YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | MARCH 6, 2012 MARCH 6-12, 2012 11

RUDOLPH BROWN/PHOTOGRAPHER

Medical students Kerry-Ann Banett (left) and Robyn Beckles look through a StereoMaster compound microscope at the RADAbooth at the UWI Annual Career Expo, Assembly Hall, UWI, on Friday, February 24.

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | 12 MARCH 6-12, 2012

CCLLEEMMEENNTT RRAADDCCLLIIFFFFEEContributor

LAST WEEK you were given solutions to select past-paper questions. I hope that you found the entireexercise beneficial. You are expected, of course, to continue to do other examples on your own. Pastpapers are available in the bookshops and you should endeavour to make use of these, along with the

examples you will find in your textbooks.

This week we will begin the review of vectors.Please review the following description:(a) A motor car travels with velocity 45 km per hour due north.(b) A force of 25 N due East.

Could you say what both statements have in common?

You are correct that in both cases their sizes and directions are given. These are examples of vectorquantities representing velocity of a car and force, respectively.

A vector quantity is one which identifies both the magnitude (size) and direction, for example, velocitygiven above.

A speed of 20 metres per second is a scalar quantity. (No direction is given).Vector quantities are usually represented in the form:

Vectorsyl:mathematics

Clement Radcliffe is an independent contributor. Send questions and comments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | MARCH 6-12, 2012 13

MMOONNAACCIIAA WWIILLLLIIAAMMSSContributor

HOW ARE you this week? I don’tknow why I am asking you thisbecause I should know by now

that you are always good and feeling ontop of the world, shouldn’t I? It is a nicefeeling, isn’t it?

This week our topic differs from theusual but it suits what we are currentlystudying. Why is this so? The study ofenzymes occupies a very small portionof the syllabus but the questions it cangenerate are far-reaching! A considerableportion of your time should be spentdoing the laboratory work that will helpyou to understand the different conceptsthat you need to master. Fortunately foryou, there are experiments that you cando at home by yourself even if yourteacher does not do them with you. Youdo not have to buy expensive enzymes;there is one enzyme which will allow youto carry out experiments, the results ofwhich can be quite spectacular. Thisenzyme is catalase.

Catalase is found in living organisms,both plants and animals. It is used tobreak down hydrogen peroxide, asubstance that is formed as a result ofreactions taking place in the cells.Unfortunately, hydrogen peroxide istoxic to the body and, hence, it must beremoved as soon as it is formed.Catalase converts hydrogen peroxide towater and oxygen, substances which areharmless and can be used by the body.Good sources of catalase are liver, Irishpotato and leaves. The liver can be fromany animal including chickens; chickenliver can be obtained easily so it is agood source. For these experiments, thesubstrate is the hydrogen peroxide, theenzyme; catalase and the end productsare, as stated previously, water andoxygen.

What are the things that can affect theactivity of enzymes?

m Substrate concentrationm Enzyme concentratem Extremes of temperature, with hightemperatures being more harmful than coldm pH

Grinding the liver, potato or the leavesand mixing the ground product withwater will provide an extract of theenzyme. It also increases the number ofenzyme particles available for the

reaction so the rate of the reactionincreases. Circles of filter paper madeusing a paper punch can be soaked inthe extract to provide enzyme for theexperiment. Using the punch to make thecircles ensures that all the circles areidentical in size, thus making the resultsmore reliable. The rate of the reactioncan be measured by the rate at whichsoaked circles rise from the bottom ofthe solution to the top. Five circles areused and the time taken for them to riseis averaged to get the mean rate.

How is this done? The extract isprepared by grinding the plant materialin a mortar using a pestle. What happensnext depends on the type of experimentthat will be done. Let us see how wecould carry out an experiment todetermine how pH affects the activity ofcatalase. We will need for ourexperiment:

APPARATUS/MATERIALS5 beakers, forceps, stopwatch or

watch with second hand, hydrogenperoxide solution, potato extract, 30circles of filter paper, measuringcylinder, buffer solutions of pH 3, 4, 5, 6,7 and 8.

METHODm Label 5 small beakers (50cm3), pH3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8.m Measure 5cm3 of the peroxide solution into each beaker.m Add 10cm3 of the specific buffer to the correctly labelled beaker.m Pick up a filter paper circle with the forceps; drop it in the pH3 beaker. Start the stopwatch as soon as the paper is dropped.m As soon as the paper gets to the surface, stop the timing.m Record the time and repeat the two previous steps with four other paper circles.m Record the times then find the average time taken for the five circles to rise.m Repeat the steps with the other solutions.m Use the results to create a table.m Draw a graph to show the results.

In writing up the experiment, the tablecreated and the graph drawn would formthe results. The graph is going to show apH at which the rate is fastest.

How would we use the information to

write the discussion? Do you rememberthe hints I gave you the last time wediscussed experiments? Of course, youdo! You would begin with anintroduction based on the followingpattern:

Enzymes are biological catalysts.Catalysts are substances which alter therate of reactions without becomingchanged during the reaction. Enzymesare affected by changes in the pH ofsolutions and they have specific pHs atwhich they operate best. Catalase is anenzyme found in living organisms. Thisenzyme is responsible for the conversionof hydrogen peroxide to oxygen andwater.

What would you write next? The nextparagraphs should be used fordiscussing the results of the experiment,for example, at what pH did the papertake the shortest time to rise? At what pHdid it take the longest time? What didyou see happening while the experimentwas taking place? If you were lookingcarefully, and you should have been, youwould have seen bubbles forming on thesurface of the paper and as they formedthe paper rose from the bottom of thebeaker to the top. Let us see how wecould use this information to continue.

The reaction appears to take place onthe paper as bubbles appear on thesurface of the paper and nowhere else inthe solution. The bubbles cause thepaper to become lighter, so it rises. Therate at which the bubbles are formed,causing the paper to rise, is anindication of how fast the gas is beingproduced and, hence, how fast thereaction is taking place. At pH x, thereaction is slowest. The rate increases asthe pH increases up to pH y, after whichthe rate begins to decrease again. Thisindicates that pH y is the optimum pHfor the reaction. This means that catalaserequires an acid/neutral/alkalinemedium.

Of course, the pH x and y would bereplaced in your discussion by the actualnumbers for the appropriate pH.

Have fun doing the experiment anduse your knowledge to write up theexperiment. See you next week!

Monacia Williams teaches at Glenmuir HighSchool. Send questions and comments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

Enzyme knowledgeyl:biology yl:chemistry

Organicchemistry

revision

FFRRAANNCCIINNEE TTAAYYLLOORR--CCAAMMPPBBEELLLLContributor

WE WILL attempt a few questionsthat covers the basic conceptsin organic chemistry.

QQuueessttiioonn 11.. (a) Soaps are the sodiumor potassium salts of long chain organicacids. A soap can be represented by theformula

H H

X—C = C —- COONa where Xrepresents a long hydrocarbon chain.

(i) Describe in detail how you would prepare a sample of soap.(ii) Identify one way in which a soap is different from a soapless detergent.

(b) When H H reacts with hydrochloric acid X—C = C —- COO Na acid is formed.

Write a balanced equation to showwhat happens in this reaction.

(c) Describe what you would expect to observe if H H reacts with (i) bromine

X—C = C —- COONa(ii) acidified potassium manganate VII

(iii) Write an equation to represent thereaction that should take place if

H H reacts with (1) bromineX—C = C —- COONa (2) hydrogen using a nickel catalyst

(d) Compounds with formulae likeH H

X—C = C —- COOCH3 can bond together under appropriate conditions to form a ‘polymer’.(i) Define the term polymer(ii) What type of polymerisation do you expect to occur with compounds in (d) above.(iii) Use two molecules to show how the units are bonded together.(iv) Suggest a possible general name for this polymer based on the functional group present in its formula.

ANSWERS1. A soap sample can be prepared by

boiling fats and oils with concentratedsodium hydroxide solution.

(ii) Soaps are formed from vegetableoils and animal fats which are esters.When these are hydrolysed soaps areproduced. Soapless detergents aresynthetic detergents which are madefrom the reaction of hydrocarbons withconcentrated sulphuric acid thenneutralizing with sodium hydroxide toform the sodium salt.

One major difference is that soaps donot lather in hard water, that is they formscum readily, while soapless detergentsdo not form scum in hard water.

(b) H H X—C = C — COONa +

H HHCl ===X-C = C-COOH + NaCl

(c) If H HX— C = C —- COONa reacts with

acidified potassium permanganate VIIthen one would expect it to be changedfrom purple to colourless that is, it isdecolourised.

When it reacts with bromine it is alsodecolourised.

(iii) H HX—C = C —- COONa +

H HBr2 == X—-C—C—-COONa

Br BrThe bromine adds across the double

bond; an addition reaction. A similarsituation occurs with hydrogen.

H HX—C = C —- COONa + H2 ==

H HX—-C—C—-COONa

H H(d) Polymer is a macromolecule

formed from the linking of smallmolecules called monomers. Thecompound is expected to exhibitaddition polymerisation and formpolymers called polyalkenes.

H H H H H H H HC = C C = C = C — C — C — C-X Y X Y X Y X Y

Let Y = COOCH3

Francine Taylor-Campbell teaches at JamaicaCollege. Send questions and comments tokkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | 14 MARCH 6-12, 2012

MMAAUURREEEENN CCAAMMPPBBEELLLLContributor

AGE-DEPENDENCY RATIOThis is the ratio of persons in the ages defined as

dependent (under 15 and over 64 years) to personsin the ages defined as economically productive (15-64) years in a population.

AGE-SEX STRUCTUREThis is the composition of a population as

determined by the number or proportion of malesand females in each age category. This is usuallyrepresented in a population pyramid.

AGEING POPULATIONPeople are living longer as the proportions of

adults and the elderly increase in a population,while the proportions of children and adolescentsdecrease, resulting in a rise in the median age of thepopulation. Ageing occurs when fertility ratesdecline and life expectancy remains constant orimproves at the older ages.

BIRTH CONTROLAn accepted practice employed that permits

sexual intercourse with reduced likelihood ofconception.

BIRTH RATE (OR CRUDE BIRTH RATE)The number of live births per 1,000 in a given

year.

BRAIN DRAINThis occurs when a significant proportion of a

country’s highly skilled, highly educatedprofessional population emigrates, usually to othercountries offering better economic and socialopportunities.

CENSUSThis is the enumeration of the entire population

resulting in the compilation of demographic, socialand economic information pertaining to thatpopulation at a specific time.

CHILDBEARING YEARSThe term is used to describe the reproductive age

span of women, usually between 15-44 or 15-49years of age.

DEATH RATE (OR CRUDE DEATH RATE)This is the number of deaths per 1,000 in a given

year.

DEMOGRAPHYThe term is used to identify scientific study of

human populations, including their sizes,compositions, distributions, densities, growth, andother characteristics, as well as the causes andconsequences of changes in these factors.

DEPENDENCY RATIO

This is the ratio of the economically dependentpart of the population to the productive part. It isarbitrarily defined as the ratio of the elderly (ages 65and older) plus the young (under age 15) to thepopulation of the working ages (ages 15-64).

EMIGRATIONThis is the process of leaving one country to take

up residence in another.

ETHNICITYThis is the cultural practices, language, cuisine,

and traditions – not biological or physicaldifferences – used to distinguish groups of people.

FAMILY PLANNINGThis term is defined as the conscious effort of

couples to regulate the number and spacing ofbirths through artificial and natural methods ofcontraception. Family planning connotesconception control to avoid pregnancy andabortion.

FECUNDITYThis is the physiological capacity of a woman to

produce a child.

FERTILITYThis is the actual reproductive performance of an

individual, a couple, a group or a population.

GROWTH RATEThis is the number of people added to or

subtracted from a population in a year. It is due tonatural increase and net migration expressed as apercentage of the population at the beginning of thetime period.

IMMIGRATIONThis is the process of entering one country from

another to take up permanent or semi-permanentresidence.

IMMIGRATION RATEThis is defined as the number of immigrants

arriving at a destination per 1,000 at that destinationin a given year.

INFANT MORTALITY RATE

This is viewed as the number of deaths of infantsunder age one per 1,000 live births in a given year.

LIFE EXPECTANCYDefined as the average number of years a person

could expect to live if current mortality trends wereto continue for the rest of that person’s life.

LIFESPANThis is the maximum age that human beings

could reach under optimum conditions.

MIGRATIONThis is the movement of people across a

specified boundary for the purpose of establishing anew or semi-permanent residence. It has beendivided into international migration and internalmigration.

MOBILITYThis is the movement of people between different

geographical locations.

MORBIDITYThis is defined as the frequency of disease,

illness, injuries and disabilities that occurs in apopulation.

MORTALITYDeaths as a constituent of population change.

NATURAL INCREASE (OR DECREASE)This is looked on as the surplus or decline of

births over deaths in a population in a given timeperiod.

NET MIGRATIONThis is the net effect of immigration and

emigration on an area’s population in a given timeperiod, expressed as an increase or decrease in thetotal population.

‘OLD’ POPULATIONThis is a population with a relatively high

proportion of middle-age and elderly persons; ahigh median age.

OUT-MIGRATIONThis defined as the process of leaving one

location in a country to take up residence inanother.

POPULATION CONTROLThis is viewed as a broad concept that

addresses the relationship between fertility,mortality and migration, but is most commonlyused to refer to efforts to slow population growththrough action to lower fertility.

POPULATION DENSITYA concept used to refer to population per unit

of land area. For example, people per squaremile or people per square kilometer of arableland.

POPULATION DISTRIBUTIONThis refers to the patterns of settlement and

dispersal of a population in a country due toseveral man-made or natural causes.

POPULATION INCREASEThe total population increase resulting from

the interaction of births, deaths and migration ina population in a given period of time.

POPULATION PYRAMIDThis is a bar chart, arranged vertically, that

shows the distribution of a population by ageand sex. The younger ages are at the bottom,with males on the left and females on the right.

‘PUSH-PULL’ HYPOTHESISThis is a migration theory that posits that

circumstances at the place of origin, such aspoverty and unemployment, tend to repel or pushpeople out of that place to other places that exerta positive attraction or pull, such as a highstandard of living or job opportunities.

SEX RATIOThis is the number of males per 100 females

in a population at a given time.

URBANIZATIONThis is the proportion of a population living in

urban areas.

‘YOUNG’ POPULATIONA term used to describe a population with a

relatively high proportion of children,adolescents and young adults. There is a lowmedian age, high fertility and, therefore, a highgrowth potential.

Maureen Campbell teaches at St Hugh’s High School. Sendquestions and comments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

Know yourconcepts

yl:social studies

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | MARCH 6-12, 2012 15

NNAATTAASSHHAA TTHHOOMMAASS-- FFRRAANNCCIISSContributor

HELLO, ALL. This week we are continuing our discussion onpersuasive writing. Over the last few weeks we have looked attechniques/devices which you should employ in your writing,

as well as the steps involved in producing a persuasive piece.

In this week’s lesson, I wish to give you a checklist for evaluatingyour arguments then focus on the instructions specific to presentingthem. Before we go into that aspect of the lesson, however, I want toshare with you the possible answers for the questions set on the letterto the editor which I gave you in last week’s lesson.

aa.. WWhhaatt iiss tthhee wwrriitteerr’’ss mmaaiinn ppuurrppoossee iinn tthhiiss lleetttteerr?? ((22 mmaarrkkss))

The writer’s main purpose is to complain about and criticise thepoor customer service he received at the newly renovated tax building.

bb.. SSttaattee wwhhaatt iiss ssuuggggeesstteedd bbyy tthhee wwrriitteerr’’ss uussee ooff eeaacchh ooff tthheeffoolllloowwiinngg wwoorrddss::

((ii)) ‘‘wwaallttzzeedd’’ ((lliinnee 11)) ((22 mmaarrkkss))

This word suggests that the writer walked into the tax building witha high level of expectation that his experience would have been apositive one; he was excited to enter the building.

((iiii)) ‘‘eexxttoorrttss’’ ((lliinnee 1144)) ((22 mmaarrkkss))

This word suggests that the government forcefully and unfairly takesexorbitant amounts of money from taxpayers.

cc.. QQuuoottee ttwwoo wwoorrddss oorr pphhrraasseess wwhhiicchh iinnddiiccaattee tthhaatt tthhee wwrriitteerr iissddiissttrreesssseedd?? ((22 mmaarrkkss))

Any two - doomed to disappointment, standing for an eternity,fellow-sufferer, humiliation, disgruntled.

dd.. WWhhaatt ddiidd tthhee wwrriitteerr mmeeaann bbyy ““TThhaannkk yyoouu ffoorr bbeeiinngg ssoo kkiinndd””?? ((lliinnee1122)) ((22 mmaarrkkss))

He is being sarcastic. He is not at all grateful for the rude responsehe got from the lady at the Information Desk.

ee.. ‘‘TThhee mmoorree tthhiinnggss cchhaannggee,, tthhee mmoorree tthheeyy rreemmaaiinn tthhee ssaammee..’’ HHooww iisstthhiiss vviieeww pprreesseenntteedd iinn tthhee lleetttteerr?? ((22 mmaarrkkss))

Although the tax building is new, the poor service from the agentshas not changed.

Were your answers similar to mine? I’m sure they were! Let us turnour attention now to the following:

Below is a checklist for evaluating and revising your arguments. Payclose attention to these points when writing your argument:

CHECKLISTm Does your essay clearly express your position on the topic or issue?m Is your position supported by reasons?m Have you used supporting evidence for each reason?m Are your reasons arranged in an effective order?

writing

yl:english language

Persuasive part 4

BARRINGTON FLEMMING PHOTO

The Universitry of the West Indies Open Campus Events Management Group recently hosted a party for charity.Here Event Manager Yvonne Thomas (right), a member of the class, makes the presentation of a cheque valued at$285,000.00 representing the amount raised by the group to Mrs Adama Blagrove, founder of The Montego BayAutism Centre which was chosen as the beneficiary. Sharing in the special moment are Valerie Cooper (left) and Lori-Ann Bingham, teachers at the centre.

m Have you used appropriate language structures to connect your ideas?m Have you summarised your main arguments in a conclusion?m Have you checked carefully for errors in grammar, usage and mechanics?

Use the checklist as a guide, especially when developing yourwriting skills, and keep the checklist in mind when you are writing theexam.

Let us now focus on the kind of instructions which CXC will giveyou in the exam.

QUESTION INSTRUCTIONSYou will need to thoroughly discuss your position on a specific

topic/issue. CXC may ask you to do one of a number of things:

Write an argument either supporting or opposing an issue.eexxaammppllee 11:: “The right contacts and a large amount of luck are all you need to succeed in life.” Write an argument either supporting or opposing this view.

eexxaammppllee 22::SSppeeaakkeerr AA:: I am going to start eating more local food because that is what makes our Caribbean Olympic athletes stars.

SSppeeaakkeerr BB:: Nobody is going to get me to eat yams and sweet potatoes. That is backwardness.

Write an essay supporting the views of either Speaker A or SpeakerB and justify the kind of food that you prefer to eat.

Please note that in the example above, you are required to chooseone side. You must decide on the side for which you can present thestronger arguments.

Write an argument in which you present your views. With this kindof question you are permitted to present both sides of the issue.

eexxaammppllee 11::Write a letter to the editor expressing your views on the following. “Adults who smoke cigarettes and drink alcohol are hypocrites when they condemn young people for using marijuana and cocaine.”

eexxaammppllee 22::“School is not the place for bullies. They should be put into special institutions.” Write an essay giving your views on this statement.

Now that you are armed with the necessary tools to build yourarguments, attempt at least one of the essays listed above forhomework. Until next week, blessings!

Natasha Thomas-Francis teachers at Glenmuir High School. Send questions andcomments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | 16 MARCH 6-12, 2012

BBEERRYYLL CCLLAARRKKEEContributor

IN PAPER 02 of your external examination, you will be writing threeresponses to questions and I think that it is time for us to look atsome of the terms which are frequently used in questions. In fact, I

regret that you were not given these before.

COMMENTThis means that you should give a judgement or opinion about

something. You could be asked to comment on the importance ofdreams in Shakespeare’s AA MMiiddssuummmmeerr NNiigghhtt’’ss DDrreeaamm.

COMPARE Tells you to examine (look closely at) or judge one thing against

another to show how they are the same. For instance, you may beasked to - Choose TWO books and compare how a major character inEACH is affected by his upbringing.

CONSIDER This advises you to think about a situation carefully; that is, to

examine all the facts of a situation before coming to conclusions.

CONTRAST Here the question requires that you examine or judge two people or

things in such a way that their differences are made clear.

DESCRIBE You are asked to say what someone or something is like. You would

explain and give illustrations. Describe the opening scene of the playwould demand that you say what the setting is, what is on the stage,how the characters dress, how they relate to each other, what is theirphysical appearance and so on.

DISCUSS This is to talk or write about details of something with someone

else, that is, to share your ideas about something/anything in anorganised manner. A question such as discuss what these difficultiesreveal about the characters involved in the relationship requires you toalign the action/reaction of the one facing the difficulty with thedifficulty in order to see whether the person panics or deals calmlywith the situation. This is how you can decide on the person’scharacter.

EXPLAIN This means to make something clear and easy to understand. In

explaining you must organise your ‘facts’ logically.

GIVE This is simply asking you to supply or share information as

required.

HOW This is used when you are stating the way in which something

happens.

IDENTIFY This asks you to recognize and name someone or something.

OUTLINE Share the main ideas or facts of something with no details.

REFER This requires that you give an example or make a remark

mentioning or giving information about someone or something.You must, in other words, supply direct and precise information. Ifyou are asked to make close references or refer closely, you are togive examples directly from the text.

PRESENT Give information or show someone’s character to people in a formal

way.

SAY To express something about someone or something.

SHOWTo allow or cause something to be seen.

STATE To say or express.

SUGGEST To give someone an idea to consider.

Please familiarise yourselves with the above so that you canuse your knowledge to write good essays. Remember to planyour answers, identifying suitable supporting points and relevantquotations to use. Do not itemise, number points or skip lines asyou move from idea to idea in your essay – just start newparagraphs. You should write in standard English and get intothe habit of reading over your work–making the necessarycorrections and additions. Please sharpen your essay-writingskills!

It is important that you know what books, that is, plays,poems, novels and short stories are on the 2012 to 2014syllabus. Do remember that in order to answer a Type-B questionyou have to use your knowledge of two poems and two shortstories. You must be able to make comparisons between the twopoems you choose, as you must also be able to do between thetwo short stories you choose. Of course, you may not have toanswer any Type-B questions in Section 3 as there will be fourType-A questions set on SSoonnggss ooff SSiilleennccee and TThhee WWiinnee ooffAAssttoonniisshhmmeenntt.

Remember, always do your best regardless of circumstances.Do not waste your very valuable time, but try to make the most ofthe educational opportunity that is now yours. God bless!

Beryl Clarke is an independent contributor. Send questions and comments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

FYIyl:english literature

RUDOLPH BROWN/PHOTOGRAPHER

Chairman of Continental BakingCompany Gary Hendrickson (centre),National Baking Company’s Director

of Operations Steven Sykes (right) andSharon Ffolkes-Abrahams (second

left), state minister for Industry,Investment and Commerce, join

representatives of companies selectedas the Bold Ones for 2012 in front of

a trailer advertising Crayons Count.Crayons Count is an early-childhood

education project endorsed byHendrickson. Looking on are (from

left) Denese Palmer of SouthsideDistributors; Heneka Watkis-Porter ofPatwa Apparel; Suzette Thomas of Sue

Tru; Deika Morrison, founder ofCrayons Count; Cinderella Anderson

of Visionaries; Robin Lumsden ofBelcour Preserves and Dehand Kelly

of Visionaries (partially hidden).

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | MARCH 6, 2012 MARCH 6-12, 2012 17

DDEEBBBBIIOONN HHYYMMAANNContributor

AT THE end of the lesson, you should be able to:1. Assess the economic effects of industrialisation on women.2. Evaluate the social effects of industrialisation on women.

Women, like men, were caught up in theeconomic changes that took place in the BritishCaribbean in the 20th century, but at times theirexperiences were different because of their gender.One immediate difference was that women’sparticipation in the wage labour force as estatelabourers declined. It remained significant in placeslike Barbados where, in 1911, 77 per cent of thewomen were in the estate labour force. However, by1960 this had declined to 37 per cent.

In some cases, this decline in women’sparticipation in the plantation labour force wasbecause of new gender ideologies which favouredmen as workers in the ‘public domain’ becausewomen wanted to be full-time housewives, andbecause of immigration. In other cases, women

chose to withdraw from estate labour to exploreother occupations.

Most of these women remained in agriculture,but as peasant farmers and small farmers whoparticipated in the local export markets. Many whoremained as wage labourers shifted from sugarestates to cultivate other crops like coffee, cocoa,banana, rice, etc. Some left rural areas for urbancentres where they were involved in domesticservice and petting trading, or they found jobs aswharf/port workers, coal carriers, laundresses andseamstresses. Women dominated the domestic-service sector because employers preferred them inan occupation which was seen as ‘women’s work’.

According to Rhoda Reddock, women made up89 per cent of a total of 24,274 domestic workers inTrinidad and Tobago in 1931. As educationalopportunities expanded for women, some qualifiedthemselves to enter the professions and the civilservice. However, their numbers in the professionsalways lagged behind the number of men in suchareas.

In World Wars I and II, women broke out ofgender confines and worked in jobs traditionallyseen as being for men, who had gone off to fight.The new thrust towards industrialisation andmanufacturing after World War II gave women yetanother outlet for their work skills. Indeed, duringthe latter decades of the 19th century and the start ofthe 20th, the industrial and manufacturing sectorswere the second-largest employers of women. Theyemployed some 80 per cent of the female workingpopulation. In 1946 in Barbados, 7,400 or 18 percent of the total female working population wereemployed in the manufacturing sectors, though by1960 this had declined to 12 per cent.

Women were important in the textile andgarment-manufacturing industries. In the late 19thand early 20th centuries, garment production wastotally controlled by small producers. In Trinidad,dressmaking engaged 95 per cent of women, and in1911 there were 13,000 seamstresses who workedin their homes. Girls in the early 20th-centuryCaribbean were trained at home in needlecraft. As aresult, a pool of skilled and semi-skilled labour wasavailable for these industries.

The majority of seamstresses were of African –not Indian – descent. By 1931, though, this numberhad fallen to 9,000 as garment manufacturingshifted to factories, and as women increasinglypreferred ready-made, imported garments. By 1985,women formed the majority of workers in thegarment factories in the free zones.

Women found work as domestic workers andwaitresses in the expanding regional touristindustry. They found work in steam laundries, themetal and glass trades, in companies that producedpaper boxes, Angostura bitters, cigars, furniture,matches, soaps and drink. They worked in brewing,tanning, canning, electrical printing and a wholehost of other industries, including food-processingand other agro-industries.

Industrialisation and manufacturing had animpact on the number of women employed. Theopening up of commercial steam laundries affectedthe number of women who had made a living asprivate laundresses/’washerwomen’. In Trinidad andTobago between 1946 and 1960, the number ofprivate laundresses fell by 3,300. The shift towardsdependence on the petroleum industry in countrieslike Trinidad and the Dutch Antilles affectedagriculture, and this had an impact on women’semployment.

This industry also employed more men thanwomen and women who found jobs in the ever-growing number of factories and industrial estateshad to work long hours for low pay. Those whoworked in assembly-type factories did not receivetraining that enhanced their skills. For example, insome of the garment factories in the free zonessome women only stitched/attached collars onsleeves and never learnt to make a whole garment.

Answers to last week’s revision exercise1. Please see correction 2. D.3. B 4.C 5. C 6. C 7. B8. C 9. A 10. D 11. A 12. B13. B 14. B 15. D

CORRECTION1. Immigration of labour to the British colonies

resulted in all of the following excepta) A constant labour shortageb) The continuation of monoculturec) The continuation of slavery conditionsd) A greater racial mixture of the population

Debbion Hyman teaches at St Hugh’s High School. Sendquestions and comments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

Effects of industrialisationon British Caribbean women

yl:history

PHOTO NOEL THOMPSON

Marlene Burrowes (centre), managing director of Dolphin Cove Attractions, is tickled pink with her conversation with DamionCrawford, state minister in the Ministry of Tourism and Entertainment and Carole Guntley, the director general. Occasion was atourism stakeholders’ meeting held at the Sandals Grande Ocho Rios Beach and Villa Resort in St Ann on Thursday, February 16.

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | 18 MARCH 6, 2012 MARCH 6-12, 2012

YYVVOONNNNEE HHAARRVVEEYYContributor

THIS IS the last section in our lesson on marketstructures. As promised, it will covermonopolistic competition and oligopoly.

MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITIONThis describes an imperfect market structure in

which there are relatively large numbers ofproducers offering slightly differentiated products.

CHARACTERISTICS/FEATURES OFMONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION

11.. AA rreellaattiivveellyy llaarrggee nnuummbbeerr ooff sseelllleerrss This makes the market highly competitive. In

addition, each firm’s market share is small andcollusion (coming together to act as a monopoly inorder to gain more profits) is difficult.

22.. IInnddeeppeennddeenncceeEach firm acts independently of the other. That is,

no firm takes into account the reaction of its rivalfirms.

33.. FFrreeeeddoomm ooff eennttrryy iinnttoo tthhee mmaarrkkeett aanndd eexxiitt oouuttooff tthhee mmaarrkkeett

In the long run, firms will enter and leave theindustry due to the lack of significant barriers toentry.

44.. TThhee pprroodduucctt iiss ddiiffffeerreennttiiaatteeddEach individual seller has a product which is

slightly different from that of the other producers.This product differentiation is mainly through brandnames, but it can also be through physical andchemical differences.

55.. AAddvveerrttiissiinngg ttaakkeess ppllaacceeEach seller seeks to increase brand loyalty for

his/her product and, thereby, increase profits.

66.. FFiirrmmss aarree pprriiccee mmaakkeerrss//ffiixxeerrssTheir demand curve is downward sloping and it

is also fairly elastic because of the relatively largenumber of firms in the industry.

Examples of monopolistic competition in theCaribbean: hairdressers, restaurants, taxi driversand gas (petrol-filling) stations.

SHORT-RUN PROFITSThe short-run profits situation is similar to that of

the perfect competitor. It is possible to earnsupernormal profits. Subnormal and normal profitsare also possible.

LONG-RUN PROFITSIn the long run, the similarity between perfect

competition and monopolistic competition becomes

more obvious. Through entry of new firms and exitof some existing ones, profit will tend towardsnormal in the long run for all the firms in theindustry.

We will now move on to yet another marketstructure.

OLIGOPOLYOligopoly refers to a market structure in which a

few firms dominate the industry, in the sense thatbetween them they share a large proportion of theindustry’s output. Some oligopoly firms producevirtually identical products, for example, metals,chemicals, sugar. These are known as perfectoligopolies. Likewise, some produce differentiatedproducts, for example, cars, soap powder,cigarettes, electrical appliances. These are known asimperfect oligopolies. Duopoly is a special form ofoligopoly in which there are only two firms in theindustry.

CHARACTERISTICS/FEATURES OFOLIGOPOLY

1. There are only a few firms in the industry. With

only a few firms in the industry, each is big enoughto influence price. Firms are, therefore, pricemakers/price fixers.

2. Interdependence of firms. Since there are onlya few firms in the industry, each firm will have totake into account the actions of rival firms in theindustry. For example, if one airline announcesdiscount fares, generally, all the other airlines willtry to match the lower prices.

3. The product is either identical or differentiated.Where the product is identical, there is no need foradvertising or non-price competition. However, ifthe product is differentiated, advertising and non-price competition will take place in order to makeconsumers believe that one brand is better than theother.

4. There are barriers to entry. These barriers maynot be as strong as the barriers for the monopolistbut the effect is still the same. Barriers will make itvirtually impossible for others to enter in the longrun.

5. Prices tend to be stable. This is because firmsrealise that decreases in price can lead to ‘price

wars’ and they can end up losing so much profitthat they are eventually driven out of the industry.They also know that raising prices will be of noadvantage to them since others will not copy them.

6. Firms may be collusive or non-collusive.When they are collusive they may, for example,formulate an agreement to set prices for everyone ata certain level.

7. Oligopolies may price discriminate in order toearn more profit.

PROFITS IN THE SHORT RUNLike the monopolist, many oligopolistic firms will

earn supernormal profits in the short run.

LONG RUNIf the barriers to entry are strong, supernormal

profits will be maintained. Where a firm was earningless-than-normal profits in the short run, it willleave the industry in the long run.

Now for your practice questions.

(a) Define ‘monopolistic competition’ and ‘oligopoly’. (4 marks)

(b) Compare the market structures named in

(a) above, under the following headings:(i) the number of firms in the industry(ii) the existence or non-existence of barriers to entry(iii) type of product (6 marks)

(c) Give two examples of oligopoly industries and two examples of monopolistic industries in the Caribbean. (4 marks)

(d) “A monopolistic firm is earning supernormal profits in the short run.” What do you understand by this statement? (2 marks)

(e) Assume that firms under monopolistic competition and oligopoly are earning supernormal profits in the short run:(i) How will their long-run profits differ?(ii) Give reasons for the differences in their long-run profits. (4 marks)Total marks: 20

This completes market structures. I urge you todo some reading on the topic. You will find someinteresting facts if you consult texts in economics.

See you all next week. Bye for now.

Yvonne Harvey teaches at Glenmuir High School. Sendquestions and comments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

Market structures yl:principles of business

Minister of Youth and Culture Lisa Hanna (centre) poses with the the Under-20 ReggaeGirlz and officials at the Jamaica Football Federation headquarters recently prior to theteam’s departure to Panama for the Confederation of North, Central American andCaribbean Association Football stage of World Cup qualifiers.

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | MARCH 6-12, 2012 19

NNAATTAALLEEEE AA.. JJOOHHNNSSOONNContributor

STUDENTS, THIS is lesson 25 in our series of Gleaner IT lessons.In this week’s lesson, we will look at modularity/top-down design

and programming languages (the beginning of a new unit).

USE OF THE TOP-DOWN DESIGN APPROACH TOPROBLEM SOLVING

You have learnt the way in which you solve a problem on thecomputer in previous lessons, and you have been learning thus farhow to write your pseudocodes and how to construct your flow charts.Now you are going to learn about a technique that can be employedwhen you have a big program to code or problem to solve. Thismethod is called the ‘Top-down Design Approach to Programming’.

WHAT IS TOP-DOWN DESIGN?The Top-down Design Approach, or Modular Programming as it is

sometimes called, involves breaking a problem into a set of smallerproblems, called sub-problems or modules, followed by breaking eachsub-problem into a set of tasks then breaking each task into a set ofactions. This is called a ‘divide and conquer’ approach. When facedwith a complex problem, it is easier to break the problem down intosmaller, more manageable sections and tackle each section as aseparate entity rather than trying to solve the large problem in one go.

Below is a diagram depicting a typical top-down design ormodularity approach to programming.

Top-down design & programminglanguages

yl:information technology

As you may observe with the diagram above, there is a majorproblem which has been broken down into two sub-problems. Thesub-problems are then broken down into respective tasks for whichspecific action(s) will be carried out.

A sub-problem is a set of related tasks. A task is a set of relatedactions. An action is a basic instruction that needs no furtherrefinement. For example, an action might be a simple instruction suchas subtract two numbers. The process of dividing the problem intosub-problems or modules and breaking them down into smaller unitsis called stepwise refinement.

One advantage of modular programming is that when a problem hasbeen decomposed into smaller sub-problems, each sub-problem canbe solved as a single entity. However, the solution of each individualsub-problem does not necessarily solve the larger problem. Theremust be cohesion between the modules, meaning there must be amechanism for communicating between the different sub-problems.

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

Programming languages fall into the following categories:m Machine Language/ 1st Generationm Assembly Language/2nd Generationm High-Level Language/3rd Generationm Fourth-Generation Language

These languages can be further categorized as either being low-levelor high-level languages.

LOW LEVELm Machine Languagem Assembly Language

HIGH LEVELm High-Level Languagem Fourth-Generation Language

Let us now examine each of these languages.

MACHINE LANGUAGEThis was the first language available for programming. At the

machine level the instructions are written in ones and zeros (binarydigits). This is the only language that the computer understands.

ADVANTAGESm Programs execute fastm Efficient use of memory

DISADVANTAGESm Programming is slow and tediousm Code is difficult to learn, read, understand and correctm Code is machine specific, meaning it cannot be used in the same

form on other computer models

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGEThis was developed to replace the zeros and ones of machine

language with symbols that are easier to understand and remember. Ituses special codes called mnemonics (words that suggest meaning) torepresent machine language instructions. For example:

m MOV represents Movem Hlt represents Stop

An assembly language is translated into a machine language byusing a translator program called an assembler. However, bothlanguages are machine dependent, that is, the way the program iswritten depends on the operation of the computer.

ADVANTAGESm Programming is faster and less tedious than for machine languagem Code is easier to learn, read and understand, than for machine language

m Execution is faster than high-level languages.

DISADVANTAGESm Programming is slower and more tedious than high-level languages. Code is machine specific.

HIGH-LEVEL LANGUAGEThis differs from low-level languages in that it requires less coding

details and makes programs easier to write. It is closer in appearanceto natural language, for example English and French. Programs writtenin high-level language are called Source Code while the translatedversion is called Object Code. These programs must be translated to aform which can be accepted by the computer. This is achieved bymeans of special translator programs called compiler and interpreter.

Here’s a diagram illustrating the relationship between the sourcecode and the object code.

In contrast to a compiler, an interpreter does not translate the wholeprogram prior to execution. Rather, it translates the code, line by lineduring the execution of the program. With the compiler, all thetranslation is done and then the object program is executed. It is notmachine dependent. Examples of High-level Language are Basic

(Beginners All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code), Pascal (which isthe programming language you will learn for CSEC), COBOL(Common Business Oriented Language), JAVA, C Programming andso on.

ADVANTAGESm Programming is faster and less tediousm Code is easier to learn, read, understand and correctm Language is more English and math like.

DISADVANTAGESm Program executes slowly

FOURTH GENERATIONThese are often described as very high-level languages and referred

to as 4GLs. They are easy-to-learn, easy-to-use languages that enableusers or programmers to code applications much more quickly thanthey could with lower-level languages. Two examples of 4GLs areDBASE and FOXPRO.

ADVANTAGEm Useful for generating reports

DISADVANTAGE:m Can be very wordy

We have come to the end of lesson 25. See you next week when wewill look at some key programming terms and the Pascal language.Remember, if you fail to prepare, prepare to fail.

Natalee A. Johnson teaches at Ardenne High School. Send questions and commentsto kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | 20 MARCH 6-12, 2012

RROOXXAANNNNEE WWRRIIGGHHTTContributor

CARL AND Cleon are in partnership. Their agreement provides that the partners are to receive intereston capital at 8% per annum. All remaining profits/losses are to be shared by Carl and Cleon in theratio 3:2, respectively.

The following balances were taken from the books of the partnership on August 31, 2011.

Partnershipyl:principles of accounts

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION1. Stock on August 31, 2011, was valued at $39,600.2. Insurance amounting to $440 had been paid in advance.3. The selling expenses included an item of $600 for carriage on purchases [>1]4. It was decided to write $4,000 off the Goodwill. [>2]5. Rent amounted to $4,800 per annum. No payment had been made for the month of August, 2011.6. Furniture and fittings are to be depreciated at 20%.

YOU ARE REQUIRED TO:a. Prepare the partnership Trading Account, the Profit and Loss Account and an Appropriation Account for the year ended August 31, 2011.b. Prepare the Current Accounts of the partners, balances at August 31, 2011.c. Draw up the Balance Sheet as at August 31, 2011.

REASONING[>1] Carriage on purchases is added to purchases amount in the Trading Account.[>2] Goodwill written off is charged to the Profit and Loss Appropriation Account.

EXAMINATION PREPARATION TIPAs you get closer to your examination, to assist with your preparation I encourage you to keep your

parents and families updated on what you and your study team are doing. They worry about you, especiallywhen they are not sure how you are coping and progressing. This is the best time to bond with them; theywant to support you as much as they can.

Roxanne Wright teaches at Immaculate Academy. Send questions and comments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | MARCH 6-12, 2012 21

HHYYAACCIINNTTHH TTUUGGMMAANNContributor

LAST WEEK I gave you an assignment. I hope that you were ableto find the time to answer the questions. I will give you somepossible answers to them now.

1. Draw an organisation chart of your school.

(See chart above)

2. Skills required for(a) A telephone operator must:- be pleasant and patience- maintain good working relationships with all persons he/she comes across- operate company’s switchboard

(b) A data entry clerk must:- have the ability to type fast accurately- be able to format basic documents- be able to use specialised computer software application- maintain good working relationships

(c) An administrative assistant must:- have skills in numeracy and literacy- use basic software application- maintain good working relationships- be able to type accurately- maintain office files

(d) A records management clerk must:- be able to use computer software applications to maintain a database of records- be able to maintain good working relationships

(e) A human resources clerk must:- use basic computer software applications- have knowledge of labour laws, health and safety requirements- maintain good working relationships

3.(a) - more difficult to communicate with other workers- managers and supervisors may not always be aware of what is happening in these offices

(b) - everyone has easy access to the cabinets- workers will have it easier to communicate

4.(a) (see form at bottom of page)

(b) Give the name of your school, address, telephone and emailaddress. You may also include the principal and chairman’sname. The school crest should be strategically placed so that theheading looks well-balanced on the page.

5.(a) - the organisation stands to lose business/clientele- the organisation will lose assets if money was borrowed from a financial institution

(b) - ring back the other party immediately and genuinelyapologise for the disruption during your conversation. At the endof the conversation, make another short apology and thank theparty for his/her time.

MULTIPLE CHOICE(1) A; (2) A; (3) B; (4) B; (5) C; (6) D; (7) B; (8) C; (9) C; (10) D; (11) B; (12) A; (13) D

I hope you were able to maximise the marks on each question.Until then, see you next week.

Hyacinth Tugman teaches at Glenmuir High School. Send questions and commentsto kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

Answersto your

questions

yl:office administration

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | 22 MARCH 6-12, 2012

MMAARRJJOORRIIEE HHEENNRRYYContributor

GREETINGS TO you all, my readers! For those of you who aresitting the external examinations this year, I do trust that yourpreparations have been going well. The examinations are but a

few short weeks away and, as the saying goes,’If you fail to prepare,prepare to fail’. I feel certain that your goal is to be successful in theexaminations and you are aiming at realising this. I hope you havedone a study timetable as this will help you to manage your time.Spend extra time on your weaker subjects. Most, if not all, school-based assessments should be completed by now, giving you sometime to complete the syllabus for the examinations. Work well andremain focused.

In an earlier lesson, I had indicated that I would share with yousome information on selected topics taken from Section II, NaturalSystems, of the geography syllabus. My source of information is theavailable textbooks. I have already shared with you on crustal plates, atopic from internal forces.

This week I will move on to external forces – forces that areconstantly affecting the surface rocks. By way of introduction to thetopic, here is some information on graduation, taken from GGeeoollooggyyMMaaddee SSiimmppllee, written by William H. Matthews.

The surface rocks of the Earth are constantly being affected by‘gradational’ forces. For example, the atmosphere attacks the rocks,weathering them both physically and chemically. In addition, the riversand oceans of the hydrosphere are continually wearing away rockfragments and transporting them to other areas where they aredeposited. Gradation, then, includes two separate types of process:degradation, which is a wearing-down or destructive process, andaggradation, a building-up or constructive process.

Degradation, commonly referred to as erosion, results from thewearing down of the rocks by water, air and ice. It includes the work ofatmospheric weathering, glacial abrasion, stream erosion, windabrasion and so on.

Aggradation, known also as deposition, results in the accumulationof sediments and the ultimate building up of rock strata. The principalagents depositing these sediments are wind, ice and water.

In reference to the geography syllabus, the specific objectivesrelating to external forces are:

m Define denudation, weathering, mass wasting and erosionm Explain the processes of weatheringm Describe landslides and soil creep and the conditions which influence their occurrence.

I will now share some information on the first objective listed above.For these definitions, I will quote extensively from the text GGeeooggrraapphhyyffoorr CCSSEECC, written by Nelson Thornes.

Denudation simply means the wearing away of the land byweathering and erosion. It includes all natural agencies, for examplesun, rain, frost, wind, rivers, sea, ice, temperature change, and eventhe actions of plants and animals. This set of major processes isresponsible for the creation of the Earth’s varied landscape.

Weathering is the wearing away (disintegration and decomposition)of rocks by the effects of the weather and the atmosphere. Nomovement is involved in this so the breakdown of the rock is said tobe in situ – in other words ‘in that place’. Sometimes, after the break-up of the rock, fragments are moved but only by gravity, for instanceslipping down a slope.

Mass wasting or mass movement follows weathering. It is thedownhill movement of rock debris and soil due to the force of gravity.Water acts as a lubricant making the debris more slippery and easy tomove.

Erosion: Water, ice and wind also wear away the Earth’s surface.Water can mean either rivers or the sea. Ice is in the form of glaciers.Wind erodes, especially when it is carrying something to help it wearaway rock, usually sand.

May I encourage you to refer to other textbooks for additionalinformation on these terms. Make sure you understand each of them.You are often asked for definitions in the examinations. In the nextlesson, I will share information on the third objective listed above,referring to landslides and soil creep.

Marjorie Henry is an independent contributor. Send questions and comments tokkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

yl:geography

Externalforces

IAN ALLEN/PHOTOGRAPHER

Members of G2K Youth Group of East Kingston and Port Royal Chapter tried to rid the beaches of Port Royal of plastic bottles and other waste that wash up on the shores.TheYouth Group was having a beach clean-up and fish fry to raise funds for their candidate in the Springfield division.