agency, 1984)

7 Ken Glbh." RCDort on U:-,er PerccPlIoJïS and Ob5crvcd Use of LatrInes ID RahJmatemara (UNICEF, WHO and Deparuncnt 01 Puhllc Helath Englneermg, BillIgladc~h, 1983).

X Il))(1 P 20

1) Il)1(1 P 25

)()Ilml p 12

Il I1ml p 43

1 ~lhHI P 4X

14 SllIrecn Rl'hmatllllah, ReDOr! on Ml,X!c1 of Integrated Rural cornmumty DevcIoprnenl (Govemrnent of Smd, PaJ...I\Wn, 19X3), p 4

l 'i\Vmltl B,mk, "Souo-ClIltur,11 F.lctors. Impltcatlons for FTcJ~: ..)ct;:g::", ~eptembcr, 1979

lllIhHI P 1-4

17Ihlll Il 5-1 1

lXUno Wlllblad and Wcn Kllama, Sam taUon Wlthout WateT (Macmillan, 1985).

66

Challter Four

CONCLUSION

The summary checklist evaluation included here (FIgure 4 1), pre~ents an mtere~ting

comparison between the samtation practices as discussed in the case ~tLJdlc~ ln Charter

Three, and the teachings and gUldehnes outlmed in Chapter Two. 'Body pO!'>l!ion' anù

'c1eansing' are consIstent to aIl the case ~tudIC~ Whicr. suggests that the<.,c clement,> arc

understood and pracased by the maJonty of Muslims 10 the case studles At the ~amc lime,

the factor of 'onentauon' vanes, and SInce the teachmg<; and gUldehne<; arc not very clcar

on this particular is~ue it has therefore been interpreted bascd on the local under<,tandmg

and knowledge of the people. Slmllarly 'u~e of water' has been found tu he varymg in the

cases of. Pakistan and Gameranga, Banglade'lh, whlch 'iugge~t\ that local \ItualIon\ can

take precedence over teachIngs. The issue of privacy, as dlscussed In Chapter Two, i\ not

67

gender based for the practIce of samtation, and is equally applicable to both men and

women. In the ca~es of Egypt and Banglade~h, pnvacy was of concem for women only

and appeared to he govemed by (:ultural-force~ wlth connotation~ other than religlOus.

~ USE OF WATER LOCATION & CLEANSING

BODY ORIENTATION

PRIVACY POsmON

~ (ïAMERANC;A 0 • 0 • ..

RAHAMA ITRI' ARA • 0 0 • • PAKI~TAN 0 0 0 • •

EGYlll • D 0 • • YEMEN • D • • •

LEGEND • PRACïIC[l) o NOT PRACTICED O PRACTlCE VARIES O

INFORMA'nON Nar AVAILABLE

Fig 4 1 Ov~r.lll \..h~J...h~l cvalual10n 01 sanltallon pracl1cc III Ùlc hght of rchglOus leachmgs.

The ekmcnt~ of folk heiIef and taboo, a~ dlscu~scd ln the first chapter, play dominant

role~ III the lIves of people ln rural areas, and these factors have been found to be

mtluencmg hoth rchglolls hchefs .md samtation practIces In the example of

Rahamaterpara. l'copIe do not use the tOllet at mght as Il IS beheved to be frequented by bad

~plllt~. Thi~ bellef (hscourage~ the u~e of tOllet ln the evemng hours. even though

reiIglous teachmgs do not II1dlcate anywhere that tOllets should not be used at night.

Smularly, 111 Gameranga, the very location of a toilet IS cOIlSldered to he frcquented by bad

spmts The argument presented in Chapter Two that Islam ln the rural areas dlffers from

Islam as followed by urbanites 15 confinned by the above examples and implies the

pre~ence of other intluences. The rural interpretatlon of blam ha~ been referred to as 'Folk

68

Islam' by Richard Weekes as discussed in Chapter Two. It IS followed by Muslims III

rural areas and contûns traditions lacking Quramc sanctlons. The argument I~ fuI1hel

suggested by the case of Yemen WhlCh IS an urban situation. and where the use of Imlet

appears to be 10 accord with convention al teachmgs.

There is a greater degree of illiteracy in the mml areas, and people are Ilot al ways

exposed to the theologlc,ù text but are mostly govemed by tradltlOnal folk bdl(:f~ and

taboos. Moreover, the local etnef of the mm.quc - the mou/avl - 1'> the only ,>ourœ of

infonnatlon, both on rehglOus and secular matters, <md the extent to winch people arc

exposed to rehglOus doctnne largc1y derend~ on hl~ knowkdge and Illcracy \evcl

Indiscrimmate defecatlOn, in the ca~e of Egypt, and ovcrhllng latnnes, wll1ch are

commonly used in Gameranga, are m contllCt wlth the teachll1g~ reganhng propcr location

and consideratIOn of pnvacy dunng defecatlon The u~e of overhllng latnne,>, a~ III

Gameranga, pollutes the river or canal whlch 1'> a common ,>ource nf water for the vlliager,>

Moreover, the use of open field.., and agncultura! l<md for defecatlon lf1 the ca~c,> of

Pakistan and Rahamaterpara are aho 111 confllct wah th~ hlamlc teachmg"'. l'hi.., cOllld be

attributed to the level of the vIllager,>' expo\ure to the theologlcal text lH the religIOn, or to

the localunder.;;tanding of the concept,> of c1canhne\.., and dlI1ll1CI)'>

When hlam spread amo:1g vanous culture" Il er.c')untered a vanety a of cu~tom.., whlch

influenced its teachmgs and whlch ultl'11ately hecame cu,>t( nary !ùw,> of the regJOn or the

culture followerl by the !ocals. In ùther word" blamlc cu,>tom.., and tradition.., hù,>ed on the

teachings are subJcct to local customs and tradlllOn\ whlch can ea~Iiy vary from culture to

culture and regIOn to regIOn, thl'> vanatIon CaTI ea"Jiy he ldcntlfied wlthIl1 the dlffcrcnt

regions of the same country. 11l1s vanaUon l~ eVldcnt III the practlce of rural "al1ltallon a..,

determined by the above checkli~t, where differcnces occurred among cu<;e studie~ ln the

69

followmg factors. The orientation of toilets is not strictly observed in Rahamterpara, bu\.

was soictly followed by the people in the village of Gameranga. Similarly, in the case of

PakIstan, the concept of 'onentatlOn' was not found to he followed by the villagers at all.

The 'u~e of water', in the case of PakIstan, vane\) from region to region, and the toilet

habits of the chlldren in Gameranga demonstrate the influence of forres other than

relIglou~, and the local concepts of cleanliness and pollution.

Although the teachmgs and guidehnes on sanitation in Islam are explicit, there is no

unIfonn attItude m the practIce of rural samtatIon, reflecting these teachings. The variations

and difference\ Identlfied indlcate the strong role of local and cultural influences on the

rchglOU\ bclIefs and the cxtcnt to '1ich the people In the rural areas are exposed to the

thcologlcalthought m blam. Bence Lle practice of rural samtatIon adopts a local character

mtluenced by culture and folk behefs together with sorne elements of the teachings and

gllldchnc~. and VarIes wJthm the Mushm communIty from reglOn to regton and from

culture to culture. The Implcmcl:tatIon of any rural sanitatlon proJect should therefore be

very sen~ltlvc to the indlvldual case with due conSideration to the local rehglOus beliefs and

pracl1ces.

ln rcaclung the above conclusIon, the thesis has come across socio-cultural factors,

lllvolvmg users' perceptions on the practlce of rural sanitation. These factors are: human

bchavior, nature of taboos .md folk behefs and the ntual concept of purity and cleanliness.

Il IS recommendcd that future research conceming the implementatiol1 of rural samtation

should he gt.::arcd toward~ understanding these factors and evaluaong existing rural

s:mitatlOl1 technologies based on these factors, on a proJect by project basis. The findings

111 one reglon or culture should not be used in another region or culture, The kè)' is to find

70

piace for a technology in the c\.ùture v,rith a thorC\ugh understanding of the trnùt!Îonal bdiefs

and practices.

The question of what rural populations consider dcsirable and their definiuon of

desirahility may be somewhat different from the definition of de~,lrdbility wlthIn an urban

context. In other words, the success of any project connected with a mral an:a has a lot 10

do with the pattern of communication between the project planncrs/nnplerncntors and the

users. Therefore, communication is another important aspect of pWjCCî plannIng and

implementation for rural areas.

71

Appendix 1

RURAL SANITATION TECHNOLOGIES

Introduction

Although conventional water-bome sewerage is the standard solutIon adopted for the

'Ianltary dl'iposal of human excreta and wastewater in Ifl(l.,'rrialized nations, its hlgh cost IS

II1compallhlc WIth the prc~ent pcr caplta lIlcome of a major Il: of the population developlOg

colllllnc~ EcoI1onuc comlderatlOI1S aSlde, il IS que~t1onable lf conventional wateT-borne

:-.cweragc will ~atl~fy the envlronmental reqllirements of les~ developed countnes, and offer

grc~lter health bcnetits than currently aVi.ulahle samtation technologIes.

The 1970s brollght mllch interest 10 the slIbject oflow-cost sanitation, and many

research and nnplementation programs have served to identify viable low-cost options.

The dlffcrcnces ln culture, climate, and econol1uc development of different countries

,

J " ,

::

. ,

== -

•

:.

~ ~ d-+

73

::

\)f\... ......-~

1

t

d{D 0

::)

0 ~

t= .

o

, c

È

~ c

.f :..

c • - ,

; f

ë ' -.

ë..

-

j :.

:,

Vl

E !!:l Vl -" ."

c:: ::2 ~ c:: ;J '-0

~ c:: 0 ;:J ..., , ~

''':: 'F,

~ '~

'J

C r .... c:: rJ

V

or,

>..1,

w::

._-----~--.---------------------------------'------

reqUire a vanety of ~olutiom which could be appropnateiy applicable. In rural situation

whcre the approach ha:.: been not very ~uccessful, it l' not Uecause of a lack of appropnate

tcdmologle~, but ra,her ~cause of failures in applic:i.tion, and peîhaps because of not

cnough undcr,>w.ndl'1g of the ~o{;)aI and <.ultural pannneKt!o for improving and changing

ddccatIon habil'>}

SanitatlOn ~ystem~ can he classified in sevf'ra) categones. Witold Rybczynski, of

MCGlll University, ha .. identified other cIa~sifications such as: wet or dry, pnvy or

walernornc. accordmg ta blOlaglcal prcx:ess or Jccordmg ta technological sophlsttcation2.

Ile ha~ aho \uggc,>ted a differentlation between the on<,Ite sy~tems and the affslte systems.

The Wor!d Rank. c IL\\~lficatl()n of samtatlan system,> IS '>lmllar (see Figure 5.1) The World

B,\IlK Ch,1I1 Idcntlfie\ vanous technoiagies fallmg under each ~ystem, and aba defines the

,!ppltcablhty of each technology. Smce off SIte ~ystems are urban, the followmg

dC\CllptlOn~ Indude only onsIte technologies.

l'il Latrim's

(,1) $1I11plc Pit Latnne

The pit latnne 1'1 one of the olde~t systems known ta man. Rybczynski describes lt as

,\ tr,ltlitlonal"hoIe-lIl-the-grolind" soIunan, WhlCh has been improvIsed over a period of

lune: 10 faClhtatc hetter opcr.ltJon and mamtenance3. The basic concept of the pJt latrine IS

very ~Implc: IltlIllan wa~te IS deposlted In a deep pIt whlch IS gradually filled and then

se,lkd and Icll undl~turbed for a long tIme ta ensure the mmeralization of the organic

matle:r The pnmary functIon of the pit IS ta IsoIate and store hllman excreta in such a way

thal no hannful bacteria can be carried From there to a new host.

74

Pit latrines are known to be the most wide spread and ~implcst of the rural sam talion

systems. In favorable circurnstances pltS will have a long hre and can he dTcl'l1ve at a \'l'ry

10w cost, but pit 1atnnes have developed a bad name because of the pmbkm,> r:tused hy

inadequate constTIlctIon. A poorly con<;tructed pit can collapse. he I1noded, he "'111elly, ,Inti

plagued wlth insect infestatIon A conventIon al pit privy, as ... 11Own Hl the Figure .5 2,

consists of three ba~lc components: a pit, a squattmg ~lab/plate and fOlindatlon and a ",uPl'f

structure. When the pit IS fillcd to withm 1 meter of lt~ ... urface, the ~l1per~trurture and the

squatting plate are removed and the pit IS filled up wlth ~O\l. A new pit I~ then dllg ne:u hy

for use. Dependll1g upon the soil condiuons, a pit may he hned to prevent the 'ilde ... l'rom

caving in. This is especially true ll1 wet areas or when pnvle~ are dug 111 fine-grallll'd

1 , ... 120 r-~ P"

/

Venlllo,.on

Squall'nq plal.

S,de. suppo 1«1 ln wH sod by briC,," IImber concret! 011 drum, wllt. end, knocked ouI .'e

Fig. 5.2 The baSIC fcalures of a pit latnne (dimensions in cenurnctcrs)

75

alluvial '-,01ls, \undy soils, and similar fonnarions, or when they penetrate deeply inro

grourtd water.

The cnucal factor 1S the rime required for the pit to fill. This depends on the method of

anal cleansing, the volume of the pIt and the conditlOl1s wlthm it. Moreover, the volume of

the pIt I~ detcrnllned by whether the pIt is dry or wet. The advantages of a pit pnvy are that

It I~ '>lI11ple ln ùC'>lgn, ca~y to me and could be bullt cheapiy. Its IIfe span depends on the

capaclly of the pit, and the u.,e -- or abu~e - to WhlCh It 15 put. Its chief advantage IS that 1t

can he bullt cheaply, In any pan of the world, by the famlly wlth little or no outslde help

and l'rom locally avallable matenals.

The mo~t common dl~advantage of tIns system lS that It lS malodorous and allows the

breedmg of mO<;tjllItOe" and flies ll1ese undeslrable attr..:"lltes have led to rejection of thlS

~y~tem. And accordmg to a recommendation From the World Bank, the ummproved pit

latnnc ~hould no longer be bullt: the ones that are already eXI~ting, should be convened.4

'n,crc have bcen number of improvements 10 the pit latrine to overcome the abave

IIIcntIOned dl~advantage~. The resu!rs have been the introductIon of lmproved systems

wah ventrlallon and double pltS. These are known as: Venulated Improved Pit Latrine

(VIP), Vcnul.lIed lmprovcd Double Pit Latnne (VIDP) and Reed's Odourless Earth Closet

(ROEC')

(h) VIP Latnnes

1l1C need to Improve condIllOns of pIt latrine operation led to the introduction of

ventilatlOn: the result 15 an odor fn:e system wlth minimal fly and mosquîto nuisance. The

system pnmarily operates on simllar princip le as the conventlonal pit latrine with the

76

addition of a ventilation pipe. One verSion of the VIP system, as shown 111 Figure 5.J.

was developed in Zimbabwe 10 the 1970s, although its key compone nt -. the cxtem,ll vent

pipe -- has been In use In simllar latrines smce early 194()5.

The pit is slightly offset to make room for U·. extemal vent pipe. The vent pipe

eliminates odors completely since the aIr inside heats up under the intluence of ~olar

radiation. For this reason the vent pIpe IS pamted black and located on the ~lInny '>Ide 01

the superstructure to make sure lt absorbs maXImum heat. The waml ;ur lll'>H.k the vent

plpe rises and escapes, creaung a down-draught of air through the squattlng plate l'lw,

FIY'1l'OOl m.~

Air SqualllnQ pla" / tlo. ,

P,t parllr IIMd 10 ,lfo,n WIlI.r

Fig. 5.3 The vented pit pnvy. This dl3gram al'>O shows a wet pit latnne, wllh a lining at the bottolTl of the pit to rcLam water. (dlmenslon~ 10 ccnl1mctcf\)

77

cIrculation of air effectlvely exhau5.ts odors emanating from the pit contents, leaving the

,>uper~trueture odor free.

The other important roIe of the vent pIpe is to reduee fly and mosquito breeding inside

the superstructure. The draft discourages the adult flies and mosquJtoes from entering and

laymg eggs. Nevertheless, sorne eggs will he laId and eventually adults will emerge. For

thl"i rea~on the top of the vent pIpe 1::' covered Wlth a gauze and the interiors of the

surer~truçture are matie sufficlcntly dark to discourage the movernent of flies WhlCh are

normally attracted towards the light The fly sereen at top of the vent Will not allow the

nle~ to escape and they eventually fall back to die 10 the pit.

Thae are certain problerns relating to the ventilation of the pH latr1Oes. In sorne

countncs the vent system may not be effectIve during the wet season when the cloud cover

l'an he high. There may aIso be reversaIs In air flow direcoon at night WhlCh could become

a nUI,>ancc for the nClghbours ln the downwmd directIon. TIus was a documented problem

lH India whlCh led to the rejectlOn of the ~ystem6. Accordmg to another argument, the

ventmg serve~ no uscful purposes m tropical areC's where the temperature differences are

negl!glble antl the opcmngs are Idt uncovered.

(c) ROFC I.atnllc

Rccd's odnrlc'>s Earth Closet (ROEC) is another version of the pit latrine and primarily,

Il works on thc ~ame pnnciple as the VIP. In this case the pit is totally offset from the

~lIrer~tl1lc(ure, as shown in Figure 5.4, thus aUowing lt to he larger ln volume and and

eaSier to empty.

78

The ROEC IS preferred to the VIP latrine bec:1use the pit IS larger and lasts longer .. \Ild

since the pit is completely dlsplaced, the users (parucularly the children) have no fe,lr of

falling into il. Due to this reason the excreta in the pit is not vIsible and the superstnll.:tlIre

becomes a permanent facililY as the pit can be empued from OU(~H.k the superstnlcture

The system has proved to be extremely satisfactory l!1 ~ollthern Afnca. where "OIlle

units have been 111 continuous use for over twenty (20) years. Expcnment~ III Tanzalll.1

have aIso been demonstrated their technical and social acccptabdlty7. A di~advantage of the

ROEC is that the chute IS easIly fouled with excreta and thus may provldc a ~lIc for tly

breeding. The chute, therefore, has to he cleaned with a long handkd hru~h.

6001 ----,> A"

~-----------~-~~ f~

Seolond lQOmm 1"8<;0,1 concr.ll ,",,-_-,1 ca.er occeu COVIfS TN

1920

,\ J ~If Il 1~~til··~;e;;:J._s~::/::t, ~~/j).~~[;.~...::t"f~·

Air 600 V '. P,,'abrlcole<! chu1e

/ Il

24 001

2040

Fig. 504 Reed Odourless Earth Closel (ROEC) as used in Bostowuna (dimensIons ln cenlImeters)

79

(d) VIDP Latrlne

The Ventilated Improved Double Pit latrine (VIDP) IS a slmilar system to the VIP latnne

cxcept th ut it ha,> two pHS mstead of one. The system eliminates the need to construct deep

plt~ or to rclocatc the tOllet ~tructure once the pit is full. It is often more convenient and

le,>,> expen~lve to con<;truct a tWIn pIt latrine. Two pHS can be provlded by constructmg a

!~cparatIng waJ! ln the VIP pit or by constructing two separate pHS. With two pHS available,

olle pli would he lI,>cd untIl full and then sealed whlle the second pit is In use. When the

latter IS almo~l full, the r;r~t pit wOllld be emptIed and put back into use; by altemating, the

two pJt~ can he u~cd mdefimtely. The excreta IS never handled unal it is at least 12 months

old ln pCffileablc ,>od condltlOm, the hqUld fraction of the excreta and the water used for

clean~lIlg purpmcs pcrcolates Into the soil th us reducmg the volume of excreta In the pit.

o.,. ,."",."",11\ HI'mltl .. tdr .. ~ ~ ."" m ...

l.IU

l\ ...... fllluLllu .. '" _lin ~\.m..nl \IJ!'t1hll.d

\ ... 11111111

Fig. 5.5 VIDP latnnc

Standard ""118

80

1I1,.':n'";I.r.:..ho' lM 21I1'm"'''. "-n,ah m,n,mu'"

ê "= E i~ ;. ii i

- ':,::

i ~! ~

l'

§ ;;

,.

!'-n:'<Vr P

The solid fraction is left to slowly decompose by anaerobic digestion. winch fl1rthcr

reduces the volume of excreta remaming ln the pit. 1l1us the long-tenn a~:.:umulatton of

solids in the pIt IS far less than the excret.'l added. No other organic or lI10rganic matcnah

are added to the pltS, whlch aet as nonnal leachll1g pHS.

Like VIP latnnes, VIDP latnnes are abo deslgned to œ useJ without water; I.C • llH~rc

is no need to flush excreta into the pit. Pits are so constructed that lhey do not extend the

water table. This allows the pIt to remaln dry and also to OUnlll1lZe grollndwater

contaminauon. In cases of hlgh water level, or rocky soil conditions, a bllIlt-l1p pll l'an be

used. (see Figure 5 5) A common ob::-.ervation regardll1g pIt latnne~, ln gcneral. 1 ... that

these types of l;1t.nres are ~Ultable ln low and medium clen~Ity arcas (up 10 approxlll1l\ldy

300 persans pe - hectare). It IS easy to construct the::-.e latrl"e ... wllh mllllllllllll ~kJllcd lalxHII

at a lower cost ~l1d there is always a potenual to upgradc pit latrines to POllr-Flll'ih TOIlet'i.

Ce) Pour-flu'ih toilets

A pour-flush toilet is a modified verSlOn of Pit Latnne In whlch a water ... cal in the

squatting plate prevents flies and odors From escaping the pit Pour-flll ... h tOlletS can he

identified as two distinct types: one with the squatting plate dlrcctly above the pit the other

with the pit totally offset. The fifSt type IS often llsed wllh weI PlI', '>lnce the water ... eal

prevents odor development and mosqllito breedmg. Approxlmatcly 1 to 2 11I<..:r ... of water 1'>

manually poured to flush the excreta ioto the pit. The :-,econd type of pouf-flu<,h tollet,

which is widely used in India, Southeu~t A31a, and ~ome part ... of Latin AmerIca, ha,> an

offset pit connected to the pour -flush bowl {If squattIng plate wlth a pipe (:-,ee FIgure

5.6.)8. It also requires 1 to 21iters of water to flush the excreta through the pipe Into the

pit. In this case the critical factor is the slope of the connectmg pIpe whlch ~h()u)d not oc

Jess than 1 in 40

8]

f· - 1t---_~ ___ _

'J _

,. 'JO

:~l-r~c~" I--~ - -~~-- -~! 23 100 23

'l'In t" , ,

1 * * 1

Fig 5.6 Hand-flu<;hcd. walCr seallaU1nc w th off-scat pit deslgned by NEERI, Iodla. (dllllcn<;lon<; 10 ccnllmctcrs)

80 ----1J

P()lIr-flll~h toIicts arc partlcularly sUltable where water IS used for anal c1eansing. A

major advantagc 10 the system 15 that It could he located inslde the house since it is free

l'rom h011! the odor and fly and mosquito nUisance. The other advantage IS that it can

opcratc dtïclcntly with a hmited amount of water. Ir also has the advantage of bemg used

WHh altcmating pltS III wtuch wh en one pit is full, the unit IS connected to the second pit.

Whcn thc sccond pit I~ ncarly full, the first one can be emptIed and the todet connected to

Il. Wlth altemaung pltS, a pour-f1u~h could be used indefinitely. This variatIOn ba~icaliy

opera tes as a COlllpo~tlllg toilet which IS discussed III the foliowlOg !lection. The mam

lhsadvantage wlth tlm system IS that ;n single pit use, once the pit 1S full, lt must be

cmptlcd Immcutately or il new pit blllit. Secondly, the system requires a separate sullage

disposai factlity. In areas where water is not available or lS not used for anal clean~jng, the

sy~tcm may malfllnCtIon If hlllky Items like maize cobs or mud balls are used.

82

Aqua Privies

An aqua privy is a small septie tank located directly below the squattmg plate which has

an integral drop pipe extencling below the hqllld level in the umk. Aqua pnvlcs can he

categonsed into three types: the simple or convennonal aqua privlcs, the sdf-topping or

sullage aqua privy and the sewered aqua pnvy.

The SImple aqua pnvy, as shown in Figure 5.7, conslsts of a squatttng plate

directly above a small sep tic tank lhat di~charges Its efflu~nt to an adjacent soakaway The

drop pipe from the squattmg plate extends below the water surface tn crcatc a cmde watl'I

seal, thus preventmg ily and odor mll~ance 111 the toilet. A super'\tructure 1\ prnvldcd lm

privacy, and a small vent pipe IS nomlally Ulcorporated 111 the de~lgn tn expel the ga~cs

produced in the tartk. 111e excreta IS decompo\ed anaeroblcally ln the ... all1c manner a ... In '\

septlc tank. There is, as With ~eptIc tanks, a graduaI accumulatIon of ~ludge wlllch ... hould

he removed when the tank IS two-thlrds full of sludf;e, ft l~ t'sscntIal to mamtam the watcr

seal for effective operanon of the aqua pnvy. In practIce, the mall1tenance of water ... cal

has been a problem with single aqua pnVle~ except ln sorne Mu~lim COmTllllIIH~\ whele

water is used for anal cleansing9.

The self-topping or sullage aqua pnvy was developed to overcome the problem of

maintaimng the water seal. In thlS mocbtication of the simple '\y~tcm, ail the hou ... eholtl

sullage IS added to the tank. The water levells thus maintamed and the \ullage IS

conveniently disposed of. Sullage could be added to the tan" vi<l a dfPp pipe or l'rom a

sink imide or immedlately outside the tOllet. The advantage~ of havmg the aquapnvy I~

that it has the potential to be Iocated inside the house. If u~ed properly, there are no fly or

mosquito nuisance, or malodour. It has low overall annual (:o~t and minImum f1"k to

health and could be easIly upgraded.

83

----------------------,

SUp,,, truc IUri

, Walerhqht IOl'lk . .. e,

Aquo-prtvy

l' ~ •

Sookawoy PI'

FIg. 5.7 The aqua-pnvy shown has a simple drop PIpe as used!TI NIgeria.

The simple aqua privy suffers the disadvantage dIscussed above. Although the

problem of watcr ~eal mamtenance cou Id be resolvcd, the basic design of the system is

cxpensive as a watertight tank is needed to maintain the water seal. The aqua privy

systems are not w:ommcnded as a vIable rural sanitatlon optIon since they can be replaced

by tcchmcally supellor systems at lower cost. One Important exception to this, however,

IS round III area~ whcre common ,mal cleansll1g matenals (such as maize cobs and mud

balls) would dog the water seals of pour-flush toilets. Another dlsadvantage of the aqua

pnvy IS that lt reqmres a relatively hlgh level of skilled lalxmr to construct and a slgnificant

amount of water for ilS proper operation.

84

Composting Toilets

Composting is a biological process in which various types of orgamsms, under

ccntrolled conditions, break down organic substances to a humus end prlxluct. The

process of decomposition rcquiri:1g oxygen is aerobic, whereas, WUhOlit oxygen 11 I~

anaerobic. Composting toilets are containers wlthin WhlCh human excleta 1'> l'olketed and

undergoes biological decomposition, either aeroblc or anaerobic ln othe! wOl(h the rok

of the composting tOilets IS to mak~ the human waste blologlcally ~afe to halldle and bnng

it to reuse. Composting of human waste and ammal excrcta have been praeti'icd III Chlll,1

for many years through variOU'i methods. Tlus was cxplamed .,ollle Hon year,> ago hy lhl1-

al-Awam of Sevlllc in his book Book of Agnculture ln the 12th ccntury, The 'Long DIOp'

latnne of i emen could he identified as a tirst step 111 the system of con 'po,,>t latnne dalltlg

back to the medieval penod lO,

There are severa! known classifications of compostmg toilets. According to UIlO

Winblad there are three catcgones of compostll1g tOlIets WhlCh 1I1clude the contilluou,,>

system havmg :1 sloped bottom vault, a dlscontinuolls ~y.,tcm 1I1volvlng a .,mgle l'Il and

alternating system ha'/lng two pItSll, According to the World Uank, C()lllpO~tlllg 100il", car

be classified into two broad categones of Batch Compmtmg and Conlll1uou,>

Composting12. Acccrding to Rybczyn~kl, the batch compo',nng l(,det, a].,o known <l\ the

alternating type, 15 the oIctest kmd of compo~t pnvy11, ft con<"I)I~ of two pit,> or chamber\

orvauIts which are alternanve!y lI'itd, thu, allowmg a ,>afe pcnod/or dCcompmltl(lll1ll Ollt'

of the pits before It I~, empt\ed. ThiS type is ~Iho knovm a~ the 'Douhk Vault Comroo.,t11lg'

(DVC) toilet There arc numcrnU'J vanatiom, lfl thl~~ lype de:JIgned and dcvclupcd (0 'luit

the locaJ custorns and condltiO(]~ whlch have becn u<.,ed If! Indla, NOJ1h VIetnam, M{;X'ICO

and USA, but there are certain de~lg\11Jn!icip!es and operation al rcqlllriernc-nt<., whlch arc

cornmon.

The basic design consists of two adjacent vaults. one of wiuch is lIscd untillt lS alx)ut

three-quarters full, when it is filled with earth and sealed. and the other vault is then llsed.

Ash and biodegradable organic matter are :;ometimes added to the vault to aborb ordors am \

moisture. When the second vault is Œled and sealcd, the contenh of the tirst vault arc

removed and il is put into service again. The composting is anacroblC and rcqUlres

approximatelyone year to rnake the compost microblologlcally safe for use as a soil

fertilizer. Sorne ex amples of batch compostmg are: Double Vault LalrtllC, Gopun Latnnc,

Sopa Sandas Latrine, Pour-Flush Composting Latrine and Solar Healco Double Vault

Latrine.

Ca) Double Vault Compost Latrine

The Double Vault Compost Laoine (DVe) (also commonly known as the Vlctnal11l'~l'

Latrine) consists of two receptacles each with a volume of about 300 lilers. lt 15 built

entirely above ground with the two receptacles placed on a sohd [Joor of concrcle, bnck .. or

clay, which is slightly raised above the ground level to aVOld f100dmg by ra\J1S The -:Iah

covering the receptacIes has two holes and foot-rest5 and a channel for urine. Both the

holes are provided with ng}1t fitting lids (not shown III the figure). The rcceplac1c\ have

access doors on one side for the removal of the mature compost. ll1C txmom of the

receptacle is covcred with a layer of powdered earth to absorb mOlsture from the fa ccc !-..

Urine is drained away via the groove in the slab and is collectcd 111 a J'Ir behmd the tOllel.

The receptacles thus receives only the faeces, ash, and toi let paper (If u'ied). The content'i

being dry and compact are decomposed anaerobically14.

86

o

Fig. 5.8 Double Vault Compostmg Totlct

(b) Gapuri Compost Latrines

2

Fig. 5.9 lsometric views of the DoublcVault Composting toùcts.

TIle Gopuri Latrine is very sirnilar to the Vietnarnese rncx:iels described above with the

exception that il has a penneable bottom, a vent pipe and the input also include household

garbagc and urine. TIle tOIlel was developed in the 1940s in lndia and consists of two

adjoining companmcnts used alternatively. Materials such as dry eanh, ash, rice-husks or

hay are llsed for covcring the excreta In the receptacle. No urine is perrnitted to enter the

vault, and like the Vietnamese Double Vault Toilet, the process of decornposition, though

dry, IS anacrobH:. The tOllet has two separate slabs, one for each vault as shown in the

Figure 5.10. The squatung slab wlth a hole covers the vault wll1ch is in use while the other

vault stay~ covered. The squattmg hole is covered with a lid wh en not in use15•

87

~---- .. /--- !~

/ ~ ,. :' l ' l " f lie

\(cTiOII

PLM

A [[NTR.Al TPOUGH fOR uRI N[ 8 m[~, WINIlG. C \IAT COV[H

Fig. 5.10 Gopuri Composting toilet deslgned by Appasheb Patwardhan ln the 1940s.

Cc) Sopa Sand as Compost Latrine

Fig. 5.11 V lew of Sopa Sandas showmg Ille cxcavatcd receptaclcs.

The Sopa Sandas is an interesting variation of the Gopuri Latrine. The rcceptaclc is nol

located under the squatting slab but 1S located be.hind the toi let and the ~quallmg si ah is

connected to the receptacle via a chute similar to the one used In the ROEC tOlleL One end

of the chute in the receptac1e is covered with a flap-trap, a hingcd lid a~ "hown In the Figure

5.11. It prevents insects and radents from entering the vault or If they are inc.,îdc, from

leaving it. The receptacle is a shallow excavated pit divlded ;nto two chambers, each

covered with a removable metal sheet.

88

Both the toih 's have proved to be ecologically sound. The amount of liquid seeping

out from the rcceptac1e and lOto the subsoil is small (if the latrine is used properly). There

is no handhng of faeces, but tly breeding could be a problem with the Gopuri type,

wherea. ... , the Sapa Sandas IS better in thlS respect. The receptacle covers in the Sopa

Sandas aet a~ ~olar heat collectors and increase pIle surface temperatures to above the

thermal de th pomt of fly eggs The vent pipe used in Gopuri could he added to the Sopa

Sanda~ to m;-,I~e Il completcly odor free toilet l6.

(d) Pour-Flush Compo'\tmg TOIlet

'TI1C Pour- Flush Compostmg toi let was developed in India in the 1960s. It is a variation of

the Gopun toi let that penmts the use of water-seal pour-flush squatung plate. It consists of

two compartmerlls buned 111 the ground and unlike the Gopun, It does not have a solid

noor, but a perforated ba~e that permns urine and flushing water te percolate mto the

ground Before u~e, the compartment is three-quarters filled with organie material, and

wh en II IS completely filled wiùl excreta, the cover is sealed and the alternauve compartment

IS pUllllto lise. In approximately 12 momhs, the compost 1S emptied.

(e) Solar 1 Ieated Douhlc Vault Compo.;;t Latrine

The Solar Heated Double VauIted Compost Latrine, developed in Mexico, funetions

slIllilarly ta Gopun and Sopa S;mdas latnnes. It has a seat riser above a baffle between the

two chambers as ~hown l!l the FIgure 5.13 The baffle directs the input to one of the

chambers. The haffle IS dlrected towards the empty vault by tuming a handle located

olItsidc on the vent PIJx. A screened ventplpe extends from the vaults to above the roof to

keep the tOiIet ordor ffee and like the ROEC also aet as a fly trap. The vault ehamber

projeets out of the super~tructure, covered with aIuminum lIds pa.inted black and facing

~outh to act as solar heat collee tors. This increases the evaporation process wnhin the

89

5[(11111

A OjAn:A S(1\l I1lllfT - -.:. -::::::.- ; , • lAI"\.[ rOi OI,tR·p,C. {ICI:1-+ .... ''t'',-''-''- ... - .... --.. .... ~...lo.~ C_1CIIlTt(' D CDWl:1 ( rurou'ED IOTTIJ!

FIg. 5.12 Pour Flush Compostmg TOllet.

-----~ ",-:: ~-;.~

;/ 1 /' 1

1 1 1 1

......,. ... 11 1 1 1

,/'

FIg.5.13 Solar hcated Double Vault Composung Lauine.

vaults and raises the surface temperature of the compo~t pIle. TIm latnne is more e1ahoralc

than Gopuri and Sopa Sandas and also IS more expen~lve to construct l7

Continuous Composting:

The Continuous Composung type IS a more recent development In the family of

composting (miets. It was OL ,ginally developed in Swedcn in the 1 94(h, and compn,>c:-, a

single sloped OOttom compartment. There are number of factory-bUllt models as well a~

site built designs. The presence of a vent pIpe makes it vIrtually ordourle<.;s. For the

system to work efficiently a lot of orgamc material'i ( e.g gra,,>,,>, peelings, hu<.;h of gram,

sawdust or ashes) must be added to the latrlne ln order to unne The compost latnnc w1l1

not function if the content is too watery.

90

The original Swedish design, called Clivus Multrum, consisted of chutes from kitchen

and tOllet, an exhaust venulatmg stack and a composting chamber. Ir handled aIl solid and

hquid human wastes, but not wastewater. The output is referred to as humus, and can be

used a~ ~oil conduioner or fertIlizer. The entire unit was made out of fiberglass with a

large enough cham ber to ~tore waste from 4-6 people. Il takes several years before the

humus is removed from the storage charnber.

Flg.5.14 Conùnous Composung tOilet

91

There are number of sIte-built verSlons of the conti nOlis compn,ung tOI let ... that l'\I,t

and most are variations of the Chvus Multnml These versions wnrk nn \111111"r pnnl'1pk,

and household waste IS added to absorh unne The cornpo-;ted hUl11u' gradually 1110\'e:-

down the chamber to where lt j-; removed thInugh an opellmg C'olllpo.,tlng 111 Iim \y ... tem

depends on the mOl~ture content, the temperature ll1~lde the ch.unhcr. the remnval ni thl'

humus from the cham ber at a correct rate, and addition of the refu\e III correct quantlty

The Minimus was developed by the Mmll11Um Co~t Housing Group nf McGtll

Unversity, Canada. An experimental mooel of the tOllet was btllit in the "qltalter

\ , "

Fig. 5.15 The Mlrumus composlJng tOIle! on trIal ln

Marula. PhllIppmes. Thc dctruls shown arc' (1) vcn! pipe, (2) squatung plate, (3) garbage halCh. (4) fcrulller removal hatch. (5) eompostmg chambcr. (6) fcrull/cr chamber, (7) au duelS. The pnvy compartment al fIN floor levellS nol shown.

92

'~1 .J ....

."", HI'){ ,.W()(~ 18',' ~ NfJ'~ ( .. )nr rptp

FIg 5 16 COOlpmlIlIg lalnnc of lhe Multrum type a~ u<o,cd ln lh~ [lo\twana Lew CO'>l Samtauon ProJCCl.

(dIIllCn\IOll\ III rmllIlTlClCr\).

settlements of Manda In 1976 and another model was bUllt In Tallahasse ln the USA. A

modified MultrUm ha., ab.::> be ... n buiIt ln Botswana. In thl~ case, the onentatlOn of the

toilet facdnates 10 raJ~Ing the temperature Inside the composong chamber. In sorne designs

the air from outside IS brought Into the cornpowng chamber by means of suspended

channel\ to promo te aeroblc COmpO\ItIon mSIde the chamber.

CompmtIng tOliet,> ensure the produCtIon of ~ufe humus WhiCh IS beneficial for

communltlc~ wherc therc IS a tradItIon of reusmg cxcreta In agnculture Moreover, these

toiiets rcqlllre the mInltnum me of water and can be used effeetlvely where water IS searce.

A hlgh degrce of u\cr care and mOtIvatlOn for ,>utl<;factorv operanon IS one of the

(badvantagc'l of thl'> "'y'>tcm There ,>hould also be enough bloocl:,'Tadable orgamc matter

avaIlablc In the ,lrea where "uch tollets arc In u<;c. The result" of expenment~ with compost

toilets of both contmuOll<; and altemaung types In Botswana and Tanzama have shown thaI

theyare not ~uItable fonns of ~anItatIon ln many trOpICal developmg countncs, aithough

thcy have found wide<;pread applicatlon and acceptance in Vietnam, Indla and MeXICO and

are hcmg comldered for u<;e in Guatemala.

Conclusion

The pil latnne was probably the earliest attempt to increase user convemence assoclated

wllh wa~te dl'"po~al, although not necessanly to reduce the health hazard. The pit latrine

provldes pnvacy not avallable In the field, and reduces or ehmmates the need to travellong

dl~tance" to find pnvacy. If propcrly dC!>Jgned and mamtaIned, Il is an acceptable method

of human wa~te dIsposai The maJonty of people In rural areus of developmg countnes

today use it m one fonn or the other, and sorne people from llldustnahzed c.ountnes may

rememher from thcIr carly childhood. In fact, In many rural areas, the latnne contInues ta

he the most l'ost-effectIve soIuuon for the safe diaposai of human waste l8.

93

Reference Notes

1 Knsno Nlmpuno, "VIable Low-cost samtauon ()puons In Watcr and SaOltaauon -- Ecommw.: and SOC!Olo~lcal PerSDeCtlvCs, (Academlc Press, 1984) pg 271

2 Wltold Rybczyn~k1, "Onsllc systcm~ for Dcvclopmg Arc,l''', IlllndlVldual QD!lItC Wil!itcwaLcr Sy~tclll~ cd, Nma 1. MçClelbnd, (Ann Arbor SClcnce, Ann Arhor) pg J 11

3 Ibid, pg 313

4 John Kalbcnnatten, Cl al., Avvropnate SaD1tiltlOD Altemill!vl,'S -- A Plannmg and DC~lgo ~lJnllill, (l1l11l1 HopkIns Unlvcr~lly Press)

5 Duncan Mara and Richard Feachem, 'Tcchmcal and Public Health A~pcCL'i of Low Cm! Sallllallllll Programme Planmng", Journal of Tropical McdlclDe and HY&1c~, volS3 No 6 1l}80 pg 22<)-240

6 Ibid, pg 232

7 John Kalbennatlcn, el. al, Avprovnate San!!atlon Alternatives -- A PianDlD2 and Dcsum Manua!, (John Hopkms University Press).

8 Ibid.

9 Ibid

10 Uno Wmbald and Wen Kilama, SamtaUoD WIÛloul Water. (Macmillan, 1985) pg 15-18

Il Uno WlOblad, "Compost Latnnc'i -- A Revlcw of EXI\lmg SyslCm\", (Tan/.anm,).

12 John KaIbennauen, et al., ApproPrI3tC SaOltallQO Alternatives -- A PlaOnlfll!-Jnd DC!>II.:n M .. lJlual. (John Hopkms Umvcr~lly Press).

13 Wltold Rybczyn~kl, Cl al, Stop tbe Flvc Gdllon Flu~h. 5lhool of Arcllltccture. MlgJlI lIrllvcr\tly, 1980) pg 3

14 Uno Wmbald and Wen Kllama, SaOltaUon WllPollt WaLcr, (Macmillan, 1(85) pg 2<)-11

15 Wltold Rybczynskl, el. al, Stop the Flve Gallon F1u:>h, Slhool of Architecture, Mc.gIlI UnlVCf\lly, 1980) pg 17.

16 Uno Wmbald and Weo Kllama, SaOltatloo WllhQut Wilter, (Macmillan, 19H5) pg 34-36

17 Ibid, pg 38-40.

18 Witold RybczynskJ, et. al., Stop the Flve Gallon Flush. School of Archllecture, Mcglll Umvcr\lty, 1980) pg 13.

94

Appendix 2

MUSLIMS IN RURAL AREAS

The MusiIm world, for various reasons, is largely a part of the under developed,

non lIldustnalized world and have a very high percentage of rural population. A s Islam

~pread from its origlllai home 1/1 the Arabian penlllsula nearly 14 centuries ago, it

enl'Ompassed people \VIth different languages, cultures and religions. Sorne "became"

Arab Most, however, maintallled thelr Identities so that today Muslims speak dozens of

languages and exhlbtt many cultures through the 300 or so ethnie groups to whieh they

helong.

95

Fig.6.1 World map showing countnes Wlth 50 percent or more Mushm population

Muslims live ln nearly in every country ln the world They form the maJonty 01

the populations of 36 nauons and are close to 50 percent of the total population in nUlllbt:r

of countries. No more than 30 percent of the overall Mu~lJm population are urhan

dweUers while the rest are ruaI dwellers As discus~ed ln Chapter Two, therc are rhrec

basic \Xlays of living WhlCh eXbt in Mu~hm society, nomadlc, urban and rural wnh

obvious overlapping and mteractIon among the thrce. There are clcar dlstinctlOn~ ln the

SOClo-econorruc and cultural patterns between the~e three categoricl) and the relIgiou~

inteIpretatlOns are qUIte distInct between the urban and the rural ~ectors.

96

The <;edentary rural dwellers, who are most typIcal of the Mushrns (sixt y eigLt

percent) are u~ually farmers, although many are also fishermen and foresters. Vv'hiie

mmt of villager., arc totally \edentary, sorne are also transhumant, leaving their villages

dunng .,Iack growmg ,>ea,>on~ and movmg to other areas to work. The life style is

charactcnzed by comervatIsm and close km tles whether the farmer IS growing rice in

Indonc'>la, whc.tt In turkey or yarns In Nigeria, the vIllagcr'l) desIre for a better life for his

farl1lly I~ mal/lly thwarted by hl~ Iihteracy and the lack of teclmology.l

The data 1I1cluded here, indlcate approximate population of Muslims in the world

and what proportions of the country they lIve in are rural areas. The data shows that an

overwhelmmg number of Mu~lllns Ir1 the I"lamlc World lIve Ir1 rural areas.

South, I)outh-ea~t and cast ASla are by far in the lead in the numbers of Muslims:

thls an~a contam~ more than 300 million Muslims, and the average percentage of the rural

population is 72 5 percent. The largest number of Mushms live In Indonesia,

Banglade~h, PakIstan and lncha, together wah an average rural populatIon of 77 percent.

Next cornes "outh-wesl A"la, wah a total Muslim populatIOn of 155 45 million and an

average of 56 percent rural, wIth Turkey, Egypt and Iran wIth Musilrn populatIons far

ahead of the re~t Wl'~t Afnca and the Sahel regIon come next wnh 56.13 million

Muslum. and a hlgh average of mral population of 86 l percent. ln thlS region, Nigeria

enJoys by far the largest numbers of Mushrns. The North African region follows, with

an aver.lf;.:' rural populatIOn of 51 percent,2

97

.\\la

JI Soulh \l.c'I

\t~hJnl'l.tn

E~\rl 1 r.1O Ir.l4 J"rd.tn !o-..U\\JII

1 d'Jnlln "'.Hllli \rJbl.l .... \ rI.1

fur~e\

1 mleu \r.lh [mlr.ne,

'r c men \Llb R.:r ) Lmen PD R

[,'1.11

B In~I.ldt ,h InulJ

Il1d, 'nt \1.1

\1.11.11\1.1 P 1~I'fJn P R 1 hm.1

Phtl1rptne\ fh.lllmJ

1"1.11

r"l Il

P"rul (\1 )

12 .., ~"7 '10\

" ~ III .;;

2 1 \ 1 .2 1 ~ h

~ \ ":'1 q

Il ~h

" Il 1 ~

1"~ '/

~ • .., II

\~2" ~

11~ ,

III ~ ~-l li

\)/)(1

.1' ~

~-l

1 (j"'" ~

, Rur.11

1-11', '\11', ,,~ sr 1

~s ~

2V, 11.1

1~ l', "'"ft

"-0 hl,

h~' ,

n .1 ", , ,

l.1 ... .:;,f ,

SW; -tif,

",1' ,

h" . , "llf r

~", (

,,""1, 1

hX' ,

.------

\:u,llIm+ l', \lI l, 1I.1i)

,.1 'I~' , llJe, 'IK', l''i', I..}';(,

4>;( (

l.1 "0' , lJ~( ,

1"\h( (

'1/1' ,

~H \( ,

L": 1 IHI' ,

, ,[ If"" ,

~'if r

III',

'lfJ',

~II' , .:,[ Ir" f

1 h', t ,1

" , -l',

---- .-

---~---------- - --- - -

Fig 62 DI'Itnbutlons and populatIon" of MU'lhm~ 10 rural areal).

9R

1 ~ Il'

" 1" , \ 112

li 'IS

~ Il

1 Il' 1 il' ' ~,

h ~)~

11 lit>

Il 11~

' Il

1 ,

1-'; ~,

hl 117

h~ ",~

1 lit . I-

l ""

III

: 1'1 1 't,

Afrlla

- - --- ----- -- -- ---

["l,il \1u~hm~

,II .... l '1 ,1;: '>,Ihl" P"f1 1'1.11 'f RurJI Ir, ofTOlal1 \00 ~lu~hm, 1 t!~1 1 -------- -------

( h,ld ~ 1 '1W, ld ';{lr,. : Il~

( ',HTlhld Il Il x.:;;r ( x"r( fi 51

( Jutnl,1 " Il x~' , 7':;' r .3 """

1\0rl ( D,I'I h 7 117' , ~.;;( ( 1 ok

'l.ldll Il 1 40' , l~l' ( ~ ~4

'I."IU ri l ,tn 1.1 1 ~ 7]ri \.)':;', è,1 1 :~

"I~l'r ~ <- !J(I', IJ';;f,. ..:,1 -t :~

"ICl'rI,' ~4 71l' , .J~( ( ,- , ' ------~----

[tll.ll I~: .: "11 !3

----------

hl "tlfli. 1 .1.,1 drH11 d.,lnn

------~----- ----[ IhltlPI,1 2() , X.,ri ·C 51 ( t?..,t 124:' "'l'm,1 'II '1 'Il ( , V, (1 " '"uO.1Il 1 Il l '1 IIh' , 7(1ri Il -. 1,IIl/.IIlI.! 1" <)0' , "c, 5 2"' L ~dnd.! lJ .; l}V, \!l', () y:'

"OIll.tll,1 , 2 11(1', 1J'l', J 17

-------- ---

l ,'IJI ('h '1 JJ ')

-- ------- --

t a,lern ~ urnp~ & ,",0\ It'I l mon

--- ---- - ---- -- --- -

1'11.11 Mu,hm,-plIp (\1 ) " Ru!,11 (', "' r lllJl1 "0 \Iu,hm, 1 è,1 1

- - - -

B!tI~,If!! ~ ~ -tl', IllJ)lIrtI\ . l '>" R ~-t'I - -t' , - , 'i', 22 ·r· , lIC"'!.!\I ! ~ 1 , "4( , ~( ( 1 ~

---- --- - -----------I,H.tI 2~l) 1'\ :-t 1-

(,rand Inllli \\ nrld l'npuldlwn of \Iushm~ (HI 45

------------ -- -( lW/fi'" ,1\ cnlüJ, Il .1.1, I\(',J 1\ lIh 't'I/"'( II<' rh .. ,,,",1/1111/1 ,/11.1 1 om"'I''''la,I''''I/\ nI d('m,,~rùl"fI< dara P'lrtlll./'l'. \ (HZ ft. 1.,'11 Jin tJlld t th fi/( l litt l.." 'fi'" ,11ld ,JI\{J he( IlIHl' dùlt·\ 01 (('''\tHe, ~ 11" \onJeu hall

Fig 6 3 DI~lnhuuons and populatrons of ~lushms ln rural areas.

99

Reference Notes

1 Richard Weekes, ed. _M..uslim PeQP!es -- A World Ethnographie Surycy. (Grcenwood Prc:.s, ConnectIcut, 1984) pg 14-20.

2 Rafique Keshavjee, "Islam ID rural Areas: An Analytie Introduction", The Chancim: Ruril! llab!l:II. E!:oceedings oOeminar Six. Aga Khan AWard for Arçhllcctll[~. (1981). pg 1-8

100

Figure

1.1

"),6, 3.7, 3.S, 3.9, 3.10

,) 12

3.24, 5.X, 5.9, 5.11, 5.13

5. \, 5.5

5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.6, 5.7 5.15, 5.16

.'un. 5 12,5.14

6.1

Sources of Illustrations

Source

Caimcro<;~, Sandy and Richard Feachern. Environmental Health Engineering In the Tropics' An Introductory Text.

EvaluatIon of LatrIne Technology -- Two Village Projects and Othcr Te~ts, Bangladesh 1983.

Mumtaz, KamIl Khan. Architecture In Pakistan. 1985.

W1I1blad, Uno and KIlama. Wen. Samtanon Without Water. 1985.

Kalbermatten, John; Julius, DeAnne: Gunnerson, Charles; and Mara. Duncan. Appropnare Samtation Alternatives A Planning and De..,ign Manual. 1982

Pacey, Arnold .• ed. S41mtation In DevelopIng Countries. 1978.

Rybczynski, Wnold. ct al, Stop the Five Gallon Flu<;h A SlIrvey of AlternatIve Wa<;te DI<;pos411 Systems. 1982.

Robinson, FranCIS The Atla.., of the hlarnc World Since 1500. 1982.

Keshavjee, Rafique. "Islam 111 Rural Areas -- An Analytic Introduction". The Ch41nging Rural Habitat. Aga Khan Award for ArchItecture. 1981.

Il 11I!'Itrat 10IlS Ilot hstcd hcrc are by the author.

101

Bibliography

Asani, Ali. "Sufi Poetry in the Folk Tradition ofIndo-Pakistan." Rs:liglOn j\l1d

Literature. 20 No. 1 (Spring 1988).

Asim, Muhammad. Fiqh-us-Sunnah [Fiqh and Sunnah]. Maktaba Clmag R,lh Pakl~tan.

Aziz, K. M. A.; Hasan, K. Z.; Patwary, Yeakub; AZIZ, K. M. S ; anù Rahman. Mujibur. "Acceptability ofWater-Sealed Latnnes in Mirzapur: A Rural Arca of Bangladesh." Proceedings of SAARC Seminar. Ohaka 19R5.

Bashir, Khair. Danaa-e-Kauneen. Pakistan.

al-Bukhari, Muhammad. Sahih al-Bukhan. Arafat PublIcations, Lahore, 193X

Buchholz, Gwendolyn M. "An Overview of AlternatIve On site Wastewater Technology." In Individual Onsite Wastewater Systems. Proceedings of the Slxth National Conference 1979. Edited by Nina I. McCielland. Ann Arbor SCience, Alln Arbor, MIchigan.

Cairncross, Sandy and RIchard Feachem. Envlronmental Health Engineering III Ihe Tropics: An Introductory Tm. John WIley & Sons. 1978

Cairncross, Sandy and Feachem, Richard. Small Water SlIp~. Ro~s Instltute of Tropical Hygiene, Bull. No. 10, 1978. London.

Carroll, R. F. "Low Cost Samtation -- Compo~t ToIlet~ for Hot Cillnates." (Typewritten) .

Curtis, C. F. "Low Cost Sanitation Systems and the Control of Flle., and Mosquito!'.,." Transactions of the Royal Society of TropIcal Mccilcme and Hyglen~. No 3, 1l)~4.

Curtis, Donald. "Values of La tri ne Users and Admimstrators." In Snnitation ln Developing Countnes. Edited by Arnold Pacey. John Wiley & Sons, ]tJ7X.

Delval, Raymond., ed. A Map of the MuslIms In the World. Leldcn - E J BrIlI, 1l)~4.

Denny, Fredrick M. An Introduction to Islam. Macmillan Pubh~hlllg Company, 1 tJX5.

Elmendorf, Mary and Isley, Raymond. "Public and Private Roles of Women in Water Supply and Sanitation Programs." Hurnan Organizatlon, 43 No. 3 (FallI983).

102

Feachem, G. Richard; Bradley, David J.; Garelick, Hemda and Mara, Duncan D. Sanitation and Disease HeaIth Aspects of Excreta and Wastewater Management. World Bank. 10hn W dey & Sons.

Feachem, G. RIchard, ct al. Samtanon and Disea'lc: Health Aspects of Excreta and Wa~tewarer Management. World Bank Senes 3. John Wiley, 1983.

Fcachcm, RIchard and Calrncross. Small Excreta Di~posal Systems Ross Institute of Tropical Byglcne, Bull. No. 8, 1978. London.

Geertz, Clifford. hlam Oh<;erved: RehglOtlS Development in Morocco and Indone<;ia. Yale LJmversHy Pre'ls, 1968.

Goyder, Catherine. "Puttmg Technology to Work' The Social Factor." In Sanitation in DevclQpmg C'ountries. EdIted by Arnold Pacey. John Wiley & Sons, 19ï8.

Islahl. Muhammad Y. Asaan Fiqh [Easy FIqhj. Islamic Publishers Limited, Pakhtan.

IIaddad, Yvonne. "Mushms in Canada." In RelJgion and Ethnicity. Editt:d by Harold Coward ancl Leshe Kawamurah WIlfnd Luuner UnivCf;:;ity Press, 1978.

llitu, Philip K. ]<;!am a Way of Ufe. University of Minnesota Press, 1970.

International Oevelopment Research Centre. Samtation in Oevelopmg Countrie~ Proçeedtng5 of a Workshop on Traimng. IDRC, Ottawa, 1980.

GIbb'l, Ken. Report on l]<;er Perceptions and Oh'lerved Use of Latrines in Rahamatemara. UNICEF, WHO and Oepartment of PublIc Health Engineering, 13anglaùc~h, 19~U.

Gunnerson, Charles. "Threshold'l in Appropnate TechnologIes for Water Supply and Waste Disposa1." In Appropriate Technology 111 Wa.ter Supply and Waste DII\po<;al. Edlted by Charles Gunnerson and 10hn M. Kalberrnatten. Amencan SOCIety of CIvIl EngIlleers, New York, 1978.

Jones. DaVId H ,ed. Warer Supply and Wa<;te DI'Iposal. TransportatIon, \Vater, and TeiecommuOlcations Oepartl11t'nt of the World Bank, 1980.

KalhennLlttcn, John; Julius. DeAnne; Gunnerson, Charles; and Mara, Duncan. Appropriate SanitatIon Alternatives A Pla;1nIng and DeSign Manual. John Hopkins Umversity Press, 1982

Kalbcnnattcn, John M. mld Julius, DeAnne S. "Intermediate Service Levels in Sanitation Systems." ln Appropriate Technology in Water Supply and Waste DisposaI. Edited by Charles Gunnerson and John M. Kalbernlatten. American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1978.

103

Keshavjee, Rafique. "Islam in Rural Areas -- An Analytic Introduction". "nll: Changllll! Rural Habitat. Aga Khan Award for Architecture. 1981.

Kochar, Vijay. "Culture and Hygiene in Rural West Benga1." In Sanitntlon 111

Developing Countries. Edired by Arnold Pacey. John Wiley & Sons, 19n.

Kotalova, Jitka. Report on Personal and Domestic Hyglcne In Rural Bangladc\h. Swedish International Development Ageney, 1984.

Kotalova, Jitka. "From Anornaly to Acceptance -- The Change In the Perception of the Identity of a Female Anthropologist." Anthropologl"ka Sludier. 3X-39, Stockholm, 1986.

Mara, Duncan and Richard Feachern. "Technical and PublIc Health A:-.pcct:-.." Journal (lI' Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 33 No. 6 (1980).

McGarry, Michael. "Waste Collection in Hot Cillnatcs: A Technie,ù and Econolllie Appraisal." In Water, Waste and. H~illth 111 Hot Cllmate:>, Edaed by RIChard Fcachcl1l, Michael MeGarry and Duncan Mara. John Wiley & Sons.

McGarry, Michael; Jackson, T.; Rybczynski, WItold; Whyte, A. V. and ZimmCml:ln, A. P. Report on Users Making Choices: Water and Wastes Management In Small Northem çommumtIe~. Research Paper No. 2. Mmimum Cost Hou~Ing, McG III University, 1978.

Michon, Jean L. "Rchgious Institutions." In The l'>lamie City. Ediled by R B. Serjeant. UNESCO, 1980.

Mumtaz, Kamil Khan. Architecture in Pak<;tan. Concept MedIa, Smgaporc, 1 CJX5

Muni, G. S. N. The Potterv Septie-Tank Latrine. Central Village Pottery In,>ututc:, Khanpur, 1978.

Nimpuno ,Krisno. "Viable Low-Cost Samtation Options." In Water and $al1ltatlorl' Economie and Soclological Perspectives. Academie Press, 19X4

Nimpuno, Krisno; Tam, D. M.; Loulalcid, Mary, Gunarya, Arhnna and Ru,>tan, Uton "Documentation on Low Co st Sanitauon." Human Settlements Dlvl~lon, A'>lan Institute of Tcchnology, Bangkok, 1981. (Mimeographed)

Nirnpuno, Knsno. "Excreta Disposal Wnhout water In Third World Cille ... ". Dcpartmellt of Architecture Chalmers Technical UnIversIty Gothenburg, Swedcn. (Mullcographed)

Pirani, Amirah. Compo<;tmg TOIlets -- Site Ellllt· A State-of-the-Art Rc;vlcw. Crl!rm Paper, McGdl University, 1985).

104

Pacey, Arnold., ed. SanItation in Developing Countries. John Wiley & Sons, 1978.

The 1 loly Our-an Translation and commentary by Abdullah Yusuf Ali. Ashraf, PakIstan, 1967.

Rahman, Pazlur. Islam UnIversIty of ChIcago Press, 1979.

Rehmatullah, Slmcen Report on Model of Intcgrated Rural Commumty Development. Governrr...:nt of Sind, PakIstan, 1983.

Robinson, Franci<; The Atlas of the Islamie Worl Since 1500. Phaidon - Oxford, 1982

Rybczyn~kI, Waold. "On';Ite Systems for Deve10pmg Arcas". Indiv1duaiOnsite Wa<;tcwater Sy<;tem<; Proce~s of the SiXlh NatIonal Conference 1979. Edued by Nma 1 McCldland. Ann Arbor SCIence.

Rybczyn~k1, \Vltold, Bhatt, Vlkram, Ah, WaJld, Boon, Jon; Hanna, Makram; Lefebvre, Bernard and Nourma, 8chrooz, cd. Stop the Five Gallon Flush A Survey of AlternatIve Wa-,tç DI'lpmal Sy<;tem:i,. Mmimum Cost Housmg Group, School of Architecture, McGlll UnIversIty. January 1980.

Schacht, Joseph. An Introduçtlon to Islamlc Law. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1964.

S1I11p~on-Hebert, Maylmg. "Water and Sanitation: Cultural ConsideratIons." In Water und Samtation' Econormc and Sociologlcal Per'lpectIve<;. AcademIe Press, 1984.

TransportatIon, Water and Telecommumcat1on~ Oepartment of the WorId Bank. "SoclOcultuml Aspects ofWater Supply and Excreta Disposai." In Appropnate Technology for Waler Supply and SanIlatlon. \VorId Bank, 1980

Tr~UlsponatJon, Water and telecommunIcat10n~ Depanmcnt. Report on SOCIal and Behavioral A-;pect-; of ProJcet \Vork In Water Supplv and Waste Ol<;po<;al. World Bank, 1980.

UNICEF A Repon on TraIllll1g PIe Id Worker'l In Rural SaI1It:luon. PakIstan.

Wahed, Syed A. N M. "Water Supply and Samtatlon." Proceeding<; of SAARC Seminar, Ohaka, 1985

Weekes, Richard Mll',lim Peoples -- A World Ethnographie Surv~. Greenwood Press, 1984

Winblad, Uno and KIiama, \Ven. Samtunon Wilhout Water. Macmillan, 1985.

105

Winblad, Uno. "Compost Latrines A Review of EXlsting Systems." Altemate Wasle Disposal Methods, Tanzania. (Mimeographed)

World Bank. "S'X:io-Cultural Factors: Implications for Project Design." Egypt 1979 (Typewritten. )

Wright, Millard M.; O'Lang, Mohammad and Kesterson, BIll 1. Repon on Compo\ling Toilets: The Mlnimus. Flonda Agricultural & Mechalllcai UmversIty, Sehool of Architecture, Fall 1979.

Wagner, E. G. and Lanoix, J. N. Excreta DisposaI for Rural Areas and Small Communities. World Health Organization, Geneva, 1958.

Wagner, E. G. and Lanoiz, J. N. Water Supply for Rural Areas and Small Communities. World Health Organizauon, Geneva, 1959.

106