CSFforGISinDevCountr Final Printed

IS Honours Thesis

“Critical Success Factors for the Implementation of a GIS in

Developing Countries”

November 2004

Prepared by Peter Reinecke

Student no. 200434934

IS Honours Thesis27 CSF’s for GIS Implementations in Developing Countries------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ABSTRACT

This research describes the critical success factors for implementing a Geographical

Information system or GIS in a government institution of a developing country. The

findings show how success depends on strong linkages to sound business principles and

political drivers, GIS data availability and a number of social or institutional factors and

technical factors. The research is based on issues and solutions for developing countries

and has particular relevance in a South African Context.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 2 of 54


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Professor R. Roets, Associate Dean of Commerce and thesis supervisor, for her time and guidance throughout the duration of this research. I would also like to thank the following people who were interviewed and provided valuable perspectives and insight into this research:

Mr Craig Schwabe (Director GIS : Human Sciences Research Council)

Dr Liz Gavin (Deputy Director General : Statistics South Africa)

Mr Sam Osei (Acting Director : National Spatial Information

Framework)

Mr Nick Scheepers (Head GIS : Municipal Demarcation Board)

Mr Jacques Joubert (Associate GIS : Africon)

Mr Luca Fanici (IT Manager : Eastern Cape Office of the Premier)

I would also like to thank the following individuals who corresponded with me via email

and provided research material in electronic format for inclusion within the literature

study:

Brian Mennecke (Associate Professor : Iowa State University)

Jan Turska (Global Urban Observatory : UN-Habitat)

Zorica Nedovic-Budic (Associate Professor : University of North Carolina)

Finally, I would like to thank the following people who proof read this document:

Mr. Jan Reinecke

Mrs. Emily Rautenbach

Mr. Walter Smit

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 3 of 54


TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 Introduction.............................................................................................................- 8 -

1.1 Background.....................................................................................................- 8 -

1.2 General area of research..................................................................................- 9 -

1.3 Statement of problem....................................................................................- 10 -

1.4 Statement of sub problems............................................................................- 10 -

1.5 Scope of research..........................................................................................- 10 -

1.6 Importance of study.......................................................................................- 10 -

1.7 Research methodology..................................................................................- 12 -

1.8 Definition of terms........................................................................................- 12 -

2 GIS - the context...................................................................................................- 13 -

3 Benefits of implementing a GIS............................................................................- 15 -

4 GIS – developing country considerations.............................................................- 20 -

5 GIS data.................................................................................................................- 23 -

5.1 Data needs of governments...........................................................................- 24 -

5.2 Data management and integration challenges...............................................- 26 -

5.3 Strategies to integrate and improve availability of GIS data........................- 27 -

6 Institutional factors associated with GIS...............................................................- 29 -

6.1 The softer Issues - broadening the boundaries of GIS..................................- 29 -

6.2 GIS diffusion considerations.........................................................................- 30 -

6.3 Organisational dynamics and strategies........................................................- 32 -

6.4 GIS - an inter organisational effort...............................................................- 35 -

7 GIS system development considerations..............................................................- 38 -

8 Model for successful GIS implementations in developing countries....................- 39 -

8.1 Rogers’ success factors for innovations........................................................- 39 -

8.2 Mennecke and West – propensity of developing countries to use GIS.........- 40 -

8.3 Model for success of GIS implementations in government institutions of

…….developing countries....................................................................................- 41 -

8.3.1 Government policy, business context and economics...........................- 42 -

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 4 of 54


8.3.2 GIS data factors.....................................................................................- 43 -

8.3.3 Institutional, organisational and social factors......................................- 44 -

8.3.4 Technical factors...................................................................................- 45 -

8.3.5 Model relationships...............................................................................- 47 -

9 Conclusion.............................................................................................................- 48 -

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 5 of 54


LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 The Integrative Nature of GIS (Mennecke and West, 1997)

Figure 2 Cost versus Benefits of a GIS Implementation (After Deichmann, 1996)

Figure 3 Propensity of LDC’s to Use GIS for Decision Making

Figure 4 Success Factors for GIS implementations in Government Institutions of Developing Countries

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 6 of 54


LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CSF Critical Success Factors

GI Geographic Information

GIS Geographical Information Systems

IT Information Technology

NEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s Development

RDP Reconstruction and Development Programme

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 7 of 54


1 Introduction

This thesis sets out the findings of an extensive literature study into the success factors

for a Geographical Information System (GIS) implementation in a government institution

of a developing country. This chapter begins with a brief introduction to the research area

and outlines the research objectives, scope, importance and methodology. The remainder

of the report discusses the broader context for and benefits of implementing a GIS. Issues

unique to developing countries which complicate the implementation of a GIS are then

outlined. Finally, broader technical and institutional issues which complicate the

implementation of a GIS are discussed.

The research culminates in a model which contains the most important success factors

and, in essence, answers the research question in a diagram format. The report ends with

a conclusion.

1.1 Background

Despite the dilemmas and questions about its utility and value in environments with more

urgent development priorities, computerised technology and geographical information

systems (GIS) are being increasingly used in developing countries (Cavric, Ikgopoleng

and Nedovic-Budic, 2000). Information technology (IT) has become an important aspect

of the attempt by the so-called developing countries to achieve economic progress and the

relative success in this area of various Asian economies such as Singapore has been

intimately linked to IT (Walsham and Sahay, 1999).

What makes GIS unique is its ability to link otherwise disparate information based on a

spatial location (Mennecke and West, 1997). This natural integration mechanism is not

naturally available in conventional information systems. Integration of data from multiple

sources is a hallmark of executive-level decision making (Mennecke and West, 1997;

Turban, 1993) and GIS can therefore improve decision making on this level.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 8 of 54


Many decisions in government institutions require information which crosses functional

and departmental boundaries and have geographical or spatial components to them

(Mennecke and West, 1997). A Department of Health, for example, that is constructing

new clinics in rural areas would require spatial information on the existence and

condition of gravel access roads in an area in order to position new clinics appropriately.

The spatial data for the gravel road networks may be held by the Department of Roads

and would therefore need to be shared with the Department of Health in this instance. A

shared GIS between these two departments, therefore, could enable better planning and

decision making.

Despite the immense potential of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) for executive

level decision making, planning and many other diverse applications, they are largely

underutilized. GIS implementations are also considered complex and provide a number of

unique management challenges for a number of reasons (Mennecke and West, 2001).

The issues highlighted above and a number of other factors are discussed in detail within

the body of this report.

1.2 General area of research

The general area of research is Geographical Information Systems or GIS. A GIS is a

computer based information system that enables the capture, modeling, manipulation,

retrieval, analysis and presentation of geographically referenced data (Schwabe, 2001;

Worboys, 1995). GIS are specialised database management systems that allow for the

recording of both conventional attribute data and information about the spatial location of

each record in a relational table (Mennecke and West, 1997). The characteristics of GIS

are ‘the general focus on spatial entities and relationships, together with specific attention

to spatial analytical and modeling operations’ (Chan and Williamson, 1999; Maguire,

1991). In essence, any computerized system that provides an answer to the simple

question of “what is at location X” is a GIS (Chan and Williamson, 1999).

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 9 of 54


1.3 Statement of problem

The main problem statement is “Identify the Critical Success Factors for Implementing a

GIS in Government Institutions of Developing Countries”.

1.4 Statement of sub problems

The main problem consists of three sub problems:

Sub Problem 1: What are the benefits of implementing a GIS?

Sub Problem 2: What issues unique to developing countries complicate the

implementation of a GIS?

Sub Problem 3: Identify the social, organisational and technical issues which complicate

the implementation of a GIS.

1.5 Scope of research

This research captures and summarises current issues identified by recognised researchers

in the field of GIS. Most of the literature reviewed focuses on GIS implementations in

government institutions of developing countries. Due to the fact that the author of this

thesis lives and works in South Africa, some of the content of the research reflects current

issues in South Africa.

1.6 Importance of study

According to Walsham and Sahay (1999), the study of IS in developing countries is a

neglected topic in mainstream IS literature. General research into this area is therefore

important.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 10 of 54


There is a casually quoted statistic that roughly half of all GIS implementations fail

(Burke, 1996). Research carried out by the Standish Group (1995) has shown that 31.1%

of IT projects will be cancelled before they ever get completed, 52.7% of projects will

cost 189% of their original estimates and 78.4% of software projects will be deployed

with at least 74.2% of their original features and functions.

Although these statistics are based on IT projects in developed countries, one could

argue that the situation is worse in developing countries where budgetary and human

capacity shortages further reduce the probability of IT and GIS projects being successful.

GIS is a technology which has the potential to improve and focus development

geographically. Because development is a critical focus for governments of developing

countries, it is essential that the full capabilities of this technology are understood and

used. GIS can and must be used to improve service delivery. It is a development tool that

can expedite developmental objectives and therefore be part of the solution to the

problem which all developing countries face; the problem where needs far exceed

available resources.

In the light of the above, it is important to understand the critical success factors in the

implementation of a GIS to ensure that money spent on GIS in developing countries is

not wasted and that governmental developmental objectives are met in the process.

Finally, the researcher is involved with a number of GIS initiatives and projects within

the Eastern Cape, South Africa in particular. This research will attempt to provide

specific insight into success factors for GIS implementation in this context. The author

hopes to, as a result of this research, be able to provide decision makers and service

providers in South Africa with greater insight into success factors for GIS

implementations in South Africa.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 11 of 54


1.7 Research methodology

The information within this report is based on an extensive literature survey. In an

attempt to provide insight into current issues in South Africa, experienced government

and private sector GIS professionals both locally and nationally were interviewed.

1.8 Definition of terms

In the context of this research, developing countries are not seen as countries as such but

rather as situations where data, human capacity and political and institutional stability

are considered to be weak (Turkstra, Amemiya and Murgia, 2003). Developing countries

are further defined as being characterised by a shortage of infrastructure, a shortage of

funds and as having high unemployed rates.

For the purposes of this research, a developing country is defined as having one or all of

the above mentioned characteristics.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 12 of 54

mailto:Turkstra,Jan


2 GIS - the context

GIS implementation in developing countries is typically linked with the implementation

of other policies or programmes (Ramasubramanian, 1999; Ramasubramanian, 1991,

Sahay and Walsham, 1996). GIS implementation should therefore be understood and

assessed within the context of the policies that necessitated the introduction of GIS in the

first instance (Ramasubramanian, 1999).

According to Schwabe (2001), a spatial information system for South Africa should be

developed within a policy and a framework. The policy must provide the framework

within which particular information will be gathered for the spatial information system

(Schwabe, 2001). In essence, this is the business context for the system. Referring to GIS

in Africa, Schwabe maintains that spatial information for Africa should be gathered

within a framework that is underpinned by a common goal, set out in some form of policy

or protocol by the leaders of the continent. This is required to ensure that the correct

information is collected and that the process remains sustainable (Schwabe, 2001).

In Africa’s context, Schwabe (2001) recommends that the New Partnership for Africa's

Development (NEPAD) be used as the policy framework for the development of spatial

information for Africa. The primary focus of NEPAD is to eradicate poverty, address the

underdevelopment on the continent, put Africa on a sustainable development path and

ensure that Africa is accepted as an integral part of the globalising world. It is

acknowledged that much work is required in the development of a spatial information

system to provide the necessary information for decision making to achieve the goals set

out by NEPAD (Schwabe, 2001).

In developing a framework and strategy for the development of spatial information for

Africa, Schwabe (2001) asserts that an understanding of socio-economic, political and

environmental characteristics is essential. He maintains that out of a thorough

understanding of these issues, information requirements will flow which must inform the

development of the spatial information system.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 13 of 54


In this context, Schwabe (2001) believes that there is a need to develop new economic

development theories that consider the unique socio-economic, political and

environmental character of Africa. He cautions against applying economic development

theories developed from first world perspectives that do not take into consideration the

distinctive features of economies in Africa.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 14 of 54


3 Benefits of implementing a GIS

The question has been raised regarding whether or not GIS is an appropriate technology

for developing countries (Mennecke and West, 1997). The definition of an appropriate

technology in this context is given as a technology which has a low cost, uses local

resources, creates jobs, is flexible and is capable of being easily understood by local

people (Mennecke and West, 1997; Darrow and Pam, 1978).

Although on the surface GIS may not appear to meet the criteria for an appropriate

technology, a compelling case can be made for its use in developing countries. GIS is an

appropriate technology because it reduces waste and inefficiencies by effectively

matching resources to users and needs in the context of their location (Mennecke and

West, 1997; Yapa, 1991). It can therefore be used to optimise a developing nation’s

efforts to deliver services to its citizens.

GIS has been described as the technology with the biggest impact on the thinking of

county managers in local governments in the United States (Robey and Sahay, 1996).

General awareness, however, about GIS, its benefits and potential, is low (Cavric et al.,

2000).

Policy and decision makers are often uninformed and unexposed to GIS and are therefore

slow to initiate GIS projects and install GIS facilities into their working environments

(Cavric et al., 2000). GIS is an underutilised technology that can be used to improve

decisions made by all levels of Government. In South Africa, there is a lack of awareness

within both national and provincial governments regarding what spatial information is

available and how the capabilities of GIS can be used to inform decision makers using

this spatial information (Schwabe, 1997)

One of the mandates of government is to facilitate economic development. According to

Schwabe (2001), international markets want to grow into Africa, but are unable to

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 15 of 54


because of a lack of sufficient information. Potential investors need to establish the

viability of investments by looking at potential market sizes, income levels and existing

infrastructure for example. Information in a spatial context related to demographics, socio

economics and infrastructure is therefore required by potential investors.

There is widespread recognition internationally that geographical information is

fundamental to the information infrastructure of a country (Pollard, 2000) and

governments are generally the largest users of GIS (Ramasubramanian, 1999). Spatial

data is particularly valuable to governments in developing countries because it enables

planning and focuses development efforts geographically (Mennecke & West, 2001).

According to Cavric et al. (2000), GIS is a tool for sustainable development and can be

used to support political, economic, social and scientific decision making.

Planning and development often requires data on the economic distribution of resources

such as the location of services or infrastructure as well as the location of a country’s

population in relation to those services. Used in this context, GIS can inform decision

makers regarding the allocation of funds to geographic areas based on which areas are

most underdeveloped. International assistance in terms of development aid, for example,

can therefore be informed by GIS in this way (Schwabe, 2001).

GIS is an integrating technology (Kreizman, 2002) and its ability to integrate datasets

utilizing spatially referenced objects from diverse sources is what makes it an important

decision enabling tool within government (Pollard, 2000). This is probably one of the

most important functions of a spatial information system or GIS (Schwabe, 2001; Rich,

1993). The overlaying of different layers of spatial information enables people to gain an

understanding of the spatial relationship between features and enables information from

one layer to be integrated with another (Schwabe, 2001). An example of this is the

overlaying of census information with satellite imagery to show where areas of

environmental degradation occur in relation to where populations with different socio-

economic characteristics reside.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 16 of 54


GIS can join datasets based on common unique identifiers contained within separate

tables or databases as is common practice in conventional relational database

management systems (RDBMS). GIS can, however, also join datasets based on spatial

relationships or “geography” (Mennecke and West, 1997) without requiring common

unique identifiers which limit conventional RDBMS. Using spatial proximity operators to

create joins, a linkage can be made between any compatible spatial coverage. In this way,

decisions that require integration of datasets that otherwise could not be joined, can now

be merged using GIS. It is estimated that 80% of government data is spatial in nature and

a significant amount of government data can therefore be integrated on this basis

(Pollard, 2000).

Agency A Agency B Agency C

GIS

GIS

GIS

GIS

GIS

GIS

Figure 1 : The Integrative Nature of GIS (Mennecke and West, 1997)

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 17 of 54


Figure 1 above depicts how three separate databases used by three different government

departments can be joined spatially on the basis of compatible spatial coverages within

each database.

As mentioned already, integrating data from multiple sources is a hallmark of executive

level decision making (Mennecke and West, 1997; Turban, 1993; Watson, Hugh, Rainer

and Koh 1991) and the process of integration is a key bottleneck in the operation of

executive support systems (Mennecke and West, 1997). GIS therefore has an important

role to play in this context.

One of the most useful functions of spatial information or GIS is the production of

thematic maps for decision making (Schwabe, 2001; Landis, 1993). South Africa has

seen a marked increase in the use of GIS to this end in the last few years. It started in

1994 when the Independent Electoral Commission (IEC) identified the need to use spatial

information to demarcate their voting districts and wards. GIS technology enabled them

to demarcate areas of sufficient population size for voting stations to handle over a short

period. GIS was also used to disseminate information to voters about the location of their

voting stations.

A further attribute of GIS, which makes it unique, is its ability to perform spatial queries

on entities within a RDBMS. Queries such as “intersects” and “are within <distance> of”

are possible (Mennecke and West, 1997). Queries such as “Display (map and report) all

houses within 500m of a nightclub that could be impacted by loud noise” or “show all

properties affected by planned maintenance on a bulk municipal water pipeline”, can be

made using GIS. The result of a spatial query can then be further analysed using standard

database query techniques. For example, once we have an ID on the “properties” affected

by routine maintenance, one could run a query to search for hospitals within the sub set

“properties”.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 18 of 54


In many cases, however, an investment in GIS does not lead to any tangible benefits until

many years after the initial investment has been made. The relationship between costs

and benefits is depicted in Figure 2 below (Mennecke and West, 1997; Deichmann,

1996). GIS implementations are characterized by heavy startup costs, high data

integration expenses and long payback periods (Kreizman, 2002). It is therefore essential

that an investment in GIS include the identification and implementation of short term

success projects in its roll out to ensure that short term benefits are demonstrated.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 19 of 54

Figure 2 : Cost versus Benefits of a GIS

Implementation (After Deichmann, 1996)


4 GIS – developing country considerations

Current academic and professional discourse in developed countries tends to emphasize

the complexities associated with GIS use. Developing countries, on the other hand, are

still dealing with GIS implementation issues rather than utilization issues

(Ramasubramanian, 1999).

Political instability in developing countries can result in institutional instability in

government organisations. This environment can make discussions on complex projects

such as GIS implementations difficult (Turska et al., 2003).

According to Burke (1996), there is a lack of ongoing funding and institutional

commitment for GIS in developing countries. GIS installations are usually only funded

for the lifespan of the project (Burke, 1996). GIS implementation in developing countries

is often carried out using external funding (van der Vegt, 2001). GIS installations are

mostly stand alone projects (Turska et al., 2003) which are donor designed and driven and

implemented exclusively by consultants (Burke, 1996). Decision makers in developing

countries must be educated about the nature of spatial data and necessity and benefits of

continuity, so that they understand the need for long term support (Burke, 1996).

It is also important in this context that the GIS is developed in response to actual needs in

these country’s, rather than the perceived needs of the external funding agents. Donor

driven projects that are implemented without enough local consultation and user input

will not be sustainable. GIS projects and installations must be driven by the needs of local

agencies themselves (Burke, 1996). This in itself can determine the success or failure of a

GIS initiative (van der Vegt, 2001).

Most developing country’s do not have locally developed software and have to rely on

commercial software purchased from developed countries (Cavric et al., 2000). This is

both expensive and results in a heavy dependence on outside experts to operate the

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 20 of 54


imported software. In addition to this, local people are also often left with insufficient

GIS knowledge and skills at the end of a project (Cavric et al., 2000). This impacts

negatively on the sustainability of a GIS.

According to Turska et al. (2003), GIS projects in developing countries often have a

limited impact because of a lack of institutional embedding i.e. no changes take place in

technical and organisational structures of organisations. GIS initiatives are therefore not

able to mature from the project stage to the institutional level.

The effective use of GIS information and technology in developing countries is a

challenge. Research has shown that very few people are able to use spatial information

for problem solving effectively. GIS specialists are therefore required to facilitate

decision making using GIS. This requires the development of this expertise in these

countries (Schwabe, 2001).

The development of local, context specific knowledge about the theory and practice of

GIS is vital to successful GIS implementation (Ramasubramanian, 1999; Beedasy, 1999).

The sustainability of GIS projects designed by outside experts will be limited if the local

workforce does not have a critical understanding of the concepts and principles

underlying the particular GIS when the experts leave. Furthermore, foreign investment

seldom supports end user training and follow up programmes (Ramasubramanian , 1999;

Beedasy, 1999). A commitment to capacity building requires an investment in a country’s

academic infrastructure and in the design of appropriate local training programmes

(Ramasubramanian , 1999; Beedasy, 1999).

Cavric et al. (2000) found that in Botswana, the shortage of a wide user base of trained

locals capable of understanding GIS adversely affected GIS diffusion within the country.

Training is not only expensive and time consuming, but also can result in retention

problems. Research has shown that when government employees acquire skills and

competence in GIS, they are likely to move to more lucrative non-government positions

(Mennecke and West, 2001; Leddy and Fuller, 1996).

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 21 of 54


Van der Vegt (2001) identified underpaid and poorly motivated staff as well as general

organisational problems and inefficiencies, as significant institutional barriers to

governments of developing countries in the context of GIS implementations.

Many developing countries also have erratic power supplies which adversely affects the

up time of systems (Skov-Peterson, 1997). The local availability of technical support for

PC hardware repair and maintenance is generally poor (Skov-Peterson, 1997). There is

also the added challenge of a low level of PC literacy with end users of GIS systems

(Speer, 1997).

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 22 of 54


5 GIS data

Mennecke and West (2001) maintain that the most significant impediment to a GIS is the

availability of suitable data. According to Pollard (2000), the lack of availability and high

cost of GIS data as well as the poor quality of existing GIS datasets are major inhibitors

to the development and use of GIS in government. It is the nature of spatial data which

makes collection efforts difficult (Mennecke and West, 2001) and, as a result, there is

often a shortage in the availability of spatially referenced data.

The sheer magnitude of data collection effort required to generate accurate detailed maps

for a country is an important consideration. The task of recording the entire geography of

a country at a useful resolution is daunting, but must be accomplished if the data is to be

useful for analysis (Mennecke and West, 1997). The typical approach used for generating

GIS data is to digitize existing paper maps. These maps, however, often contain errors,

inaccuracies and inconsistencies. Mapping activities required to verify the information

and, in some cases, generate new maps, is costly and a strain to most governments in

developing countries (Mennecke and West, 1997)

Developing countries usually have weak national data providers which, in developed

countries, are often substantial providers of useful data (Mennecke and West, 2001).

Substantial investments in good quality data are therefore necessary in developing

countries. Nevertheless these investments should be based on transparent and rational

economic principles (Turska et al., 2003). Data quality is relative and should be derived

from the need and (economic) possibilities (Turska et al., 2003). Unrealistically high

standards of data precision should be avoided as they will be unsustainable (Turska et al.,

2003).

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 23 of 54


5.1 Data needs of governments

Spatial data of interest to government decision makers generally falls into three

categories: physical, political and socio economic (Mennecke and West, 2001).

Physical data includes features of the ground, land masses, bodies of water and

waterways, roads, railroads, forests, mountains etc. (Mennecke and West, 2001). This

data is costly to obtain and the process involved to verify and align data from different

maps and sources in this regard is a complicated process. On site data gathering and

verification is often required to acquire this data.

Political data relates to artificial designations that define an area as being part of a

political entity (Mennecke and West, 2001). Political data is problematic because political

boundaries such as municipality or ward boundaries must be recorded manually i.e. aerial

imagery cannot be used to detect these “man-made” divisions.

Political boundaries also change and therefore must be updated regularly. As boundaries

change, national and provincial co-ordination is essential to ensure that governments at

these levels modify their spatial datasets to reflect these boundary changes. Often this is

not the case and data sharing becomes problematic where datasets are no longer all

describing the same political area (Mennecke and West, 2001). A problem currently

being faced in South Africa is the proliferation of boundaries for education, health,

police, telecommunications and postal services with each being set differently (Schwabe,

1997).

The socio-economic data is perceived both locally and internationally to be the most

important data set for planning purposes and should be the first to be developed in a

country (Schwabe, 2001; Chlorey, 1998). Socio-economic data is about populations,

economics and social patterns (Mennecke and West, 2001). A thorough understanding of

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 24 of 54


the population distribution of a country and other socio-economic characteristics (e.g. per

capita income, literacy, population density etc.) are imperative to address the needs of

communities (Schwabe, 1997). Governments are interested in their populations, but

people are notoriously difficult and expensive to count (Mennecke and West, 2001).

Recording detailed information about the population such as income, gender, ethnic

background and profession, for example is costly, complicated and resource intensive

(Mennecke and West, 2001).

In the context of the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP), a National

Government initiative started in South Africa during 1994, three core spatial datasets

were identified for the implementation of the programme. These were socio-economic,

service need and provision and development funding datasets (Schwabe, 1997). The

socio-economic data required corresponds with the definition provided above.

The service need and provision dataset refers to information on what services and

infrastructure people have access to. This is necessary in order to prioritise development

funding in areas which need it the most, as well as to provide a benchmark to monitor

progress in providing services to those high priority areas (Schwabe, 1997).

The development funding dataset (Schwabe, 2001) is required to consolidate information

on the extent of expenditure by various funding sources at different spatial levels in South

Africa. Development funding at national, provincial, line department and district

municipal levels is required at a project specific level of detail. This spatial information is

needed to ensure equitable and transparent distribution of funds between provinces and

prevent duplication of funding from different agencies in the same geographical areas.

The comparison of which types of projects are being funded in the context of where the

greatest service needs are, is also required to target under-developed areas effectively

(Schwabe, 1997). Funding comparisons between funds generated from internal revenue,

international agencies and investments by private companies by geographical location, is

also derived from this dataset (Schwabe, 2001).

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 25 of 54


5.2 Data management and integration challenges

Physical, political, socio-economic, service need and provision and development funding

data in South Africa are collected by a number of different government departments. The

Municipal Demarcation Board, an independent constitutional entity partly funded through

the Department of Provincial and Local Government, maintains the political boundaries.

Statistics South Africa, an entity within the Department of Finance, conducts the national

census every 5 years. In addition to this, a number of government departments, namely

the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, the Department of Roads and Public

Works, the Department of Housing and Local Government and large parastatals such as

Eskom and Telkom, use, develop and maintain large spatial datasets.

Because decision making at both a departmental level as well as at higher levels in

government often requires integration of this “cross departmental” data, data sharing is

essential. According to Pollard (2000) spatial data is central to information exchange

within government and many countries are now addressing the question of how to co-

ordinate data sharing. Data sharing issues such as data availability, pricing structures,

data transfer, data quality and developing national and international data standards are

critical to the use of geographical information (Pollard, 2000).

It is, however, difficult to share data among government departments because of

differences in classification systems which are used in organising geographic information

(Cavric et al., 2000). In particular, where differences exist in the measures and collection

methodologies used in different geographic areas, comparisons between areas will be

difficult or impossible (Mennecke and West, 2001; Walker & Young, 1997). Additional

difficulties in obtaining and using spatial information include information not being

current or sufficiently accurate as well as restricted access placed by organisations on

their datasets.

Issues such as missing positional data, use of different spatial units, different time

references for the data, presence of spatial data gaps and different levels of aggregation or

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 26 of 54


resolution further complicate the challenge of spatial data integration (Mennecke and

West, 2001; Gerland, 1996). Maps that have been created at different scales and need to

be integrated also provide additional challenges (Mennecke and West, 2001; Clarke,

1995).

Duplication of data by different government departments is also a major barrier to

successful GIS implementation across societal sectors. Most government departments

collect data but only for their own purposes (Cavric et al., 2000). Duplication is often the

result of a lack of inter-organisational coordination in terms of data sharing. This is

compounded by the lack of inter-organisational data standards which further complicate

data sharing efforts in general.

Mennecke and West (1997) maintain that it is important to adopt common GIS

technology, file formats and projections throughout a country. Data standards,

dictionaries and national data catalogues must be developed (Burke, 1996). These

standards will provide a framework for collaboration and data sharing. Data standards

define the quality and format of GIS data. Data standards refer to file naming and coding,

file maintenance and editing, data projections and co ordinate systems, data formats and

data exchange formats, metadata and data documentation requirements as well as spatial

symbology.

5.3 Strategies to integrate and improve availability of GIS data

Walsham and Sahay (1999) recommend that issues of data sharing need to be addressed

at high political levels and Mennecke and West (2001) propose three strategies to

overcome the obstacles associated with GIS data availability, integration and high cost in

developing country’s. Firstly, governments should take steps to develop national-level

base maps to eliminate the need for each data producer to create their own base maps. A

high quality national set of base maps that is widely used would also automatically

impose national standards for projection, scale and resolution of additional data layered

on these maps.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 27 of 54


In this process of developing national-level base maps, national standards for attribute

data should be created. A national metadata repository and data dictionary of commonly

used data elements should be created. This will enable users to identify what data is

available, where it is located and in what format it is recorded. Data sharing and

integration will thus be facilitated and data collection redundancy or duplication reduced.

Secondly, global positioning systems (GPS) and remotely sensed data offer the potential

to provide vast quantities of useful data at relatively low costs. Staff performing field

activities as part of their duties can be trained in the use of GPS devices and collect GIS

data in the field. Remotely sensed data i.e. data created from aerial photographs and

satellite images, also provides a significantly less expensive alternative to using a ground

based approach. A variety of features such as roads, villages etc. can be identified in this

way (Mennecke and West, 2001; Wang, Treitz & Howarth, 1992).

Finally, when governments contract service providers for various projects, contracts

could include provisions requiring service providers to provide relevant datasets in agreed

national formats i.e. new roads or bulk water pipelines in a GIS format complete with

attributes such as material used, date constructed etc.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 28 of 54


6 Institutional factors associated with GIS

6.1 The softer Issues - broadening the boundaries of GIS

GIS implementation successes are influenced by a wide range of factors that have little or

nothing to do with the technology or technical considerations (Ramasubramanian, 1999;

Obermeyer and Pinto 1994; Campbell and Masser, 1995). Research on the introduction of

computer systems into a variety of private and public sector organisations has shown that

organisational factors are better predictors of success than technical factors are (Simpson

and Innes, 1993; Bikson, 1981).

GIS innovation results in a radical change in information flow within an organisation

(Burke, 1996). People are therefore forced to change the way they do things during a GIS

implementation. Extensive research in the social sciences has shown that in the

development of spatial information systems, an understanding of people’s opinions and

perceptions must be considered (Schwabe, 2001). An understanding of what people’s

concerns are and what would enable them to change their behaviour, is of critical

importance (Schwabe, 2001).

In this context, a GIS can be defined as an ‘institutional entity’, reflecting an

organisational structure that integrates technology with a database, expertise and

continuing financial support over time” (Chan and Williamson, 1999; Carter, 1989). This

is referred to as an organisational perspective of GIS (Chan and Williamson, 1999;

Maguire, 1991). This organisational perspective includes five components which are data,

information technology, standards, people with GIS expertise and the organisational

setting (Chan and Williamson, 1999).

Data, people and information technology are concepts which do not require an

explanation. Chan and Williamson (1999) define the organisational setting as all the

operating environments, technical, political or financial, which are created by the

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 29 of 54


interaction among the stakeholders, within which GIS is to function. Standards are

defined as all agreed practices required to facilitate the sharing of the four other

components of a GIS (Chan and Williamson, 1999). This definition is significant in that it

emphasizes the organisational environment as an integral element of a GIS (Chan and

Williamson, 1999).

The discussion which follows looks at GIS in its organisational context as a technology

which crosses functional boundaries not only within (intra) but also between (inter)

organisations. The discussion starts, however, by looking in a broader context at how GIS

diffuses or spreads through an organisation or a country.

6.2 GIS diffusion considerations

Ramasubramanian (1999) provide a working definition of a GIS implementation as the

process through which communities of users within an organisational setting become

aware of, adopt and use GIS. The term implementation is similar to Rogers’ definition of

diffusion (Ramasubramanian, 1999; Rogers, 1983). GIS diffusion can be defined as the

process by which the innovation is communicated through certain channels over time

among the members of a social system (Chan and Williamson, 1999; Rogers, 1995). GIS

diffusion is affected by the nature of the GIS, the structure of the organisation, and the

interplay between the two (Chan and Williamson, 1999; Campbell, 1996).

In the context of GIS diffusion throughout government organisations and organisational

learning, Robey and Sahay (1996) linked the success of a GIS implementation to,

amongst other factors, an emphasis on the spread of conceptual knowledge rather than

merely procedural knowledge about GIS within the organisations.

Research carried out by Robey and Sahay (1996) also confirmed that a decentralized

management approach to GIS diffusion encouraged more widespread knowledge and

acceptance of GIS technology as opposed to a centralized management approach. Similar

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 30 of 54


technologies were implemented in two county government organisations in the United

States using the two different management approaches.

Schwabe (1997) comments on GIS diffusion in South Africa and Africa and highlights

the importance of understanding local conditions. He asserts that to ensure growth in the

dissemination of spatial information and GIS to decision makers and the people of South

Africa, easy access to relevant information must be provided.

Unique challenges such as the existence of eleven official languages and the fact that

64% of the population are considered functionally illiterate must be overcome (Schwabe,

1997). Spatial decision support software is needed (Schwabe, 1997) which ensures that

the complexity and sophistication of a GIS runs in the background and is virtually

invisible (Schwabe, 1997; Campbell, 1994). An understanding of how decision makers

and communities interact with spatial information and the associated technology is

important (Schwabe, 1997; Chlorey, 1998). Strategies for the diffusion of GIS must take

these local issues into consideration.

Walsham and Sahay (1999) draw interesting conclusions regarding the diffusion of GIS

in India with regard to the importance of understanding local conditions and cultures.

They used actor network theory and contextualism to analyse whether or not GIS

technology had been successfully implemented for district level administration in India.

Actor network theory examines the motivations and actions of actors who form elements,

linked by associations, of heterogeneous networks of aligned interests. Actors are defined

as including humans and technology. The focus of the theory is to trace, understand and

explain processes whereby successful networks can be created and maintained.

Successful networks are defined as having aligned interests which translate into ways of

thinking and acting that maintain the network. GIS diffusion success depends on these

networks.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 31 of 54


They showed that implicit cultural assumptions embedded in the first world developed

GIS technology, such as rational decision making, a map based culture and co-ordinated

action, proved to be highly problematic when the technology was implemented in India.

Walsham and Sahay (1999) pointed out that most Indians rarely, if ever, used maps. GIS,

however, requires users to adopt a map-oriented approach to their work.

In western society, explicit data and rational decision making processes are legitimate

bases for planning and management. By contrast, in India, these are not widely accepted

norms where value is placed on intuitive approaches such as the maintenance of personal

relations. A dominant feature of Indian intellectual thinking has been the supremacy

accorded to non rational forms of thinking (Walsham and Sahay, 1999; Saha, 1992).

Furthermore, the multi-layered nature of GIS systems, where data on different

characteristics are brought together as overlays on the same map based system, assumes

that management issues will be addressed in an integrated and co-ordinated way.

However, it was found in India, that government agencies did not speak to each other, let

alone co-ordinate management issues together. In this sense, the management patterns

contrasted strongly with cultural attitudes to co-ordination that were inscribed in the GIS

technology.

The section which follows looks more closely at organisational cultures, change and

learning and how they relate to GIS diffusion.

6.3 Organisational dynamics and strategies

As mentioned already, GIS has the potential to consolidate the work of different

government departments that deal with different resources distributed in the same

geographical area (Robey and Sahay, 1996). By providing a common technical base for

spatial analysis, GIS has the ability to integrate tasks involving surveying, mapping,

designing, planning, and other related activities normally performed in separate

departments. GIS therefore reduces structural differentiation by cutting across existing

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 32 of 54


organisational boundaries and creating new work procedures related to spatial analyses

(Robey and Sahay, 1996).

Because of this, GIS forces a stronger union between departments in government

organisations which can result in greater levels of interdependency between departments.

This can result in positive or negative outcomes because it necessitates a team effort for

the success or otherwise of each of the individual departments (Robey and Sahay, 1996).

For this reason, understanding the dynamics involved in organisational change is

important during GIS implementations.

In terms of evaluating GIS diffusion in organisations, Robey and Sahay (1996) link the

success of a GIS implementation to the capability of organisations to accept

organisational transformation and change. They also noted that the success of

technology-enabled organisational change depended on a number of technical and social

influences which were only partially controllable.

Research has shown that differences in organisational cultures were, amongst other

factors, responsible for divergent outcomes in the implementation of the same

information systems in different offices of a multi-national organisation (Robey and

Sahay, 1996; Robey and Rodiguez-Diaz, 1989). In several case studies it was reported

that political processes surrounding implementation were linked to failed attempts to

transform organisations using information technology (Robey and Sahay, 1996; Zuboff,

1998). In this way, technology can be viewed as an occasion for and not necessarily a

determinant of organisational change (Robey and Sahay, 1996; Barley, 1996).

GIS implementations often begin, not at an enterprise level, but from organisational

subunits that have recognized the value of GIS to that part of the organisations mission

(Kreizman, 2002). Successful GIS implementation is likely to occur only when

individuals and organisations creatively challenge existing norms, organisational

defensive routines and inefficient bureaucratic practices (Ramasubramanian, 1999). The

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 33 of 54


implementation will rely on the capacity of empowered individuals and groups rather

than solely on organisational structures (Ramasubramanian, 1999).

Huxhold and Levinsohn (1995) point out that a reconstruction of attitudes, procedures,

power structures and responsibilities will result as an organisation progresses towards a

GIS implementation (Ramasubramanian, 1999; Huxhold and Levinsohn, 1995).

Identifying techniques and strategies to overcome these potential barriers is an important

part of the GIS implementation process (Ramasubramanian, 1999; Huxhold and

Levinsohn, 1995).

Information technology has the potential to change the power relationships between

organisational members, thereby providing motivation for members to take (political)

actions that secure or maintain power (Mennecke and West, 2001; Dazinger, Dutton,

Kling and Kraemer, 1982). Possession of information often assists those who possess it to

be more successful and therefore more powerful. In addition to this, since information

technology is often an important organisational resource for organisational members,

control over this provides the person wielding this control with significant power over

other organisational members. Finally, those who hold power over information

technology in an organisation may be perceived as technically sophisticated or advanced

(Mennecke and West, 2001; Dazinger, Dutton, Kling and Kraemer, 1982; Drory &

Romm, 1990).

Because the benefits of a GIS come from intra-organisational sharing of spatially

referenced data (Pollard, 2000), organisations should develop strategies for promoting

successful inter-organisational partnerships for sharing geographic data (Mennecke and

West, 2001; National Research Council, 1994). Genuine interest for intra-organisational

or cross functional co-operation will add much to the success of a GIS implementation

(Turkstra et al., 2002). Organisational policies should be developed that encourage the

sharing of responsibilities, commitment, benefits and control of GIS implementations

(Mennecke and West, 2001; National Research Council, 1994).

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 34 of 54


6.4 GIS - an inter organisational effort

GIS not only requires co-operation within organisations but also between them. GIS

requires the collaboration of multiple agencies and stakeholder groups and the creation of

a stable network of these participants can be particularly problematic (Walsham and

Sahay, 1999). A critical approach to the examination of the ways that this technology and

its products reconfigure broader patterns of cultural, economic and political relations is

needed (Walsham and Sahay, 1999; Pickles, 1995).

According to Pollard (2000), the benefits of GIS come from intra- and inter-

organisational sharing of spatially referenced data. Studies of inter-organisational

linkages in the private sector, however, show that IT based innovations can involve

radical re-organisation of relations between organisations (Pollard, 2000). It is concluded

that spatial data sharing across organisational boundaries will be characterized by similar

dynamics. In order for a GIS initiative to succeed therefore, organisational networks must

be formed and must be capable of enabling information-mediated change.

Pollard (2000) illustrates how inter-organisational geographical information networks

have emerged in the United Kingdom (UK) and have been instrumental in developing

policy and co-ordinating activities across organisational boundaries. The Association for

Geographic Information (AGI) is a voluntary association of GIS users and suppliers in

the UK which provides a forum for the Geographic Information (GI) community to lobby

government on GI issues and co-ordinate development on GI standards, for example.

Inter-governmental forums also exist to co-ordinate GI efforts. These forums are

important elements in facilitating intra and inter-organisational collaboration and data

sharing, an essential component of an integrated GIS.

Pollard (2000) suggests that complex network arrangements co-exist alongside

hierarchical structures and market structures as alternative structures in the context of

GIS development and data sharing in a country. In a hierarchical structure, data sharing

could be driven with a top down approach. A market approach relies on market forces of

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 35 of 54


supply and demand to fuel data sharing. A complex network arrangement view

acknowledges the informal dynamic at work between organisations where knowledge

about problems and solutions regarding GIS, is dispersed over many interactive

organisational actors.

Pollard (2000) believes that the role of the Government in this complex inter-

organisational network is to play a steering role in balancing the network. Pollard (2000)

also states that the network has a self organizing element which can make things happen.

It is important to be aware of hierarchical, market and complex network arrangements at

play in a country and within social networks. Identifying the influential actors in these

networks and aligning their interests for the common goal of implementing a GIS is an

important potential success factor.

In South Africa, Schwabe (1997) maintains that to use spatial information and GIS

effectively in line with the National Government’s Reconstruction and Development

Programme (RDP), a partnership between government, service providers and major

research councils in the country is necessary. This partnership is needed to co-ordinate

national data collection efforts and to provide expertise to perform the required spatial

analyses on the information gathered.

Schwabe (1997) believes that we need a central body for co-ordination and regulation of

GIS activities in South Africa. This body should assist in the development of policy and

play a leading role in defining the spatial information needs of government in line with

current development priorities, namely the RDP. It would also act as a forum for

discussion between government, service providers and institutions involved in the

development of spatial information to ensure that new spatial databases are developed in

a collaborative manner and can be integrated in future.

The body should also promote the use of GIS within the public and private sectors. The

body should include members from the major institutions that represent the GIS and

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 36 of 54


spatial information industries in South Africa including government and research council

representatives. Schwabe (1997) suggests, however, that the central body remain

independent of government in order to maintain its legitimacy amongst all parties

involved.

Research by Cavric et al. (2000) confirms this. In Botswana, he identified the lack of a

systematic approach to the distribution, organisation and gathering of national GIS

capacities as a major reason for the low performance of GIS in the country over a 5 year

period.

Schwabe (2001) identifies two best practice models for the development of a spatial

information system for a country or continent. The first is the development of a spatial

information system by different agencies followed by the development of a framework in

which the efforts of government are co-ordinated and managed. This has been the

approach in South Africa until a few years ago when the National Spatial Information

Framework (NSIF) was formed and policies such as the Spatial Information Bill were

created to co-ordinate the spatial information industry in South Africa.

One of the problems with the first model is that it entrenches the idea that the information

collected by independent agencies belongs to them and they can therefore control access

to it through regulations and costing. Standardisation and integration also become

problematic with this approach. Advantages of this approach are that it usually goes

further than supplying only the minimum requirements, institutions usually display

ingenuity with this approach and implementation is quicker (Schwabe, 2001).

The second model is the development of the institutional framework in a country before

its spatial information needs are identified. This ensures a unified approach is taken by

institutions to spatial information collection. Schwabe (2001) concludes that this

approach can suffer from bureaucratic regulations and delays, but that spatial information

emanating from this approach usually meets the needs of decision makers better and is

much more standardized and therefore easier to integrate.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 37 of 54


7 GIS system development considerations

GIS has some unique characteristics which require specific attention during

implementations. Users need to be familiar with geographic and cartographic vocabulary

as well as statistics and percentages (Cheverie, 1995). They also need to be educated

about the possibilities of GIS, as the concepts used with this technology may be new to

them (Cheverie, 1995). The spatial information component of a GIS project must be an

integral part of overall project design from the beginning. Insertion of a GIS into a project

design as an afterthought or add-on will rarely be successful (Burke, 1996)

The implementation of a GIS is not a product but an incremental development process

that will only progress to the extent to which it is simple, cost effective, user friendly and

flexible with clear products (Turska et al., 2002). According to Walsham and Sahay

(1999), the most difficult part of GIS introduction in developing countries is getting

people to think spatially. An awareness of spatial data products and analysis capabilities

needs to be cultivated in users early on in a GIS project in order for these products to be

optimally used (Burke, 1996).

GIS is an information system and best practice principles of information system

development therefore apply to implementing a GIS. Establishing and documenting

accurate user requirements, defining clear, specific and measurable project deliverables

linked to timeframes, obtaining executive management support, identifying project

champions and linking overall project objectives to economic principles i.e. establishing a

sound business case for the initiative are some of the key principles that must be applied

during a GIS implementation.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 38 of 54


8 Model for successful GIS implementations in developing countries

The model developed and described below incorporates the critical issues highlighted in

this report and builds on the theoretical frameworks provide by Rogers and Scott (1997)

and Mennecke and West (2001).

8.1 Rogers’ success factors for innovations

Rogers and Scott (1997), building on research undertaken by Rogers (1983), define an

innovation as an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new by an individual or

other unit of adoption. The characteristics of an innovation, as perceived by the members

of a social system, determine its rate of adoption. Rogers and Scott (1997) show that there

are slower and faster rates of adoption for different innovations and explain why certain

innovations spread more quickly than others. They assert that the attributes of an

innovation which determine its rate of adoption are simplicity, observability, relative

advantage, trialability and compatibility.

Innovations that are simpler to understand are adopted more rapidly than innovations that

are complex and require the development of new skills and understandings. Observability

is the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible. The easier it is for

individuals to see the results of an innovation, the more likely they are to adopt it.

Relative advantage is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as better than the

idea it supersedes. The degree of relative advantage may be measured in economic terms,

but social prestige, convenience, and satisfaction are also important factors. The degree of

objective advantage is therefore not as important as the individual’s perception of the

innovations advantage is. The greater the perceived relative advantage of an innovation,

the more rapid its rate of adoption will be.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 39 of 54


Trialability is the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a limited

basis. An innovation that is trialable represents less uncertainty to the individual who is

considering it for adoption as it allows them to learn by “doing”.

Compatibility is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being consistent with

the existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters. An idea that is

incompatible with the values and norms of a social system will not be adopted as rapidly

as an innovation that is compatible. The adoption of an incompatible innovation often

requires the prior adoption of a new value system, which is a relatively slow process.

Innovations that are perceived by members of a social system as having less complexity

and greater observability, relative advantage, trialability and compatibility will be

adopted more rapidly than other innovations.

8.2 Mennecke and West – propensity of developing countries to use GIS

Figure 3 : Propensity of LDC’s to Use GIS for Decision Making

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 40 of 54


Mennecke and West (2001) provide a holistic framework of the variables which influence

the propensity of Less Developed Countries (LDC’s) to use GIS for decision making. The

three core components of their framework relate to access to GIS data, the organisational,

managerial and political environment and the relevance of a GIS to National, Agency and

individual level decision making.

To improve spatial data accessibility and quality, they recommend that LDC’s should use

satellite imagery, GPS technology and strive to form collaborative partnerships between

the private and public sectors.

They assert that a favorable managerial, organisational and political environment is

essential and can be cultivated by sharing responsibilities, commitment, benefits and

control of GIS initiatives. Specific responsibilities for all organisational participants who

are likely to be impacted by the GIS initiative should be defined and agreed in advance.

In terms of commitment, costs for the GIS initiative should be equitably distributed

amongst the beneficiaries if possible. In addition to this, benefits should be received by

organisational members in a manner that is consistent with their involvement and

commitment to the initiative. Control over the decision making process should also be

apportioned in a manner consistent to the commitment required of and benefits received

by each organisational member. Finally, suitably trained staff are another essential

element in developing a favorable environment for GIS.

8.3 Model for success of GIS implementations in government institutions of developing countries

The model consists of four building blocks and incorporates issues highlighted in the

theories provided by Rogers and Scott (1997) and Mennecke and West (2001). Each

block is significant in its own right but special attention is drawn to blocks one (1) and

three (3). These blocks are the most critical building blocks of any GIS initiative. The

model is described in more detail below:

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 41 of 54


Government Policy - Business Context – Economics

DATA SOCIAL TECH

• Built on Policy – for example RDP (SA)

• Built around business and political “questions” or “drivers”

• Economically intelligent

• In context of socio economic, political and environmental characteristics of a ….country

Legislation

GPS/RSI

1

2 3 4

I nform Enable

Dictionary

Accessibility

Contracts

Enables

UseIdentify Short Term Success projectsRogers Success CharacteristicsIncrease awareness

IS/PM Best practices

Academic infrastructure

Successful GIS Implementations in Developing Countries

Results in

Central National GroupInter organisational PartnershipsOrganisational changeConsensus groupsShare costs, benefits, responsibilities, control

Conceptual Knowledge

Policy informed

Champions

Figure 4 : Success Factors for GIS implementations in Government Institutions of

Developing Countries

8.3.1 Government policy, business context and economics

The foundation or block one (1) of the model is based on research by Schwabe (2001)

and Ramasubramanian (1999). Schwabe (2001) asserts that a spatial information system

or GIS should be based on a policy framework such as the Reconstruction and

Development Programme (RDP) in South Africa for example. A GIS must be interpreted

and implemented within the context of the policies that necessitated the introduction of

the GIS in the first place (Ramasubramanian, 1999). When a technology becomes

detached from sound business logic and does not respond to business drivers or political

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 42 of 54


objectives, it cannot be sustainable. GIS must therefore answer and be responsive to

critical business and political questions.

In addition to this, a GIS must be built on sound economic principles. Data collection

exercises, for example, which constitute the bulk of the cost of GIS’s, should be

economically based. Data quality is relative and should be derived from the need and

(economic) possibilities (Turska et al., 2003). Unrealistically high standards of data

precision should be avoided as they will be unsustainable (Turska et al., 2003).

Moreover, an understanding of the socio economic, political and environmental

characteristics of a country is important. These must inform the information requirements

for a GIS in a country. (Schwabe, 2001)

8.3.2 GIS data factors

The data building block draws on the framework provided by Mennecke and West

(2001). Emphasis is however placed on the need for co-ordination and collaboration on a

national level of GIS capabilities. Responsibilities for collection, provision and

maintenance of key spatial datasets must be defined for and legislated to national

government departments.

National GIS datasets (socio-economic, physical, political, service need and provision &

development funding) must be built on sound economic principles and be responsive to

government policies and objectives. These datasets, once developed, must be made

available on a web server to improve the accessibility of GIS datasets. To this end there is

also a need to develop a national data dictionary and metadata repository of all available

datasets. This should be made available on the internet to improve awareness about and

reduce duplication of existing datasets.

The use of GPS technology and satellite imagery or remotely sensed imagery is

recommended. Because a large percentage of governmental budgets is spent contracting

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 43 of 54


in the services of consultants, contracts drawn up for these services should be

standardized nationally to facilitate the provision of GIS data on a project by project

basis.

8.3.3 Institutional, organisational and social factors

The people aspect of a GIS is undoubtedly the most critical, complex and least

controllable potential success factor in a GIS implementation. A number of issues are

worth highlighting in this regard and these are summarised below.

It is important that the inter-organisational aspects of GIS are appreciated. To this end, a

central group of key national GIS stakeholders must be established to co-ordinate, focus

and regulate GIS activities in a country. The central group should define information

requirements in line with Section 8.3.1 above, act as a discussion forum for all

stakeholders and facilitate the development of national spatial datasets in a collaborative

manner. In addition to this, strategic partnerships and inter-organisational networks

between government, research councils, professional service providers and academic

institutions must be formed to develop standards, facilitate data sharing, co-ordinate data

collection and facilitate GIS induced change.

Organisational change and new work procedures must be anticipated and addressed

during GIS implementations. It is important to develop an appreciation for and

understanding of the "softer" issues. One should acknowledge that social factors are more

critical to the success of a GIS initiative than technical factors are.

The success of technology-caused organisational change depends on a number of

organisational issues, some of which are only partially controllable. GIS requires co-

operation between departments and individuals that do not normally work together.

Because of this, it is critical to set up consensus building groups or steering committees.

Strategies and policies should be developed that encourage the sharing of costs, benefits,

responsibilities and control of GIS initiatives.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 44 of 54


Success depends on individuals rather than organisational structures. Influential people in

a social or organisational network must be identified and their interests aligned and

focused on the GIS initiative objectives. GIS is an integrative technology requiring

extensive data sharing. Project champions who have a genuine interest in intra-

organisational or cross functional co-operation should therefore be identified.

It is also important to develop local, context specific GIS knowledge and expertise in an

organisation and country. To this end, conceptual knowledge about GIS rather than only

procedural or operational knowledge should be imparted during GIS training and

implementations.

8.3.4 Technical factors

A GIS initiative must be implemented using information system development best

practices. User requirements should be elicited and documented, executive management

support obtained and project champions identified. Furthermore, planning and

implementation should be carried out incrementally where practical. In developing

countries, systems must be built on local user requirements and not the “perceived”

requirements of the development or donor funding institution. Spatial decision support

software for decision makers is also recommended to ensure that the complexity and

sophistication associated with GIS runs in the background.

GIS should also be implemented using project management best practices. Specific

project deliverables must be defined in advance and linked to fixed timeframes and

budgets. GIS is characterised by heavy startup costs and long payback periods and short

term success or pilot projects can be instrumental in demonstrating the value of a GIS in

the short term.

GIS innovations that are perceived by individuals, organisations or national governments

as having less complexity and greater observability, relative advantage, trialability and

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 45 of 54


compatibility will be adopted most rapidly and have the greatest probability of being

successful (Rogers, 1997).

To reduce complexity it is essential to build a shared, simple meaning for a proposed GIS

implementation in its context as being technology which is in great part constructed

through social processes (Innes and Simpson, 1993; Bijker, Wiebe, Thomas, Hughs and

Pinch, 1990; Pinch and Bijker, 1990).

The value of GIS must be observable or visible. Beneficiaries must see what they are

getting and be able to assess what it is worth. Project managers and GIS champions must

be able to clearly demonstrate the value of GIS project outputs visually.

To ensure relative advantage, benefits should exceed costs and visible linkages between

benefits and costs must be shown. Situations where benefits and costs fall unevenly on

different participants in a GIS initiative should be avoided.

In terms of trialability, GIS technology should be introduced incrementally with benefits

accruing in the early stages. The flexibility to make “small trials” and reverse changes

should be built into GIS implementations where possible. Pilot implementations can be

appropriate to this end.

With regard to compatibility, GIS implementers must develop an appreciation for and

understanding of the culture, language, skills, practices, and organisational and social

structures of the community that is to use the GIS. Thorough requirements elicitation

processes can be instrumental in ensuring a closer “fit” between the technology and the

social system that is to use it.

Building and using GIS requires cooperation between agencies that do not normally work

together and may even be in conflict. Consensus building groups or steering committees

and working groups are a key element in the implementation of GIS (Innes and Simpson,

1993; Warnecke, 1992; Innes, 1992). These groups can speed up the process of socially

constructing the technology by addressing the compatibility issues through

communication, collaboration and modification of the technology where required.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 46 of 54


GIS awareness is low and “marketing” or training is therefore important. The ability of

GIS to inform important political decisions must be communicated and demonstrated to

decision makers. In this regard, benefits should exceed costs and both should be

distributed evenly between the relevant funders and beneficiaries. It is recommended that

the unique attributes of GIS, such as its ability to integrate datasets and perform spatial

queries, be communicated and demonstrated to decision makers. This will also secure

ongoing funding for GIS.

Finally, it is important that ongoing investment be made in the academic infrastructure of

a country to ensure adequate supply of and appropriate training for GIS professionals.

This is needed to address the shortage of GIS skills commonly experienced in developing

countries.

8.3.5 Model relationships

The model shows that successful GIS implementations in developing countries depend on

alignment with policy objectives as well as a number of data, people and technical issues.

The “social” or “people” block of the model is the most important component and factor

in determining the success or otherwise of a GIS initiative. People are required to work

together defining policies, co-coordinating data collection and sharing and implementing

GIS’s using best practice methodologies.

The foundation of a GIS initiative must be a policy objective or sound business case and

from this base, data collection must be guided. The blocks are therefore all related as

depicted graphically within Figure 4 above.

In conclusion, a GIS which incorporates all of the elements contained within the model

will be a success.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 47 of 54


9 Conclusion

Geographical information and GIS are fundamental to the information infrastructure of a

country. GIS is unique as a technology because it is able to perform spatial queries on

datasets which it can integrate using spatially referenced objects from diverse sources.

This makes it an important decision-enabling tool within government and is arguably the

most important and useful attribute of a spatial information system or GIS. Because

integrating data from a multiple sources is a hallmark of executive level decision making

and is often a key bottleneck in the operation of executive support systems, GIS has a

critical role to play in this context.

Planning and development within government institutions requires data on the economic

distribution of resources such as the location of services or infrastructure as well as the

location of a country’s population in relation to those services. Spatial data is therefore

particularly valuable to governments in developing countries because it optimises

planning and focuses development efforts geographically. GIS is therefore also a strategic

tool for development and can improve and support political decision making with regard

to the distribution of economic resources in a country.

Issues common to developing countries which complicate the implementation of a GIS,

however, include the lack of good quality data and a shortage of highly skilled people.

Political and institutional stability are also often weak. Underpaid and poorly motivated

staff, as well as general organisational inefficiencies frequently limit the effective use and

diffusion of GIS in developing countries.

A lack of ongoing funding and institutional commitment for GIS is common because GIS

installations in developing countries are usually donor funded on a project by project

basis. Decision makers in developing countries must be educated about the strategic value

of GIS so that they build institutional capacity within their organisations and allocate

ongoing funding to GIS.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 48 of 54


It is also important that GIS is developed in response to actual needs in developing

countries rather than the perceived needs of the external funding agents. Donor driven

projects that are implemented without enough local consultation and user input will not

be sustainable.

One of the most significant impediments to a GIS is the availability of suitable data. High

quality GIS datasets are costly because spatial data collection is both time consuming and

depends on highly skilled and costly resources.

Government decision makers are generally interested in physical, political and socio-

economic spatial data and because different government departments are involved in

collecting this data, differences in GIS classification systems abound. These differences

complicate the sharing of GIS data and duplication of data is also common due to a lack

of collaboration between government departments which collect the GIS data.

A unified approach to data collection and the development of national standards for GIS

are critical to the success of a GIS in a country. Common file formats, projections,

symbology and meta data standards can facilitate data sharing between government

departments if co-ordinated on a national scale.

GIS implementation successes depend on organizational factors and can be linked to the

capability of organizations to accept organizational transformation and change. GIS

innovation results in radical changes in information flows within organizations which not

only cut across existing organizational boundaries but also creates new work procedures

related to spatial analyses. Organizational transformation and change is therefore

inevitable for a successful GIS implementation and will depend on a network of people

with aligned interests which translate into ways of thinking and acting that maintain the

GIS. GIS diffusion success depends on these networks.

Because GIS forces a stronger union between departments in government organizations,

greater levels of interdependency become inevitable. This, in turn, necessitates a team

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 49 of 54


effort for the success or otherwise of each of the individual departments. Specific

responsibilities for all organizational participants should therefore be defined and agreed

in advance and costs equitably distributed amongst the beneficiaries if possible. Benefits

received by organizational members should also be consistent with their involvement and

commitment to the GIS initiative where possible. In addition to this, control over the

decision making processes should be apportioned in a consistent manner to the

commitment required of and benefits received by each organizational member.

GIS is a technology which crosses functional boundaries not only within (intra) but also

between (inter) organisations. It is widely agreed that the benefits of GIS come from both

intra- and inter-organisational sharing of spatially referenced data. This can radically

reshape relations between organizations. In order for a GIS initiative to succeed therefore,

inter-organizational networks must be formed to facilitate data sharing and GIS mediated

change.

GIS requires the collaboration of multiple agencies and stakeholder groups including

government institutions, service providers and research councils and the creation of a

stable network of these participants can be problematic. This partnership is needed to co-

ordinate national data collection efforts, develop GIS standards and co-ordinate and

regulate GIS activities in general. Identifying the influential actors in these networks and

aligning their interests for the common goal of implementing a GIS is an important

potential success factor. An understanding of the ways that this technology and its

products reconfigure broader patterns of cultural, economic and political relations is also

needed.

Best practice principles of information system development must be applied during a GIS

implementation. Establishing and documenting accurate user requirements, defining

clear, specific and measurable project deliverables linked to timeframes, obtaining

executive management support, identifying project champions and linking overall project

objectives to sound economic principles are also critical success factors.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 50 of 54


In conclusion, the successful implementation of a GIS in a government institution of a

developing country depends on a number of diverse critical success factors. Although a

number of these success factors may be beyond the scope of a particular GIS

implementation, an understanding of these critical success factors will be instrumental in

improving the success of any GIS initiative.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 51 of 54


References

Barley, S., (1986) Technology as an Occasion for Structuring Evidence from

Observations of CT Scanners and the Social Order of Radiology Departments, Admin Sci

Quarterly, 31, pp. 78 – 108, 1986

Burke, L., (1996) Urban and Municipal GIS Applications in Developing Countries - the

Problems and the Potential, PADCO GIS, Washington, 1996.

Chan, T. O. and Williamson, I. P., (1999) The different identities of GIS and GIS

diffusion, International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 1999, Vol. 13, No.

3, pp. 267-281.

Cheverie, J. F., (1995) Getting Started: Ready, Set,… Get Organised!, Journal of

Academic Librarianship, July 1995, Vol. 21, Issue 4.

Cavric B. I., Ikgopoleng, H. G., Nedovic-Budic, Z., (2000) Diffusion of Geographical

Information System (GIS) Technology in Developing Countries: A Case Study Of

Botswana, University of Botswana - Department of Environmental Science, 2000.

Cavric B., Ikgopoleng, H. G, (2000) Survey of GIS Diffusion in Botswana Government

Ministries and Departments, University of Botswana, 2000.

Innes, J. E., Simpson, D. M., (1993) Implementing GIS for planning. Journal of the

American Planning Association, Spring 1993, Vol. 59, Issue 2, pp. 230.

Kreizman, G., (2002) The Value of GIS in Government – Use the Gartner Framework for

E-Government Strategy Assessment to demonstrate the benefits of implementing a

Geographic Information System, Gartner Research, COM -16-5470, May 2002.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 52 of 54


Mennecke, B., E. and West, L. A., (2001) Geographic Information Systems in

Developing Countries: Issues in Data Collection, Implementation and Management,

Journal of Global Information Management, Oct-Dec 2001, Vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 45.

Mennecke, B., E., (1998) Geographic Information Systems in Developing Countries:

Opportunities and Options for Decision Support, Journal of Global Information

Management, Jan 1998, Vol. 6 No. 2, pp. 14.

Pollard, P., (2000) Geographical Information Services: A UK Perspective on the

Development of Inter-organisational Information Services(1), Information Infrastructure

and Policy, 2000, Vol. 6, Issue 4, 1383706.

Ramasubramanian, L., (1999) GIS Implementation in Developing Countries: Learning

from Organisational Theory and Reflective Practice, Transactions in GIS, 1999, 3(4), pp.

359-380.

Robey, D., Sahay, S., (1996) Transforming Work Through Information Technology: A

Comparative Case Study of Geographic Information Systems in County Government,

Information Systems Research, March 1996, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 93.

Rogers, E.M., and Scott, K.L. (1997) The Diffusion of Innovations Model and Outreach

from the National Network of Libraries of Medicine to Native American Communities,

Department of Communication and Journalism, University of New Mexico,

Albuquerque, New Mexico, 1997. Retrieved 2 May 2004 <

http://nnlm.gov/pnr/eval/rogers.html>

Schwabe, C., (1997) An Integrated Approach for the Provision of Spatial Information to

bring about Reconstruction and Development in South Africa, Human Sciences Research

Council GIS Center, 1997. Retrieved 2 May 2004 <http://www.hsrc.ac.za/gis/papers>

Schwabe, C., (2001) African Renaissance: Towards the Development of a Spatial

Information System for Socio-Economic development in Africa , Human Sciences

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 53 of 54

http://www.hsrc.ac.za/gis/papers


Research Council GIS Center, November 2001, Retrieved 2 May 2004

<http://www.hsrc.ac.za/gis/papers/AfricanRenaissance>

Skov-Petersen, H., (1997) GIS implementation in a Developing Country, - the case of

Bhutan. Danish Forest and Landscape Research Institute - Department of Urban and

Regional Planning, 1997.

Speer E.D. (1997) Implementation issues of GIS Applications in Developing Countries,

Reid Crowther Consulting, Inc., Seattle, 1996. Retrieved: 17 March 2004.

<http://gis.esri.com/library/userconf/europroc97/4environment/E5/e5.htm#Abstract >

The Standish Group., (1994) The Standish Group Chaos Report, The Standish Group

International, West Yarmouth, 1994, Retrieved: 23 September 2004 <

http://www.standishgroup.com/sample_research/chaos_1994_1.php>

Turkstra, J., Amemiya, N., Murgia, J., (2003) Local spatial data infrastructure, Trujillo-

Peru. Habitat International Dec. 2003, Vol. 27, Issue 4, pp. 669.

Turban, E. (1993) Decision Support and Expert Systems, Management Support Systems,

Macmillan, New York, 1993.

Walsham, G., Sahay, S., (1999) GIS for District-Level Administration In India: Problems

And Opportunities(N1), MIS Quarterly, March 1999, Vol. 23, Issue 1, pp. 39.

van der Vegt, M., (2001) Evaluating GIS in Local Government in Developing Countries,

Utrecht University, November 20001, Retrieved: 17 March 2004

<http://www.gisdevelopment.net/magazine/gisdev/index.htm>

Zuboff, S., (1988) In the Age of the Smart Machine : The Future of Work and Power,

Basic Books, New York, 1988

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 54 of 54

http://www.gisdevelopment.net/magazine/gisdev/index.htm

mailto:Turkstra,Jan



http://www.reid-crowther.com/

http://www.hsrc.ac.za/gis/papers/AfricanRenaissance

Documents

CSFforGISinDevCountr Final Printed