Cs Revision

8/2/2019 Cs Revision

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COMMUNICATION STUDIES______________________________________________________________________

THE EXPOSITORY (ORAL)

RELIABILITY

Reliability refers to how accurately and consistently a research instrument performs bymeasuring the factors for which it was designed. Therefore, if the sample responding tothe instrument, for example, a questionnaire varies in its responses and there is achange over time in the phenomenon being measured then the measurementinstrument may prove unreliable.

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RESEARCH METHODS I DATA COLLECTION

Research Designs

1. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

As the name suggests experimental research involves conducting an experiment to testa hypothesis. There are two types of experimental research designs: field and lab. Fieldexperiments are usually done in organisations, while lab experiments are done underrigid conditions in a laboratory. Both types of research require two groups or twosamples. One group is used as a control group, while the other is the experimentalgroup. The experimental group is that part of the sample to which treatment isadministered.

Let us say we want to determine whether a variety of teaching methods would improveperformance in Mathematics at the grade seven level. We would conduct an experimentin which we would use one group of grade seven students in a special programme. We

would use a variety of methods on this group. Another group of grade seven would beobserved but they would not get any special treatment. At the end of the programme,we would compare the performance of both and draw our conclusions. In this case wewould have tested our hypothesis. This means that we would have proved or disprovedit.

2. SURVEY

This design is used to establish a cause and effect relationship or to gather quantitativedata. In other words, you are trying to establish patterns of relationship betweenvariables. For example, you want to find out the extent to which transportation affectspunctuality at school or the extent to which socio-economic conditions affect

absenteeism at St. Phillip High School. Your variables would be 'transportation' and'punctuality' in the first example and 'socio-economic conditions' and 'absenteeism' inthe second example.

Survey is also referred to as an investigation and is usually theoretical in nature. Unlikethe experimental design, the researcher does not intervene in the organisation andobserve the effects of the intervention. Information is usually collected on a number ofvariables and inferences are drawn about the extent to which both variables arecorrelated. Much of the research you will be required to do fall in this category. Thereare two types of surveys. Social surveys seek to establish cause and effects of a socialphenomenon, for example, the impact of television viewing on students' aggressivebehaviour or the impact of dancehall music in indiscipline among teenagers. Public

Opinion surveys seek to find out what people think about a particular issue. Forexample, how do people feel about abolishing capital punishment? How do people feelabout legalising abortion?

3. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

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The emphasis is on individuals' interpretation of their environment and of people'sbehaviour. This type of research cannot be quantified and is often referred to as socialresearch. They are similar to case studies and require intense study of the behaviourand careful recording of information gathered. Qualitative research does not use anyhypothesis and does not set out to prove anything, but to carefully examine andinterpret behaviours. In qualitative research questions and problems most often come

from real-world observations, dilemmas and questions. Discuss the examples below:

Why is the co-curricular programme working so well at St. Phillip High School butnot at other schools?

What are the various techniques used by lobby groups as they try to influencegovernment policy?

How do school parent community relations affect the performance ofstudents?

How effective is capital punishment in deterring crime in Jamaica? How do students in grades 7 9 react to Mid-year examinations at St. Phillip High

School?

4. CASE STUDIES

This involves the detailed examination of one, or a small number of cases. It is in fact aspecial type of qualitative research. It examines a social unit as a whole. The unit maybe a person, a family, a social group, a social institution or a community. The purpose isto understand the life cycle or an important part of the life cycle of the unit. The casestudy probes deeply and analyses interactions between the factors that explain presentstatus or, that influence change or growth. Discuss the examples below:

A study of the lifestyle of inner-city youth in West Kingston. A study on Bob Marley: The man and his music. A study of the dancehall phenomenon in Jamaica. The Rastafarian movement and its contribution to music in Jamaica.

5. ACTION RESEARCH

In action research, the researcher is involved in conjunction with members of theorganisation in dealing with and solving a problem that arises at the organisation. Theproblem is identified and all participants set out to investigate the reasons for theproblem and to arrive at solutions to the problem. Discuss the examples given below:

* An investigation into the causes of poor staff morale at St. Phillip High School.

* An investigation into the causes of the high level of staff turnover at St. Phillip High

School.

* An investigation into the causes of high failure rate in Mathematics in urban highschools.

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RESEARCH METHODS II - SAMPLE SELECTION

Let us now turn our attention to the issue of selecting a sample in research. Aresearcher who undertakes a survey involving large numbers of people will find itimpractical or even impossible to canvas the views of everyone in that population. Hehas to then ensure that he takes a sample of the total population. The sample is aportion or fraction or subset of the total population. It is assumed that the sample ishomogeneous and that the characteristics found in the sample may reasonably beexpected to be found in the whole. When generalisations are to be made about the totalpopulation this sample should accurately reflect the opinions, beliefs or choices of thepopulation. Therefore it must satisfy two basic conditions:

* It must be numerically large enough to correctly reflect the views of the wholepopulation in other words, it must be sufficient or adequate.

* All segments of the population indicated by relevant variables such as sex, age, socialclass, occupation etc. are to be proportionately included in the sample in other words, it

must be representative.

There are two types of sampling: probability and non-probability. Probability sampling,also known as random sampling, is one way of making sure that the sample isrepresentative of the population and that the procedure used in your research hasvalidity. It ensures that no member of the sample is likely to be preferred than anotherin the selection. The selection cannot be predicted. Here the researcher's bias iseliminated and the procedure becomes more consistent and efficient. Non-probabilitysampling, also referred to as convenience sampling is used when the total extent of thepopulation is not known. The researcher selects the sample at his discretion notrandomly. One cannot guarantee validity and the absence of bias in this kind of selectionand the results gathered using this type of sampling may not be totally reliable.

However it has some advantages; it is less expensive and uses less time and resources.

For more information on sampling read Introduction to Social Research, Canoe Pressuniversity of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica (1997),Chapter 4 by Ian Boxill et al.

Let us look at validity in research methodology. Validity, to the researcher, refers to theextent to which the data collection methods or the research instruments, such as thequestionnaire, interview and observation, actually measure what they are supposed tomeasure. In the evaluation of the argument, validity of the information which you getfrom a source, refers to whether the information is based on good judgement, reasoningand evidence, as well as if it is sound, logical and incontestable. Validity of theinformation also refers to truth, that is whether each statement in an argument isfactually accurate and leads logically to the conclusion.

SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF A VALID ARGUMENT/INFORMATION:

1. Information should be

Logical in sequence and relevant; premise should logically lead to conclusion andboth should relate to the same concept. There should be no mixture of fact andopinion.

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Sufficient and complete Consistent and agree with what is generally known about the subject matter.

2. There should be no shifts in the meaning of key terms and concepts throughout theargument.

RELIABILITY refers to how accurately and consistently data collection methods orresearch instruments perform by measuring the factors for which it was designed.

Now, we have learned much today. Let us see whether you can apply the appropriateinformation. Here is the continuation of last week's question. Read the information andanswer the questions which follow.

Kishauna is conducting research into the kinds of television programmes students at herschool prefer to watch.

1 (a) Suggest TWO errors that Kishauna might make that would affect the reliability ofher research. (2 marks)

(b) Explain how EACH error identified in (a) above would affect the reliability of theresearch. (2 marks)

2 State TWO considerations that Kishauna should bear in mind as she selects a samplefor her study. (2 marks)

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RESEARCH METHODS III - DATA COLLECTION

1. QUESTIONNAIRES

These are a collection of questions that the respondents complete on their own. Theyare used when factual information is required. When opinions are required anopinionnaire is used. This is constructed in a similar manner as a questionnaire. Aquestionnaire is used with all research designs. There are approximately three ways inwhich a questionnaire can be administered:

Personally

Via the telephone

Via the mail

2. INTERVIEWS

These can either be structured or unstructured. They comprise a group of questionsadministered to the respondent face to face. The structured interviews comprise a set ofprecisely formulated questions, which are asked of a respondent. The unstructuredinterviews allow the respondent to respond to a stimulus question. It is very informaland allows for the respondent to speak for as long as he/she wants. These are used inqualitative research and case studies, but can be useful in surveys especially socialsurveys.

3. OBSERVATION SCHEDULE

The researcher records observations in terms of a predetermined schedule. This is usedin action research as well as case studies.

4. ATTITUDE OR SENTIMENT SCALES

These are used to measure attitudes, beliefs and opinions of a respondent. They can beused with all types of research, but more specifically with surveys and action research.

Let us see whether you can apply the appropriate type of research and data collectionmethod(s). Here is a question adapted from the Communication Studies May 1999 pastpaper. Read the information and answer the questions which follow.

Kevin is a teacher at a secondary school. He is concerned about the high level of truancyamong the students at his school. He would like to find out the reasons for this in order

to address the problem.

(1) Identify one type of research that Kevin could engage in and list TWO characteristicsof this type of research. (3 marks)

(2a) State two methods of data collection Kevin could use in his research. (2 marks)

(2b) Choose one method of data collection from those you identified in (a) above, anddiscuss one strength and one weakness of this method. (4 marks)

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This week as a part of our preparation for the External Examination we will review skillsin research designs and methodology. Here is a possible question that could appear onPaper 01 Section One.

Read the paragraph below and answer the questions which follow.

Carla and Natoya are both doing research. Carla wants to find out the extent to whichparents in her community are informed about the drugs which are abused by someteenagers living in their community. She has already found some sources and hasgathered very important information for the study. Natoya is doing a critical study of thetreatment of the theme "Parent Absenteeism in the West Indies" in five (5) West Indiannovels. Carla plans to use a questionnaire as her main instrument to collect the data forher study. Natoya is using the library facilities at her institution to get most of theinformation that she needs for study.

a) List two differences between the two types of research referred to above. [2 marks]

b) Name two sources from which Natoya could obtain data for her study. [2 marks]

c) State four considerations that Carla should bear in mind in selecting a sample for herstudy. [4 marks]

d) Discuss two strengths and two weaknesses of the questionnaire as a researchinstrument used by Carla.[4 marks]

e) Write FIVE (5) different questions that you would ask Carla if you wanted todetermine the soundness of her sources, context and medium of the informationgathered. [8 marks]

Here are some suggested answers.

a) Two differences between library facilities {books, newspaper clippings, internet,previous studies etc.} and a questionnaire are:

1. The library facilities offer more qualitative data and the questionnaire offer morequantitative data.

2. The library facilities provide secondary data (ie. Second-hand data) and thequestionnaire provides primary data (ie. First-hand data)

b) Some sources from which Natoya could obtain data for her study include:

1. Books2. Newspaper clippings3. Internet4. Previous studies/research

c) Some considerations Carla should bear in mind in selecting the sample for her study:

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1. Population - parents from her community2. They should have common interests3. Their age4. Their sex5. The size of the sample

d) The questionnaire as a research instrument - STRENGTHS:

1. Easily and reliably scored2. Quick access to information3. Primary source4. Facilitates survey of large population5. Easily administered6. Allows for anonymity

The questionnaire as a research instrument - WEAKNESSES:

1. Limited scope for the personal and the subjective

2. Limited scope for probing responses3. Inflexible4. Responses can be misleading5. Limitations posed by literal responses

e) Some possible questions are:

1. How many persons comprised your sample?

2. What challenges did you face while conducting your research?

3. Would you regard any of your sources as being reliable and/or valid? Name them and

explain why.

4. Would you regard any of your sources as being unreliable and/or invalid? Name themand explain why.

5. To what extent did the context within which you administered the questionnaire affectthe responses you received from respondents?

Hope you made these or similar responses. Continue studying; remember we don't havemuch time. Until next week, walk good!

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WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

There are a number of definitions which have been suggested by several communicationspecialists.

Communication has been defined as the process of people interacting through the use ofmessages [Zeuschner: 1997]. Also it has been referred to as the process of humanbeings responding to the symbolic behaviour of other persons [Alder & Rodman: 2000].These by no means exhaust the various ways in which it can be defined but they doprovide us with some idea of what characterises the concept of communication which isrelevant to the communication studies course.

A close observation of them reveals that communication is a process [not an event], itinvolves people, it involves interaction among people and it involves the use ofmessages.

As a process, communication is dynamic, continuous, irreversible and contextual. It isinevitable, that is, it is sure to happen and cannot be altered or revoked. Allcommunicative events involve content and relationship. Content refers to the substanceof the message while relationship tells of the receiver and sender and how they perceivetheir interaction. Finally, communication happens in a setting or context and it is fromsuch that much meaning is derived. Context may be defined as a culture, location or arelationship.

Within the process of communication there are six primary elements.

They include the following:

* Context* Messages* Channels* Senders/Sources/Encoders* Receivers/ Decoders* Integration and Feedback/Interference/Noise

ELEMENTS OF THE PROCESS

DESCRIPTION OF THE ELEMENTS OF THE PROCESS

1. Context - Setting/environment: place, time, surrounding events, physical and

psychological climates.

2. Sources/senders - Human originators of the message or definers of the purpose ofthe message.

3. Messages - Content, that is, verbal [written/spoken] and non-verbal [gestures,movements, smells or objects].

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4. Channels - Means through which messages are transmitted, e.g., sound waves, lightwaves or other sense-stimulating means.

5. Receivers/decoders - Ultimate goal or destination of a message; translators ofmessages.

6. Interaction - The back-and-forth nature of communication [sometimes calledtransaction]. All parties in the communication event influence and are influenced by theevent.

7. Interference/feedback/noise - Responses, interruptions or blockages tointeraction. A response maybe to give an answer to a question, to think about it, or totry to respond even without full understanding.

DESCRIBING THE PROCESS

The process is both cyclical and transactional. The event begins with theconceptualisation of the message and this is the sender's role as the originator of the

message.

In addition, it is the sender's task to codify the contents of the message and to select itsmedium and channel. These parts of the process are called encoding and selection ofchannels respectively. The receiver's role is chiefly decoding and interpreting themessage sent to him/her and then providing some feedback for the sender. It is veryimportant for you to understand that both the sender and the receiver conceptualise,encode, select medium and channel, decode, interpret and provide feedback in allcommunicative events.

Often during communicative events there is some sort of interference or blockage tointeraction. These are commonly referred to as barriers to communication and may be

internal or external in nature.

Some examples of internal barriers are daydreaming, anxiety and hunger while externalbarriers would be noise from a lawn mower, gestures, attire, posture, chatting, spilledbeverage on a page and choice of words.

ACTIVITY

Here's an activity which might help you to apply what you have learnt this week:

Identify an interpersonal or small group communication setting and analyse thecommunication process. [This setting can be at school, home, a party or friends simplyhanging out].

Be sure to:

Identify the elements* Describe the process* Discuss the barriers* Remember that you need to get a communication studies syllabus.

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PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

A process is a series of action or behaviours linked in a particular order to bring about aparticular goal or to change one thing to another.

The process of communication involves a sender and receiver a medium and a channel.

Also important is the feedback.

MEDIUM(example:

letter, email, speech)

CHANNEL(example:post office,

internet, radio)

FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

1. Verbal (Speech, Writing)

2. Non-Verbal:(1) body language (gestures, posture, facial expression)(ii) use of space(iii) use of objects(iv) dress(v) graphics (charts, tables, diagrams)

(vi) integrating form for specific purposes and situations ( practical cases, roleplay and simulations)

CONTEXTS OF COMMUNICATION

1. Intrapersonal (thinking, problem solving)

2. Interpersonal (interviews, conversations, intimate communication)

3. Small groups (leadership meetings, role-taking, goal setting)

4. Organisational (business, governments, educational)

5. Academic, (essays, research papers)

6. Public (speeches, debates)

7. Intercultural (communication across social sub-groups, in tourism)

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SENDER(conceptualizes

& encodedmessage)

RECEIVER(decodesmessage:creates

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Non-verbal communication relies on elements other than speech or writing. It isjust as important as verbal communication. Often our non-verbal actions tell a differentstory from the one we are telling with words. Can you think of any examples of this?

Other examples of non-verbal communication

Use of graphics A teacher draws a diagram to explain something.

Use of object A engineer creates a scale model to show how the finished building willlook.

Use of dress Some person were dark and somber colours to funeral to indicate respectand mourning.

CONTEXTS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication does not occur in a vacuum. It is always engaged in within a context.

This activity will help you to better understand what we mean by context.

FACTORS WHICH AFFECT COMMUNICATION

(1) Audience(2) Setting(3) Attitude(4) Medium

Function and Purpose of the Language

Identifying the type of writing will help you determine its function. Consider if it is narrative,

expository, descriptive, dramatic, discursive (argumentative or controversial). Here are some

common purposes that writers have employed in their work. Can you identify others?

To inform; to elicit information

To give instructions or commands

To make requests or grant them

To communicate facts

To convey and to arouse feelings

To convince by argument and reason

To persuade by suggestion and emotion

To entertain To express the speaker's or writer's personality To convey an attitude

Any combination of the above

The Context of the Language

Every time language is used to communicate meaning it takes place within a particular set of

circumstances which may be termed context of use. The context influences the way

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language is used and it includes:

the subject matter or content to be communicated

the purpose for the communication

the writer's/speaker's awareness of her relationship to the audience

the way the writer/ speaker wishes or expects the audience to respond

Selecting Your Target Audience:

To communicate effectively with your intended target audience, you must have a "sense" of

that audience. You need to know what they are like and their expectations.

The age of the speaking/narrating voice and the age of the audience (reader/listener)

receiving the communication.

The status or social background of the audience

The knowledge background of the audience - how much or little do they know of the

topic being communicated and the level of their interest

The presence or absence of an emotional connection between speaker/writer and

intended audience - is it hostile, indifferent, cordial, intimate?

The size of the audience being addressed- inter-personal or group communication?

The degree to which the communication is intended to be public, private or intimate.

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DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

Remember now that there are four basic types of discourse/writing: description,narration, exposition and persuasion/argument. Not only are you expected to identifythe type(s) of discourse but also justify your choice by explaining each of thetechniques/devices and literary strategies used by the writer. In addition, you may berequired to summarise the writer's main point, state his/her intention in writing thepiece and discuss the suitability of the writer's style for a particular audience. Here is aquestion which appeared on a past examination paper. Try doing it!

Read the following extract, then

(1) State the writer's main point;

(2) Comment on the strategies used by the writer and discuss the suitability of theextract for a general audience. [25 marks]

THE DARKNESS THAT ENLIGHTENS

By JAY M. PASACHOFF

It is a curious fact of astronomy that one of the best ways to study the sun is to have itsglowing disk hidden from view. With its great light seemingly extinguished, the usualglare of the earth's atmosphere drops away. Then, in a sky as dark as night, the sun'sfaint outer atmosphere its veil-like corona comes boldly into view.

The total solar eclipse that swept a cone of darkness across the earth last July11dramatically banished the daylight. For unforgettable minutes hundreds of scientists andmillions of other watchers saw fantastic prominences masses of gas looping from thesun's surface out into the corona.

THE SPECIAL ECLIPSE

It was a special eclipse. Usually astronomers and their equipment go to the eclipse. Thistime the eclipse came to the astronomers, passing directly over the world's largest arrayof giant telescopes, on Mauna Kea volcano in Hawaii. Mauna Kea's altitude 13796 feetand its clear, dry air gave astronomers and their machines an unmatched earthly view ofthe phenomenon.

The eclipse darkened the great urban mass of Mexico City. The moon's central shadowdrew a swatch of darkness 9300 miles long and as much as 160 miles wide, bringingnearly seven minutes of totality in some areas a duration that occurs only every 18

years, 11 days.

ASTRONOMERS AND ECLIPSES

Why do astronomers find eclipses fascinating? While telescopes can be adapted to partlysimulate an eclipse, a real eclipse offers the best visibility for observing the corona. Ateclipse we see the corona as a crown of light around the sun; its shape is sometimesmore round, sometimes more elliptical. We see its glow extending a million miles fromthe edge of the sun. The corona is composed of the same gases as the rest of the sun;

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90 percent hydrogen, almost 10 percent helium, and a tiny quantity of the otherelements.

The corona flows outwards into the solar system as the solar wind-streams of chargedparticles. These travel 93 million miles to earth and even pass beyond the outer planets.

Eclipses are a time-tested tool of solar astronomy. Observers pursuing the 1868 eclipsedetermined through spectroscopy the existence of the gas helium-- . Other eclipsesshowed over time that the corona changes shape in step with the 11 year sunspot cycle.

THE ECLIPSE OF 1991

But few eclipses attracted scientific observers like that of 1991. Many clustered onMauna Kea. My experiments, tackling the mystery of coronal heating, did not requireelevation. My team set up two tons of telescope and electronics on the Big Island atWaikoloa. All we needed was clear skies.

Here are some notes which you could use to guide your essay:

This is an expository piece. The writer's main point is that the sun is the best studiedduring an eclipse.

In terms of strategies: description of the eclipse of the sun which provided a visualimage.

: the paradoxical title, The darkness that enlightens: the use of an example of the solar eclipse of July 11: the use of technical language: the use of a rhetorical question to heighten readers' interest and engaging his/herfascination

The visual representation of the subject matter and the use of figurative language makethe extract suitable for a general audience.

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LANGUAGE STRATEGIES

MOST IF not at all times when you hear some form of verbal communication or read

some form of prose the words, graphs, pictures and symbols which are selected andarranged by the writer/speaker have an impression on you.

LINGUISTIC FEATURES

These are linguistic features and they convey something about his/her purpose andcontext of the work. In the process of conveying this overall purpose he/she employsvarious punctuation, grammatical and linguistic arrangements; these may be calledlanguage strategies and they are imperative in the assessment or the devising of writtenor spoken communication; you are required to not only identify and analyse suchstrategies but also create work which utilises them. The linguistic features focus on thegrammar, syntax and diction of the message that the writer chooses to send to his/herintended audience.

STRATEGIES

Repeatedly candidates are asked to analyse and comment on strategies during theexamination. The following are some of those strategies:

1) Lay-out of the page: portrait/landscape, newspaper (column)/broadsheet,advertising-copy or verse lay-out and use of banner headlines

2) Typographical features: bold face, spacing , capitals, use of font size, indentation anditalic/roman type

3) Use of graphics and pictures: these help to stimulate interest for younger readers,make written concepts clear and plain and reinforces them as well

4) The type of language used: spoken or written, formal or informal, personal orimpersonal and standard or Creole (non-standard)

5) The phrasing and sentence construction: simple or complex, economical or verboseand direct or circumlocutory

6) The vocabulary used: prosaic or florid, simple or stilted, slang or formal andrepetition of key words/phrases

7) Denotative and connotative use of language: words used emotively to convey orarouse feelings, to suggest; words used referentially to emphasise or state factualcontent; words which seem to be primarily about conveying facts but which are reallyintended to arouse emotions.

8) Use of punctuation marks which stand-out as being significant: suspension marks,exclamation marks, full stops and question marks.

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ANALYSING PUNCTUATION MARKS

Each of the abovementioned strategies is functional within specific contexts. This meansthat you may, for example, recognise the use of punctuation marks in a particularpassage and this use conveys a meaning which you believe to be significant because of

the distinct impression it had on you. However, the opposite may occur by the use ofthese same punctuation marks in another passage. Therefore you must read andanalyse each case separately.

In May 2000 the following question appeared on Paper 01 Section 2. Read theinstructions and then apply what you learned about language strategies.

INSTRUCTIONS: Read the following extract from a local newspaper and identify FOURlanguage strategies at work in the above extract.

FOILED AGAIN!

Local lawmen were left puzzled again when a foiled-wrapped felon was found at thescene of what appeared to be an attempted robbery. This is the second time in two daysthat a villain has been gift wrapped for the local constabulary. What will they think ofnext?

Language Strategies

Every time you read a passage or hear some form of verbal communication there are

linguistic features which make an impression on you. This is so because the words, graphs

and symbols chosen and their arrangements are telling you something about the

writer's/speaker's purpose and context.

The use of various linguistic, grammatical and punctuation arrangements and features which

relate to each other in the process of conveying the overall purpose of the speaker/writer

may be termed language strategies.

In assessing the language strategy of a speaker/writer or in devising strategies of your own,you may want to consider the following features:

The Linguistic Features:

These deal with the grammar, syntax, and diction that the writer chooses to convey his

intended message. Consider what the use of each of the following might mean:

Type of language used: spoken or written formal or informal, personal or impersonal,

standard or Creole

The vocabulary used: prosaic or florid, simple or stilted, slang or formal, repetition of

key words/phrases

The phrasing and sentence construction: simple or complex, economical or verbose,

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direct or circumlocutory

Connotative or Denotative use of language: words used emotively- to convey /arouse

feelings, to suggest; words used referentially- to emphasize or state tactual content;

words which seem to be primarily about conveying facts but which are really

intended to arouse emotions.

Significant use of punctuation marks- e.g. pause marks such as full stops, question

signs, exclamation marks and suspension dots.

Lay-out of the page- use of banner headlines, newspaper (column) or broad-sheet

lay-out, advertising-copy layout, verse-lay-out, portrait or landscape lay-out.

Typographical features- use of font sizes, bold face, capitals, spacing, indentation,

italic/roman type.

Use of pictures and graphics- help make written concepts plain; reinforce concepts;

help to stimulate interest for younger readers

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THE LANGUAGE GLOSSARY - CLARIFYING CONCEPTS

Read the passage below and write an analysis focusing on registers, dialectal variations,attitudes to language and communicative behaviours shown.

"Joe Joe started to take Miss Blossom to pictures and little by little the line ofdemarcation between social friends and sweetheart just blurred. Joe Joe tell her that themarried man better stop come to her and Miss Blossom say him was only a social friendand Joe Joe say 'Yes', just like how him and her was social friend and she told him hewas too jealous and him say yes he was, 'But I don't want to see the man in here again,'and she said, 'Lord, Joe Joe.'

Little by little Miss Blossom started to look after the children and look afterJoe Joe clothes and meals, is like they choose to forget Bella altogether. Then oneChristmas time Bella phone over the grocery shop and tell Mr. Lee to tell Joe Joe thatshe was coming home for Christmas.

Well to tell the truth, Joe Joe never want to hear anything like that. Although MissBlossom couldn't compare to Bella because Bella was the first woman Joe Joe ever reallylove Joe Joe was feeling quite contented and he was a simple man, him never reallywant to take on Bella and her excitement and her 'got to make it'. Anyway, him tell MissBlossom say Bella coming home and she say to him, 'Well Joe, I think you should tell herthat anything stay too long serve two masters, or two mistresses as the case might be.'

Joe Joe say 'Mmmmm but remember say Bella is mi baby mother you know and nomatter what is the situation, respect is due.'

Miss Blossom said that, 'When Bella take up herself and gone to New York and leave

him, she should know that respect is due to him too.' Joe Joe say, 'Yes,' but him is aman who believe that all things must be done decently and in good order, so if him wasgoing to put away Bella him would have to do it in the right and proper way. MissBlossom say she hope that when Bella gone again him don't bother ask her fi nuttin. JoeJoe became very depressed.

If Bella looked like a checker cab the first time, she looked like Miami vice this time, innaa pants suit that look like it have in every colour flowers in the world and the colourthem loud! And Bella broader than ever Oh man. Norman said, 'Bees mus take up Bellainna that clothes dey. Any how she pass Hope Gardens them must water her.'

Bella seemed oblivious to the fact that Joe Joe was under great strain. She greeted him

as if they had parted yesterday, 'Joe Joe what you saying sweet pea.' Joe Joe just lookedat her and shook his head and said, "Wha happen Bella?' They went home but Joe Joefelt that he and the children went to meet a stranger at the airport. Bella had becomeeven stranger than before to Joe Joe. He began to wonder exactly what she was doing inAmerica, if she really was just waitressing at the club. Bella told him that he shouldcome forward, because this was the age of women's liberation, and Joe Joe told her thatmaybe she should liberate herself outta him life because he couldn't take her.

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Bella cried and said how much she loved him. Then things became really intense and itwas like a movie and they had to turn up the radio really high to prevent the childrenfrom hearing them.

Joe Joe decided to just bite him tongue while Bella was home. He took to coming homevery late all through the Christmas season because the house was usually full of Bella's

posse including the 'Yvonne' of Bear Mountain Fame, and when they came to visit thehouse was just full up of loud laughing and talking and all kinds of references that JoeJoe didn't understand. The truth was that he was really dying for Bella to leave. Hereally didn't much like the woman she had become. First of all everything she gave himor the children, she tell them how much it cost 'Devon, beg you don't bother to takethat walkman outside, is Twenty-Nine Ninety-Nine, I pay for it at Crazy Eddies,' or, 'Ann-Marie just take time with that jagging suit, I pay Twenty-Three Dollars for it inMay's Department Store.

Oh Lord.'

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THE LANGUAGE GLOSSARY - CLARIFYING CONCEPTS

WELCOME TO another week of learning new communication skills! I trust you found ourprevious lesson on 'What is language?' useful. This week we will be attempting toestablish definitions for the concepts which are integral in this module called Languageand Community.

You will recall that definitions for language and a language were given last week. So, wewill not be discussing these again but just in case anyone might not have seen them,here are brief explanations: language is the verbal form of human expression and alanguage is any distinct system of verbal expression, distinguished from other suchsystems by its peculiarities of structure and vocabulary for example, English, Spanishand Japanese. It is not only important that you know these definitions but also that youuse them carefully and appropriately as you express your ideas about language andcommunity. Do not use them interchangeably, they are not synonyms.

The term language community is used in reference to all the speakers of a particularlanguage. This means that they do not have to reside within the same geographicallocation. English speakers, as you are aware live in several parts of the world: so too doSpanish speakers some live in Spain, some in Cuba and still others in Panama. Now, theSpanish/English in each of these locations vary in structure and vocabulary, thesevariations are known as dialects. So a dialect is one of the various forms of a particularlanguage, spoken by a group in the language community. For example, JamaicanStandard English, American Standard English and British Standard English are alldialects of English. There are also non-standard dialects, such as Black English/Ebonicsin the USA and Cockney in England.

Variation is not only among dialects but also within an individual dialect of a language. A

speaker of any language can choose to speak in a form which may range from a level offormality to one of informality. This form (formality to informality) is referred to as aregister. For example, in Jamaica, Standard English is a formal register and JamaicanCreole (Patois) is a more informal register. The words colloquial and vernacular are usedto label some informal registers.

Another concept which you must understand fully is Creole. There have been severaltheories which have been given for the origin of this language form and numerousdefinitions have been submitted, and no doubt some of you have met such in yourextensive reading, but the one which we will use for this course is the following: ACreole is a new language formed from the contact between different languages. It isbased on a combination of features of the original languages, along with its own newfeatures. In situations of forced contact such as existed in the Caribbean during slavery,the speakers of the original languages (European on the one hand, African andindigenous on the other) did not know each others' languages, so they invented arudimentary form of communication drawing on the features of the original languages.These were not Creoles, since they were not fully fledged languages. They were referredto as pidgins. But the descendants of slaves born in the new situation developed theirown native languages from the combination of features from African and Europeanlanguages and added other features of their own to produce fully fledged languages.These are Creoles.

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Finally, each country has its idiosyncrasies regarding the languages used within itsborders and Jamaica is no exception. The Jamaican Language situation is referred to asa continuum. It depicts the range of languages and language dialects spoken in Jamaica.(Indeed there are a few other Caribbean territories which are described in a similarmanner.) This range is represented as a continuum because:

Not every point on the continuum is a separate language

Jamaicans will switch from one to the other continuously in conversation and in differentsituations andAccording to some linguists, the Creole is continuously changing and becoming more likeEnglish. (Decreolisation)

Look at the diagram below which should give you a visual image of the JamaicanLanguage Continuum.

BASILECT MESOLECT ACROLECT

BASILECT is the form of Creole with more African derived features than other forms andis said to be the first point on the continuum. It is most often spoken in rural areas andby uneducated persons.

MESOLECT is the form of Creole with more English derived features than the basilectand is said to be the point on the continuum next to the basilect. It is most often spokenby urban and educated persons.

ACROLECT is the Jamaican Standard English and it is the last point on the continuum. Itis most often spoken in formal situations.

Undoubtedly this notion that each form is most often spoken by particular persons is

debatable as the increased accessibility of new technological mediums of communicationthroughout the country has enabled Jamaicans to choose even more freely any varietythey wish to use along the continuum.

For more information read The West Indians and Their Language by Peter Roberts. Howare the Reflective pieces coming along? I will give some pointers on this InternalAssessment during the weeks to come.

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LANGUAGE & COMMUNITY

THIS MODULE seeks to develop in you the ability to discuss how language may bedefined and characterised as well as to consider ways in which language affects societyand is in turn affected by society. This study of language is investigated within theCaribbean context. You should be able to describe the salient features of the interactiverelationship among communication technologies, language and society. In addition, yourability to examine the significance of communication technologies in cultural interactionought to become evident.

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WHAT IS LANGUAGE?

Language is recognised as having two possible interpretations: language and alanguage. When we think of language we think of it in a general way and we define it tobe the verbal form of human expression. As such, it is therefore confined to a humancontext and not extended to any other species (We will return to this point during thecoming weeks). When we think of a language we think of it in a specific way and wedefine it to mean any distinct system of verbal expression, distinguished from other suchsystems by its peculiarities of structure and vocabulary. That is to say that everylanguage is distinct from other languages because of these features. Therefore, Spanish,Portuguese, Jamaican Creole/Patois, English, Mayan, French and Chinese are eachcategorised as a language; while all who are speakers of these languages, in verballyexpressing themselves, use language. In a way this distinction between language and alanguage corresponds to the distinction between the individual and the societyrespectively. When someone asks: "What language do you speak?" the person is askingabout a specific language; one spoken by a community of speakers. If one says, "Humanbeings have language, but birds do not", the person may mean that human beings can

speak but birds cannot. The person is not referring to a specific language but to theability to talk, to use words, to hear and understand words. So, language refers to anatural ability which all normal human beings have while a language means a specificversion used by some people who normally live in the same community.

Let us look closer at language. Language is a human being's ability to communicate,verbally and non-verbally, with other human beings as well as with himself. It allows thetransmission of desires, ideas and emotions from individual to individual and within thesame individual. Language is external in the form of sounds and symbols and it isinternal as mental activity. Language can be characterised as being: human, verbal,symbolic, systematic, maturational, non-instinctive and dynamic. Read the informationto your right to get some additional information on each of the characteristics.

It is difficult to include everything that could be said about each of these characteristicsas many linguists have much to say. You will need to do additional reading from therelevant texts so that you will be thoroughly informed. After you have read the relevantchapters from the suggested texts mentioned above, do this activity: Explain briefly, inyour own words, and using original examples, why language is considered arbitrary andsystematic.

arbitrary

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CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE EXPLANATION OF CHARACTERISTICS

1. Human Where other creatures seem to havecommunication systems which enable them to

perform basic functions, only the human specieshas one which allows such complexity and range ofperformance. We know of no other species whichcan express meanings about past or future events,articulate abstract ideas or constructadvertisements

2. Verbal Human beings make language. It is first spokenthen written. The complex anatomy in the throatand mouth allows us to modify this vibrating air inorder to make the vowels and consonants ofspeech and to manipulate its melodies, theintonation system. We have ears to hear whatothers say as well as to monitor ourselves. Wetend to use our hands and arms when we talk andalways when we write or type. Our eyes allow usto read and are also important in conversations.

3. Symbolic Language has an arbitrary nature. The connectionbetween the things signified (eg. Objects) and thewords used to signify them, that is the symbol theword 'book' and the symbolized the actual book, isarbitrary. There is nothing inherent in the word'book' for us to refer to the object as such. Indeed,in Spanish this object is referred to or symbolisedby the word 'libro'.

4. Systematic Language is rule governed. It follows observable

patterns that obey certain inherent 'rules'. To befluent in a language requires both a mastery of itsgrammatical rules and competence in theappropriate use of the sentences that arestructured by those rules.

5. Maturational A language is always developing. Most languagesdo so as they acquire vocabulary.

6. Non-instinctive Language is naturally acquired. It is suggestedthat there is a built-in mechanism which giveshuman beings the ability to acquire and learnlanguage; we are biologically conditioned.

7. Dynamic Language is not static, it is always changing.Language changes because the lives of speakerschange, for example, as speakers come intocontact with other cultures or as new discoverieschange their way of life.

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LANGUAGE AND COMMUNITY - FACTORS AFFECTING LANGUAGE

THERE ARE several features of Creoles and Creole-influenced vernacular which make

them different from Standard English. These features may be categorised as grammar,sound, vocabulary and semantics. Within Creole grammar, for example, nouns, verbsand pronouns are not treated in the same way in which they are in Standard English[SE]. Standard English nouns are marked with 's' to illustrate plurality as in 'books',however in Jamaican Creole [JC] plurality is shown by the use of the word 'dem' as in'buk dem'. (Polard: 1993) [See Syllabus - Pg. 13 - 14]

Upon observation and study of such similar features you might be able to conclude thatthere are enough differences to suggest that Creole speakers for whom Creole is theirnative tongue and who are learning SE will employ various language learning strategiesto deal with the task of acquiring SE. The JC speaker may over-generalise the rules ofSE and regularise its patterns which often lead to hypercorrection; transfer many of thedevices and distinctions of the Creole; avoid 'difficult' structures and rely on non-

linguistic methods of communicating; and/or create his own patterns which are not adirect reflection or patterns heard of seen. (Roberts, 2002: 116) Use of any of thesestrategies is common to second-language learners of all languages and there are social,political and other cultural factors which will influence the development of language andother related communicative behaviours of the learner. The following are some of thefactors affecting language:

1. SOCIAL FACTORS:

* Interaction with peers* Media* Interaction with others [different age groups]

* Structure of the society cultural plurality [several cultural groups existing in the sameenvironment

2. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS:

* Occasion determines the register [formal or informal]* Interaction in the home [What registers are used? How do members relate to eachother?]* Church ceremonial language is used* School language of instruction and interaction with peers

3. HISTORICAL FACTORS:

* Slavery and plantation life* Dispersion of tribes on the plantations and in colonies* The need to communicate* Sovereignty who colonised which territory

4. EDUCATIONAL FACTORS:

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* Level of educational background* Availability of educational materials which foster the development of language* The teacher* Interaction with students during class* Accessibility of and exposure to training* Level of literacy

5. ECONOMIC FACTORS

* Availability of materials which foster language development* Exposure to modes of communication* Travel

6. GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION

* Rurality vs urbanisation

These factors give rise to the issues which perpetuate the prevailing attitudes, both

negative and positive, to language in Jamaica and some other territories in theCaribbean. Discuss among your friends the attitudes to Standard English and JamaicanCreole which you have observed; remember that you need to be able to analyse such inthe Analytical section of the Internal Assessment. Until next week, walk good!

References:

Polard, Velma 1993, From Jamaican Creole to Standard English. A handbook forTeachers, Caribbean Research Centre, New York: Medgar Evers College.

Roberts, Peter 2002. West Indians and their Languages, Cambridge University Press.

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REVIEWING LANGUAGE AND COMMUNITY

I

Read the extract below and answer questions 1-5 that follow.

"We cannot teach French Creole in schools! What are we saying to the children? We'retelling them that this is as important as the official language? Already some of themcome from homes where they can't speak the official language. They already speakFrench Creole. That's enough! They shouldn't be learning to write it too!"

1. What is the speaker's attitude towards French Creole?

Answer: It is negative. The speaker does not believe it is acceptable. He considers itinferior as he does not believe it is as important as the official language.

2. What association does the speaker make between language and school?

Answer: He suggests that Creole has no place in school and that the language of schoolshould be an official one.

3. Name FOUR Caribbean countries that the speaker could have been referring to.

Answer: St. Lucia, Martinique, Guadeloupe and Dominica

4. Select TWO of the countries you named in 3 above and

(a) explain how their language situations differ from each other

Answer: St. Lucia and Guadeloupe have a French Creole and an English Creole andEnglish as the official language. Martinique and Guadeloupe have a French Creole andFrench as the official language.

(b) discuss what difficulties a Creole speaker in ONE of these countries would experiencewhen learning the official language.

Answer: He would need to recognise that many Creole speakers perceive the languagethat they speak to be a standard form and that the two languages share some elementsof structure and vocabulary which may lead to confusion. [You may mention examples

of sound, grammar and vocabulary difficulties learners may experience in the selectedcountry.]

5. List TWO Caribbean Creole languages OTHER THAN French Creole, and ONE territoryin which EACH is spoken.

Answer: Dutch Creole or Papiamento in Curacao/Aruba/Bonaire and St. Maarten. EnglishCreole is spoken in Jamaica, Trinidad, Grenada and Barbados etc.

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6. A European university exchange student has come to your country to spend a year atthe local college/university. He has been told that "the natives speak in a strange way"and that "one cannot even call it a language."

List FOUR characteristics of the local dialect which establish it as a language.

Answer:

* It is verbal/spoken/has a vocabulary* It is human, that is it is a form of communication used only by humans* It is dynamic and responds to cultural change* It has systematic/grammatical structures* It is symbolic* It is maturational

7. A Caribbean hotel receptionist has been accused by a local guest of "speaking Englishin one way to tourists and in different ways to locals."

(a) State TWO differences that the guest might have been referring to.

Answer: Tone, accent, use of dialect and/or register

(b) Suggest TWO reasons why the receptionist might have been "speaking English inone way to tourists and in different ways to locals."

Answer: He might have been accommodating the different accents, showing familiaritywith local guests and/or he might have been condescending and disrespectful.

I hope you recognise that the lessons we have done on DEFINING LANGUAGE andCARIBBEAN LANGUAGE SITUATIONS [that is the Table] would have been useful in

completing these questions. Also the discussions which you may have had in yourclasses regarding ATTITUDES TO LANGUAGE would have helped. Next week we willcontinue our revision exercises. Until then, walk good!

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THE ANALYTICAL SECTION

Below is a table with some valuable information about these territories; study the tableclosely and then answer the questions which follow. These questions are taken from pastexamination papers.

COUNTRY LANGUAGESITUATION

OFFICIALLANGUAGE

MASSVERNACULAR

MINORITYLANGUAGESMINORITYVERNACULAR

MAJOR SECONDLANGUAGE

LANGUAGEPLANNINGACTIVITY

Cuba Monolingual Spanish SpanishDominicanRepublic

Monolingual Spanish Spanish SomeEnglish ---

------ ------

Puerto Rico Monolingual Spanish Spanish English ------Barbados Monolingual English English ----- -------Jamaica Continuum English English

Creole------ Growing

awareness of the

Creole as monthstongue andsymbol of national identity

Guyana Continuum English EnglishCreole

HindiBhojpuriAmerindian

Same as Jamaica

St. Kitts &Nevis andMonserrat

* English English ------ --------

Antigua &Barbuda

* English LocalDialects

------- -------

Belize Multilingual English EnglishCreole SpanishMayanGarifuna

------- Creation of Bilingualpopulation inEnglish andSpanish

Trinidad Multilingual English (postcreole)English

FrenchCreoleSpanishBhojputriHindiChineese

------ --------

Grenada DyingBilinggualism

English English(infulenced

by FrenchCreole)FrenchCreolerapidly/reeding

------- -------- -------

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COUNTRY LANGUAGESITUATION

OFFICIALLANGUAGE

MASSVERNACULAR

MINORITYLANGUAGESMINORITYVERNACULAR

MAJOR SECONDLANGUAGE

LANGUAGEPLANNINGACTIVITY

Dominica Bilinggual English FrenchCreole

Haiti Diglossic French French

Creole

------ ------ Advanced

standardi-zationof Haitian

Guadeloupe&Martinique

Diglossic French FrenchCreole

English ------ Incipientstandardi-zation

St. ThomasBidialectal English English French

Patois

------- -------

Curacao Monolingual Dutch Dutch ---- ------- -------

Aruba & Bonaire

Bilingual Dutch PapiamentuDutch,English,Spanish

------- -------

BritishVirginIslands

Monolingual English English -------- ------- -----

Key * Language Situation unknown

The following are questions which appeared on the Paper 01, May 1999.

Caribbean Territories Grouped according to Language Situation

Group A Group B Group C Group D Group E Group F

Jamaica Trinidad St. Lucia Martinique Aruba BelizeBarbados Grenada Dominica Guadelope CuracaoAntigua

1. Explain any FOUR of these linguistic groupings to a person unfamiliar with theCaribbean area. (4 marks)

2. Identify FOUR ways in which a language other than the official language spoken inany ONE of the territories shown in the table, differs from English. (4 marks)

3. Explain why a non-standard English speaker in Group B may experience difficulties inlearning English.

4. A man from Group C is planning a Caribbean tour.

(a) Name ONE territory listed in the table, where he may have difficulty communicatingin the language spoken there. Give ONE reason for your answer. (2 marks)

(b) Name ONE territory where he may experience no difficulty communicating in thelanguage spoken there. Give ONE reason for your answer. (2 marks)

SUGGESTED ANSWERS:

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1. A person who is unfamiliar with the Caribbean area would have to be told that:

* Territories in Group A have English as their official language and an English Creole.

* Territories in Group B have English as their official language and an English Creolewith remnants of French.

* Territories in Group C have English as their official language and have both French andEnglish Creoles.

* Territories in Group D have French as their official language and have a French Creole.

* Territories in Group E have Dutch as their official language and have a Dutch Creole(Papiamentu)

* Territory in Group F has English as the official language and Amerindian languages.

2. The following would reflect the ways in which the languages differ:

Use of concord (subject and verb agreement)Use of the passive voicePluralization of nounsFormation of tensesSyntactic structures; double negatives, serial verbs etc.Pronoun replacementUse of modifiersOmission of initial and final consonantsVocabulary

3. A non-standard English speaker in Group B may experience difficulties in learning

English because of the fact that where an English-based creole exists many Creolespeakers perceive the language they speak to be English. In addition, the two languagesshare some elements of structure and vocabulary which may lead to confusion.

4. (a) Aruba and Curacao are two territories in which a man from group C may havedifficulty communicating. The reason is that in these territories Dutch and Papiamentuare spoken, but neither is spoken in his territory.

(b) Martinique and Guadeloupe are two territories where he may experience no difficultycommunicating. The reason is that both French and English are spoken in theseterritories and they are also spoken in his homeland.

CHECK http://encyclopedia.caribseek.com/Caribbean_Population_and_Languages/

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LINGUISTIC FEATURES OF JAMAICAN CREOLE (Patois)

Jamaican Creole is considered a language like any other for two' basic reasons. Itpossesses the characteristic features of a language and it performs the functions also. Thefollowing is a brief outline of some of these linguistic features:

Phonology: the sound system of a language. Patois has a sound system independentof English.

Jamaican Creole does not use the "th" sound but substitutes two other sounds: the"t' sound as in "tik" for the English "thick" and "d" sound as in "dem" for the English"them". .

Jamaican Creole does not pronounce the consonants "q" and "c". These aresubstituted by the consonants "k" and "s". So, the English "Call" is pronounced"Kaal"

Lexicon: the words of a language. Although the lexical items of Patois are Englishbased many are used in non-English ways.

Some Patois words recognized to be used in English do not carry the samemeaning, ego "Ignorant" in Patois means easily angered, very upset not lackingknowledge. "Belly" can mean pregnancy depending on context. .

Some English words are compounded to create nouns not present in English e.g.Foot bottom for sole, eye water for tear.

Some Creole words are formed by reduplication (base words are repeated to formnew words). For example, friedi friedi to mean fearful or timid, chati chati to meantalks excessively or out of turn.

Some Creole words are adopted from other non-English languages, eg, maroon -Spanish, pikni -Portugese, unu (you plural) - Igbo

Grammar: rules governing the correct use of a language.

Pluralization is signaled by the addition of the "dem" after the noun e.g. Thepeopledem. Or to emphasize the numerical marker - "de two book dem".

Possession is not signaled as in English by the apostrophe "s" suffix but by theword ;'fi" as in "A fimi handout".

Zero Copular construction: A copular links the subject to the predicate. It is derivedfrom the verb "to be". Creole can have a zero copular structure eg. Jane sick forMary is sick in English or Jane de home for Jane is at home.

Syntax: the proper arrangement of words in a sentencePatois mainly uses syntax to highlight certain elements within a sentence while English willoften use pronunciation by verbally stressing that which is to be emphasized. See if you can

determine which part of each sentence is being emphasized using the syntactic method inthese Creole sentences: Is Pam eat de mango; Is de mango Pan eat; Is yesideh Pam eat demango; Is eatPam eat de mango.

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THE ANALYTICAL SECTION

BELOW IS the sample of an analysis of an excerpt from Bella Makes Life. Last week'spublication has the excerpt itself. Make sure you refer closely to it as you read thisanalysis. This analysis is much longer than what is being required of you (the syllabusstates a word limit of 350), however, it will provide you with the necessary focus pointsand a thorough examination of this piece which I have selected for this lesson. TheAnalysis

In the short story Bella Makes Life Lorna Goodson explores the changes in character thatoccur when a woman named Bella migrates to the United States of America (leaving herfamily in the process). Bella does this in order to provide for her family, what sheperceives to be, a better way of life. This particular extract illustrates a part of Bella'smetamorphosis. The gradual change is shown in Bella's physical attire, her manner of

communication and the new way in which she relates to her spouse Joe and theirchildren.

The register that each character uses and the reasons for their use of it are importantto our understanding of them as individuals, as they shape our reactions to them.Whether the register is formal or informal, colloquial or ceremonial, a person's choice ofregister tells the reader the truth about a person's personality. Goodison, who is thenarrator in the story, frequently switches registers smoothly and often betweenJamaican Standard English, pure Basilect Creole and a combination of both Mesolect.She uses words such as 'posse', 'demarcation' and 'oblivious', which are not native toJamaican Creole, and which may leave the reader wondering what is she talking about.Another example is the continuous use of 'patois' the Jamaican form of Creole, indiscussing Bella's imminent return, then including the last sentence, 'Joe Joe was verydepressed'. This curious transition occurs throughout the story. In general, Goodisonuses Jamaican Creole to apply to a story about Jamaicans, therefore suitable to thesocial environment, and to appeal to her Jamaican readers who will be able to relate tothis more informal, casual style of writing/speaking.

The choice of registers also applies to Joe and his friends. He, in using certainexpressions, gives the impression of a person with general intelligence and commonsense, and speaks in Mesolect as well as Basilect, parts of the Jamaican LanguageContinuum. He uses this register so as to relate to his peers and fit into his socialenvironment. The company he keeps, as evinced by Miss Blossom and Norman, uses thesame colloquial form of expression. He does the same to be a part of their socialgrouping, to be accepted, recognised, and also because it is unlikely that he has been

exposed to other types of register that may change his lifestyle; he uses the casual,vernacular, informal form of English. The result, for the three characters, is a frank,straightforward and candid style of speech, full of clichs and idiomatic expressions, asshown in the description of Bella by Norman, and the discussion between Joe and MissBlossom. Using this register enables Joe to be accepted and blend into his environmentmuch more easily than if he was not using it.

On the other hand, Bella's register perfectly reflects her changing attitudes andperspectives on life. It can be inferred from the passage that Bella was raised in the

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same environment as Joe was, and the change in her has overwhelmed him, forexample his reaction when Bella returns as a 'stranger'. Her departure from her naturalsetting to a foreign one has caused a change in her innate personality. The register thatshe chooses to use in her home makes her an outcast, which is shown clearly when onecontrasts it with the easy relaxed flow of speech between Joe and his friends. She wantsto impress her family, to show that she has acquired some 'desired' form of culture

(American) and wealth in her travels, but it only results in alienating them and herself.The speech becomes humorous when one hears the mixture of American lingo andJamaican Creole, for example, her mention of "... take time with that jagging suit...",but it can also be seen as a pathetic attempt to return to a past which cannot berecaptured, and trying to combine her two homes, yet failing repeatedly.

Dialectal variations refer to the change in the form of the same language overgeographic, time and cultural gaps. The first most obvious situation is that both partiesare using the same language - English, with different forms, connotations, dialects andso forth. The English used by Joe, Miss Blossom and Norman falls between the Basilectand Mesolect, parts of the Jamaican Language Continuum. Intra-personally, Joe and theothers never move significantly from these two categories, flowing effortlessly betweenthem, occasionally in the same sentence, for example, in the statement, "- butremember say Bella is mi baby mother you know and no matter what is the situation,respect is due." This simple transfer is typical of all of the characters in the story, withtwo exceptions.

The first is Bella, as mentioned before, who changes her dialect due to the spaces oftime, culture and geography. After a few years, in a foreign country, far away from asimilar culture, Bella has to change her way of life to suit her new environment andgradually become accepted, displayed by her change in dialect, from Jamaican StandardEnglish (JSE). Since significant interactions with her native culture would be rare, shewould gradually accept the new dialect as her own, yet still inserting references to herformer dialect. That struggle between JSE and American Standard English (ASE) andJamaican Creole (JC) can be seen through the few words that she says at the end of the

extract, including, "Devon, beg you don't bother ...". "... beg you" is a part of Jamaicanvernacular, however 'bother', pronounced correctly, is not generally used in ordinaryconversation.

The author is also exhibiting dialectal variation. She may be doing this toaccommodate her JC and her JSE speaking audience, therefore altering sentencestructure, word choice, and adding a few statements that seem out of place in theextract, such as the word 'posse' an American word following descriptions in Patois. Herlanguage can also be seen as her own peculiar form of idiolect, as if the narrative wasoriginally written in Creole, then shaped into an acceptably written, partly JSE form.

Cultural stereotypes can be seen through dialectal variation. The act of a Jamaican

Creole woman to travel to the United States and suddenly change her speech, accents,habits et cetera, is a common enough occurrence, one perpetuated by the media,playwrights and novelists.

Due to the change in dialects and registers, the varying attitudes shown to thesechanges are expected and show the general disposition of mankind to discrepancies. Thehistorical nature of JC has led to it being what some call a 'bastard' language and hasnot been universally accepted as a language at all. Bella, in contributing to this, changesher language to suit her new environment. This abrupt change is symbolic of the

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attitude that some people have towards Creole and Standard languages. Bella obviouslythinks that ASE is superior to JC and even JSE, as is shown by her need to incorporate itinto her former lifestyle. If, however, Bella had not succumbed to the pressures placedon her to conform to her new society, she may have been humiliated, insulted, andprejudiced against because of her language choice.

On the other hand, Joe Joe is unable to comprehend the reasoning behind Bella's abruptchange of behaviour. It is not coincidental that Joe Joe is able to relate to Miss Blossombetter than he can to Bella, proving that theirs is a dysfunctional relationship that cannotwork until they are able to communicate with each other in their own language. Not onlyis Joe Joe unable to understand her as a person, he is also unable to understand herattitude to her newfound language, because he has not been in the same situation thatshe has experienced. As a result, the attitudes towards her range from critical (MissBlossom) to disparaging (Norman). In addition, there is the inferred sycophantic attitudetowards Bella that would be displayed by other members of the community, representedin this case by the women who gather to talk with Bella. They quite likely have the sameidea of superiority of ASE that Bella holds. Symbolically, Joe Joe is unable to understandwhat they are discussing.

Finally, in regards to communicative behaviors (non-verbal communication), theauthor captures much meaning which is not conveyed through the use of words.Goodison states, "... line of demarcation between social friends and sweethearts ..."between Joe Joe and Miss Blossom had been crossed. Her movement into thehousehold's daily activities signifies, without words, the gradual replacement of Bellawith Miss Blossom in Joe Joe's life. Bella's appearance her outlandish clothes, signifiesincongruity with her setting, and immediately begins, or continues, her removal as thewoman in Joe Joe's life. Her presentation of the gifts to her children, carefullymentioning prices as if she was hard pressed to let go of the money, not only shows thelack of maternal affection that Bella has for her children, but also her need to showeveryone that she has succeeded in her life.

Time is another factor in communicative behaviour. Bella returns suddenly afterweeks, months even years, and expects everything to be exactly the way she had left it.The fact that she communicates with her husband through a third person, Mr. Lee'stelephone, shows the dwindling affection and communicability that is occurring betweenthe two of them. This lack of affection is shown through Joe Joe's increasing state ofdepression, not wanting her to return for various reasons and, contradicting thesereasons is his unwillingness to commit to Miss Blossom, showing his lack of desire toeither settle down or repeat a bad mistake.

The lack of communication is shown by Bella having to finally resort to sexual favours toget him to stay with her. As a result, she feels like a stranger to Joe Joe, even though itis likely that they have known each other for years. Finally, his returning home late

every evening, sacrificing his Christmas joy in his need to avoid her, shows the readerthat unless one of them begins to compromise, there will be no understanding in thisrelationship, and it is doomed to failure.

In conclusion, the dialectal variations, communicative behaviours and the varying usesof register by the characters in the extract are all influenced by their attitudes towardsthe form of language they speak. The extract provides examples of the many ways inwhich language may be used and abused by different individuals. The meaning which isattached to the language itself, as well as, the attitudes towards it is shaped by the

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culture to which the characters of this extract belong. Bella and her change inpersonality become the catalyst for the manifestation of these attitudes.

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THE LANGUAGE ANALYSIS

Language Registers

This refers to the kinds of English appropriate to a particular purpose or situation. Itrefers to the levels of formality/informality and tone that are correct for a specific

context .A register can refer to either written or spoken language. In deciding whichregister is suitable for a given situation one has to consider factors such as the audiencefor which the communication is intended, the nature of the subject matterbeing spokenour written about, the medium which may/ may not include non-verbal elements ofcommunication and the writer's attitude towards the content he writes about.

Language registers may be identified as:

Formal: for use in formal social settings e,g. Ceremonies, services and inconversation between strangers. It almost always involves the use of StandardEnglish.

Casual: for use between friends//acquaintances in a non-formal setting. Usually

marked by use of slang and ellipsis.

Intimate: for use between people who are very close. Usually marked by minimalsentence structure, ellipsis, non-verbal elements of communication andspecialized wordslexpression restricted in meaning to those involved in thisintimate relationship.

Consultative: for use in a situation in which the listener is expected to give someform of continuous feedback based on the information provided by the speaker.

Frozen: for use in print and public speeches, sermons and recitations for whichno direct response from a reader/listener is expected.

Dialectal Variations

Dialectal variation refers to spoken and written different in the use of language within aspeech community; in our case English. Speech related variation within the Caribbeanmay all be located on the creole continuum. This is a spectrum of language variationlinking the more standard end of the linguistic range to the creole end. In short, theacrolect refers to the standard variety of the language, the mesolect refers to varietieswhich are closer in features to the standard language and whjch are used primarily inthe urban areas. The basilect represents the variety mainly used in the rural areas and

which has mainly creole features. In commenting on dialectal variation the studentneeds to be aware of the different types of English used and spoken in the Caribbean.Their difference is apparent in their accent and inflection. These include:

Foreign English: used mainly by tourists and expatriates from other countrieswhere English is a major language. It may also be spoken by Caribbean nationalswho try to imitate be accent of tourists with whom they associate.

Radio and Television English: involve sound and the human voice in the electronic

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media. Can be divided into four categories- newscasts, music programmes,advertisements and general public features.

Erudite English: language containing features that show that the speaker isknowledge-able of words, phrases and idioms, especially older ones and foreignones which are considered to be difficult.

Colloquial English: refers to English which is characteristically West Indianwithout being creole English - marked by differences in pronunciation, pitch andsyntax.

Rasta English: variety of English made popular by the Rastafarian cult whichconsists of biblical and apocalyptic words; words related to Africa or thingsAfrican; punning or playing on words and "I" words.

Profane English: refers to impolite and shocking expressions and obscenities(used in cursing) involving God, religious things, sex, sexual organs andpractices.

Attitudes to Language

Attitudes to the varieties of English spoken in the Caribbean result from a number offactors including historical and social ones. Crucial to the attitude one adopts are twoconsiderations - the association of education, formality and good taste with standardEnglish and the question as to whether creole English is fitting and appropriate forcertain uses. Attitudes to the use of language may include: pride, confidence andcelebration, on the one hand, and contempt, shame and even ridicule of the languageone speaks. Code switching or adopting the variety of English spoken by others can be asign of lack of confidence and pride in one's mother tongue.

Communicative Behaviours

This refers to communicating impressions to others without being aware of doing so(unconscious) and without even wishing to do so (inevitable). Such include six elements:

Vocalics - use of the volume, rate, tone, and pitch of the voice to give dimensionto meaning.

Proxemix - use of space to communicate Artifacts - objects that relay a message about you. Movement- posture, gesture, eye contact, facial expression that say something

about you. Chronemics- attitude and use of time that communicate something about you. Our Five Senses - these convey information to you about others.

Non-verbal communication has six basic functions - substituting for words; reinforcingwords; regulating how the verbal message is received; contradicting the verbalmessage; managing impression or the way other people perceive you andestablishing relationship.

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EVALUATING ARGUMENTSHere are the suggested responses to those exercises given in the last publication.

A. QUESTION: (1a) Consider the argument implicit in the Mayor's statement. Brieflyexplain what fallacy you think is present.

The quiet farming district of Belnavis in deep rural St Richard has witnessed atremendous influx of visitors over the past three days. Many are drawn to the site ofwhat locals are calling a modern day miracle. When this reporter visited Belnavis on NewYear's Day the Mayor confirmed: "Since the Bishop's visit on Christmas Day there hasbeen a miracle at the abandoned well at Eastside. After years of contamination from thebauxite factory, the water is now safe for use. It's true because he even drank some ofit. Our water problems are now over."

ANSWER: The Mayor's statement implies that Belnavis' water problems are now over asa result of the Bishop's visit. The argument suggests a cause and effect relationship. It isfallacious because someone's mere visit could not cause the water to become clean; it

does not follow simply because the clean water is preceded by his visit. The Mayor alsomakes an attempt to make it believable by saying that the Bishop "even drank some ofit". The fallacy is post hoc/false cause.

QUESTION: (2b) Consider critically Sir John Brown's argument implicit in his statementand briefly explain what fallacy you think is present.

Defeated Member of Parliament and leader of the People's Lightning League, is cryingfoul at the results of the January 5th General Elections. Sir John Brown says that thishas been the most fraudulent election in the history of Cali. "Never in my life have Iseen this level of bogus voting, the stuffing of ballot boxes and the intimidation ofvoters." When asked what proof he had for these alleged Election Day malpractices, Sir

John retorted, "It is plain for all to see. Nobody can dispute it and especially since it wasreported in The Daily Truth, the nation's largest selling and most prestigious newspaperin the English speaking Caribbean." An appeal in the High Court is expected.

ANSWER: Sir John Brown's statement implies that the voting was fraudulent because itwas reported in The Daily Truth. He uses this as his proof of the alleged Election Daymalpractice. He attempts to make this believable by further suggesting that thenewspaper's popularity, that is, it is "the most prestigious and largest sellingnewspaper"- which is why we should believe his argument. The fallacy is an appeal toauthority.

B. QUESTION: For each of the following cases identify the fallacy and say why the

reasoning is unsound.

1. A group of women were discussing their household problems. Mrs. Walters, theirhostess, joined the group saying: "I'm so glad we're talking about these problems. It'sso important to talk about things that are in our minds. We spend so much of our timein the kitchen that of course our household problems are in our minds. So it's importantto talk about them."

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ANSWER: The fallacy is circular argument. Mrs. Walters restates the conclusion as if itwere itself the support for the main point. The point is repeated at the end. However,she never gets around to providing support for her main point.

2. If a coat or suit becomes old, ragged or out of style, we don't continue to wear it. Wereplace it with a new one. Similarly, employees who reach

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