Crow - Visible Signs, Semiotics in the Visual Arts

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Other AVA titles of interest

Other titles in AVA’s

Graphic Design range include:

The Visual Dictionary of

Graphic Design

The Fundamentals of

Graphic Design

Basics Design: Image

Basics Design: Design Thinking

Basics Graphic Design:

Approach and Language

Left to Right:

The Cultural Shift From

Words to Pictures

Verbalising the Visual:

Translating Art and Design

into Words

Visual Communication:

From Theory to Practice

[email protected]

[email protected]

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AVA Academia’s Required Reading Range:

Course Reader titles are designed to support

visual arts students throughout the lifetime

of an undergraduate degree. Packed with

examples from students and professionals and

fully illustrated with clear diagrams and inspiring

imagery, they offer an essential exploration

of the subject.

This second edition of Visible Signs is an update

to the popular first edition of the same name, in

which David Crow introduces design students to

the fundamentals of semiotics. Basic semiotic

theories are taught in most art schools as part of a

contextual studies programme, but many students

find it difficult to understand how these ideas

might impact on their own practice. Visible Signs

tackles this problem by explaining semiotic terms

and theories in relation to visual communication,

with illustrative examples taken from

contemporary art and design. Concepts such as

signs and signifiers, and language and speech are

all explored within the framework of graphic

design and the visual arts.

The second edition features new content and

includes case studies, student exercises and

200 visuals that have been specifically sourced

to best illustrate the ideas discussed within

the book.

Features substantial new and revised content.

Addresses the lack of an accessible and visually

interesting publication on the topic of semiotics.

Showcases 200 colour visuals specifically created

to illustrate the ideas discussed in the text.

David Crow studied Communication Design

at Manchester Metropolitan University. He

subsequently worked as a designer in London

for Assorted iMaGes and as Art Director for

Island Records before running his own

consultancy. As a freelance designer he

worked for a range of clients in the cultural

sector including Rolling Stones Records,

Virgin Records, Phonogram and the Royal

Shakespeare Company. Crow then moved into

academia as Head of the Department of Graphic

Arts at Liverpool John Moores University. He is

currently Dean of the Faculty of Art and Design

and Pro-Vice Chancellor at Manchester

Metropolitan University.

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RRRPublisher’s note

Ethical practice is well known,

taught and discussed in the

domains of medicine, law, science

and sociology but was, until

recently, rarely discussed in terms

of the Applied Visual Arts. Yet

design is becoming an increasingly

integral part of our everyday lives

and its influence on our society

ever-more prevalent.

AVA Publishing believes that our

world needs integrity; that the

ramifications of our actions upon

others should be for the greatest

happiness and benefit of the

greatest number. We do not set

ourselves out as arbiters of what is

‘good’ or ‘bad’, but aim to promote

discussion in an organised fashion

for an individual’s understanding

of their own ethical inclination.

www.avabooks.com

http://blog.avabooks.com

www.avabooks.com


An Introduction to Semiotics in the Visual Arts

DAVIDCROW

Job:01980 Title:Visible Signs 2nd Edition (AVA)Page:Cover

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9 782940 411429

ISBN 13: 978-2-940411-42-9

£35.00

UK Job:01980 Title:Visible Signs 2nd Edition (AVA)Page:Cover

Job:01980 Title:Visible Signs 2nd Edition (AVA)Page:1

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email:

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An AVA Book

Published by AVA Publishing SARue des Fontenailles 16Case Postale1000 Lausanne 6SwitzerlandTel: +41 786 005 109Email: [email protected]

Distributed by Thames & Hudson(ex North America)181a High HolbornLondon WC1V 7QXUnited KingdomTel: +44 20 7845 5000Fax: +44 20 7845 5055Email: [email protected]

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English Language Support OfficeAVA Publishing (UK) Ltd.Tel: +44 1903 204 455Email: [email protected]

Second edition © AVA Publishing SA 2010First published in 2003

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means,electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without permission of the copyright holder.

ISBN 978-2-940411-42-9

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Design by David CrowTypeset in FF Din and FFScala

Production by AVA Book Production Pte. Ltd., SingaporeTel: +65 6334 8173Fax: +65 6259 9830Email: [email protected]

All reasonable attempts have been made to trace, clear and credit thecopyright holders of the images reproduced in this book. However, if anycredits have been inadvertently omitted, the publisher will endeavour toincorporate amendments in future editions.

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DAVIDCROW

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CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 6

COMPONENTS 10

What is theory? 12Saussure and Peirce 13Linguistic signs 16

Agreement 18Linguistic community 20

Portfolio 24

HOW MEANING IS FORMED 28

Categories of signs 30Semiosis 34Unlimited semiosis 34

Value 36Syntagm 39Paradigm 40Codes 41Metaphor and metonym 42

Portfolio 44

READING THE SIGN 50

The reader 52Barthes 54Denotation and connotation 55

Convention and motivation 56Language and speech 59Myth 60

Portfolio 62

TEXT AND IMAGE 68

Digital and analogue codes 70Advertising writing 72

The three messages 73Anchorage and relay 74

Portfolio 76

OFFICIAL LANGUAGE 82

Habitus 84The production of legitimate language 86

Capital 90Rules 91

The competition for cultural legitimacy 92Flux and hierarchy 93Authorised language 95

Portfolio 96

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UNOFFICIAL LANGUAGE 104

Unofficial codes 106Graffiti 108

The graffiti writer 110Motivation 111Prestige and excitement 112Categories 112Visual dialect 114

Unofficial language and the visual arts 116Portfolio 120

SYMBOLIC CREATIVITY 128

Hyperinstitutionalisation 130Play and identity 133

Portfolio 136

JUNK AND CULTURE 142

Dirt and taboo 144Rubbish theory 148

Semiotic categories of objects 148Rubbish as a resource 154Portfolio 156

OPEN WORK 162

The open work 164Information and meaning 166Openness and the visual arts 168Openness and information 170Form and openness 174

Portfolio 176

SELF-DIRECTED STUDY: EXERCISES 182REFERENCES 186BIBLIOGRAPHY 187INDEX 188ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND PICTURE CREDITS 192

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INTRODUCTION

This second edition of ‘Visible Signs’ aims to explore themechanics of visual language in an attempt to explain howvisual communication works. The terms and theories usedto explain visual communication are borrowed fromlinguistics (the study of language) and semiotics (the studyof signs). The presentation of semiotic theory is oftenclouded by difficult language, which, in practice, makes thediscussion of work unnecessarily challenging. This book isintended to help students unpick the signs in their ownwork; to understand how communication works and, ifnecessary, to deconstruct their own work to determine whyit is not working as they intended.

Each chapter provides an overview of a particular facet ofsemiotic theory. The core text remains unchanged as itdeals with well-established ideas and theories that are stillrelevant today. This edition updates the visual referencematerial in the portfolio pages with carefully selectedexamples of ‘real’ design presented alongside extendedcaptions. These function as mini case studies that referexplicitly to theories introduced in preceding chapters;illustrating the timeless nature of the underlying theories.Each portfolio section refers the reader on to creative self-directed exercises.

The motivation behind this publication is to help studentsof art and design to find credibility in their practice througha deeper understanding of many of the intuitive decisionsthey make.


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1. COMPONENTS

We begin our journey through semiotics by looking at thefundamental building blocks of language. Structuralistsdeveloped ideas and theories that demonstrated the arbitrarynature of language and determined the necessary formalconditions for languages to exist and develop. The study ofart and design has borrowed heavily from these ideas andhere we begin to relate these to a visual language that usesboth text and image.

2. HOW MEANING IS FORMED

Having looked at the underlying structure of languageand the sign, chapter two examines how we extract meaningfrom a sign. We define the different categories of signs anddiscuss the structural relationships between them. We lookat why some signs appear to be quite abstract and whythese are still easily read and understood. We discuss howsigns are organised into systems and how these underlyingstructures and patterns help to form meaning.

3. READING THE SIGN

The transfer of meaning from author to reader is not aone-way process, but a process of creative exchangebetween author and reader. We introduce Roland Barthes’idea that semiotics takes in any system of signs, and theidea of a visual language. This chapter moves through anumber of theoretical terms, helping us to appreciate theseveral layers of meaning to a sign and to understand howthe reader interprets the way a sign is expressed.

‘Except for the immediatesatisfaction of biologicalneeds, man lives in a worldnot of things but of symbols.’1

1. Von Bertalanffy L.General System Theory(1968), Braziller inBolinger D. Language theLoaded Weapon (1980)


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4. TEXT AND IMAGE

This chapter continues with Roland Barthes’ ideas aboutthe relationship between text and image. He uses popularculture as a reference point to explain that these differenttypes of signs have distinct structural relationships that canbe employed by artists and designers to help control theway that their compositions are read.

5. OFFICIAL LANGUAGE

Language is a social and political instrument as well as a functional one. As languages are developed, a sense ofhierarchy is also developed around those languages. Thischapter looks at cultural hierarchy and examines the waysthat societies ensure the acceptance and legitimisation oflanguage within their territorial boundaries.

6. UNOFFICIAL LANGUAGE

Outside of the recognised and approved use of visuallanguage, there is a way of generating meaning that isindependent of such political control. Here we explore theunofficial and informal codes that are used in daily life bymany groups in our societies. This includes the rituals ofsports fans and the use of graffiti and vandalism asmethods of communication. The underlying motivationbehind these visual dialects is examined along with the way that these messages are loaded with second-ordersignifiers related to dissent and resistance.

INTRODUCTION


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7. SYMBOLIC CREATIVITY

‘Visible Signs’ looks for the possibility of a visual languagethat already exists, growing from its own resources andused by a large group of people who could be said to beoutside of the arts and media. This might be considered aninformal visual language that does not use the economicfield as its source of rationale. We will discuss the notion ofsymbolic creativity and its use by individuals to find ways ofvisually representing their identities.

8. JUNK AND CULTURE

We can identify a system by looking at what has beendiscarded from the system and classified as dirt or rubbish.We investigate the classification of cultural objects and lookat the possibility of changing their value by placing them inan entirely different context. Here, we also look at the useof rubbish as a resource for the visual arts. It allows artistsand designers to bring new meaning to discarded items andexplore alternative ways of creating meaning.

9. OPEN WORK

The work of Umberto Eco is a key resource for anexploration into the creative relationship between theauthor and their audience. Here, we explain the connectionbetween communication and information, and explore howa richness of communication is possible by carefullycreating the freedom for the reader to make their owncreative associations.


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COMPO-NENTS

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1. COMPONENTSWhat is theory?

The word ‘theory’comes from the Greekword ‘theoria’,meaning to view, toobserve or to reflect.The dictionary definestheory as anexplanation or systemof anything: anexposition of theabstract principles of either a science or an art. Theory is a speculation onsomething rather thana practice.

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The theories that weapply to graphicdesign and visualcommunication aretaken from a study ofthe general science ofsigns known in Europeas semiology and inthe USA as semiotics.

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Saussure and Peirce

This new science was proposed in theearly 1900s by Ferdinand de Saussure(1857–1913), a Swiss professor of linguistics.At around the same time an Americanphilosopher called Charles Sanders Peirce(1839–1914) was developing a parallel studyof signs that he called semiotics. To avoidconfusion we will use the term semiotics as it has become more widely known. Althoughthey were working independently, there werea number of fundamental similarities in bothof their studies. Both Saussure and Peircesaw the sign as central to their studies. Bothwere primarily concerned with structuralmodels of the sign, which concentrated onthe relationship between the components of

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the sign. For both Saussure and Peirce, it isthis relationship between the components ofthe sign that enables us to turn signals, inwhatever form they appear, into a messagewhich we can understand. Although they used different terminology, there are clearparallels between the two descriptions ofthese models (see the diagram on p. 22).However, there are also key differencesbetween the studies. The most significantdifference is that Saussure’s study wasexclusively a linguistic study and as a resulthe showed little interest in the part that thereader plays in the process. This was a majorpart of Peirce’s model, as we shall see whenwe look at how meaning is formed in chaptertwo. There are three main areas that formwhat we understand as semiotics: the signs

themselves; the way they are organised intosystems and the context in which they appear.The underlying principles, which have becomethe cornerstone of modern semiotics, werefirst heard by students of Saussure in acourse in linguistics at the University ofGeneva between 1906 and 1911. Saussuredied in 1913 without publishing his theoriesand it was not until 1915 that the work waspublished by his students as the ‘Cours deLinguistique Générale’ (Course in GeneralLinguistics). Prior to this, the study oflanguage (linguistics) largely concerned itselfwith historical usage of languages. In thesearch for the source of meaning, linguistslooked to the origins of language. Linguistssupposed that if meaning could be found inlanguage then the nature of thought itself

Saussure’s Model for a SignThe two fundamentalelements that make up a sign are the‘signifier' and the‘signified’. A sign isproduced when these two elements are brought together.


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could be found by looking at the origins oflanguage. In its early stages, linguistics wasan attempt to explain signs by imaginingthem as descriptions of a series of gestures,actions and sensations.

This developed into a comparative study of the forms of words in different languagesand their evolution. At this stage, linguistswere concerned with the structure oflanguage in its own right, with no distinctrelation to the mind. Prior to his post atGeneva, Saussure himself was concernedwith the study of historical languages and had a particular interest in the comparativegrammar of Indo-European languages,particularly Sanskrit.

Saussure was unhappy with the waylinguists were approaching language, as hefelt they had not determined the nature ofwhat they were studying. As a result, Saussureproposed an entirely different way of lookingat language, by returning to the essentialsand looking at language as a system of signs.If we could understand how the system oflanguage works then this might lead us tohow meaning is formed. One crucial differencein this approach was that Saussure and thestructuralists were concerned with theunderlying principles of language, which allspeakers or bearers of a language have incommon. These underlying principles arefixed and do not evolve over time with social ortechnological change. Saussure was a linguist.As a result, his theory focused on languageand his model is centred on words as signs.

There are three mainareas that form whatwe understand as semiotics: the signsthemselves; the waythey are organised into systems and the contextin which they appear.

1 2 3

4 5

6 7 8

CrossesA variety of differentcrosses. The meaning of each cross isdependent on its context for its meaning.

1. The cross of St Julian 2. The cross of St George 3. The Red Cross4. No stopping sign (UK)

5. Positive terminal 6. Hazardous chemical7. Do not wring 8. No smoking

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Linguistic signs

According to Saussure, language isconstructed from a small set of units calledphonemes. These are the sounds that we usein a variety of combinations to constructwords. These noises can only be judged aslanguage when they attempt to communicatean idea. To do this they must be part of asystem of signs. The meaning of the individualunits (the phonemes), which make uplanguage, has been sacrificed in order to givea limitless number of meanings on a higherlevel as they are reassembled to form words.The word ‘dog’, for example, has threephonemes: d, o and g. In written form, theletters ‘d’, ‘o’ and ‘g’ represent the sounds. In

turn, these words then represent objects or,more accurately, a mental picture of objects.What Saussure outlined is a system ofrepresentation. In this system a letter, forexample the letter ‘d’, can represent a sound.A collection of letters (a word) is used torepresent an object. Each of these examplescontain the two fundamental elements whichmake up a sign: the signifier and the signified.A word became known as a signifier and theobject it represented became the signified. A sign is produced when these two elementsare brought together.

In different languages, the collection ofphonemes that make up the signifier aredifferent. In English-speaking countries, ourfour-legged friend is called a dog, whereas inFrance it is ‘chien’, in Spain ‘perro’, in Italy

this is a dog this is a copy this is a drawing this is arbitrary

From an early age we are taught therelationship betweenthe signifier and thesignified. This is notsomething we areconscious of, but itremains one of themost fundamentalbuilding blocks in thestructure of language.

signified

signifier

sign


cot

cannon

collar

clog

cross

calf

crocus

crow

dog

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In English-speaking countries, our four-legged friend iscalled a dog, whereas in France it is ‘chien’, in Spain ‘perro’, in Italy ‘cane’ and in Germany it is ‘Hund’. What this shows usis that the relationship between the signifier ‘dog’ and thething signified is a completely arbitrary one.

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‘Duality freedconcept andsymbol fromeach other tothe extentthat changecould nowmodify onewithoutaffecting the other.’ 1

‘cane’ and in Germany it is ‘Hund’. What thisshows us is that the relationship between thesignifier ‘dog’ and the thing signified is acompletely arbitrary one. Neither the soundsnor their written form bears any relation tothe thing itself. With few exceptions, anysimilarity is accidental. Just as the letter ‘d’bears no relation to the sound we associatewith it, the word used to describe a dog bearsno relation to the thing it represents. Just asthere is nothing book-like in the word ‘book’,the word ‘dog’ does not bite, the word ‘gun’cannot kill you and the word ‘pipe’ does notresemble the object used to smoke tobacco.This divorce between meaning and form iscalled duality.

1. Chafe W. Meaning andthe Structure of Language(1970)

dog

Hund

chien

perro

cane

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There are two exceptions to this rule, butthe fact that we can readily identify them asexceptions only reinforces the overriding rulethat ordinary signs are constructed fromarbitrary relationships. There are onomatopoeicwords that in some way imitate the thingsthey represent through the sounds they make.A dog, for example, could be described as abow-wow. A gun as a bang-bang.

The second exception is where thesequence of sounds that make up the word orsignifier is constructed from two separatesigns, which might describe an action or theconstruction of the object it represents. Akeyboard, for example, describes the objectused for typing words. It is quite literally aboard that holds the keys. However, this typeof second-order signifier is only of use inEnglish and does not transfer to otherlanguages. A keyboard in English is ‘teclado‘in Spanish. So we can see that therelationship between the sound and the thingit represents is learnt. It is its use in socialpractice that helps us to understand itsmeaning. Saussure also pointed out that

language is not just a set of names chosen atrandom and attached to objects or ideas. Wecannot simply replace the arbitrary name forone object in one language with the name inanother language. Where English uses theword ‘key’ to represent something that wepress to type or open a door or play on apiano or a significant idea or moment, allfrom the same signifier, the translation intoFrench would throw up a range of differentwords. Similarly, there are signifiers in onelanguage that have no direct translation intoother forms of language. Each language hasa series of arbitrary signifiers that existindependently of any other language or dialect.Languages do not just find names for objectsand ideas that are already categorised,languages define their own categories.

All that is necessary for any language toexist is an agreement amongst a group ofpeople that one thing will stand for another.Furthermore, these agreements can be madequite independently of agreements in othercommunities. Saussure proposed that thiswas true of any language or dialect.

All that is necessaryfor any language toexist is an agreementamongst a group ofpeople that one thingwill stand for another.

Three Versions of Signsfor Man and Woman Left – Runes. Below – Symbols used bythe US Department ofTransport. Right – Signs from thefont Creation 6 based on the runes. Designed byDavid Crow for the religion issue of ‘Fuse’ magazine, issuenumber eight.

1. COMPONENTSAgreement

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Linguistic community

The group of people making the agreementbecame known as a linguistic community. Aslong as a community remains intact, changesin language are likely to be small and everyonecan easily adopt or be aware of the changesin meaning. If the community splits then thechanges will take different directions with different agreements and eventually themembers of one community will have difficultyin understanding the other.

This idea of arbitrary representationbased on agreement freed art from a tyrannyof words and was explored with much inventionby the visual artists. The paintings by thesurrealist artist René Magritte in his seriesentitled ‘The Key of Dreams’ (1930), show acollection of objects arranged in a grid.

Each one is labelled as in a child’s picture book. However, in this case, three of theimages are incorrectly labelled whilst thefourth image is labelled correctly. In ‘TheBetrayal of Images’ (1929), Magritte labels animage of a pipe with the phrase ‘This is not a pipe’. Both these paintings highlight thearbitrary nature of language and invite theviewer to rediscover the ordinary. Thispresented the opportunity for artists to makepoetic associations between signifiers and thesignified. Wittgenstein, a philosopher andcontemporary of Magritte’s, wrote that:

‘the aspects of things that are mostimportant for us are hidden because oftheir simplicity and familiarity.’ 2

2. Wittgenstein L.PhilosophicalInvestigations (1953) inGablik S. Magritte (1970)

René MagritteThe Betrayal of Images1929 © ADAGP, Paris and DACS, London 2010

The text beneath thepainting is neither truenor false. It is not thephysical reality of a pipe;it is a representation of apipe, a painting of a pipe,a signifier for ‘pipe’ butnot a pipe itself.


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Marcel BroodthaersThe Farm Animals1974 © DACS 2010 The viewer attempts tomake new signs bysearching for associationsbetween the cows and the car manufacturers.

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In a later example, the pop artist MarcelBroodthaers uses the same principle to labela series of cows with the names ofautomobile manufacturers in ‘The FarmAnimals’ (1974). In this case, the viewer makesnew signs in their mind’s eye by searching for an association between the images taken from nature and the names frominternational manufacturing.

Charles Sanders Peirce is the philosopherwho is recognised as the founder of theAmerican tradition of semiotics. WhereasSaussure was primarily interested in language,Peirce was more interested in how we make

sense of the world around us. Peirce’s modelfor the sign is triangular and deals with thesign itself, the user of the sign and theexternal reality – the object (O) – referred toby the sign.

In this model, the sign (sometimesreferred to as the representamen S/R) is verysimilar to Saussure’s signifier (Sr). This is thephysical evidence of the sign. This can be, forexample, a word, a photograph, a painting ora sound. Saussure’s signified (Sd) becomesthe interpretant (I) in Peirce’s model. This isnot merely the user of the sign but a mental concept of the sign, which is based on the

3. Zeman J. Peirce’sTheory of Signs (1977) inSebeok T. A Perfusion ofSigns (1977)

Combined Model for a SignOn the left Saussure’smodel for a sign and onthe right the version proposed by Peirce. As we can see, the twomodels are remarkablysimilar despite thedifference in terminology.


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user’s cultural experience of the sign. Theinterpretant is not fixed. It does not have asingle definable meaning, but its meaning canvary depending on the reader of the sign. Theemotional response to the word ‘book’ willvary depending on the reader’s experience ofbooks. For some it may be a comforting andaffectionate response based on a lifetime ofreading and escape through literature, wherefor others it may be a suspicious and defensiveresponse based on the book as an instrumentof official institutions.

‘A sign is something whichstands to somebody forsomething in some respect or capacity. It addressessomebody, that is, creates inthe mind of that person anequivalent sign, or perhaps amore developed sign. The sign which it creates I call the interpretant of the

first sign. The signstands for something,its object.’

3

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Creator: Daniel EatockTitle: No SmokingExemplifies: Agreement/Linguistic community

A mixture of linguistic signs and symbols collected byDaniel Eatock. Any of these signs could be used to signifyno smoking, but we have a particular sign in each of ourcultures (linguistic communities) that has been agreed asthe legitimate sign. For some cultures, the linguisticsigns (such as examples four or nine) will have nomeaning because the relationship between the act ofsmoking and the words used to describe it are arbitraryand culturally specific. Similarly, example six willcommunicate on a deeper level beyond the linguisticmessage; it has a smaller and more distinct linguisticcommunity as it relies on the particular culturalknowledge of a twentieth-century painting. Example one

1. Christian Eager2. Eric Robinson3. Noah Hilsenrad4. Phil Ward5. Julien Bouvet6. Jack Farrelly7. Monster Kid8. Linus Kraemer9. John Paul Dowling

1 2 3

4 5 6

7 8 9

has no graphic mark to cancel or strike through thecigarette and therefore will only have meaning for alinguistic community that recognises a red circle with ahorizontal white bar as a road sign barring entry.Example three relies on a knowledge of industrialpictograms for parts of the human body, and the messagein example seven is carried through humour for thosewho have prior knowledge of western comic art.

1. COMPONENTSPortfolio


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Creator: Andy GilmoreTitle: Illustration for ‘Wired’ magazineExemplifies: Agreement

The pyramid structure may have a universal meaningthrough its natural geometry but the second set of signifiers, the signs representing man and woman, havebeen learnt as part of a distinct system and form part ofan international agreement. Their placement or contextalso affects their meaning. In this context, they simplyrepresent gender, whereas on a door they would signifythe function of the room in addition to the gender. Usedindividually, these signs can be read as a global signifier:not just man or woman but all men or all women. In multiples, as in this illustration, the reader tends toread the scale and see them as a population. (See also metaphor and metonym in chapter two.)


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Creator: Post TypographyTitle: Alphabet – PosterExemplifies: Agreement/Duality

This poster shows a variety of different representations ofa phoneme or sound. The repeated shape we know as theletter ‘A’ is well understood and deeply embedded in ourvisual language, so the author can improvise around thisbasic shape to the point of abstraction without losing thebasic meaning. At the foot of the poster the sign iscombined with other signs to make words, which in turnare signifiers for places, names and so on. Clearly, thesesigns are arbitrary, as their meaning varies from one partof the world to another. This arbitrary nature of signs isknown as duality.

1. COMPONENTSPortfolio


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Creator: Sagmeister Inc.Title: Happiness is a Warm GunExemplifies: Agreement

This poster is part of a series celebrating punctuationmarks. The title comes from the idea that the apostrophehas the job of eliminating a letter. Punctuation marks arepart of a set of signifiers that carry a grammatical conceptrather than a sound. These signifiers exist beyond spokenor written language because the idea they represent canbe applied across many languages. The signifier for theapostrophe is subject to agreement amongst linguisticcommunities in the same way as an alphabetic signifier. Inthis case, the agreement is found on a much wider scaleacross a range of spoken and written languages, andconsequently the linguistic community is much larger.

Go to SELF-DIRECTED STUDY: EXERCISES

pages 182–183


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HOWMEAN-ING ISFORMED

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‘In a language stateeverything is based on relations.’ 1

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Job:01980 Title:Visible Signs 2nd Edition (AVA)

This chapter looks atthe various ways inwhich meaning isformed in a sign. Both Saussure andPeirce agreed that inorder to understandhow we extract meaning from a signwe need to understandthe structure of signs.To help us do this theycategorised signs interms of the relationships withinthe structures.

1. de Saussure F. Coursein General Linguistics (1974) (1st edition 1915)

2. HOW MEANING IS FORMEDCategories of signs

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Peirce defined three categories of signs:

Icon – This resembles the sign. A photograph of someone could be describedas an iconic sign in that it physically resemblesthe thing it represents. It is also possible tohave iconic words, where the sound resemblesthe thing it represents. Onomatopoeic wordslike 'bang' or 'woof' could be described asiconic language.

Index – There is a direct link between thesign and the object. In this category, smoke isan index of fire and a tail is an index of a dog.Traffic signs in the street are index signs: theyhave a direct link to the physical reality ofwhere they are placed, such as at a junction orat the brow of a hill.

Symbol – These signs have no logicalconnection between the sign and what itmeans. They rely exclusively on the readerhaving learnt the connection between the sign and its meaning. The red cross is asymbol that we recognise to mean aid. Flagsare symbols that represent territories ororganisations. The letters of the alphabet are symbolic signs whose meanings we have learnt.

As a linguist, Saussure was not interestedin index signs, he was primarily concernedwith words. Words are symbolic signs. In the case of onomatopoeic words, they canalso be iconic signs. Saussure categorisedsigns in two ways, which are very similar tothe categories used by Peirce:

Iconic – These are the same as Peirce'sicons. They resemble the thing they represent.

Arbitrary – These are the same asPeirce's symbols. The relationship between thesignifier and the signified is arbitrary. Itfunctions through agreed rules.

Signs1. This sign for a shoppingcentre in Manchester issignposted using an iconicsign, which depends onlocal knowledge.2. An index/symbol. Thedanger of fire is linked tothe forest through itsphysical position (the signis on the edge of theforest) and by the use ofan ideogram of a tree.3. The red cross and the subsequent words are all symbols.The reader will have hadto learn the correctcodings of all these signs in order to understandtheir meanings.

1 2

3

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Firstness – this is a sense of something. It could be described as a feeling or a mood.To say that you are feeling 'blue' could be saidto function on this first level.

Secondness – this is the level of fact. It is the physical relation of one thing toanother. The traffic sign we discussed earlierfunctions on this physical level of fact.

Thirdness – you could think of this level asthe mental level. It is the level of general rules,which bring the other two together in arelationship. It relates the sign to the objectas a convention. The association we have inour minds between the Stars and Stripes andthe United States is a mental relationship thatrelies on a convention.

It is important to recognise that whicheverterms you use, the categories are not separateand can function together in sets. For example,let’s look at the traffic sign, which warns usthat we are approaching traffic lights. Themark on the sign that resembles the lights isboth an icon and a symbol. As it physicallylooks like the thing it represents, it can besaid to be iconic. However, it is also asymbol. That is to say, it is part of a set of signs for which we have an internationalagreement about their meanings. We havelearnt what the signs mean. We may evenhave been tested on their meaning as part of a driving test. The red triangular framearound the sign is a symbol, which weunderstand as a warning sign. Furthermore,when this traffic sign is placed in the streetnext to the road junction it also becomes an index sign. In reality, its meaning is in part formed by where the sign is placed. It is an icon/symbol/index sign.

Peirce also identified three levels or properties for signs, which can be mapped on to his triangularmodel. He labelled these properties firstness, secondness and thirdness.

BLUE


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Peirce’s work on the classification of signsbecame increasingly complex as he refinedhis original propositions. In 1903, he dividedthe properties into three broad areas andclassified them accordingly: qualities(firstness), brute facts (secondness) and law(thirdness). Each of Peirce’s original threeelements of signification (representamen,object and interpretant) can be mappedagainst these qualities and, in turn, each ofthese qualities can be found within each ofthe elements. This generated a complex gridof sub-classification as shown above. Everysign has a representamen (sometimes knownas a sign vehicle) and so can be classified asa qualisign, a sinsign or a legisign. Every signalso has an object and can be classified as anicon, an index or a symbol and, similarly, as

every sign has an interpretant it can beclassified as a rheme, a dicent or anargument. All signs then become classifiableas combinations of each of their threeelements. In other words, it can be one of thethree types of representamen, one of thethree types of object and one of the threetypes of interpretant.

Right – In the table, therows are the categories(firstness, secondnessand thirdness) and thecolumns are aspects ofbeing. The diagramunderneath shows howthese are mapped ontoPeirce’s elements of asign: the representamen(or sign), the object andthe interpretant.

David ShrigleyRed Card

Above – The representamenof a red card can be seen asa legisign, as its signifyingelement is primarily due to alaw or convention. As anobject it is a symbol in that itutilises a convention that islearnt and as an interpretantit is an argument because it enables us to understandthe sign as part of a generalsystem of knowledge.

Quality Brute Facts Law

Qualisign Sinsign Legisign

Icon2nd Index Symbol

Rheme Dicent Argument

1st

3rd

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Semiosis

Peirce uses the term semiosis to describethe transfer of meaning; the act of signifying.What is distinct about his view of semiosis isthat it is not a one-way process with a fixedmeaning. It is part of an active process betweenthe sign and the reader of the sign. It is anexchange between the two that involves somenegotiation. The meaning of the sign will beaffected by the background of the reader;their background, education, culture and theirexperiences will all have a bearing on howthe sign is read. One of the most visibleexamples of this is the symbolic use of colour in different cultures. In WesternEurope, we are familiar with the colour blackas a symbol of death and mourning. Funeraldirectors wear black jackets and it is usualfor those who attend to wear black.Sportsmen wear black armbands to showrespect for those who have been lost. This isa symbolic sign that we have all learned andit is also, to a degree, iconic. However, inother cultures across the world this relationship between colour and loss is quitedifferent. In China, for example, white is usedfor funerals, which is a complete reversal ofthese values, and could create the impressionof a wedding to a Western European who hasquite a different understanding of thesymbolic use of white.

Unlimited semiosis

In the previous chapter, we looked at theterms used by Peirce in his triangular modelof a sign. The representamen signifies anobject, which in turn conjures up a mentalconcept, the interpretant, in the mind of thereader. However, when we consider meaning we must recognise that this triangular processmay happen more than once from one startingpoint. To use Peirce's terms, the interpretantresulting in our mind from the firstrepresentamen can then become a furthersign and trigger an infinite chain ofassociations, where the interpretant in onesequence becomes the representamen of thenext sequence. This is best understood as adiagram (see opposite). This phenomenon,called unlimited semiosis, is commonplace inour reading of signs and we will rush throughthese chains of meanings at such speed thatwe hardly notice the chain at all. This issimilar to Barthes' structure of myths, whichis based on Saussure's model of the sign.


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1

R

O

O

O

I /R

I /R

I /R

2

3

Unlimited SemiosisThe triangular processdescribed by Peirce.

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If we cut the sheet of paper into threepieces, the meaning of each piece does notcome from therelationship betweenthe front and back ofthe paper but from therelationship of onepiece to another.


For Saussure it was what he called 'value'that determined the meaning of a sign.Saussure focused on the relationship betweenthe sign and the other signs in the samesystem. He looked at what we mean bysomething in relation to what we do not meanby something. In his system, book means notmagazine, not poster, not film. Saussure hasa different term for the transfer of meaning. Hecalls this signification. For Saussure,signification is achieved by using the mentalconcepts, the signifieds, to categorise realityso that we can understand it. The signifiedsare artificial things that are made by us andour society and culture. They are a part of ourcommunication system, which is unique toour particular culture. The meaning comesnot from the relationship of this sign toreality, which can be arbitrary, as he haspointed out, but from the relationshipbetween the sign and the other signs aroundit. To illustrate this, Saussure describeslanguage as a sheet of paper with thought onone side and sound on the other. We cannotcut the front of the sheet without cutting theback at the same time. Sound and thoughtcannot be divided.

‘Language is a system ofinterdependent terms in which the value of each term results solely from the simultaneous presence of the others.’ 2

This is essentially a theory of combinationand substitution, which Saussure explainsusing the terms syntagm and paradigm.

2. HOW MEANING IS FORMEDValue

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�

�

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sound

sound

sound


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�

�

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thought

thought

thought

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‘ The idea or phonic substance that asign contains is of less importancethan the other signs that surround it.

Proof of this is that the value of aterm may be modified without eitherits meaning or its sound being affected, solely because a neighbouringterm has been modified.’ 3

3. de Saussure F. Coursein General Linguistics(1974) (1st edition 1915)

The value is alwayscomposed of twothings:1. a dissimilar thingthat can be exchanged.2. a similar thing thatcan be compared.

Syntagm

This is a collection of signs that areorganised in a linear sequence. The word'book' is a syntagm using a set of units – b/o/o/k. A sentence is also a syntagm. Take the sentence, 'The girl reads the book.'The words are the signs, which are arrangedinto a syntagmic sequence, where each signhas a syntagmic relation to the signs that gobefore it and after it. The value of the sign‘book’ is affected by the other signs around it.

In visual terms, the clothes we wear are a syntagm made up of units, which are the individual garments. The garments themselvesare also syntagms, where each garment ismade of units such as sleeves, collars andcuffs. As with the previous examples, thevalue of these units (signs) can be affected bytheir combination with the other signs. We allcreate syntagms every day, where thecombinations are governed by conventions.These conventions or rules are a feature ofthe syntagm. When we are writing we call thisconvention grammar; when we are dressingourselves for the day we might call it taste.

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Paradigm

The meaning we get from a collection ofsigns (signification) does not come from theselinear combinations alone. When we are making combinations of signs, whether theyare words, sentences or outfits, we are facedwith a series of individual choices where wecan substitute one sign for another in thesame set.

We can take the letters of the alphabet asa simple example. These are all part of aparadigm that we recognise as part of thesame set. 'A' is part of the paradigm that isthe alphabet, where '5' is not and '+' is not.When we make choices from this paradigm,we create words that are part of another setof paradigms, such as nouns or verbs. If wesubstitute an 'n' for an 'o' from the alphabetparadigm in the syntagm 'b-o-o-k', to form 'b-o-n-k', we change the meaning entirely.The way that we use language creates anotherset of paradigms, such as legal jargon,technobabble and bad language. Whenwriting poetry we could describe the rhymingwords as paradigms based on sound.

In typography, we could say that FF DinRegular is part of a paradigm that includesthe entire set of weights that make up the FFDin family and in turn this family of typefacesis part of the paradigm of sans-serifs. Theway we fix one part of a garment to another isa choice made from a set of possibilities thatform a tailoring paradigm. The way we chooseto apply colour to a painting is part of another

The two basic characteristics of aparadigm are that:1. the units in the sethave something incommon.2. each unit is obviously differentfrom the others in the set.

David CrowCreation 6

Sketches from the development work for the Creation 6 font. Each subset within thefont is a paradigm initself. The symbols circledare all part of a paradigmof found images, which inthis instance representvarious events.


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paradigm. In video, the way we edit from onesequence to another is a choice made from aparadigmical set of conventions where the‘fade’, the ‘dissolve’ and the ‘cut’ all havemeanings of their own. In music, it may bethe way we arrange sounds together to formmelody. Our choice of car and the choices wemake to decorate our homes with objects aremade from a set of paradigms.

Codes

As we can see from these examples,some of the paradigms have a fixed numberof units to choose from, such as the alphabetor the number of weights in a typeface family.

These types of paradigms are made ofcodes, which are called digital codes. Thesetypes of codes are easy to recognise andunderstand as the units are clearly defined.

There are also paradigms that do not havea fixed number of choices; the range of choiceis unlimited and the divisions between thechoices are unclear. The marks produced by apaintbrush or the sounds used in music couldbe described as paradigms, which use codeswith no clear distinction between the choices.This type of code is called an analogue code.In practice, it is common for us to attempt toimpose digital notation on to analogue codesto help us categorise and understand thecodes. Musical notation, for example, is anattempt to do just this.

FF Din lightFF Din regularFF Din mediumFF Din boldFF Din black

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Metaphor and metonym

In terms of the practical application ofparadigmical choice, it may be easier tounderstand using the terms metaphor andmetonym4. Where we substitute one word orimage in a sequence for another, we cantransfer the characteristics of one object toanother. This use of metaphor is very commonin advertisements, where a product is imbuedwith particular properties it is not readily associated with. We can also apply this type ofmetaphoric substitution to other forms ofmedia. The paradigmical choice to remove thesleeves from a Savile Row pinstripe suit andrefasten them using safety pins, wouldentirely change the way the suit is read.

4. Jakobson R. and HalleM. Fundamentals ofLanguage (1956)

We would naturally make assumptions aboutthe individual wearing the suit based on thischange. The pins are part of a paradigm offasteners. That they are not normally used as the conventional way of fastening a well-tailored suit can be used to change themeaning of the suit. The irreverence andimmediacy of the pins is transferred to thesuit and would become part of our overallreading of the garment and the statementthat it makes.

A metonym works in a similar way exceptthat it is used to represent a totality. Wherewe want to signify reality in some way, we areforced to choose one piece of that reality torepresent it. For example, if we want torepresent all children we might use an image of a child. In this case, the image of

Above – The dark cloud isused as a metaphor forbad news. By placing animage of a political figureinside the cloud the badnews is associated withthat figure. The value ofthe sign has been formedby its relationship withthe other signs around it.

David CrowNervous Robot

Above – Thecharacteristics of abutterfly in flight are used as a metaphor forfeeling nervous by simplyplacing the image in thestomach of the robot.


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The important thing to remember is thatwhere there is choice,there is meaning.

one child is being used as a metonym torepresent the whole, all children.

With all these paradigmical choices,meaning comes largely from the things wedid not choose. There is not necessarily anyfixed number of options in a paradigm andeach individual is likely to generate a differentrange of choices. It is also possible for thecollection of signs in any given paradigm tochange over time, where meanings of words,images and gestures change through the natural evolution of social change. Theimportant thing to remember is that wherethere is choice, there is meaning.

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Creator: DorothyTitle: A Dead Thoughtful ProductExemplifies: Icon/Value

Dorothy designed a set ofalternative Christmasdecorations to encourage people to stop for a secondand think about what'shappening elsewhere in the world at Christmas.The aim of the decorationswas to highlight the effect global conflict hason communities. Thelimited-edition ‘XmasDeclarations’ werepackaged in sets of six. For each pack sold, a donation was made to theyouth initiativeCtrl.Alt.Shift to support its campaign againstglobal conflict.

The silver decoration isunmistakable as an iconicsignifier for a handgrenade. It is made morerealistic by its metallicfinish and by itsreproduction at a size notdissimilar from theweapon it represents. Thepotency of the signifiermakes the relationshipbetween the Christmastree and the signified allthe more powerful. Themessage the designersintended is communicatedthrough this transfer ofvalue from one sign to theother. As Saussure stated,the value of a sign comesfrom the other signsaround it.

2. HOW MEANING IS FORMEDPortfolio

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Creator: Timorous BeastiesTitle: Glasgow Toile (Left); London Toile (Below)Exemplifies: Value

Timorous Beasties are renowned for producing hand-printed fabrics and wallpapers. Their work is a wayward take on the often twee world of textiles.They are known for their take on the ‘Toile de Jouy’fabrics of Napoleonic France and have designed anumber of toiles based on different cities around theworld. The toile designs include a balance of decorative,architectural and human contexts. The stylisticmannerisms of classic French textiles give a sense of heritage and tradition, and this is what you see at first glance. However, on a closer inspection the reader finds images of a contemporary cityscape. The signs that were most obvious are now undermined as they are juxtaposed with a set of signs from theunderbelly of urban social realism, a distinctly differentparadigm. The value of the most obvious sign is nowaffected by the other signs around it and the reader is invited to compare and contrast the idealised vision of our society with a contemporary social reality.

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Creator: Jason Munn/The Small StakesTitle: Monsters of Folk – PosterExemplifies: Value/Metaphor

Opposite – The idea or appearance of a sign is lessimportant than the other signs around it. We can see inthis example that the value of a sign (a flower petal) canbe modified without changing its appearance but simplyby modifying the neighbouring sign. In this case, changingit from a flower to a fretboard (see p. 39). The less a signis motivated the more the reader has to rely on havinglearnt the associations (see p. 56). The drawing of aflower petal/plectrum in this example is a very simplegeometric silhouette and could be described asunmotivated. The designer has relied on the readerfinding the meaning of this shape by being able toinstantly connect it with a flower or with a guitar fretboard.The flower petal also carries with it a set of qualities andassociations that act as a metaphor when they aretransferred to music.

Creator: Jason Munn/The Small StakesTitle: National Novel Writing Month – PosterExemplifies: Icon/Index

Above left – An arrangement of circles signifies akeyboard in this image, despite the fact that keyboardkeys are rarely circular. We recognise this configurationof shapes easily because the layout visually resemblesthe keyboard many of us use on a daily basis. The sign isiconic in that it looks like the thing it represents. Thefingerprints are a signifier, which can have a number ofmeanings, but in this instance the fingerprints clearlyrelate to typing because of their relationship to the keys.This could be described as an index sign because itsmeaning comes from the direct link between the sign andits physical placement – the fingerprint and its positionon the keyboard.

Creator: Jason Munn/The Small StakesTitle: San Francisco Museum of Modern Art – PosterExemplifies: Icon/Metaphor

Above right – The turntable and stylus arm could bedescribed as iconic symbols because they resemble thethings they represent. The designer has overlaid this signwith qualities of a traditional artist by adding a brush andthe brushmarks of a painter. This transfer of thecharacteristics of one idea to another is a good exampleof how metaphor is used in visual compositions.

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Creator: Post TypographyTitle: ‘The New York Times’ – The New SeasonExemplifies: Icon

Left – On the full-page cover of the Arts & Leisure sectionon the new season in the arts, the designers borrow ‘TheNew’ from the well-known ‘Times’ logo. The additionalgraphic shape, created by adding a perforated edge anddistinctive cutaway corners, clearly resembles the objectwe recognise as a ticket – despite its change in scale. Thecollage is then emblazoned with the word ‘SEASON’ toimitate a season ticket.

Creator: Post TypographyTitle: Greenbuild – US Green Building CouncilExemplifies: Metaphor

Below – Greenbuild is the largest US annual conferenceand expo devoted to environmentally responsiblebuilding. Reflecting the conference theme of big ideas,the advertisement shows the voices of the conferenceattendees gathering together to create a larger andstronger idea in the form of a single voice. The numerousvoices are gathered together in one speech bubble to actas a metaphor for a crowd.


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Creator: Post TypographyTitle: Racism Erases FaceExemplifies: Metaphor

In this public service poster for race relations,empty space is used as a metaphor for pointlessanonymity. The human face is a well-understoodsign for individual identity. By simply erasing thefaces, the designers have transferred this act to thepeople pictured and it becomes a metaphor forerasing their individuality.


pages 183–84

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READ-INGTHESIGN

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Although we can see many similaritiesbetween Peirce’s interpretant and Saussure’ssignified, it is clear that Saussure wasn’tconcerned with the relationship between thesignified and the reality to which it refers. Thereality that Peirce calls the object does notfeature at all in Saussure’s model. Saussurewas concerned only with language and hedoes not discuss the part played by the reader.His theories concentrated instead on thecomplex structures of language that we useto construct words and sentences:

‘A science that studies the life of signswithin society is conceivable; it wouldbe a part of social psychology and consequently of general psychology; I shall call it semiology (from theGreek ‘semeion’ sign). Semiologywould show what constitutes signs,what laws govern them. Since thescience does not yet exist, no one can say what it would be; but it has aright to existence, a place staked outin advance. Linguistics is only a part of the general science of semiology;the laws discovered by semiology willbe applicable to linguistics, and thelatter will circumscribe a well-definedarea within the mass ofanthropological facts.’ 1

However, the meaning of words can changedepending on who reads them. In the USA,Peirce had created a theory that saw thereading of signs as part of a creative process.

The meaning of anysign is affected by whois reading that sign.Peirce recognised acreative process ofexchange between thesign and the reader.

1. de Saussure F. Coursein General Linguistics(1974) (1st edition 1915)

3. READING THE SIGNThe reader

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certainly systems of signification. WhereasSaussure saw linguistics as forming one partof semiotics, Barthes turned this idea upsidedown and suggested that semiotics, thescience of signs, was in fact one part oflinguistics. He saw semiotics as:

‘… the part covering the greatsignifying unities of discourse’. 2

Barthes pointed out that there was asignificant role to be played by the reader inthe process of reading meaning. To do this he applied linguistic concepts to other visualmedia that carry meaning. Like Saussure and Peirce before him, Barthes identifiedstructural relationships in the components ofa sign. His ideas centre on two different levelsof signification: denotation and connotation.

Barthes

In Europe, it was Roland Barthes, afollower of Saussure, who took the theoreticaldebate forward. In the 1960s, Barthesdeveloped Saussure’s ideas so that we couldconsider the part played by the reader in theexchange between themselves and the content.For Barthes the science of signs takes inmuch more than the construction of wordsand their representations. Semiotics takes inany system of signs, whatever the content orlimits of the system. Images, sounds, gesturesand objects are all part of systems that havesemiotic meanings. In the 1960s, Barthesdescribed complex associations of signs thatform entertainment, ritual and socialconventions. These may not normally bedescribed as language systems but they are

Whereas Saussure saw linguisticsas forming one part of semiotics,Barthes turned this idea upsidedown and suggested that semiotics,the science of signs, was in fact onepart of linguistics.

2. Barthes R. Elements ofSemiology (1967)

3. READING THE SIGNThe reader

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All these differences are happening on thesecond level of signification, which Barthescalled connotation.

The reader is playing a part in this processby applying their knowledge of the systematiccoding of the image. In doing this, the meaningis affected by the background of the viewer.Like Peirce’s model, this humanises the entire process.

Connotation is arbitrary in that themeanings brought to the image are based on rules or conventions that the reader has learnt. The consistent use of soft focus,for example, in film and advertising has found its way into our consciousness to the degree that it is universally read assentimental. As conventions vary from oneculture to another, then it follows that theconnotative effect of the conventions, therules on how to read these images, will alsovary between communities.

Denotation and connotation

This first order of signification isstraightforward. It refers to the physicalreality of the object that is signified. In otherwords, a photograph of a child represents achild. No matter who photographs the childand how they are photographed, in this firstorder of signification, they still just represent‘child’. Even with a range of very differentphotographs the meanings are identical atthe denotative level.

In reality, we know that the use of different film, lighting or framing changes theway in which we read the image of the child.A grainy black-and-white or sepia-tonedimage of a child could well bring with it ideasof nostalgia; a soft focus might add sentimentto the reading of the image and a close-upcrop of the face could encourage us toconcentrate on the emotions experienced bythe child.

Above – A black-and-white photograph can beread as nostalgic. Anegative could be areference to the process of photography or toforensics and crime. This idea is encouragedby the mysterious crop of the man in thebackground. A close-updraws our attention to theemotional aspect of thesubject; the coarse dotreproduction suggestslow-quality printing andcan in turn suggest eithernewspaper journalism orpolitical campaigns.

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Convention is an agreement about how weshould respond to a sign. We have alreadymentioned conventions such as the close-upand the black-and-white image. Conventionssuch as these pepper the images we readtoday. We instinctively know that slow-motionfootage does not mean that the action ishappening slowly. We understand that we aresupposed to use this as a signal to study theskill of the action or admire its beauty. Theroughly rendered typography of the rubberstamp indicates a gestural immediacy. Itsuggests the informal. We can almost hearthe sound that the stamp would make whenthe above image was made. So much ofmeaning comes from convention that signswith little convention need to be very iconic inorder to communicate to a wide audience.Another way of describing this is to say that a sign with little convention needs to be highly motivated.


Motivation is used to denote how much thesignifier describes the signified. For example,a photograph is a highly motivated signbecause it describes in detail the subject inthe image. It looks like the thing or theperson it represents. Using the term providedby Saussure and Peirce, it is iconic. A highlymotivated sign is a very iconic one. Using thecomplementary terms, an arbitrary sign(Saussure), or a symbolic sign (Peirce), couldbe described as unmotivated. Using theearlier example, a photograph of a child ishighly motivated, whilst a cartoon image of achild is less motivated. In the photographicexample, the arbitrary element is confined tothe framing, focus and so on, whereas with acartoon the illustrator has more freedom totake liberties with the reality of how the childactually looks. However, the less a sign ismotivated the more important it is that thereader has learnt the conventions that help todecode the image.

AirsideScreen Icons

Opposite and overleaf –A series of contemporarybitmap cartoons, by design group Airside,demonstrate how anauthor can take libertieswithin representation.Here the illustratorsdistort the relative sizesand shapes of physical anatomy in highly unmotivated signs. Theaudience, however, has noproblem decoding thesebecause the images drawfrom a well-understoodcartoon convention.

3. READING THE SIGNConvention and motivation

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boy

boy with big hair

boy in a bear suit

monkey

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girl

princess

girl with flower in hair

panda

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Language and speech

We could think of the differences betweenthe first and second order of signification asthe differences between what we say and theway we say it. (Saussure distinguishedbetween the two, which he called ‘langue’ and ‘parole’. However, as we have seen,Saussure’s primary concern was the system:the language; ‘la langue’.) Language, saysBarthes, is language minus speech; yet at the same time it is a social institution and a system of values. Speech, according toBarthes, is an individual act of selection andactualisation. By way of distinguishinglanguage from speech, Barthes provides

examples by introducing the idea of systemsof language and speech3. In what he calls thegarment system, Barthes describes languageas the parts of a garment and the rules oflanguage govern the association of the parts.Speech in the garment system would then bethe individual way of wearing, the personalquirks, the degree of cleanliness, size, thefree association of the pieces and so on. Withthe car system, the variations in the way wedrive would then make up the plane ofspeech. This correlates closely with Willis’ideas of symbolic creativity4, which relateexactly to these types of everyday expression.So we can then say that when people adoptdifferent hairstyles, for example, althoughthey are using the same language (the hairstyle

3. Barthes R. Elements ofSemiology (1967)

4. Willis P. CommonCulture (1990)

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system perhaps), they are using differentforms of speech, speaking differently or, to use the terminology of French sociologistPierre Bourdieu, they are using differentdialects5. Using the example of the rubberstamp, the words are the language and thequalities of the stamp are the speech. Theidea of using a tone of voice is useful to thosewho use typography as a communication tool.

Myth

Barthes saw a new approach to semioticsthat would force us to look more closely atwhat we take for granted in our visual culture.In his essays on myths in contemporaryculture6, Barthes draws attention to a range of misconceptions in French society about the properties and meanings we attach toimages of the things around us. The purity ofwashing powder, the sport of wrestling, theFrenchness of wine. Barthes was angered bythe way contemporary society confused historywith nature.

For him, myths were the result of meaninggenerated by the groups in society who havecontrol of the language and the media. Thesemeanings are seen as part of the naturalorder of things. Where these meanings camefrom, and the process that transformed themeaning of the signs, are either forgotten orhidden. The process of generating mythsfilters the political content out of signification.In today’s society, modern myths are builtaround things like notions of masculinity andfemininity; the signs of success and failure;what signifies good health and what does not.

5. Bourdieu P. Languageand Symbolic Power(1991)

6. Barthes R. Mythologies(1972)

Seel GarsideLadies Night

Angelina, Buffy,Catherine, Demi,Elizabeth, Fiona,Gwyneth, Helena,Isabella, Julia, Katie,Laura, Mia, Nicole, Olivia,Patricia, Queenie, Rachel,Sandra, Theresa, Uma,Victoria, Winona, Xena,Yoko, Zoe.

3. READING THE SIGNConvention and motivation

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In today’s society,modern myths arebuilt around things likenotions of masculinityand femininity; thesigns of success andfailure; what signifiesgood health and whatdoes not.

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3. READING THE SIGNPortfolio

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Creator: Dorothy (Phil Skegg)Title: War SchoolExemplifies: Language and speech

Opposite – The War School film poster was one of a set of five, designed to promote the winners of a nationalshort-film competition launched by Ctrl.Alt.Shift. Eachfilm raised awareness of a pressing global issue. 'WarSchool', by Ben Newman, recreated a military trainingcamp for child soldiers in a British school to bring thereal horrors of war closer to home. The central motif is awell-known mathematical symbol simply constructed oftwo dots and a line (the language). What gives the posterits potency, however, is the speech employed by thedesigner. Turning one of the elements into a bleedingwound shows just how much the meaning is affected. The result is a powerful combination of the technicallanguage of mathematical division spoken by thebloodstain of the war.

Creator: G-ManTitle: Beauty and theBeastExemplifies: Languageand speech

Right – In this set ofstationery items, thelinguistic conventions (thelanguage) of businesscards are closely followed.However, what changesthese from being merelyconventional is the waythat the designer deliversthe language (the speech).Just as with changingone’s tone of voice, thetone and feel of thesecards are changed by thecareful use of materials –showing how tools andprocesses are signifierstoo. The use of heavy mattcard and metallic foilblocking results in arobust, genuine quality,without the businesscards losing theirfunctionality.

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Creator: BurnTitle: Fifth Floor Space, Tate GalleryExemplifies: Connotation/Index/Metonym

The tape chosen as an identity for this gallery is used asan index sign in a direct relationship with a series ofexterior spaces. Tape in itself is not considered a symbolfor space, but used alongside a physical location the linkcan be made as the two elements work together.Presented in a paradigm of exterior spaces, the individuallocations become a metonym for space and the viewer isclear that they should read the spaces as generic ‘space’as opposed to specific ones. The tape features a repeatedtypographic statement and is presented in exteriorenvironments, which suggests familiar yet uncomfortablesituations – a traffic accident or a dangerous area. Theseconstructions imply that the art on view on the fifth floor isunlikely to be decorative or highly conventional; it is likelyto be challenging and unpredictable.

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Creator: Marian BantjesTitle: If I Want to Explore a New Direction Professionally,it is Helpful to Try it Out for Myself FirstExemplifies: Language and speech

Above and opposite – Stefan Sagmeister asked MarianBantjes to contribute to his series ‘Things I Have Learned in My Life So Far’. Marian used sugar to form the phrase ‘If I want to explore a new directionprofessionally, it is helpful to try it out for myself first’.The piece uses sugar to render the arrangement of words (the language) in an unconventional form. Thisunconventional ‘speech’ also conveys a sense of serenityand elegance from the use of two different white texturesbetween the foreground and the background.

Creator: Marian BantjesTitle: The Audacity of HovExemplifies: Language and speech

Left – ‘The Audacity of Hov’ appeared in the fifthteenthanniversary issue of ‘VIBE’ magazine for an article onJayZ. The traditional arrangement of letterforms, whichmake up the phrase, is given a very distinct andunexpected tone of voice, or speech, by rendering thecalligraphy in sparkling gold glitter.


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TEXTAND IMAGE

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For linguists, codesmust be digital, which is to say thatthey are composed of a fixed number of digits or units. In ‘Image, Music,Text’1, Roland Barthesasks whether it ispossible to have codeswhich are analogical.

1. Barthes R. Image, Music, Text (1977)

4. TEXT AND IMAGEDigital and analogue codes

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Digital codes are paradigms where eachof the units in the set are clearly differentfrom each other. (As we saw in chapter two,the two basic characteristics of a paradigmare that the units in the set have something incommon but each unit is obviously differentfrom the others in the set.) The alphabet isarguably the most common example of a digital code.

Analogue codes are paradigms where thedistinctions between each unit are not clear;they operate on something more like acontinuous scale. Music or dance, for example,could be described as analogue codes.However, many analogue codes are reducedto digital codes as a means of reproducingthem in another form. Musical notation, forexample, reduces the analogue qualities ofsound to distinct notes with individual marks.

Jas BhachuRubik’s CubeFont Generator

Each individual part of the drawings werecognise as letterformsis separated out in aningenious ‘Rubik’s Cube’ of geometry thatcan be combined to make any letter of theRoman alphabet. Thegeometric shapes form a digital code.

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To examine the relationship between text andimage, Barthes chooses to focus on compositions from advertising. In advertising,the reader can be sure that signification isalways intentional. Nothing is left to chance. It is the purpose of the advertisement to communicate the positive qualities of theproduct as clearly as possible to the chosenaudience. This is demonstrated by FrankJefkins’ three basic principles of effectiveadvertisement writing:

1. The advertisement should be ofinterest and value to the reader. Thewriter should ask himself, ‘How can I interest my prospects in my proposition? How can my offer be of service to prospects?’

2. The advertisement should be precise, that is, get to the point asquickly as possible; hence the successof the most hard-worked word inadvertising, FREE!

3. The advertisement should be concise, saying what it has to say in the fewest necessary words,remembering that an encyclopaedia ofmany volumes can be concise compared with a verbose novel. 2

2. Jefkins F.Advertisement Writing(1976)

4. TEXT AND IMAGEAdvertising writing

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The three messages

Barthes sets out a system for readingtext/image combinations, which comprisesthree separate messages. The first messageis described as the linguistic message. This is the text itself, usually in the form of aslogan or a caption to the image. Reading the linguistic message requires a previousknowledge of the particular languageemployed. The linguistic message can alsocarry a second-order signifier by implication.For example, an advertisement featuring theword ‘Volkswagen’ tells us the name of the manufacturer but also signifies certainnational characteristics. Notions of highdesign standards and precision engineeringare read at the same time as the name.

The second message is the coded iconicmessage. This is a symbolic message andworks on the level of connotation. The readeris playing a part in the reading by applyingtheir knowledge of the systematic coding ofthe image. An image of a bowl of fruit, forexample, might imply still life, freshness ormarket stalls.

Paul DavisWasteland

Opposite – The textanswers the question‘What is it?’. Our attitudeto the humble cracker is fixed by the addition of a copy line in a parodyof advertising (see p. 74).

Alan MurphyFeline Hell

Right – The innocuousdrawing of the cat and theflames are changed bythe addition of the textcalling for an end to thebreed. Without the textthe cat could almost bekeeping itself warm. Theadvertising parody isreinforced by the additionof the stylised ‘HEL’,which has the characterof a brand name.

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Anchorage and relay

Anchorage, says Barthes, directs thebeholder through a number of possible readings of an image, through what he calls a floating chain of signifiers, which causes thereader to ignore some of the signifiers andread others. The text answers the question‘What is it?’.

Text on a connoted image (the codediconic message) helps the reader to interpret the signifiers they are presentedwith. Text on a denoted image (the non-codediconic message) aids recognition. Barthesdescribes the way in which the reader isremote-controlled to a meaning that has beenchosen in advance. He points out that thisoften has an ideological purpose. Anchoragetext can then have a repressive value whenapplied to an image.

The second possible function, relay, ismuch less common. The text is usually asnippet of dialogue and works in acomplementary way to the image. It can befound in comic strips, for instance, and isparticularly important in film. Relay textadvances the reading of the images bysupplying meanings that are not to be foundin the images themselves, as in film dialogue.

The third message is described as thenon-coded iconic message. A photograph, forinstance, could be described as a messagewithout a code, one simply reads the mediumas itself: it is a photograph. This works on thelevel of denotation.

Although the linguistic message can beeasily separated from the other two messages,Barthes maintains that the other two cannotbe separated because the viewer reads themat the same time. In other words, the mediumcannot be separated from the message; aphenomenon Marshall McLuhan pointed to inhis book ‘The Medium is the Message’3.

Text on an image, according to Barthes,constitutes what he calls a parasitic message,designed to quicken the reading with additionalsignifieds. The addition of text can be apowerful method of altering or fixing themeaning of an image. This is something thatis present in a great number of the imageswe read: in captions, subtitles, film dialogueand comic strips. However, it seems thatneither the length of the linguistic message(the text) nor its position are particularlyimportant, but merely the presence of thelinguistic message itself. Indeed, it is possiblethat a long text may only comprise onemessage, a single global signified. Whencoupled with an image, text has two possiblefunctions: anchorage and relay.

3. McLuhan M. and Fiore Q. The Medium isthe Massage: An Inventoryof Effects (1967)


4. TEXT AND IMAGEAdvertising writing

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Creator: Michael Walsh – New York School of Visual ArtsTitle: Leonardo da VinciExemplifies: Anchorage/Value

A close-up of the smile in da Vinci’s ‘Mona Lisa’ isenlarged to fill the entire cover of this book jacket. Thisdraws the reader’s attention to the surface detail of thepainting: the brush marks; the cracked canvas; thequality of the light and the colour palette. This is done bydeliberately excluding other signs that exist in thepainting but fall beyond the boundary of the book jacket.In this instance, the value of the sign is controlled byremoving other signs. The addition of the text anchors thereader’s uncertainty about the artist; although a readerwith a highly defined cultural awareness might not needthis additional sign.

4. TEXT AND IMAGEPortfolio

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Creator: Lawrence ZeegenTitle: LiarExemplifies: Anchorage/Value

The authority of the managerial figure is undermined bythe word ‘liar’. The silhouetted figure with his flip chartbecomes a sinister character with an unpleasant ulteriormotive. As Saussure points out, the value of a sign isdependent on the other signs around it. A similarrelationship develops when text is added to the image,adding a second sign. In this instance, any ambiguity onthe reader’s part is fixed or anchored by the addition ofthe text. Barthes’ floating chain of signifiers is removedand the reader is remote-controlled to a more fixedreading of the composition.

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Creator: Tom GauldTitle: 3-D FriendsExemplifies: Relay text

Opposite top – In both of these examples, theillustrator uses anchorage and relay text. In ‘3-D Friends’ there is very little signification tobe found from the three frames of the comicstrip. The three shapes simply float in space astime passes. In the first frame, the text anchorsthe image by answering the question, ‘What isit?’ The shapes speak directly to the viewer and explain, ‘I’m a sphere’ and ‘I’m a cube.’ The second frame, however, shows a differentrelationship between the text and the image.Here the text functions as relay text because itsupplies the meaning. It is typical of relay textthat it should be a piece of dialogue: ‘We cannever truly know anyone, we are alone in acold, uncaring universe.’ Arguably, the absenceof text in the final frame also functions as relaytext. Having established dialogue in the other two, we then read the silence in thefinal frame as a text. The absence of dialogue is as potent as the dialogue in the previous two frames.

Creator: Tom GauldTitle: Map of the AreaSurrounding our Holiday HomeExemplifies: Relay Text

Right – In this example, theicons on the map still have adegree of ambiguity to theirmeaning, which is fixed by theaddition of relay text. Arunning figure, for example,which could carry a variety ofdifferent meanings, isconfirmed by the addition ofthe text. What could be anathlete or a jogger orsomeone who is late for ameeting is explained by thetext as ‘escaped convict’.

Creator: Tom GauldTitle: Four Obstacles to WritingExemplifies: Relay text

Opposite bottom – In ‘Four Obstacles toWriting’, the text in the first two framesfunctions as anchorage text. In the firstframe ‘Pram in the Hall’, the textreaffirms what the non-coded imageshows. In the second frame, the text‘Bees in the Room’ answers the ‘What isit?’ question posed by the coded imagebecause here the reader cannot becertain what the tiny dots signify. Thefinal two frames, ‘Nothing in the Bank’and ‘Poltergeist in the House’, fix theambiguity of the meaning in the images.The third image simply shows an emptybackground and the text explains thereason for this emptiness. In the finalframe, the reader can identify the variousobjects pictured in the space around the central character, but it is the textthat helps the reader make sense of whythey are there and what they mean inthis context.

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Creator: Francesca Williams aka Bunny Bissoux Title: Pixie ShoesExemplifies: Anchorage

Above – A simple self-initiated sketch as part of a seriesin a small book of recent shopping purchases. Thedrawing itself gives a limited amount of informationabout the shoes – their colour, for example. However, theambiguities and the gaps are taken care of by the additionof text, which effectively anchors the drawing. The imageof the shoes shows a coded message where specificphysical characteristics of the shoes are suggested rather than described. The material the shoes are madefrom, their precise shape and their colour are all lost tothe reader until the text, ‘These are my magical newgreen pixie shoes’, explains some of the missing signs in the drawing.

Creator: William John HewittTitle: 7th July London BombingsExemplifies: Anchorage

Opposite – Part of a series of documentary drawings aboutthe London Bombings. Pictured here are two of the 59drawings of the day. They are visual notes andimpressions of the event and as such there is very littlereal information that can be gleaned from the drawings.In the top frame, the text, ‘Two motorcyclists – police orparamedics come round the van’, explains exactly whatwe are looking at and anchors the image. In the bottomframe, the text anchors part of the image and providesrelay meaning. To the question in our minds regardingwhat the building is, the author answers ‘Embankmentstation’. The nature of black line drawings cannot conveythe man ‘with grey hair’, so it is stated in the text.



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OFFI-CIALLAN-GUAGE

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Pierre Bourdieu classified human endeavourand knowledge in terms of fields. Some fieldsare clearly defined by making entry into thatfield difficult to attain and, in general, the moredifficult the entry the more defined the field.The field of law might be considered a clearlydefined field. Those in the field could be said to be sharing or struggling with a commonpursuit and share in its own particulardiscourse. The visual arts would be describedas an activity that takes place within the field ofcultural production. Like all other fields, thisfield is constantly changing, as is itsmembership and its discourse.

1. Bourdieu P. IntellectualField and Creative Project(1966) in Young M.F.D.Knowledge and Control(1971)

5. OFFICIAL LANGUAGEHabitus

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The notion of creative and intellectualfields was extended to establish the idea thateach field pre-exists its membership; in thecase of the field of cultural production, thefield pre-exists the artist. Within the fieldthere are a number of official positions, suchas graphic designer, for example, which offera range of possibilities. These possibilities arelimited by a number of factors, such aseducation, social background, gender andage. This influences choices whilst alsoreinforcing the validity of the field. It isgenerally agreed that individuals carry withthem some idea, perhaps subconsciously, ofwhich position to take up on their arrivalwithin the field. You could call this a sense ofvocation. It is this sense of vocation thatbecame described as habitus. Bourdieu statesthat the choice between the territories wherewe will take up position as individuals (thechoice of habitus within the language) isaccomplished without consciousness in everysituation1. Apparently insignificant aspects ofeveryday life, such as ways of doing things orbody language, for example, and theconstructed images we witness every day, allcontribute to the formation of habitus.

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Bourdieu begins his assertions aboutlegitimate language with Saussure’sobservation that neither languages nordialects have natural limits2. All that isnecessary is a set of speaking subjects whoare willing to make themselves the bearers of the language or dialect using an intrinsicand autonomous logic. Bloomfield describesthis as a ‘linguistic community – a group of people who use the same system oflinguistic signs.’ 3

Bourdieu, however,goes on to point out thatexternal as well as internalfactors affect the limits of alanguage, and thatexternally there is a politicalprocess that unifies thespeaking subjects and leadsthem to accept, in practice,the use of the officiallanguage. In order tosuccessfully impose this language as theofficial language, it is necessary to have ageneral codification that is sustained bycreating institutional conditions that enable itto be recognised throughout the wholejurisdiction of a certain political authority. It follows that this official language hasterritorial limits. An unofficial language, adialect for example, has not undergone thisinstitutional process of control; it is internallydriven by its own independent logic. We willlook at this in more detail in chapter six.

The official language imposes itself as theonly legitimate language within a territoriallimit. In the context of this book, the territorycould be described as the field of culturalproduction and would include variouspositions within it, such as a graphic designeror artist. This is particularly true of situationsthat characterise themselves as official. Thiswill be discussed later on in this chapter.

Grammarians and teachers working frominstitutions become jurists who examine theusage of language to the point of the legalsanction of academic qualifications. Thesequalifications identify the legitimate languagewithin a territory and enable individuals totake up positions within a field. If we look atthe vocational art and design disciplines ofgraphic or fashion design, in most casesentry into the field is acquired through the

successful completion of anacademic qualification,such as a degree or adiploma. The process ofcompleting the coursegenerates a portfolio, whichis used in selection atinterview, but in most casesthe interview is onlypossible once the awardhas been attained. The useof language, both written

and visual, has been judged and sanctioned byan institution:

‘The educational system, whose scaleof operations grew in extent and intensity throughout the nineteenthcentury, no doubt directly helped todevalue popular modes of expression,dismissing them as ‘slang’ and‘gibberish’ (as can be seen fromteachers’ marginal comments onessays) and to impose recognition ofthe legitimate language.’ 4

Recent shifts in bilingual education in theUSA illustrate this well. In an essay entitled‘Language Wars’5, René Galindo points out anumber of propositions passed in the late1990s. A California English Only initiative(proposition 63) was followed by a provision for citizens and anyone doing business in the

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3. Bloomfield L. Language(1958)

4. Bourdieu P. ibid.

5. Galindo R. LanguageWars: The IdeologicalDimensions of theDebates on BilingualEducation (1997)

5. OFFICIAL LANGUAGEThe production of legitimate language

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the page

itself

is a sign

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The book of Genesis tells the storyof the Tower of Babel. At that timeall the citizens spoke the samelanguage and everyone couldunderstand each other. To celebratethis they decided to build a towerthat reached towards the heavens.God in his wisdom decided thatthis must be stopped. To do this,the most effective method was tofragment their language so thathierarchies would develop. Of course, linguists do not take thestory to be an accurate historicaltext but it serves as a usefulmetaphor of how language can beused as an instrument of control.

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state to sue local governments for actionsthat diminish or ignore the role of English asthe common language of California.Proposition 227, called English for theChildren, was passed in 1998 and decreedthat all children should be taught English andanyone who wants their children to be taughta second language would have to make aspecial written request. Galindo summarisesthe debate:

‘... competition for value between different constituencies that takes place through themanipulation of symbolic assets such as language(s)... ’ 6

This competition for value can also beseen in the way slang is included indictionaries as recognised omissions fromlegitimate language. Slang phrases oftenappear in italics, a typographic signal ofdifference or separation, as popular orcommon uses. Indeed, any value or capital(cultural or monetary) awarded to individualsalways arises from a deviation from the mostcommon usage. Commonplace usage is seenas trivial or vulgar. Capital, such asqualifications, is awarded to well-chosenwords/signs/images that are seen as dignifiedor lofty. As the educational system is fundedby and answerable to the state, then it couldbe said that the production of a legitimatelanguage is bound up with the field ofeconomic production.

‘Obligatory on official occasions and in official places (schools, publicadministrations, political institutionsetc.), this state language becomes the theoretical norm against which all linguistic practices are objectivelymeasured.’ 7

It is worth noting that the highest proportion of graffiti attacks (an extreme form of unofficial visual language) take placein schools, the institutions responsible for themaintenance of the official language and onlocal authority (state) property.

Bourdieu points out that for a particularlanguage, or a particular use of language, to impose itself as legitimate, the differentdialects, whether class, regional or ethnic

group, have to be practically measuredagainst the legitimate language. Without support from external agencies, thesedialects or unofficial languages (which areinternally driven) cannot be imposed as thenorm for another territory, despite thepossibility of using these differences as apretext for declaring one superior to another.The theory follows that these differences canbe developed into a system for determininghierarchical position.

If we look, for example, at the appearanceof the visual language of the pop artists in the 1960s, and the criticism that nowaccompanies this work, we can see the way in which the discourse surrounding it has developed to authorise the work andenable its acceptance as part of the officialvisual culture.

6. Galindo R. LanguageWars: The IdeologicalDimensions of theDebates on BilingualEducation (1997)


language

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Society awards capital toindividuals for their use oflanguage. This can bemonetary or cultural capital. In the case ofgood use of the officiallanguage, an educationalaward such as an honoursdegree or a PhD could bethe cultural capital leadingto monetary rewards. Thereverse is also true forthe use of an unofficiallanguage, such as graffitior vandalism, where aspell in detention could bethe reward.

Capital

In its open celebration of popular culture,pop art caused a great deal of consternationamongst those at the centre of the field ofcultural production.

‘There was a widely held view in some circles in the 1950s that serious painting had to be abstract,that it was retrograde for artists to make reference to the outside world by engaging in representation or illusion.’ 8

The British artist Peter Phillips wasstudying at the Royal College of Art in London,the most prestigious art school in the UK,marked by its Royal Charter. When he firstproduced what has become known as some ofthe finest examples of British pop art, he wascastigated by his tutors. Their disapproval wasso strong that Phillips was forced to transferfrom the Painting School to the less noble,but popular, Television School for his finalyear. The celebrated David Hockney wasthreatened with expulsion at around the sametime for his refusal to complete (official)written work. Allen Jones fared less well andwas expelled from his college. Compare thisattitude towards the work with these excerptsfrom a recent critique on the same work:

‘Phillips painted a large canvas, PurpleFlag, in which he synthesised his practical skills and his intuitive responseto Italian pre-Renaissance paintingwith an open expression of hisenjoyment of funfairs and the game ofpinball... . The smaller motifsincorporated in the lower half of thepainting... establish an alternativetimescale as in early Italian altarpieces, in which predella panels establish a narrative compliment tothe starkly formal central image.’ 9

This method of referencing the past is commonplace in artistic criticism andappears to lend authority to the work byaligning its formal features with those that are already accepted as part of theofficial discourse.

‘Some of the recurring characteristicsof pop... were anticipated in a varietyof developments in European andAmerican Modernism. The basing of images on existing popular sources,for example, had precedents in the work of nineteenth-centurypainters such as Gustav Courbet andEdouard Manet.’ 10

5. OFFICIAL LANGUAGEThe production of legitimate language

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Rules

Visual arts publications, which deal withthe craft of making visual work, invariablycarry sets of rules on how to successfullyemploy the official visual language withintheir various disciplines. Of course, many ofthese accepted conventions are grounded inexperience and are valid observations. Theimportant thing to recognise in the context of this chapter is that there are rules thathave become accepted as legitimate practiceand are used in education and elsewhere asthe norm against which deviation ismeasured. Here are some examples fromgraphic design texts:

‘... the efficiently designed trademark must be a thing of the barest essentials.’ 11

‘... useless elaboration that has been traditionally a feature of badtrademark design.’ 12

‘... typefaces can unquestionably beassessed on the basis of artistic qualityirrespective of their fashion status;and, conversely, no amount offashionable success can change this assessment for better or worse.’ 13

‘Visual analogies which most clearlyillustrate meaning or the spirit of a word should be sought; for example,the letter O could be the visualequivalent of the sun, a wheel, an eye.’ 14

8. Livingstone M. Pop Art(1990)

9. Livingstone M. ibid.

10. Livingstone M. ibid.

11. Horn F.A. Lettering atWork (1955)

12. Horn F.A. ibid.

13. Hutchings R.S. TheWestern Heritage of TypeDesign (1963)

14. Rand P. A Designer’sArt (1985)

Any value or capital (cultural or monetary) awarded to individualsalways arises from a deviation from the most common usage.Commonplace usage is seen as trivial or vulgar.

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It was generally agreed that the socialuses of language owe their social value totheir being organised into systems ofdifferences. To speak is to adopt a style thatalready exists and is marked by its position ina hierarchy of styles, which corresponds to ahierarchy of social groups. In a sense then,these different styles/dialects are both classified and classifying by marking thosewho use them.

Foucault points out that the biologicaldistinction of gender has been overlaid with a systematic set of discourses that have become an organising principle inrecruiting labour and consuming and producinggoods – all of which lead to gender-dominatedpractices15.

‘Knowledge and Control’ shows Bourdieuoutline a competition where the public is

seen as both the prize and the arbitrator; onein which competitors cannot be identified withthe competition for commercial success16.This is certainly true of the experiences ofdesigners within the field of culturalproduction, where work that can be identifiedas commercial is subject to varying degreesof derision. This is perhaps even moreintense in the fine arts, where there isreluctance to acknowledge that art is a commercial activity. This declared refusal tomeet popular demand could encourage artfor art’s sake and increase the intensity ofemotions between members of an artisticcommunity. Mutual admiration societiesappear, which are inevitably accompanied byformal award ceremonies as a result ofartists addressing an ideal reader.

15. Foucault M. TheHistory of Sexuality (1978)

16. Bourdieu P.Intellectual Field andCreative Project (1966) inYoung M.F.D. Knowledgeand Control (1971)

5. OFFICIAL LANGUAGEThe competition for cultural legitimacy

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Flux and hierarchy

Another condition that Bourdieu offers asessential to maintaining the permanence ofan official language, is the need for a processof continuous creation and review through anongoing struggle between the differentauthorities within a field of specialisedproduction. A field must be in constant flux tobe able to survive. So although one cannot beseen to be identified with wholly commercialissues, there is however a practicalcommitment to the economic field (advertising,constructed realities, work ethic) by theconstant drive to maintain the status quo atthe centre of a specialised field. The exampleof the reception given to Peter Phillips’ workis part of an endless process of assimilation,which is necessary for the field to maintain itsauthority. Carl Andre’s pile of bricks was finallyaccepted when the Tate Gallery bought thesecond version of the piece in 1972 despite the ridicule that heralded the first version in 1966. By 1976, the bricks were exhibitedalongside paintings by John Constable in the gallery in London. The history of the field of cultural production is littered withsimilar examples.

The relationships between different agentswithin a specialised field (publisher/author,painter/curator) leads us to question thetraditional perception of authorship. Bourdieudescribes this as collective, with each agentor partner employing the socially establishedidea of the other partner. This judgement is arepresentation of their place within theparticular specialised field. He provides uswith examples of activities that fall betweennoble, cultural activities and vulgar,commonplace activities in the forms ofphotography and cinema. The divided opinionand controversy between the cultivatedclasses is used to place photography halfwaybetween the poles of high and low culture.The position of photography would thendetermine the relationship between the photographer and the painter. Although itcould be argued that photography has becomemore acceptable to those at the centre of thefield of cultural production (since 1991, whenBourdieu wrote ‘Language and SymbolicPower’), there remains evidence of areluctance to fully accept the media into thefine arts. This can be seen through the varyingdegree to which it is resourced in art collegesthroughout the UK, with some collegesproviding distinct pathways for photographersand film/video makers, while others make nopractical provision at all.

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The acclaimed designer Paul Rand pointsout that there remains a discernable hierarchywithin the practices that make up the visual arts:

‘That graphic design is generally considered a minor art has more to dowith posturing than it does with reality.The paucity of great art is no moreprevalent among designers than it isamong painters. To be sure there is abasic difference between graphic designand painting. But that difference is oneof need and does not precludeconsideration of form or quality. It merely adds more stress to thenormal difficulties entailed in producingoriginal work.’ 17

This perception is built on historical ideologies that show an outright contempt forartistic works with any functional value.

‘Nothing is truly beautiful except that which can serve for nothing.’ 18

Although institutions such as the ArtsCouncil in the UK were set up with the aim ofmaking the arts more accessible to allclasses, Paul Willis points out that:

‘The Arts Council withdrew very promptly from the site of popular consumption.’ 19

However, Willis also points out that thishigh culture cannot ignore low culture.

‘ “Elite and official” culture can nolonger hope to colonise, dominate or contain everyday life because thereis already something there whichgrows from its own resources – ameaning-making and ordinary culturalproduction now full of implications forthe rest of society.’ 20

Lucy McLauchlanJackdaw

It is generally acceptedthat a designer works in a‘commercial’ area andartists make work that is‘issue based’. Jackdaw isan example of how adesigner/illustratordevelops their own visuallanguage throughexploring issues such asnew media, subjectmatter or scale. This workis based on Aesop's fable'The Vain Jackdaw' and is2x0.8m in size, blackmarker pens on plywood.

5. OFFICIAL LANGUAGEThe competition for cultural legitimacy

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Being able to recognise andemploy Legitimate Language doesnot necessarily empower the speakeror artist without another set of conditions. The words themselveshave no power unless the user is‘authorised’ to use them.

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Authorised language

It is obvious that social conditions andsocial ritual have a bearing on the use of language. It is a principle of drama that thenature of acts must be consistent with thenature of the surroundings. This phenomenoncan certainly be observed within theinstitutions, mentioned earlier, whose role itis to impose, defend and sanction legitimate language. The lecture theatre provides anexcellent example of Burke’s observations ondrama. The theatre, the lectern, the booksare all instruments of an official discoursedeemed worthy of publication. The lecture isgranted as legitimate, not by beingunderstood, but by being delivered by anauthorised and licensed (qualified) person ina legitimate situation. One notion that isparticularly good at highlighting this is whatBourdieu calls ‘the magical act’. This isdescribed as the attempt, within the sphere ofsocial action, to act through words beyond thelimits of delegated authority. The visual artsis full of examples of the magical act, wherethe semiotics of the official and the corporatehave been skilfully employed to communicatethe ideas and feelings of the individual.

‘Suppose, for example, I see a vesselon the stocks, walk up and smash thebottle hung at the stem, proclaim “I name this ship the Mr Stalin” andfor good measure kick away thechocks: but the trouble is, I was notthe person chosen to name it.’ 21

17. Rand P. A Designer’sArt (1985)

18. Gautier T. in Rand P. ADesigner’s Art (1985)


20. Willis P. ibid.

21. Austin J.L. How to DoThings with Words (1955)

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Creator: StefanSagmeisterTitle: Things I HaveLearned in My Life So FarExemplifies: Officiallanguage

Left – Four of 15 covers ofthe book ‘Things I HaveLearned in My Life So Far’by Stefan Sagmeister,which accompanied anexhibition of the samename in Deitch Projects'Grand Street gallery inNew York. Sagmeisterdraws on the discourse ofhigh art by creating 15limited-edition bookcovers. The reader’sperception is shifted awayfrom mass-produceditems towards collectible,high-art items morereadily associated withofficial visual culture.

Right – Sample spreadsfrom the book featuringthe maxim: ‘Trying toLook Good Limits My Life’.The work produced fromthe maxim appears inwildly varying forms andhas been published allover the world in spacesnormally reserved foradvertising or promotions,on billboards, magazinespreads; on the cover ofan annual report.Sagmeister projects aseries of unofficial informal texts on to anofficial cultural space.The designer anticipatesthat the audience willread the page as a signand the billboard as asign. This reading of official context at thesame time as theunofficial text lendsauthority to the messageand results in what iseffectively a magical act.

This deliberately playfulapproach to context andhis ability to manipulatethe commercial world tohis own ends, leads toSagmeister's work beingdescribed as sittingbetween graphic designand art.

5. OFFICIAL LANGUAGEPortfolio

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Creator: Stefan SagmeisterTitle: Keeping a Diary Supports Personal DevelopmentExemplifies: Official language

The Sagmeister studio was invited to Singapore toproduce another instalment of the series ‘Things I HaveLearned in My Life So Far’. This one-minute clip aboutthe importance of keeping a diary was shot in one day inan abandoned park. These stills show how a personalpiece of information, which exists as an unofficial andunsanctioned statement, can be transformed intosomething that appears to have an authoritative voice.The audience will read the high production values in thephotography, the strong symmetrical composition, theepic scale of the settings and the text itself to form apicture of a highly sanctioned piece of work. The workcould sit in a visual paradigm alongside epic movies,historic drama or location-based documentary. All ofthese suggest a high level of production, a level ofexpense and a sense of broadcasting and publishing thatdoes not apply to unsanctioned communication.

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Creator: Pete RichardsonTitle: Crowns (Opposite)Exemplifies: Officiallanguage

In the UK, glasses withcrown marks have beenchecked to ensure theyare of the specifiedcapacity (pint, half pintetc) to comply withnational legislation. Thenumber varies dependingon which agency has donethe checking. Thisenables the glass to alsobe the measuring deviceand avoids the need tomeasure the liquid separately and then pourit into a glass.

Each system of languagehas an independent systemof codes that existindependently of anyother language system.For each system, all thatis needed for it to exist isan agreement from adistinct group of people, a linguistic community. Inthis case, the combinationof crown mark andnumeric value is an officialsign that has asignificance to a distinctaudience who have agreedon the code and havelearnt the relationshipsinvolved. This set ofmarks is recognised asthe only legitimate signfor the measure within aspecified politicalterritory. This examplealso illustrates the threemain areas of signs andhow the meaning isaffected by them: thesigns themselves(numbers, crown); theway they are organisedinto systems (therelationship between thecrown and the number);and the context in whichthey appear (the glass).


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Creator: Daniel EatockTitle: Price-Tag Gift Wrapoffset on paper, edition of 300Exemplifies: Authorised language

Opposite – Individuals were invited to participate in apublic gift exchange that would generate an Americanversion of Eatock’s ‘Price-Tag Gift Wrap’. Participantswere asked to buy items (bearing removable price tags)that could be offered as gifts. Each participant broughthis or her gift item to the gallery, its price tag wascarefully removed (in keeping with the convention ofremoving the price) and reapplied in a random pattern ona single sheet of paper. Once the price-tag sheets wereprinted, they were used to wrap all the gift items broughtto the gallery and these were then displayed on shelvesas a work in the exhibition. Every gift brought to thegallery is represented on the paper by its correspondingprice tag. At the end of the show each person who gavean item returned to the gallery to select a gift. Wouldparticipants open the gift to discover the item inside orkeep the artwork intact and conceal the gift?

Eatock highlights the gap in cultural hierarchy betweenthe gallery as a high-art activity and the low art ofconsumption and shopping by deliberately transferringthe visual language of one culture on to another.

Creator: Katy DawkinsTitle: Interference(Plaque)Exemplifies: Authorisedlanguage

Left and above – Part of a series of graphicinterventions in publicspaces. The original text is taken from theunofficial communicationof graffiti, found invarious parts of the city; it is then redrawn using alegitimate and authorisedvisual language beforebeing returned to itsoriginal environment. By using characteristicsand materials from anauthorised visual code,the designer is able totransfer the message from unofficial to officiallanguage. This transfer,acting beyond the realmof delegated authority, is described as a magical act.



pages 184–185

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UNOF-FICIALLAN-GUAGE

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Mike Brake points out that the differentialfit problem is redefined according to the rulesand conventions of the subcultural group andoffers us a new identity outside of the usualcategories of age, class or occupation1. Youngpeople in particular feel marginalised byofficial cultural values. They often place noimportance on work, even as a means ofearning money, and turn instead to leisure-based rather than work-based activities.Increasingly their aspirations are focused onwhat they do outside of the workplace. Theirenergies are directed towards activitiesassociated with music, fashion and sport.Often two or more of these are fused togetherin a semiotic package.

The football terraces, for example, arelively and colourful places, densely packedwith fans adorned in team colours. On onelevel this merely signifies the team theysupport. However, studies involving thebehaviour of football fans show that there are a number of subtle messages beingcommunicated. The way the colours are worn,how the scarf is tied, the gestures made bythe fan and the way they dress are all part ofa semiotic code. Studies have shown that it ispossible to predict which fans would stand

All of us face theproblem of adifferential fitbetween how we seeourselves and howothers see us. Wherewe try to solve thisproblem individually it can lead to isolation,but solving theproblem collectivelyoffers us a newperspective on the situation.

1. Brake M. Sociology of Youth Culture and YouthSubcultures (1980)

6. UNOFFICIAL LANGUAGEUnofficial codes

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and fight, which fans regularly attend awaymatches and which fans see themselves astough but probably aren’t; all by looking atsemiotic subtleties.

‘Although the fans dress in a similarmanner which accords with certainconventions and styles they are stillable to convey a wide range ofmessages in their choice of clothingwhich fall within the widerconventions. In other words the ‘gear’that the fans wear has a highlysymbolic function.’ 2

The gestures between rival football fanswork as metonyms. The clenched fist and thefrosty stare are all recognisable as metonymsfor real violence and can replace real violencein ritualised aggression.

As we have previously seen, Saussureobserved that neither languages nor dialectshave natural limits. All that is needed is a setof speaking subjects who are willing to makethemselves the bearers of the language ordialect. The symbolic gestures discussed inthis chapter can be seen as dialects. A wholerange of semiotic symbols mark the distinctlinguistic communities. What they wear, howthey talk, their gestures and their haircutsare all part of their particular dialect. Thelanguage, whether spoken or visual, isdetermined by the community who use it and,unlike the official language, it has no controlimposed from the outside. It is easy to see

why it is an attractive option for anyone whofeels, in some way, marginalised by officialculture: the opportunity to communicate withlike-minded people in a way that cannot beunderstood by those they mistrust. By its veryuse, the language also marks the user aspart of an alternative community.

Graffiti

Let’s look, for example, at graffiti as anunofficial visual language that also carries itsown linguistic terms. Graffiti is a usefulmodel as, first of all, it is distinctly visual. Italso has the benefit of being an extreme typeof unofficial language. It stands well outsideof any educational system. This makes it easyto recognise and produces equally clearreactions from those who read it.

‘Writing graffiti is about the most honest way you can be an artist. It takes no money to do it, you don’tneed an education to understand itand there’s no admission fee.’ 3

The demonstration of individual identity isperhaps the most popular and prevalenttheme of graffiti writing. The time-honouredpractice of writing your name (or nickname)is still very much part of our environmenttoday. It also has a long history: symbols andpictures were found scratched alongside thenames of gladiators on the walls of theexcavated buildings of Pompeii.

2. Marsh P., Rosser E. andHarré R. The Rules ofDisorder (1977)

3. Manco T. Stencil Graffiti(2002)

4. Castleman C. GettingUp: Subway Graffiti inNew York (1982)

6. UNOFFICIAL LANGUAGEUnofficial codes

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Castleman’s study of New York graffitiidentifies a number of forms of contemporarygraffiti4, such as the tag or the throw-up.Used by graffiti writers, this terminologyextends to highlight a hierarchy and a code ofpractice peculiar to its own field:

Backgrounding – an agreed code notto cover or deface other people’s work.

Bomb – a group attack.

Fame – fame.

Getting Up – writing.

Hit – an early name for a tag.

King of the Line – the writer with themost number of throw-ups.

Nasty, the Death, Vicious, Bad, Dirty,the Joint, Juicy, Down, Burner, On – terms of approval.

Racking Up – shoplifting (it isconsidered proper that the materialsused should be stolen).

Tag/Throw-up – the graffiti writers’version of a signature or logo.

Toy – a term that can be added to apiece as a form of criticism, meaninginsignificant.

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The official view of the graffiti writer isthat he or she is a vandal. It seems to follow a stereotypical description of a working-classinner-city adolescent whose destructive activities are the forerunner of criminality inlater years.

‘... it is easy to see how today’s young vandal can become tomorrow’s football hooligan and next week’s mugger.’ 5

The British Home Office Research Unit literature confirms this view:

‘The motivation underlying vandalismby adolescent youths may also fuelother forms of delinquent behaviour,especially theft...’ 6

However, this stereotype is discredited by independent studies, which claim that the vandals have a much broader social background:

‘Vandals come from urban and suburban as well as rural areas, fromworking-class and middle-class aswell as upper-class families, and are of different ethnic origins. A recognition of the growinginvolvement of girls in vandalismwould also help to correct thestereotype.’ 7

This view is certainly backed up by thehigh proportion of involvement shown inGladstone’s self-report study in 1978 and alsoconfirmed by Craig Castleman’s study of NewYork graffiti. Officers from the transport policetalked about the vandals and described whatkind of backgrounds they came from:

‘... their fathers were professors atColumbia, NYU, some were CPAs,some were doctors, architects. They live in thousand-dollar houses,apartments, some are living in $1.98-a-month ghettos. There’s no generalisation.’ 8

According to Castleman, the Nation of Graffiti Artists (NOGA) has members representing numerous ethnic groups:

‘including Chinese, Americans, West Indians, Ukrainians, Filipinos,Dominicans and Nigerians.’ 9

The police records also showed that themajority of writers were between 11 and 16.The writers themselves confirmed this ininterviews with Castleman. They tended tostart around ten years old and retire by their16th birthday, this being the age at which, asadults, they would be photographed and fingerprinted; effectively criminalised.

5. Hurd D. Conference onVandalism, London (1988)

6. Home Office ResearchUnit in Coffield F.Vandalism and Graffiti(1991)

7. Coffield F. Vandalismand Graffiti (1991)

8. Castleman C. GettingUp: Subway Graffiti inNew York (1982)

9. Castleman C. ibid.

10. Scottish CriminalJustice Act of 1980(Section 78)

6. UNOFFICIAL LANGUAGEThe graffiti writer

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Motivation

Perhaps the most striking feature of thisarea is that there is no general view about thecauses and motivation behind graffiti andvandalism. There is no single theory that isgenerally accepted as having unlocked thesecrets of these illicit activities. Rather, thereare a number of approaches that attempt toexplain either part of the problem or aparticular type of vandalism. There is also nogeneral agreement of a definition of vandalism.For example, criminal statistics for Englandand Wales show that no one has ever beencharged or found guilty of vandalism, whereasin Scotland, vandalism has been a criminaloffence since 1980. In England and Wales,graffiti and vandalism have been defined in

terms of criminal damage yet the ScottishCriminal Justice Act of 1980 (Section 78)clearly states that:

‘Any person who, without reasonableexcuse, wilfully or recklessly destroys or damages any property belonging to another shall be guilty of the offence of“vandalism”.’ 10

Despite this difference in legal terminology,news reports and press cuttings show that it istypically described as ‘senseless’, ‘mindless’ or ‘obscene’, both by journalists and the police. These terms are rarely used, however,when reporting the efforts of city planners ordevelopers who have damaged cities andlandscapes more permanently.

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This vandalism with power was highlightedby David Downes, extending traditionalconcepts of vandalism to include what he called pinstripe vandalism. In general, there is a tendency for official institutions andauthorities to view vandalism and graffiti as a problem and to address the issues using adiscourse that reflects this view. Stan Cohenand Frank Coffield, however, suggest thatvandalism and graffiti are solutions ratherthan problems, which provides a differentperspective from the usual approach ofprevention and punishment.

Prestige and excitement

Home Office Research in the UK citesprestige and excitement as motives for graffitiand vandalism:

‘... most of the vandalism seems to be committed either by young children in unsupervised play, or by older adolescents seeking prestige andexcitement; relatively little seems to be committed by older youths or adults.’ 11

A study of workers on the Liverpool docksshowed that a system of rules and conventions,generated by financial hardship, led to atradition of risk-taking as proof of strength,courage or skill. This tradition was focused ondefiance towards authority. A code of practicewas established where it was quite acceptableto steal something from the workplace butentirely unacceptable to steal from the family.

One other point was made by the UKHome Office Research Unit, which isparticularly interesting as a clue to possiblemotives:

‘... a comparatively small proportion ofvandalism appears to be committedagainst people’s personal or privateproperty... most vandalism is directedat local authority property.’ 12

We begin to get a broad picture of graffitias a series of gestures directed against thevisible symbols of the establishment. Theseare motivated, at least in part, by the need forexcitement or prestige amongst the graffitiartist’s own particular linguistic community.

Categories

There have been a number of attempts to define the motives behind vandalism, first by categorising the variety of actions thatcome under this heading and then dealingwith why these take place. Perhaps the mostaccepted formulation of categories are the types outlined by Cohen, which were later adapted by Baker and Waddon13

(whose alterations I have added beneath each category):

1. Ideological VandalismProperty that is destroyed to gainpublicity for a particular cause, whichis justified by a political belief or along-standing grievance.

2. Acquisitive VandalismTo acquire money or property. Forexample, looting vending machines orstealing signs.

3. Tactical VandalismBaker and Waddon replaced thiscategory with a new category: graffiti.A means of achieving some other end,such as bringing a production line to ahalt in order to break the boredom ofthe work and to increase standingwithin peer groups.

4. Vindictive VandalismBaker and Waddon changed the title ofthis category to Problem Expression.Vandalism for some form of revengeor to settle a grudge, often directed at schools.

5. Play VandalismVandalism for fun or through highspirits, which is motivated by curiosityor competition. For example, who canbreak the most windows.

6. Malicious VandalismFor Cohen, this is the category thatincludes the behaviour of young peoplewho are ‘breaking out, breaking awayor breaking clear’ and would includeattacks on local authority property. Herecognises this to be the category that

11. Home Office ResearchUnit in Coffield F.Vandalism and Graffiti(1991)

12. Clarke R. (1978) inCoffield F. Vandalism andGraffiti (1991)

13. Baker C. and WaddonA. Vandalism:Understanding andPrevention in HelpingTroubled Pupils in Schools(1989)

14. Hurd D. Conference onVandalism, London (1988)


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is most difficult to understand as itappears to be ‘meaningless’ butprovides an opportunity for them toexpress their boredom, frustration ordespair with little chance of beingcaught and convicted.

As already stated, there seems to be no general view about the causes and motives underlying vandalism; however, from the above list we can identify a numberof possible motives – financial gain, peergroup pressure, aesthetic pleasure andmanufactured malice. Douglas Hurd’s view in 1988 was that the causes were:

‘boredom, stupid drinking and youngpeople’s appetite for excitement’. 14

However, the motives that generate mostdebate are the notions of pleasure andmanufactured malice. The argument is thatvandalism as a solution to this group’s problems is appropriate, in symbolic,expressive and emotional terms. That is, in its very senselessness, it makes sense. Itoffers excitement, trouble, toughness, action,control and risk.

We have a picture of what society shouldbe and we recognise certain motives as legitimate. Where these motives cannot befound then the behaviour cannot be tolerated.Vandalism, which does not involve financialgain (this would include graffiti), is then seenas motiveless. The only way then of makingsense of some actions is to assume that theydo not make sense under conventional logic.

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Visual dialect

One formal feature that is common tomost graffiti is the materials used to makethe work. The nature of the act dictates thatthe marks have to be made quickly withmaterials that can be easily carried andconcealed, and that are readily available. In addition to scratching, the most popularmaterials are spray paint and more recentlythe marker pen, which can be customised togive a desired effect (chiselled or tapedtogether). It is worth noting that flyposting isnever mentioned as a form of graffiti and, asCastleman observed, the transport police didnot target sticker campaigns. Whether this isdue to the permanent nature of graffiti toolsor the fact that many commercial or politicalcampaigns use print-based (official) media,remains unclear. What is clear is that flypostingalso has many of the features of graffiti:

‘Flyposters have provided a culturalform which those on the fringes of, ortotally outside dominant cultures, havebeen able to use with great effect. The uses have varied from person toperson and from situation to situation.The common characteristic is that flyposters are a medium for groups orindividuals with little money or accessto the established media. They areexciting, dangerous and subversive.’ 14

Stencil graffiti carries a similar set ofsemiotic values. As Tristan Manco points out in his book on stencilling, the medium isreadily associated with the stencil lettering to be found on functional packaging and urbanstreet furniture. This gives the stencil anauthority and an authenticity with the addedbenefit of consistency. Like the flyposter, ourawareness of their history makes them excitingand subversive:

‘All graffiti is low-level dissent butstencils have an extra history. They’vebeen used to start revolutions and tostop wars. They look political justthrough the style.’ 15

The possibilities in loading messages withthese second-order signifiers (danger, subversion, dissent, authenticity, politics) hascertainly not been lost on manufacturers andadvertisers. The unofficial visual language ofgraffiti and its associated forms has beenused to promote fashion labels, music, cars,clubs, sportswear, foodstuffs, drinks andevents. Whenever a brand wants to communicate directly with a young audienceit can adopt a dialect that suits its particularneeds. As well as speaking with the right toneof voice, unofficial visual language is usuallyinexpensive to produce, adding to itsauthenticity. In truth, many of these fail todeliver true authenticity as the context playssuch a large part in reading the message. Agraphic mark on a cereal box is unlikely to bedangerous and exciting simply because it ison a cereal box. In art and design, the use ofthe vernacular is a popular way of adding alayer of perceived authenticity and honesty toa whole range of work. It is often seen as asignal that the marketing department has notbeen involved in the promotion of a product orservice. The vernacular is broadly seen aswork that is deliberately undesigned. Thisdraws from a range of visual communicationmade by amateurs giving it an informal andunofficial flavour. The work is often made byhand or by using instant design systems,such as plastic peg letters, for example.

14. Fuller M. FlyposterFrenzy (1992)

15. Manco T. StencilGraffiti (2002)


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A number of the formal values of thevernacular of graffiti can be found in examplesof what might be termed fine art (identity,spontaneity, repetition). However, few artistshave emerged from a background of graffitiwith any significant commercial or criticalsuccess. The most notable exceptions to thisare, arguably, Keith Haring and Jean-MichelBasquiat. (It should be noted here that boththese artists received formal art training,unlike the majority of graffiti artists whosework never reaches a gallery.) What isinteresting is the extent to which the workrevealed its background in graffiti when it wastransferred from an unofficial context to theofficial arena of the gallery. Basquiat, whobegan working as one half of the graffiti teamSamo, certainly displays the speed andgesture of graffiti in his work:

‘... Basquiat was in a terrible and terrifying hurry... drawing for him wassomething you did rather thansomething done, an activity ratherthan a medium... . His earliest imageson paper show the same authoritativehandwriting of his pseudonymousstreet tags.’ 16

Haring, too, seemed to recognise the element of performance in makinggraffiti. For him, it was an activity rather than a medium:

‘Haring’s commitment to publicperformance was backed by hisabsolute embrace of chance andspontaneity. He was inspired in equal parts by the automatisminherent in Jackson Pollock’s andMark Tobey’s painting process, theassuredness of Oriental calligraphers,and the sheer abandon of graffitiwriters “bombing” trains’. 17

‘He did nearly all the subway drawingsduring the day, often at peak times,and was as intent on sharing the act ofart making with his audience as hewas on leaving behind lastingartworks in the material sense.’ 18

So already we can see formal similaritiesbetween this art and graffiti (speed of execution, spontaneity, materials, no real distinction between figure and ground, even

16. Storr R. Two HundredBeats Per Min (1990) inGallery R.M. BasquiatDrawings (1990)

17. Blinderman B. And We All Shine On (1992) inCelant G. Keith Haring(1992)

18. Blinderman B. ibid.


6. UNOFFICIAL LANGUAGEUnofficial language and the visual arts

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context) but also some important distinctions.The artists’ work has been sanctioned in someway: Basquiat’s graffiti becomes ‘drawing’and takes place in a studio on paper and canvas; Haring works in public spaces onwalls at rush hour without arrest and often by invitation. Arguably, both artistsdemonstrate a greater control over thetraditional values of composition, spatialarrangements of images on a surface andcolour than most graffiti writers, but what ofthe subject matter and the issues in thework? Neither artist was content, as manywriters are, to simply repeat their name.However, a recurrence of visual symbolsseemed to signal a signature of sorts.

Jean-Michel BasquiatA Panel of Experts1982 © The Estate of Jean-MichelBasquiat/ADAGP, Parisand DACS London, 2010

Lists of personal heroes(including boxers andmusicians) repeated overthe canvas in histrademark handwritingdraws on his backgroundin graffiti. In this case, the canvas itself isconstructed in a casualmanner like a foundobject from an urbanbackstreet.


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With Basquiat it was lists of personal heroes,boxers, bluesmen and heads, often skulls,whereas Haring used a featureless, almostbaby-like outline figure, which he coupled witha variety of architectural or technologicalobjects: the television screen, steps, flyingsaucers:

‘Haring’s legacy is a model universe, alexicon of signs and symbols reflectiveof anxiety, euphoria, desire, oppression,and hope in an age of digital magicand communications breakdown.’ 19

There is little to conclude from thesenotes other than that perhaps the artists’background in graffiti is evident in the formalqualities of the work, even if the motives areless certain. Whether the public consideredthe work to be art or tactical vandalismbefore it reached the gallery is unknown. The only thing that seems certain is that onceit appeared in New York galleries it becameart. The value of the work was determined bythe other signs that surrounded it. The workwas art because it was placed in an acceptedart gallery.

The UK-based stencil graffiti artistBanksy has clear views about the essentialdifference in placing his work in different contexts:

‘ ... I’ve done gallery shows and, ifyou’ve been hitting on people with allsorts of images in all sorts of places,they’re a real step backwards. Painting the streets means becomingan actual part of the city. It’s not aspectator sport.’ 20

Perhaps, as with Carl Andre’s ‘Bricks’, it is only a matter of one discourse beingaccepted into the official discourse over a period of time. This explanation by an 18-year-old art student from Blackpool (who was banned from every railway bridge inBritain in January 1991 after pleading guiltyto seven charges of criminal damage withspray cans) seems to sum up the feelings ofgraffiti writers, and for that reason is worthquoting in full:

19. Blinderman B. And We All Shine On (1992) in Celant G. Keith Haring(1992)

20. Banksy in Manco T.Stencil Graffiti (2002)

21. The Guardian 21stJanuary 1991 4.1.3 interview

Outlaws

Flyers from a boxedcollection of objects. The box functions as a catalogue for anexhibition that was stagedin a homemade shedsituated outside the Tate Gallery inLiverpool, UK.

6. UNOFFICIAL LANGUAGEUnofficial language and the visual arts

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‘It’s a good feeling – like being an outlaw. Out there in the night with a couple of friends onyour own. You’re creating something wonderfuland beautiful for others to enjoy. I understandthat British Rail don’t want to see murals on theirwalls, but I don’t look upon it as vandalism. It’s popular art. Unfortunately a majority of peopleare ill-informed and don’t understand what the culture is about. It’s about self-expression. We are adding something colourful to a blank,bland surface which others will see and admire. It may not be fully appreciated at the moment,but in due course I believe it will be recognised asan art form.’ 21

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Creator: Sagmeister Inc.Title: Design Austria PosterExemplifies: Unofficial language

Above – On this poster celebrating the anniversary ofDesign Austria, the designers literally cut through theboredom of a pair of brown socks with an intricate diecutdesign featuring a wide variety of sausages. The banalpresentation and ordinary nature of the socks themselvesdraws on a vernacular approach to photography, whichdeliberately avoids any attempt to engage with theconventions of official visual culture. The diecut sausageshave a visual connection to cheap paper doilies that alsoinhabit a visual culture of banality and anti-design.

Creator: Sagmeister Inc.Title: Chaumont PosterExemplifies: Unofficiallanguage

Opposite – This poster forSagmeister Inc.’s exhibitin Chaumont, France,features all the peoplewho had a significantinfluence on their work.By inviting touristillustrators to New York'sCentral Park to create theimages, the studio deliberately celebratesthe supposedly low-art culture that is situatedoutside the legitimatediscourse of official visualarts practice. This work,like much of the work inthe unofficial category,takes place in highlypublic urban spaces thathave no defensibleterritory. The work is lowcost and tends to dealdirectly withrepresentations ofpopular role models. Thissense of the popular, theeveryday concerns and theunsanctioned andunprotected space, allposition the work in a verydifferent discourse to highart, where formal valuesare often the guarantee of credibility.

The portraits in thisposter include rolemodels and influencessuch as actors, designers,artists, writers, favouritefood, architects,engineers, musicians,friends and family.

6. UNOFFICIAL LANGUAGEPortfolio

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Creators: Francesca Bunny Williams/Hannah Waldron Title: University of Brighton – Open Days PosterExemplifies: Unofficial language

Above – This open days poster is a collaborativepiece where each designer made two costumes.The photographs show a three-dimensionalvisual expression of a culture of home-madefancy dress that is normally reserved foramateur craft and school plays – a visualvernacular that is firmly sited at the bottom of our cultural hierarchy. It is made usingmaterials that are readily available andproduced with domestic tools – characteristic of unofficial work. In this case, the charminghandmade outfits are clearly not from aprofessional theatrical wardrobe. This issupported by the addition of paper leaves that frame the image. In doing this, the central figures on this poster are loaded withsecond-order signifiers that celebrate thehomespun and individualism. The use of thesesigns on the poster stresses the individualismof the students and shifts attention away fromthe corporate reading of ‘University’ where theevent is sited.

Creator: Riitta Ikonen Title: Snowflake/Commuter ThrivalExemplifies: Unofficial language

Opposite – Riitta Ikonen embraces the vernacularin her carefully constructed images through acombination of bespoke handmade costumesand photography. In ‘Snowflake’ (top), the workis a personal response to the worries of globalwarming in her homeland of Finland. The‘Commuter Thrival’ project (middle/bottom), isa 'communication campaign that aims to raiseawareness of the issues surrounding publictransport through a series of posters visualisingpeople's emotions with custom-made costumes’.The middle-left and bottom-left images wereaccompanied by the text, ‘You should see thesweat under here, it's like a river’ and themiddle-right and bottom-right images werecaptioned, ‘Hey, underneath all this I'msmiling’. Ikonen adopts a way of makingmeaning that sits somewhere between fashionand theatre. However, her costumes are clearlynot high fashion or theatrical wardrobe. Theproduction values of the costumes and theirnaïve, simple, graphic use of colour and form

sit them amongst a homemade tradition thatcould be described as theatrical vernacular.Although the images are beautifully conceivedand photographed, the costumes have anaïvety that draws on folk traditions, like fancydress and Hallowe’en. These signifiers feelquite out of place when they are brought into apublic arena such as a London Undergroundstation; displayed where the audience mightexpect to find corporate advertising. In time,this type of communication will no doubtbecome an accepted part of the discourse ofpublic service graphic design, but at present itis both a brave and unconventional way toengage commuters during the rush hour and isnot part of the authorised visual language forthis community.


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Creator: Elzo DurtTitle: Veterant Skateboard PosterExemplifies: Unofficial language

Above – The unofficial context of urban space is abackdrop to this street poster for a skateboardmanufacturer. The combination of low-budget surrealimagery and an edgy location produces a visual dialectthat speaks directly to a distinct audience who will sense a credibility in the message because of theappropriate dialect.

Creator: Elzo DurtTitle: Space Invaders 1@tour du lotto BruxellesExemplifies: Unofficial language

Right – The cult imagery of the space invader, from theretro computer game, is given an epic presentation in adomestic urban setting. Durt provides a way of presentinga symbol that sits outside a legitimate or authorisedcontext for visual production. This type of communicationis reminiscent of political protests or personal messages,which are made by placing handwritten texts on thewindows of urban housing estates.


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Creator: BurnTitle: WastebinExemplifies: Unofficial language

Design group Burn uses the visual dialect of graffiti andvandalism as part of its self-promotional work. In ourexperience, graffiti carries signification associated withdanger or excitement. Its authors are understood to beoutside of the official fields of cultural production and wealready know graffiti is an illicit act. By employing thesevisual clues, a group – in this case a design group – isable to suggest that there is something intrinsic in itswork that places it outside our conventionalunderstanding of graphic design practice. The readermight expect this group to be young, to be highly individual and to be politically aware or motivated.

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Creator: Ian WrightTitle: TI/Paper TrailExemplifies: Unofficial language

Opposite – Portrait created to promote the studio albumby hip hop artist TI. The songs for the album were writtenby the artist as he awaited trial for federal weaponspossession charges. Given the unusual circumstances, TIbroke his normal practice and wrote the lyrics down onwhatever was to hand. The concept of writing on scrapsof paper as a record of ideas was translated by illustratorand artist Ian Wright into a dense collage of torn paper.The life-size collage was created on a West London streetand an image of it was used on promotional materials.

The use of public urban space as a backdrop is often afeature of unofficial work. This suggests that the authorshave no access to official media channels. Unofficialcommunication often uses very low-cost tools and readilyavailable materials, and this sets the work apart fromsanctioned or authorised work. This work is placeddirectly alongside flyposters and graffiti, and draws onthis context as part of the message. It suggests anaudience for the work and lends an authenticity to thecontent and its visual interpretation.

Creator: Ian WrightTitle: Bob DylanExemplifies: Unofficial language

Left – A portrait of Bob Dylan composed entirelyof monochrome button badges. The button badgeis associated with the unsanctioned culturalarena; in particular with the underground culturethat brings together politics and music. Themedium is especially appropriate for Bob Dylanwhose protest songs and unconventional stylecharacterise his work.

Creator: Ian WrightTitle: Record PrintsExemplifies: Unofficial language

Above – The personal marks of the DJ are celebrated inthis limited-edition print. A series of highlightedfingerprints on the vinyl illustrate how the DJ interactswith the record. These accidental signs are supplementedby stickers and handwritten tape marks, which are in-points on each of the tracks. In this case, the marks aredeliberate but entirely functional, and exist as personalnotes, drawn quickly with cheap materials.


pages 184–185

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SYM-BOLICCREA-TIVITY

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Paul Willis claims there is avibrant symbolic life and an activesymbolic creativity in everyday life,everyday activities and expressions.He points us to the way in whichyoung people’s lives are actually fullof expressions, signs and symbols.

James JarvisOzzy (Above); In My Room(Opposite)

Illustrations originallyproduced for ‘The Face’magazine.

7. SYMBOLIC CREATIVITYHyperinstitutionalisation

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Paul Willis introduces us to the idea ofsymbolic creativity1 by quoting statistics fromthe UK General Household Survey2 and it isuseful to repeat some of these figures here: 4per cent of the population attend museums orart galleries, 90 per cent watch television forover 25 hours per week, 2 per cent of youngpeople (aged 20–24) attend the theatre (themost popular British arts venue), 92 per centof young people listen to radio and 87 per centbuy music.

These figures support Willis’ assertionthat the various genres that constitute highart are currently institutions of exclusion,which have no real relationship to young peopleand their lives. He continues by arguing thatthe arts establishment has done little todiscourage the commonly held belief thatgallery-based art is special, heightened andcertainly not everyday. He goes further to saythat in fact these institutions of high artpromote a fear of cultural decay in order tostrengthen claims for subsidy and privilege.Against this, Willis claims there is a vibrantsymbolic life and an active symbolic creativity ineveryday life, everyday activities andexpressions. He points us to the way in whichyoung people’s lives are actually full ofexpressions, signs and symbols, despite theirnot being involved with the arts. Willis states:

‘... the multitude of ways in whichyoung people use, humanise, decorateand invest with meaning their commonand immediate life spaces and socialpractices – personal styles and choiceof clothes: selective and active use ofmusic, TV, magazines; decoration ofbedrooms; the rituals of romance and subcultural styles; the style, thebanter and drama of friendshipgroups; music-making and dance.’ 3

It is this tendency of high art to distanceitself from these things; insisting on a prioreducational knowledge that leads to acomplete dislocation of art from livingcontexts, which often results in what Williscalls hyperinstitutionalisation. This isexplained as a situation where formalfeatures become the guarantee of an aestheticrather than a relevance to real-life concerns.The people who don’t understand, theuncultured, simply lack the code and are


2. The General HouseholdSurvey (1983–6) (CulturalTrends p. 51)

3. Willis P. ibid.

4. Willis P. ibid.

[Hyperinstitutionalisation]... asituation where formal featuresbecome the guarantee of anaesthetic rather than a relevanceto real-life concerns. The peoplewho don’t understand, theuncultured, simply lack the code and are seen (or may evensee themselves) as ignorant or insensitive.


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Play and identity

Willis’ definition is somewhat at odds withthe English radical tradition of the 1920s and1930s, which followed the ideas of people likeWilliam Morris, who stressed the dignity oflabour in his equation: art = work/pleasure.Necessary work was, at this point, seen ashuman capacity applied through the action oftools on raw materials to produce goods orservices (usually through wage labour).However, Willis points out that themechanisation of modern industry has madeit impossible to find art in paid work and pointsto an extreme example where a study ofBritish factory workers found more opportunityfor symbolic production in driving to workthan there was to be found at work. This lackof opportunity for necessary symbolic work inthe workplace highlights the importance of

seen (or may even see themselves) asignorant or insensitive.

He also returns to Bourdieu’s notion offields by placing the subsidised artist on theperiphery of the field of symbolic creativityrather than at the centre, reversing thetraditional view by placing the public at thecentre. Willis maintains that this symbolicactivity is not only vibrant but necessarybecause human beings are communicating as well as producing beings; furthermore,whilst all are not productive, all arecommunicative. He stresses that thenecessity of symbolic work has beenforgotten and offers us a definition:

‘The application of human capacitiesto and through, on and with symbolicresources and raw materials(collections of signs and symbols – forinstance the language as we inherit it,texts, images, films, songs, artifacts toproduce meaning).’ 4

David CrowMegafamily

Sketches anddevelopment work from the Megafamily font.

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6. Marsh P., Rosser E. andHarré R. The Rules ofDisorder (1978)

play in our individual expression. It is then theinformal rather than the formal situation thatoffers us freedom and choice in symbolicactivity, and increasingly this is where ournecessary symbolic work takes place.According to Willis, the increased importanceof play has been reflected in the huge growthof commercialised leisure, with opiniondivided about whether or not commercialstatus devalues cultural currency.

Willis separates symbolic creativity frommaterial production and suggests it be seenas symbolic production. He outlines four elements needed for necessary symbolicwork:

1. The primary communication tool oflanguage which enables interactionand allows us to assess our impact onothers and their impact on us.

2. The active body (according to Willisthis is the site of signs and symbols).

3. The drama of roles and ritualswhich we perform with others.

4. The practice of symbolic production(where language is both the raw materials and the tools) bringingabout new ways of producing meaning.

Willis maintains that symbolic creativity isintrinsically attached to energy, feelings,excitement and psychic movement. Hebelieves this to be the basis of confidence.

Having outlined what symbolic creativity isand what we need in order for it to take place,Willis then offers a number of examples ofwhat is produced by symbolic creativity. Hesuggests that this is how we produce andreproduce our own individual identities: whowe are now and who we could become. It also places these identities in time andplace, and defines membership of groups,such as race, gender, age and religion. It alsoempowers us with the expectation of beingable to change the world we live in and tomake our mark on it. It is worth noting herethat Willis sees these activities as transitive,in that we are constantly experimenting with

This is how we produce and howwe reproduce our own individualidentities, who we are now and who we could become. It also places these identities in time andplace and defines membership of groups such as race, gender, ageand religion.

‘In many ways this is a question of culturalsurvival for manyyoung people.’ 5


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‘The struggle begins when theysee many of the things that seemroutine to the rest of us as ways of devaluing them... . If they are tohave any significance, their livesmust be self-constructed and made significant with the use ofhome-made materials.’ 6

these expressions of identity and have a cultural sense of which haircut, language ormusic (for example) works most economicallyfor ourselves. Willis stresses the importanceof this aspect of symbolic production. Hepoints out how young people in particular feel marginalised by the constructed visionsof youth supplied by our society throughinstitutions, advertising, magazines and television. This is brought about by the perception of difference between how theyare told they should be and how they actuallyare. Studies of football hooligans in the UKalso point to the necessity for disenfranchisedyoung people to define their identity inopposition to existing constructs.

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2

Creator: Francesca Bunny WilliamsTitle: www.wonderleague.co.ukExemplifies: Symbolic creativity

Personal lifestyle, choice of clothes, eccentric visualimagery and subcultural styles are all part of the waythat Bunny Williams (aka Bunny Bissoux) describes heridentity on her website. The web has provided individualswith the opportunity to create a holistic identity thatextends far beyond the limits of conventional promotional marketing. In addition to an illustration portfolio,www.wonderleague.co.uk includes personal photographs,a shop selling vintage clothes, shoes, accessories, retrotoys and homewares. Potential clients are invited toimmerse themselves in the symbolic creativity that isBunny Bissoux as they get a contemporary portrait of the artist.

7. SYMBOLIC CREATIVITYPortfolio

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Creator: Kate MorossTitle: ‘T-Post’ (T-shirt) Magazine/Badge Sets/BagExemplifies: Symbolic creativity

The importance of clothing in the expression of identity isharnessed by a Swedish magazine, where the magazineand the T-shirt are one and the same. The front of the T-shirt functions as the cover of the magazine and thecontent is printed inside. This brings together twoimportant cultural reference points for young people inexercising their symbolic creativity. Kate Moross alsooffers her audience the opportunity to share her expressionof individualism with a range of ephemeral itemsavailable through her online shop. These items form partof a personal obsession with geometric shapes and howthey symbolise human qualities. This work is playful, lowcost and accessible. These qualities are ideal forexperimentation with personal symbolism and enable usto place our identity in specific groups and periods.

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Kate MorossNike Dunk / Be True

Symbolic Creativity

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Creator: Kate MorossTitle: Nike Dunk/Be TrueExemplifies: Symbolic creativity

For the celebration of the Dunk 23rd Anniversary, KateMoross collaborated with Neil Bedford and CarrieMundane to produce a range of life-size illustratedphotographic portraits for an exhibition sited in London’ship Brick Lane. The context of the project is as importantas the visual language used. An event in a carefullychosen venue is a very important sign. The brief was tovisualise the connection between basketball culture andLondon street style. The designer referenced a series ofinterviews where people talked about their aesthetic andthe importance they place on the way they representthemselves in their clothing, the way they communicateand the music they listen to. Clearly, it is important forbrands to reflect the personal symbolism of theiraudience in the objects they manufacture. This creates asense of ownership of the brand by the people who use itto express themselves through lifestyle choices.


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Creators: Ian Mitchell (Left)/Michael O’Shaughnessy(Right)/Seel Garside (Opposite)Titles: Event Poster – Bellini/Kogumaza/Cath and Phil TylerExemplifies: Symbolic creativity

A series of posters advertising a single music event. A group of designers and educators express their individualism through their interpretation of an event at their local art school. Unlike most of the population,designers are occasionally given the opportunity toexpress their identity using the tools and media of massproduction. In these examples, the content of the event isoverridden by the desire to produce a playful set of personal gestures. Just as most people employ a set ofpersonal signs and symbols to identify themselves withsubcultural groups, designers can also use personal and cultural reference points to signify who they are and what excites them visually.


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JUNKAND CUL-TURE

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Mary Douglas points out that dirtis the by-product of a system oforder. Dirt has been rejected in aprocess of classification as theelements that are out of place.Douglas argues that if we look atwhat counts as dirt then we canbegin to understand and identifythe system that rejects it.

1. Douglas M. Purity andDanger (1966)

2. Douglas M. ibid.

8. JUNK AND CULTUREDirt and taboo

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Our ideas about what constitutes dirt arepart of a symbolic system of signs, which hasclear categories used to organise the signsinto a hierarchy of importance or use:

'Shoes are not dirty in themselves, butit is dirty to place them on the diningtable; food is not dirty in itself, but it isdirty to leave cooking utensils in thebedroom, or food bespattered onclothing; similarly bathroomequipment in the drawing room;clothing lying on chairs; outdoor thingsindoors; upstairs things downstairs;underclothing appearing whereoverclothing should be and so on. Inshort, our pollution behaviour is thereaction which condemns any objector idea likely to confuse or contradict cherished classifications.' 1

'Where there is dirt there is a system.' 2

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For example, to understand what iscurrently fashionable in typography, you wouldneed to look at what has been discarded asunfashionable. This helps to define thecategory and describe what is at the marginsof fashionably acceptable.

In chapters five and six we looked at theidea of official and unofficial language. Wehave also discussed the interplay betweenthe two and how one cannot exist without the other. In order to comprehend whatconstitutes legitimate language, we need toknow what has been rejected as inappropriatein any given situation. Unofficial language is the dirt in a system that has rejected it in favour of an accepted and legitimatelanguage choice:

Douglas shows us that the threat of dangeris often used as a justification of social convention. We might well be endangeringour health or that of our family by not throwingout an item of chipped crockery. Dangerousgerms may lurk in the chip, ready to make usill. She points out that what’s really underthreat is the semiotics of ordered social conventions, which are the agreed practice inour society.

To understand why something has beenrejected, we need to rebuild a picture of thesystems of signification that lie beneath thedecision to reject it from the system. In thissense then, we can see that the study of dirtor rubbish is a semiotic study.

8. JUNK AND CULTUREDirt and taboo

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'As we know it, dirt is essentially disorder.' 3

Since order and pattern are made from alimited selection of elements, there is then animplication that pattern is restricted in someway. Disorder, the enemy of pattern, couldthen be considered unlimited. Disorder has no pattern in itself but its potential formaking pattern is infinite. Douglas arguesthat in the first instance we recognise thatdisorder destroys existing patterns but alsothat it has huge potential. This leads us toview disorder as a symbol of both danger and power.


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In his essay ‘Rubbish Theory’4, JonathanCuller invites us to consider the rubbish thatis not particularly dirty or taboo. This is therubbish that we all have stored away in spare rooms, garages and lofts: old footballprogrammes, comics, postcards, tickets and coins. Some of this is rubbish we haveinherited: my father’s pen and a watch thatdoesn't work; my grandfather’s penknife and ration book from the 1940s. Theseobjects were all edited from a wider set ofrubbish where some things were kept andothers rejected. If dirt is evidence of a system of classification, then how, asksCuller, do we read these cupboards full ofeveryday rubbish?

Much of this material functions assouvenirs. Perhaps it signifies for us anexperience we have had or something we haveseen, which in time will become a significantpart of our life. Visual constructions often usethese sorts of items to signify memory in someway. You may find it disrespectful to considermementos, especially those handed down byyour parents, as rubbish. However, in mostcases, the collected material has noeconomic value nor any practical use. Forthese reasons we can consider it rubbish.

Semiotic categories of objects

This relationship between rubbish andvalue is clarified by Michael Thompson in hisessay ‘Rubbish Theory’5. Thompson identifiesthree semiotic categories of objects that havea direct relation to economic value.

Transient cultural objects have a finite lifespan and their economic value decreasesover time. Foodstuffs are an obvious exampleof transient objects, but the term could alsorefer to objects that are susceptible to thewhims of fashion. This illustrates that it is notonly the physical properties of an object thatcategorise it, but there is also a socialdimension that attributes value based on thevalues in our society.

The value of durable cultural objects aremaintained or even increased over time. Theyhave no finite lifespan; they may even beconsidered as having an infinite lifespan.Antiques are a good example of durableobjects. This category also includes items thatmay have started life as fairly inexpensive andcommon but have become durable becausethere is a collector’s marketplace for them.Certain recordings, for example, have more

4. Culler J. RubbishTheory (1988) in Culler J.Framing the Sign (1988)

5. Thompson M. RubbishTheory: The Creation andDestruction of Value(1979) in Culler J.Framing the Sign (1988)

The Mercedes Benz motorcar is an example of whatcould be described as adurable object, whosevalue is maintained or, insome cases, increasedover a period of time.

8. JUNK AND CULTURERubbish theory

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value now than they did when new, as docommemorative items from historical events,such as a keyring from the Queen’scoronation. In brand advertising, manyobjects are presented in a way that reinforcestheir durable qualities. Mercedes Benz,Timberland and Rolex are all brands whoseproducts are deliberately bound up in thenotion of durability.

Thompson points out that those who havewealth or power will strive to keep theirobjects in the durable category and ensurethat the transient objects of others remain so.This is a necessary step, as we know it ispossible for objects to shift from one categoryto another, and the transfer of economicvalue follows this shift.

To explain how this change is possible,Thompson identifies a third, less obviouscategory. This category contains objects thathave an unchanging value of zero. Thompsonoutlines a scenario where the transient object

gradually loses value until it is worthless. Itremains in this valueless state until someonerediscovers it and transforms it into a durableobject. We have all experienced revivalistfashion coming from an utterly unfashionableperiod. Styles that have only recently wanedin popularity rarely make a successfulcomeback, whereas a style that has beendiscarded always has the potential for beingvery fashionable again. Thompson's ‘RubbishTheory’6 describes how transient culturalobjects can only move to the durable categoryonce they have been considered rubbish.Buying a classic car or a piece of antiquefurniture is about buying into the semioticidea of durable objects. The way we treat ourobjects is also a sign of which category webelieve they belong in. We might cherish andmaintain our classic car, carefully restoringthe most banal detail to its original state.However, if we have a new model thatdeclines in value, we are at some point likely

... those who have wealth or powerwill strive to keep their objects in thedurable category and ensure that thetransient objects of others remain so.

6. Thompson M. RubbishTheory: The Creation andDestruction of Value(1979) in Culler J.Framing the Sign (1988)

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to let things go wrong if we plan to replace it.It is simply not worth any further investment.We may eventually pay a scrap metal dealerto tow away our worthless vehicle. It will situntouched for years, only to be rediscoveredtwo or three decades later as a classic and bebought by a collector for restoration.

This theory appears to draw inspirationfrom ‘Purity and Danger’7, where Mary Douglasposes the question of whether dirt, which isnormally destructive, can ever be consideredcreative. In her exploration of this question,she describes two stages that dirt must gothrough to achieve creative symbolism. First, inthe process of imposing order, dirt must bedifferentiated as being out of place. Dirt isseen to be unwanted, but it still has someidentity in that it can be recognised as theunwanted item. Over time, however, thisidentity gradually disappears until theunwanted item becomes part of the generalmass of rubbish.

'Earth should be a cloud of dust, a soilof bones,With no room even for our skeletons.It is wasted time to think of it, to countits grains,When all are alike and there is no difference in them.' 8

Douglas states that as long as there is noidentity then dirt is not dangerous. At thisstage it is not differentiated in any way, justas it was before it became classified as dirt.This completes a cycle where dirt moves froma non-differentiated state to a differentiatedstate (recognised and classified as dirt) andthen finally back to its original state of non-differentiation as part of the general massof discarded dirt. She argues that it is in thisformless state that dirt can function as a signof growth as much as a sign of decay. Theargument concludes that everything that appliesto the purifying role of water in religioussymbolism could also be applied to dirt.


8. Sitwell S.Agamemnon’s Tomb(1972) in Douglas M.Purity and Danger (1966)

David CrowMasterlux The Baptist

Signs from Christianityare mixed withconsumerist signs as part of a series of screen prints, whichpresent shopping as anew religion.


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As we have already seen in chapter five,there are clear hierarchies at play in culturalproduction. The fine arts are generallyconsidered a more significant practice thandesign disciplines. The work produced by eachof these areas is also considered differently interms of their importance as cultural objects.

In his essay ‘Rubbish Theory’9, JonathanCuller describes two types of culturalartefact. First, there are artefacts that are part of the practical world: utilitarianobjects, such as newspapers, magazines andtelevision. These are considered transientcultural objects. Then there are artefacts thathave no obvious purpose and are presented as being separate from commercial orpractical concerns.

These are part of our world of leisure andare broadly categorised as part of our culturalheritage. These we see as durables. Cullerpoints out that cultural rubbish has become a valuable resource in the visual arts. Hecites the example of Carl Andre's ‘Bricks’bought by the Tate Gallery in 1972. This pile of common household bricks would have beenconsidered rubbish by many who saw it at thetime. They may well have had a similar pile ofunwanted bricks in their own backyard.However, the museum who bought the worksaw it as part of the category of durables. The work had been 'authorised' by themuseum, and arrangements of commonrubbish made by recognised artists becamecollectable again. A marketplace for similar

A debate oftenensues where thosewho wish to establishan object as a durable,draw on the discourseof legitimate languageto justify the transition.

worthlesspriceless

8. JUNK AND CULTURERubbish as a resource

9. Culler J. ‘RubbishTheory’ in Culler J.Framing the Sign (1988)

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artefacts had been established and ‘Bricks’increased in value. More recently, the samegallery came under fire from the popularpress over the display of Tracey Emin's ‘Bed’,which was surrounded by an assortment ofhousehold rubbish. Although there is littleconcern shown when transient objectsbecome rubbish, the transformation fromrubbish to durable always provokes a strongreaction. Those who wish to establish anobject as a durable often draw on thediscourse of legitimate language to justify thetransition.

There are a number of earlier examples of this transition, where an equally vociferousoutcry heralded their appearance. If we look at the self-proclaimed anti-art Dada

movement, there are numerous examplesthat use rubbish as a resource to change theway we approach the notion of whatconstitutes art. Marcel Duchamp's sculpturesfrom the early part of the twentieth century(such as ‘Bicycle Wheel’, ‘Hat Rack’ and‘Urinal’) were all discarded functional objectsthat became durables. These are now cited asclassic pieces of art; serving as inspiration forgenerations of visual artists.

The transient objectgradually loses valueuntil it is worthless. It remains in this valueless state untilsomeone rediscoversit and transforms itinto a durable object.

Marcel DuchampHat Rack and Urinal

© Succession MarcelDuChamp/ADAGP, Parisand DACS, London 2010

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Creator: Hazel JonesTitle: Chocolate Button SafeExemplifies: Rubbish to durable

Above – Jones’ work is based around an exploration offorgotten everyday objects. Once rediscovered, theseobjects can be reinvented to evoke memories and historieswith new and unexpected uses. The semiotic value of theoriginal material is very low and it is this value that istransformed as the artist uses a set of technical skillsand, more importantly, a dialogue about the work toincrease its cultural and monetary value. In this example,various pieces of discarded scrap metal are reconfiguredas a highly robust safety deposit for chocolate buttons, aniconic confectionery from the artist’s childhood.

Creator: Hazel JonesTitle: String Too Small for UseExemplifies: Rubbish to durable

Opposite – These objects form part of an extensivecollection of discarded items. With entire websitesdevoted to individual categories such as ‘Rusty Nails’ or‘Scrapmetal’, Jones demonstrates the ability of the visualarts to transform the economic and cultural value ofworthless objects by placing them in a different contextand in a different dialogue.

8. JUNK AND CULTUREPortfolio

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Creator: David CrowTitle: St PeterExemplifies: Rubbish to durable

Above – An old chairrescued from a skipbecomes the centrepiece of an art print. The chair’svalueless status is changed as it becomes part of a limited-editioncultural object.

Creator: David CrowTitle: ‘Emblem’ – Rubbish IssueExemplifies: Rubbish to durable

Opposite – Spreads from an in-house magazine at theSchool of Art, Manchester, England. This issue featuresobjects from the collection of two artists/designers –Sharon Blakey and Hazel Jones. The cover of this editionis double-printed in fluorescent orange and foil-blockedin gold. This is a deliberate graphic juxtaposition of thecheap display signs found in low-cost marketplacesselling transient items, such as fruit and vegetables,alongside the high-cost packaging on durable items, suchas expensive perfumes. The inside front cover features

handmade additions that draw the reader’s attention tothe object’s limited-edition status; making directreference to the language of the art world. Both the handof the maker and the editioning of work become signsthat increase the economic and cultural value of theobject. The interior spreads display a series ofphotographs of discarded objects that are isolated fromtheir functional context and placed against a flat black orwhite background, which renders them as artefacts in thevisual language of a museum or gallery catalogue.

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Creator: Rodrigo de FilippisTitles: Guarda el Polvo (Opposite); Aparejo Potencial (Above)Exemplifies: Rubbish to durable

A variety of found images and discarded ephemera are recombined by Filippis to create these prints. Theworthless scraps of imagery are given value by the artistplacing them in a new context. In bringing together a setof disparate, worthless objects in an arrangement madeby an artist, the work becomes authorised and valuableagain. In ‘Guarda el Polvo’, the transfer of value from the artist to the object is underlined by the presence ofhand-drawn elements that personalise the work andfunction as the artist’s signature. The future value ofworks like these will then depend on the discourse thathappens around them. Reviews, exhibitions andpublications featuring the work all contribute to a value system that collectively determines their worth.


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OPENWORK

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The term ‘The Open Work’1 comes from thebook of the same name written by UmbertoEco, a philosopher and semiotician born inPiedmont, Italy, in 1932. The work was firstpublished in 1962 and remains a significantpiece of writing today as it anticipated important developments in contemporary art. In particular, Eco is interested in the relationship between the author of a work of art and the reader.

1. Eco U. The Open Work(1989) (first published1962)

2. Zeman J. Peirce’sTheory of Signs (1977) inSebeok T. A Perfusion ofSigns (1977)

9. OPEN WORKThe open work

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95Job:01980 Title:Visible Signs 2nd Edition (AVA)

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Like Peirce2 before him, Eco places particular emphasis on the role of the readeras an important part of the creative process. As readers, we receive a work of art as theend product of an intended message. Thismessage has been assembled and organisedby the author in a way that makes it possiblefor the reader to reassemble it for themselvesas the author intended. However, we knowthat the reader’s background affects the waythat the message is reassembled.

The overall meaning of the message maybe constant, but each of us brings an individualperspective to the reading based on our culture,background and experiences. Eco prefers theterm ‘encyclopedia’ to describe the transferof meaning through the use of signs, ratherthan the more common term ‘code’.

For Eco, a code implies a one-to-onetransfer of meaning like a dictionarydefinition, whereas encyclopedia suggeststhat there are a number of interrelatedinterpretations and the reader must negotiatetheir own path through the network ofpossibilities. Although Eco sees an opennessin the reading of signs, he does not, however,suggest that there are an infinite number ofreadings. Rather, he describes a situationwhere the work of art is addressed to an idealreader who will select from the suggestedreadings of the work. The ideal reader is not somuch a perfect reader who interprets the workexactly as the author intended, but as areader who is awake to the possibilities thatthe work contains.

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Information and meaning

In an attempt to help define what hemeans by openness, Eco uses the mathematicalscience of information theory to measure therelationship between the amount ofinformation that the reader receives and theopenness of a work. It is important to notethat he sees information to be a differentthing to meaning or message. He suggeststhat the amount of information contained in amessage is dependent on the probability ofthe reader already knowing the content ofthe message before it is received. If anewsflash tells me that tomorrow the sunwill rise, I have been given very littleinformation as I could have worked this outfor myself. If, however, the newsflash tellsme that the sun will not rise, then I have a lotof information as this is a highly improbableevent. Eco presents a mathematical formula, reproduced here for reference,which essentially proposes that the amount of information contained in amessage is inversely proportional to theprobability or predictability of the message.For Eco, contemporary art is highlyunpredictable because it often dismisses theestablished semiotic conventions and rules

Eco sees art as a performance3 becauseeach reader finds a new interpretation andmuch of his writing focuses on musicalperformances as examples of the open work.Composers such as Stockhausen are citedbecause the work is open in a more obviousway than in the visual arts. The composersupplies the musician with a kit of parts; with the invitation to interpret the material for themselves.

In this way, the work is obviously incompleteuntil the reader is involved. The freedom onthe part of the reader, in this case the musician,is conscious and explicit. Indeed, by askingthe musician to interpret the work in theirown way, the artist invites them to ask whythey would want to work in this way. What isthe conceptual framework for the piece?

In the visual arts there has been a shifttowards a greater personal involvement onthe part of the reader. Along with a greaterdegree of formal innovation has come agreater degree of ambiguity. When Eco published ‘The Open Work’, the art world was dominated by developments such as abstract expressionism and actionpainting; movements that questioned ourtraditional views on representation andmeaning. It called for the reader to workharder to find meaning.

If a newsflash tells me that tomorrow the sunwill rise, I have been given very little informationas I could have worked this out for myself. If,however, the newsflash tells me that the sun willnot rise, then I have a lot of information as this isa highly improbable event.

odds that the addressee willknow content of messageafter receiving it

odds that the addressee willknow content of messagebefore receiving it

information = log


3. Eco U. The Role of theReader (1979)

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DON’T

BELIEVE

A WORD

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The amount of information contained in a message depends

on where it originates and on its probability.

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that preceded it. Eco argues thatcontemporary art contains much higheramounts of information, though notnecessarily more meaning, by virtue of itsradical nature. More conventional forms ofcommunication, such as the road sign, forexample, or figurative painting, may carrymore distinct meaning but much lessinformation.

He also points out that the amount ofinformation contained in a message is affectedby another factor: our confidence in thesource of the message. The example he usesis the traditional Western Christmas card: aseasonal greeting sent each year betweenfamilies and friends. To receive a Christmascard from the secret police would be verydifferent from receiving a card from afavourite aunt. Although the message isessentially the same (Merry Christmas), theamount of information varies hugely becauseof the improbability of the source. Similarly, ifa landlord were to tell me an apartment haddamp problems before I rented it, I would bemore inclined to believe him as he has nothingto gain by fabricating this message. It istempting to assume that information andmeaning are the same thing. However, we cansee from these examples that the amount ofinformation is greater where the source isimprobable. Compare this to the statement:Christmas is an annual festival. This has a veryclear and direct meaning with no ambiguity, yetit doesn’t add to our existing knowledge. Inother words, the amount of information is lowdespite the communicative value being high.

Openness and the visual arts

Eco focuses on the painting styles ofabstract expressionism and action painting,which were current when ‘The Open Work’was written. He describes how these can beseen on one level as the latest in a series ofexperiments to introduce movement intopainting. However, there are a number ofways in which movement is signified in thevisual arts. The use of repetition or the additionof trace lines around an image have longbeen established as signifiers of movement.These are signs that work on fixed structuresand have been around for as long as we haveused images to communicate. In these cases,the nature of the sign itself is not affected,merely the position of the signs relative toeach other. For example, if we repeat a figurea number of times across the same work butin different settings, we begin to describe atimeline and we see the figure in a changingnarrative. Compare this with the ambiguousforms of the Impressionist painters; theblurred images that became possible with theintroduction of the camera or the gesturalmarks of abstract expressionism. In theseexamples, the nature of the sign itself hasbecome ambiguous, if not the forms theysignify. We still read the forms in thepaintings as people or buildings or bridges,but according to Eco they have acquired aninner vibrancy. The reader is now consciousof the movement of light around the subjects.


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Similarly, with the gestural marks of abstractexpressionism, we are reading the way themark is made; the action that has left thismark as evidence. The open work offers thereader a field of open possibilities. They canchoose their own viewpoint, decide forthemselves what is foreground and background,and make their own connections betweendifferent parts of what they see.

An obvious example of this is thesculptural mobiles of artists like AlexanderCalder. Theoretically, the work offers thepossibility that no two experiences of it will be the same.

The question one invariably asks of worklike this is whether or not it communicates. Is the work legible and how do we stop itdescending into a chaotic visual noise or acomplete communicative silence?

Openness and information

Eco is interested in the tension betweenthe information offered to the reader and thelevel of comprehension needed for the workto be interpreted. Can the reader detect theintentions of the author of the work? Is anagreement between the two discernible?

Some types of visual communicationclearly need structure and order; signs that,because of their practical application, need tobe read and understood quickly. In situationswhere speed of communication is important,pictograms bridge the gap between thetechnical world and language. In other cases,where the practical application is lessimportant, there are signs that merely seek togive information as opposed to meaning.


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Ian WrightHeads

The skull andcrossbones is asymbol that,because of its

practical application (poisonous chemicals,electric pylons), needs to be read andunderstood quickly. In situations where speedof communication isimportant, thesepictograms bridge thegap between the technicalworld and language.

The heads by IanWright work on quite a

different level; in thisinstance the reader isinvited to bring their ownmeaning and character tothe drawings.

4. Eco U. The Open Work (1989) (first published 1962)

Another way of looking at these signs is tosee them as seeking to deliver not a singlemeaning but an abundance of possiblemeanings. In contemporary art and design,there are many examples of work thatdeliberately seek to avoid what Eco calls ‘thelaws of probability that govern commonlanguage’4. In fact, he points out thatcontemporary art draws its value from thisdeviation from common structures.

If we spill ink on a blank sheet of paperwe are presented with a random image thathas no order. No particular direction is givento the reader in terms of how to interpret theimage. If we then fold the paper in two and transfer the image on to both sides of thepaper, we now have an image with some order.

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In this case, the order is symmetry – a simpleform of probability. The reader now has somevisual reference points that can be connectedtogether to suggest a way of reading theimage. Although the image still offers a gooddeal of freedom to the reader in terms ofinterpretation, they now have some direction.If we were to shred the paper, make paperpulp and roll it out to dry as a sheet again,there would be a huge number of dots andmarks across the surface of the paper. Thereader could begin to connect these marks inan infinite number of ways, but there wouldbe no discernable direction for the reader. The image is now extremely open, contains amaximum amount of information but is utterlymeaningless. We are not likely to make onereading of the information above another.What we have is the visual equivalent of white noise.

This excess of possibilities does notincrease the information, but denies it altogether. It doesn’t communicate. Eco usesthis as evidence that:

‘...the richest form of communication – richest because most open –requires a delicate balance permittingthe merest order within the maximum disorder.’ 5

He maintains that this is a characteristicof any visual communication that wants to beunderstood but also wants to allow a degreeof freedom to the reader. He points out howthe intention of the author may be enough togive the work a value. As we saw in chaptereight, a piece of discarded material canbecome an artefact once it has been framed.Our pavements and roadways are pepperedwith cracks and holes. Some of these areframed with brightly coloured squarespainted by the highways agency to mark theirpriority for repair. This visual signal shows usthat these cracks have been chosen overother cracks; they have called attention tothem. Merely by isolating them they havebecome artefacts.

...a piece of discarded material can become an artefact once it has been framed.

5. Eco U. The Open Work (1989) (first published 1962)


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Highlighted Cracks and HolesMuch of what an artistdoes is to make choices.By choosing to isolate aparticular part of a pattern we immediatelymake it an artefact.

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collection of these signs. They could be considered analogue codes rather than digitalcodes, like music or the gestural movementsof dance. Eco argues that in allowing thereader to freely associate the signs, they canenjoy the experience of doing this whilstsimultaneously enjoying the aesthetics of thesigns. The reader searches for as many possible associations as they can in a game ofpleasure and surprise; trying to interpret theintentions of the author as they do so.

Open work in the visual arts is, accordingto Eco, a guarantee of communication withadded pleasure. The two things are connectedtogether in a way not to be found in the readingof more conventional signs. When we read theroad sign, whose meaning has been learnt,we read the message but rarely do we marvelat the aesthetics of the sign. Only those of uswith a particularly strong industrial aestheticwould enjoy the effectiveness of the way thesign is made. Openness is pleasure. Our visualculture invites us to view the world as a worldof possibilities.

The mark does not merely stand for the action – it is the action. The gesture and the sign are fused together.

Form and openness

Eco reassures us that the informal signdoes not mark the death of form in the visualarts, but proposes instead a new flexible form– a field of possibilities. The gestural marksand spatters of abstract painting stimulate theviewer to make their own connections in thework. Reading the original gesture that leavesthis mark, is fixed by this mark, is in thismark, will lead us eventually to the intentionof the person who made the mark. Accordingto Eco, it is this underlying intention thatdistinguishes a work of art from the patternsof the cracked pavement. The marks are thesignifier of the gesture but not a symbolicsign for the gesture. The mark does notmerely stand for the action – it is the action.The gesture and the sign are fused together.

Unlike symbolic signs, which belong to adefined set of signs and whose meaning wehave learnt (like road signs or letters of thealphabet), these abstract marks needinterpretation. There is no predetermined


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Openness is

pleasure.

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Creator: Andreas Banderas Title: Untitled CollagesExemplifies: Open work

The psychedelic photomontages by Norwegiandesigner/illustrator Andreas Banderas invite the readerto find their own clues in an unpredictable set of signsthat avoid conventional readings. The juxtaposition ofsigns from differing paradigms result in rich mixes ofpattern, photography and drawing; which come from suchdisparate sources that the viewer has to invent their ownlogic to find poetic links between all the elements. Each ofthe components are signs we have experienced before andalongside a more conventional set of signs we could easilyconstruct a narrative around them. However, in this formthe unexpected combinations slow down our reading andforce us to work on the relationships between eachcomponent. It is this balance between order and disorderthat Eco argues is what makes open work so compelling.

9. OPEN WORKPortfolio

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Creator: Marian BantjesTitle: Pop!Tech Conference – PosterExemplifies: Open work

The designer was asked to create a poster for the 2008Pop!Tech conference. Bantjes’ intention was to make aposter that would appeal to everyone but allow for varyinginterpretations by a diverse and eclectic audience. Bantjeshas deliberately set out to create an open work thatencourages individual readings and interpretations on anabstract level.

Using the themes of scarcity and abundance, the resultingposter is a curious mixture of asymmetrical geometry,detailed pattern and elegant calligraphic marks. The geometry appears to come from a Modernist paradigm,the pattern is perhaps from the decorative arts of theMiddle East and the calligraphy seems to have its roots inthe elegant calligraphic treatments of Middle Eastern publishing. The overlaying of these three ideas defies asimple and quick reading of the work and invites the readerto bring their personal experiences and references to thesemiosis. The designer describes her own reading of theposter as ‘Mondrian goes to Tehran’.

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Creator: BurnTitle: Alma De SantiagoExemplifies: Open work

The imagery created for this South American bar andrestaurant gives the reader a chance to find meaningfrom an unusual set of signifiers. They appear torepresent ideas and objects without surroundingadjectives. The monkey seems to just signify ‘monkey’.Similarly, the tiles signify ‘tiles’, fruit signifies ‘fruit’ andthe medals, ‘medals’. The bold graphic notations form anoverall composition that functions like a set offreestanding nouns. They invite a form of surreal visualpoetry that asks the reader to fill in the missing words forthemselves. This openness brings a sense of atmosphereand mood rather than distinct meaning. The absence oftext allows the imagery to float free of any fixed meaningand we are left with an intriguing impression of the venuerather than a description of it.

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Creator: Jonathan HitchenTitle: Automatic DrawingsExemplifies: Open work

A small sample from apotentially infinite numberof drawings made by thecomputer using a set ofpredetermined marks,shapes and tones.Created in the retrosoftware Hypercard, theauthor imposes theirsignature in a choice ofmarks and a distinctbitmap aesthetic. Thiscelebrates the mechanicalelement of the work andthe computer as adelivery platform. Withinthese restrictions, theauthor suggests thepossibility of a limitlessrange of unfixed signs forthe reader to explore andcreate for themselves.



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Creator: Universal EverythingTitle: ForeverExemplifies: Open work

A generative video-wall installation displayed on a largescreen at London’s V&A Museum, in the John MadejskiGarden in 2008. ‘Forever’ was created by Matt Pyke andKarsten Schmidt for Universal Everything using soundfiles created by Simon Pyke. In this work, custom-madegenerative coding creates sound and visuals around a setof pre-determined parameters. The images, based on theconcept of manipulating a length of string, weave a seriesof patterns that are entirely self-generating and neverrepeat. The work is made by writing abstract algorithms,where the key is to give just enough control to thepossible chaos by limiting the parameters of what canand can’t happen. The open nature of the piece’sconstruction allows for a skilfully made set ofpossibilities to animate effectively, but with enoughcontrol for the forms to remain coherent. It also allowsviewers the opportunity to read the motion, sound andvisuals in a highly personalised way.

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SELF-DIRECTED STUDY: EXERCISES

1: COMPONENTS

There are three main areas that formwhat we understand as semiotics: thesigns themselves; the way they areorganised into systems and thecontext in which they appear.

Exercise 1Context

Collect a number of simple set graphicmarks that all have the same origin (for example,a set of crosses as featured on p. 15). If youare not sure where to start, you could referenceinternational road or safety symbols. Here youwill find marks and images that have a numberof meanings depending on their context andthe ways that they are combined.

Generate or collect a series of contexts orlocations. These could be images cut from oldmagazines or photographs you have takenyourself. Ensure variety in the examples youuse (for example, a variety of periods, locationsand compositions).

Using a pinboard or sketchbook, positionthe marks on the different contexts. Thinkabout how the meaning of the mark shifts

Many artists and designers find it difficult to explore theoreticalmaterial in academic writing.Below are a series of shortexercises that will help to exemplify the ideas in ‘Visible Signs’ through practicalapplication. It is often easier totranslate our thoughts and ideasinto words by reflecting onexperiences we have had or thingswe have made.


2. de Saussure F. ibid.

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depending on the context, its colour, its scaleor the period it is placed in. Write some briefnotes to accompany each example as youreflect on the compositions. Try to figure outwhy you read each one in a particular wayand where you learnt to do so. Keep these inyour notebook for future reference.

Exercise 2Duality

Using well-known symbols that functionas a set, create a short narrative withoutusing words. The symbols could be from achild’s reading book (see p. 16) or from theUS Department of Transport (see p. 18). Think about how you can change the meaningof a symbol by changing its relationship toother symbols. Try changing the scale, placingone symbol inside another, making a symbolfrom multiples of another symbol or cuttingthem up and joining them to other sections ofother symbols. Choose a familiar narrative sothat you can concentrate on how to translaterather than writing a story. You could use afamiliar short journey, a regular routine or aclassic fairytale as your narrative.

Once your narrative is complete, ask apartner to read you the story from thepictures. Compare this story to the one youhad in your mind and use any differences asthe starting point for a discussion about whythe stories vary.

2: HOW MEANING IS FORMED

‘In a language state everything isbased on relations.’ 1

Exercise 3Icon/Index/Symbol

Collect a set of graphic signs from theenvironment. Categorise these signs as either‘icon’ or ‘index’ or ‘symbol’, or a combination.Using these signs as a starting point, redesignthem so that they fall into a different category.For example, redesign the sign for theshopping centre on p. 31 as a symbol ratherthan an iconic sign. This would mean that the sign was clearly about ‘shopping’ ratherthan relying on recognition of the centre’sarchitecture. Similarly, you could try

redesigning signage from your local areabased on the architecture rather than on thefunction or service. This way you will generatean iconic signage system. You could test theresults on a sample group of residents, payingattention to whether or not the systemgradually breaks down the further you gofrom the area.

‘The idea or phonic substance that asign contains is of less importancethan the other signs around it. Proof ofthis is that the value of a term may bemodified without either its meaning orits sound being affected, solelybecause a neighbouring term hasbeen modified.’ 2

Exercise 4Value

Take a series of photographs that aim totell a story about a particular issue. You couldtake ‘big’ issues like environmental waste orsite your work closer to home with an issuethat is important to your local community.Make multiple prints of one or two of theimages that you feel are most successful attelling the story. Using these images, make aseries of cropped versions of each photograph.You are effectively changing the valuerelationship between a sign and the signs that surround it.

Exercise 5Relationships and meaning

Collect a series of photographs ofrecognisable objects and/or people. Chooseimages that are unambiguous and iconic.Using these images make a series of visualsentences in your sketchbook, where thecentral or key image is unchanged but theimages on either side vary from sentence tosentence. Write down a sentence in words asyour eyes read the images and then reflect onwhether the key image changed in meaning,despite not being modified in any way. Whenyou feel confident at generating and readingthese sentences, then work the other wayround. Find three sentences with a commonkey figure or word and generate the imageryto describe each sentence.

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SELF-DIRECTED STUDY: EXERCISES

image could be described as an index signbecause of the relationship between the wordand the location.

4: IMAGE AND TEXT

Exercise 9Duets

Find a photographic image from amagazine or newspaper that you findparticularly compelling. Using this image asthe starting point, generate an image yourselfto accompany your ‘found’ image. Write downall the possible meanings that could be readfrom having these two images side by side.Overlay a word on one of the images to fix oranchor the meaning of the composition. Try anumber of different words to see how thisthird sign controls the way we read thesemiotic relationships.

5 + 6: OFFICIAL AND UNOFFICIAL LANGUAGE

Exercise 10The magical act

This exercise is about recognising thefeatures that characterise a piece ofcommunication as either official or unofficial,and attempting to take a piece ofcommunication from one area to another.

Record a number of signs that you feel arecharacteristically unofficial marks. These maybe photographs of graffiti tags or marksmade by individuals very quickly or in aninformal way.

Collect several pages of advertisementsfrom magazines. Deconstruct one or two ofthese so you are clear about who the audienceis and how the manufacturer or supplierwants to position themselves. Think about theage group of the audience and theirdemographic. Is the product appealing toprofessional people? Is it expensive oraffordable and accessible? Try to be clear aboutwhat the clues are. This could be the way theimage or illustration is presented, the use ofwords, the way the logo is drawn, the choiceof typeface and so on.

Exercise 6Metaphor

Using the same series of images fromexercise 3, look for ways where two or moreof the images can be combined to transferthe properties associated with one image tosomething else. For example, on p. 42 theidea of being nervous, often described as‘butterflies’, is transferred by simply placing a butterfly inside the stomach of a robot. Make something feel natural or clean ordangerous, for example, by finding imagesthat can be used to generate a metaphorwhen combined with something else.

3: READING THE SIGN

Exercise 7Language and speech

Look through historic examples of signsand symbols, and try to find instances wherethe meanings have changed entirely. Forexample, a coat of arms used as a footballclub’s crest or university logo. Try drawingthese signs in a variety of different ways,using different line qualities. Can you updatethese original signs by drawing them in aparticular way? In other words, can you addcontemporary speech to an ancient languageor sign?

Exercise 8Connotation/Index/Metonym

Choose a number of adjectives at random(dirty, beautiful, eccentric, special). Create aroll of tape that features one of these wordsas a repeat. (In practice, this can simply be aroll of paper made by joining laser printoutstogether.) Choose a number of exterior orinterior spaces that you feel represent youradjectival choices. Mark the space by usingthe tape you have created. Think about theway the words are displayed (the speech) andthe colours you use, and try to find unusuallocations where you can use the tape to drawattention to a quality that is not immediatelyobvious. Take photographs of the taped spaces.You are playing with various connotations bythe way you photograph the locations, but youare also anchoring the meaning of the spaceby using the words on the tape. The resulting

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Your task is now to transfer the unofficialsigns into official visual culture by using theinformation from the decoded advertisements.This might entail redrawing the unofficialmarks as if they were logos for a particulardemographic, reinterpreting the message asa studio photograph or typesetting an originalscrawled text as a magazine layout.

If you want to test the transfer you canmake a brief multiple-choice sheet to be usedin short interviews. The interviewer might askthe reader to look at the images and tick abox that attributes the imagery to a particulartype of company or to a particular audience.

7: SYMBOLIC CREATIVITY

There is a vibrant symbolic life and anactive symbolic creativity in everydaylife, everyday activities andexpressions. Our lives are actually fullof expressions, signs and symbols.

Exercise 11Identity

Choose an individual you know wellenough to be able to spend some time in theirworkplace and/or their home. Preferably, thisshould be someone who does not work in thecreative industries and is not the same age as you. Make a body of visual research basedaround how this individual expresses theiridentity. Look for instances where they are not actively trying to express themselves but,nevertheless, tell you a lot about their attitudeand outlook on life. Use your camera, makesound recordings, make drawings and try notto determine the outcome during the researchstage. The task is to bring the documentaryresearch together in a digestible format that functions as a celebration of your chosen subject. The format may relatedirectly to your subject or could be anestablished documentary format, such as asmall booklet, a video or a blog. Please besensitive towards your subject in how youpublish the work and remember to getpermission from them beforehand.

8: JUNK AND CULTURE

Exercise 12Rubbish/Cultural objects

Make an exhibition catalogue to accompanyyour own ‘Museum of the Ordinary’. To dothis, you will need to document a collection of objects that are overlooked by almosteveryone who sees or experiences them.These could be objects that are very personaland signify a particular memory, despitebeing worthless in monetary terms.Alternatively, you might consider the museum to be your immediate urban or rural environment. In this instance, you willalso need to help the reader find the‘exhibits’. Your role is to explore how you canpresent these objects in a way that givesthem a cultural value that belies theirordinariness and elevates them to exhibits,either for their historic interest or as found-art objects.

9: OPEN WORK

Exercise 13Interpretation

There are many different ways to playChinese whispers – a traditional parlourgame. Please use this version as a suggestiononly; feel free to adapt it to your own style.You will need a group of people and a way ofdirecting the activity back to the originator.This could be an internet-based game orsomething much simpler. The objective of thisversion is to give each participant theopportunity to make an interpretation of whatthey perceive before passing the ‘message’ onto the next person in the chain.

Make an image on a postcard and post itto a friend. Ask them to translate it into oneword and send this word on a postcard toanother friend. This recipient should thenmake an image based on the word and sendthe image on to be converted into a word,which is then sent on to be made into animage, and so on. The last person in the chainsends the work back to you, completing thecircle and signalling the chain is complete. Thepostcards should then be brought or sent to acentral point for a small exhibition where theyare presented in the order they were made.

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REFERENCES

Introduction

Von Bertalanffy L. GeneralSystem Theory (1968)Braziller in Bolinger D.Language the LoadedWeapon (1980) Longman

Chapter 1

Chafe W. Meaning and theStructure of Language(1970) University ofChicago Press

Wittgenstein L.PhilosophicalInvestigations (1953) inGablik S. Magritte (1970)Thames & Hudson

Zeman J. Peirce’s Theoryof Signs (1977) in SebeokT. A Perfusion of Signs(1977) Indiana UniversityPress

Chapter 2

de Saussure F. Course inGeneral Linguistics (1974)(1st edition 1915) Fontana

Jakobson R. and Halle M. Fundamentals ofLanguage (1956) Mouton

Chapter 3


Barthes R. Elements ofSemiology (1967) Cape

Willis P. Common Culture(1990) Open UniversityPress

Bourdieu P. Language andSymbolic Power (1991)Polity Press

Barthes R. Mythologies(1972) Paladin

Chapter 4

Barthes R. Image, Music,Text (1977) Fontana

Jefkins F. AdvertisementWriting (1976) MacDonald& Evans Ltd

McLuhan M. and Fiore Q.The Medium is theMassage: An Inventory ofEffects (1967) Allen LaneThe Penguin Press

Chapter 5

Bourdieu P. IntellectualField and Creative Project(1966) in Young M.F.D.Knowledge and Control(1971) Collier-MacMillan


Bloomfield L. Language(1958) George Allen

Galindo R. LanguageWars: The IdeologicalDimensions of theDebates on BilingualEducation (1997)University of Colorado,Denver

Livingstone M. Pop Art(1990) Thames & Hudson

Horn F.A. Lettering atWork (1955) The StudioPublications

Hutchings R.S. TheWestern Heritage of TypeDesign (1963) Cory,Adams and Mackay

Rand P. A Designer’s Art(1985) Yale UniversityPress

Foucault M. The History ofSexuality (1978) PantheonBooks

Gautier T. in Rand P. ADesigner’s Art (1985) YaleUniversity Press


Austin J.L. How to DoThings with Words (1955)Oxford Paperbacks

Chapter 6

Brake M. Sociology ofYouth Culture and YouthSubcultures (1980)Routledge & Kegan Paul

Marsh P., Rosser E. andHarré R. The Rules ofDisorder (1977) Routledge& Kegan Paul

Manco T. Stencil Graffiti(2002) Thames & Hudson

Castleman C. Getting Up:Subway Graffiti in NewYork (1982) MIT Press

Hurd D. Conference onVandalism, London (1988)

Home Office ResearchUnit in Coffield F.Vandalism and Graffiti(1991) CalousteGulbenkian Foundation

Coffield F. Vandalism andGraffiti (1991) CalousteGulbenkian Foundation

Scottish Criminal JusticeAct of 1980 (Section 78)

Clarke R. (1978) inCoffield F. Vandalism andGraffiti (1991) CalousteGulbenkian Foundation

Baker C. and Waddon A. Vandalism: Understandingand Prevention in HelpingTroubled Pupils in Schools(1989) Basil Blackwell

Fuller M. Flyposter Frenzy(1992) Working Press

Storr R. Two HundredBeats Per Min. (1990) in Gallery R.M. BasquiatDrawings (1990) BulfinchPress

Blinderman B. And We AllShine On (1992) in CelantG. Keith Haring (1992)Prestel

Banksy in Manco T. StencilGraffiti (2002) Thames &Hudson

The Guardian 21stJanuary 1991, 4.1.3.Interview

Chapter 7


The General HouseholdSurvey (1983–1986)(Cultural Trends p. 51)


Chapter 8

Douglas M. Purity andDanger (1966) Routledge& Kegan Paul

Culler J. ‘Rubbish Theory’(1988) in Culler J. Framingthe Sign (1988) BasilBlackwell

Thompson M. RubbishTheory: The Creation andDestruction of Value (1979)in Culler J. Framing theSign (1988) BasilBlackwell

Sitwell S. Agamemnon’sTomb (1972) in Douglas M.Purity and Danger (1966)Routledge & Kegan Paul

Chapter 9

Eco U. The Open Work(1989) (first published1962) Hutchinson Radius

Zeman J. Peirce’s Theoryof Signs (1977) in SebeokT. A Perfusion of Signs(1977) Indiana UniversityPress

Eco U. The Role of theReader (1979) HutchinsonRadius

Exercises

de Saussure F. Course inGeneral Linguistics (1974) (1st edition 1915)

de Saussure F. ibid.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Austin J.L. How to DoThings with Words (1955)Oxford Paperbacks

Baker, C. and Waddon, A. Vandalism: Understandingand Prevention in HelpingTroubled Pupils in Schools(1989) Blackwell

Barthes R. Elements ofSemiology (1967) Cape

Barthes R. Empire ofSigns (1982) Hill andWang

Barthes R. Image, Music,Text (1977) Fontana

Barthes R. Mythologies(1972) Paladin

Barthes R. The Pleasureof the Text (1975) Hill andWang

Bloomfield L. Language(1958) George Allen

Bolinger D. Language theLoaded Weapon (1980)Longman


Brake M. Sociology ofYouth Culture and YouthSubcultures (1980)Routledge & Kegan Paul

Castleman C. Getting Up:Subway Graffiti in NewYork (1982) MIT Press

Celant G. Keith Haring(1992) Prestel

Chafe W. Meaning and theStructure of Language(1970) University ofChicago Press

Cobley P. and Jantsz L.Introducing Semiotics(1999) Icon BooksUK/Totem Books USA

Coffield F. Vandalism andGraffiti (1991) CalousteGulbenkian Foundation

Culler J. Framing the Sign(1988) Basil Blackwell

Douglas M. Purity andDanger (1966) Routledge& Kegan Paul

Eco U. The Open Work(1989) (first published1982) Hutchinson Radius

Eco U. The Role of theReader (1979) HutchinsonRadius

Fiske J. Introduction toCommunication Studies(1982) Routledge

Foucault M. The History ofSexuality (1978) PantheonBooks

Frank Coffield F.Vandalism and Graffiti(1991) CalousteGulbenkian Foundation

Fuller M. Flyposter Frenzy(1992) Working Press

Gablik S. Magritte (1970)Thames & Hudson

Galindo R. LanguageWars: The IdeologicalDimensions of theDebates on BilingualEducation (1997)University of Colorado,Denver

Gallery R.M. BasquiatDrawings (1990) BulfinchPress

Horn F.A. Lettering atWork (1955) The StudioPublications

Hurd D. Conference onVandalism, London (1988)

Hutchings R.S. TheWestern Heritage of TypeDesign (1963) Cory,Adams and Mackay

Jakobson R. and Halle M.Fundamentals ofLanguage (1956) Mouton

Jefkins F. AdvertisementWriting (1976) MacDonald& Evans Ltd

Livingstone M. Pop Art(1990) Thames & Hudson

Manco T. Stencil Graffiti(2002) Thames & Hudson


McLuhan M. and Fiore Q.The Medium is theMassage: An Inventory ofEffects (1967) Allen LaneThe Penguin Press

Rand P. A Designer’s Art(1985) Yale UniversityPress


Seboek T. A Perfusion ofSigns (1977) IndianaUniversity Press

Storr R. BasquiatDrawings (1990) BulfinchPress


Willis P. Moving Culture(1990) CalousteGulbenkian Foundation

Young M.F.D. Knowledgeand Control (1971)Collier-MacMillan

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INDEX

A

abstract expressionism 166, 168–70,174accessibility of arts 94acquisitive vandalism 112action painting 166, 168advertising 72aesthetics of signs 174agreement 24–5

language 18–23, 26–7response to signs 56

Airside 57–8alphabet 31, 40, 71ambiguity 166, 168analogue codes 41, 71, 174anchorage text 74, 76–7, 80–1Andre, Carl 93, 154antiques 148–51arbitrary signs 17–18, 31, 56arguments 33artefacts 154–5, 173Arts Council 94Austin, J.L. 95authorised language 95see also official languageauthorship 93

B

Baker, C. 112Banderas, Andreas 176Banksy 118Bantjes, Marian 66–7, 177Barthes, Roland

language 59myths 34, 60reader's role 54–5text and image 70–3

Basquiat, Jean-Michel 116–18Bhachu, Jas 71Bissoux, Bunny

see Williams, Francesca BunnyBlinderman, B. 116, 118Bloomfield, L. 86Bourdieu, Pierre

cultural legitimacy 92, 93dialects 60fields 84–5

legitimate language 86–9magical act 95

Brake, Mike 106Broodthaers, Marcel 21brute facts 33Burn 64–5, 125, 178–9

C

Calder, Alexander 170capital 89–91car system 59Castleman, Craig 108–10, 114Chafe, W. 17Clarke, R. 112coded iconic message 73codes

analogue 41, 71, 174digital 41, 71dress 106–8Eco 165graffiti 109paradigms 41unofficial 106–9

Coffield, Frank 110Cohen, Stan 112colour 34, 106commercial value, art 92, 93communication 170–2competition 89, 92components 10–27connotation 55, 64–5, 73context

semiotic principle 14unofficial language 114convention 56–61paradigms 40–1photography 55–6social 146subcultural groups 106–8syntagms 39thirdness 32

Criminal Justice Act (Scotland) 1980111Crow, David 19, 40, 42, 133, 152,158–9Culler, Jonathan 148, 154

culturecultural legitimacy 92–4cultural production 84–5, 93and junk 142–61sign interpretation 34

D

danger 146–7Davis, Paul 72Dawkins, Katy 102de Filippis, Rodrigo 160–1de Saussure, Ferdinand 13–16, 30

categories of signs 31language and dialect 59, 86, 108model for sign 22semiology 52value 36–41denotation 55, 74dialects 18, 60, 86, 108, 114

see alsounofficial languagedicents 33differential fit 106differentiation of dirt 152digital codes 41, 71dirt 144–7, 152disorder 147, 172Dorothy 44, 62Douglas, Mary 144–7, 152Downes, David 112dress codes 106–8duality 17, 26Duchamp, Marcel 155durability 148–52, 154–5Durt, Elzo 124

E

Eatock, Daniel 24, 102–3Eco, Umberto 164–74economic production 89economic value 148–52Emin, Tracey 155encyclopedia 165see also codes

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F

fashion 146, 148, 151fields 84–5, 133film 93fine arts 93–4, 116, 132, 154Fiore, Q. 74firstness 32–3flux 93–4flyposting 114football 107–8, 135form and openness 174Foucault, M. 92Fuller, M. 114

G

G-Man 63Galindo, René 86–9garment systems 39, 42, 59, 106Garside, Seel 60, 140–1Gauld, Tom 78–9Gautier, T. 94–5gender 92General Household Survey 132gestures 106–8, 174Gilmore, Andy 25Gladstone, F.J. 110graffiti 108–19

acceptability 90, 116–18materials 114schools 89

graphic design 91, 94

H

habitus 85Halle, M. 42Haring, Keith 116, 118Harré, R. 108, 134–5Hewitt, William John 81hierarchies

graffiti 109signs 145social groups 92visual arts 93–4, 154

high art 132high culture 93–4Hitchen, Jonathan 180Hockney, David 90Home Office Research Unit 110, 112Horn, F.A 91Hurd, Douglas 110, 113

Hutchings, R.S. 91hyperinstitutionalisation 130–5

I

iconic messages 73–4iconic signs 31, 33, 44, 47, 48identity

dirt 152membership groups 134–5subcultural groups 106symbolic creativity 133–5

ideological vandalism 112Ikkonen, Riitta 122–3image and text 20–1, 69–81Impressionism 168index signs 31, 33, 47, 64–5information 166–72institutionalisation 130-5intention 172, 174interpretants 22–3, 33, 34interpretation

abstract marks 174contemporary art 170–1convention 55–6readers' role 52–4

J

Jakobson, R. 42Jarvis, James 130–1Jefkins, Frank 72Jones, Allen 90Jones, Hazel 156–7junk and culture 142–61

L

language 14–19authorised 95dialects 18, 60, 86, 108, 114legitimate 86–9, 146official 82–103and speech 59–60, 62–3, 66–7symbolic production 134unofficial 86, 104–27, 146

see also linguisticlangue 59law 33legisigns 33legitimate language 86–9, 146linguistic communities 20, 24, 86linguistic messages 73–4

linguistics 13–18, 54Livingstone, M. 89–90low culture 93–4

M

McLauchlan, Lucy 94McLuhan, Marshall 74magical act 95Magritte, René 20, 20malicious vandalism 112–13Manco, Tristan 108, 114marketing 114Marsh, P. 108, 134–5meaning

formation 28–49, 36–43and information 166–71language 14–18metaphor and metonym 42–3paradigm 40–1syntagm 39

medium as message 74membership groups 134–5messages

information content 166reader's interpretation 165sources 168text/image combinations 73–4

metaphors 42, 47, 48–9metonyms 42, 64–5, 108Mitchell, Ian 140models 14, 22Moross, Kate 137–9Morris, William 133motivation 56–61

graffiti 111–12vandalism 113

movement signifiers 168Munn, Jason 47Murphy, Alan 73music 41, 71, 166myths 60

N

Nation of Graffiti Artists (NOGA) 110noise 170, 172non-coded iconic message 74

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INDEX

components 13–14hierarchies 145interpretation 22–3, 34, 52–4models 14, 22properties 32–3reading 50–67

sinsigns 33Sitwell, S. 152Skegg, Phil 62slang 89social groups 92sounds as signifiers 16–18speech 59–60, 62–3, 66–7statistics, high art involvement 132stencilling 114Storr, R. 116subcultural groups 106–8symbolic creativity 59, 128–41symbolic signs 31, 33, 56syntagms 36, 39systems

car 59dirt 145educational 86garments 39, 42, 59, 106

T

taboo 144–7tactical vandalism 112tags 109Tate Gallery 93, 154–5territories 86, 108text and image 20–1, 69–81theory, meaning 12thirdness 32–3Thompson, Michael 148–51Timorous Beasties 45transience, objects 148–51, 154–5typography 40–1

U

Universal Everything 181unlimited semiosis 34–5unofficial language 86, 104–27, 146

codes 106–9graffiti 108–9

O

objectsdurable 148–52, 154–5semiotic categories 148–52sign classification 33transient 148–51, 154–5

official language 82–103onomatopoeic words 18, 31open work 163–81order 170–2O'Shaughnessy, Michael 140

P

paradigms 36, 40–1, 71parasitic messages 74parole 59pattern 147Peirce, Charles Sanders 13–14, 22

categories of signs 31–3readers 52semiosis 34

performance 166Phillips, Peter 90, 93phonemes 16photography 55, 93pictograms 170play 112, 133–4pleasure 113, 133, 174pop art 89–90portfolios

agreement 24–7formation of meaning 44–9junk and culture 156–61linguistic community 24official language 96–103open work 176–81reading signs 62–7symbolic creativity 136–41text and image 76–81unofficial language 120–7

Post Typography 26, 48–9production

cultural 84–5, 93economic 89symbolic 133–5

properties of signs 32–3public involvement 132–3

Q

qualisigns 33qualities, sign classification 33

R

Rand, Paul 91, 94readers

creative role 165–6sign interpretation 22–3, 34,52–4reading 50–67relationship, text and image72–4

relay text 74, 79–80representamen 22, 33, 34resources, rubbish 154–5rhemes 33Richardson, Pete 100–1Rosser, E. 108, 134–5Royal College of Art 90rubbish

resource 154–5theory 148–53

see also junkrules 91

S

Sagmeister Inc. 27, 120–1Sagmeister, Stefan 96–9Saussure see de Saussuresecondness 32–3semiology 13see also semioticssemiosis 34semiotics

linguistics relationship 52–4origins 13principles 14

Shrigley, David 33signatures, graffiti 108–9, 117–18signification 36, 54–5signifieds 14, 16–17, 22, 52signifiers 14, 16–17, 22, 74

movement 168signs

aesthetics 174categories 30–5

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191

V

value 76–7commercial 92, 93competition 89meaning of signs 36–43, 44–5, 47objects 148–52rubbish 148

vandalism 110–13, 118–19see also graffitivernacular 114, 116video 93, 141vindictive vandalism 112visual dialects 114vocation 85Von Bertalanffy, L. 7

W

Waddon, A. 112Waldron, Hannah 122Walsh, Michael 76Williams, Francesca Bunny 80, 122,136Willis, Paul 59, 94–5, 130–5Wittgenstein, Ludwig 20work 133Wright, Ian 126–7, 171

Y

young people 130–2, 135

Z

Zeegen, Lawrence 77Zeman, J. 22, 164zero value objects 151

Compiled by:Indexing Specialists (UK) Ltd., www.indexing.co.uk

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND PICTURE CREDITS

For Martha xI would like to thank the followingpeople for their support and patience:Wendy, Drew, Ailsa, George and MarthaCrow. The Graphic Design staff atManchester School of Art. Seel Garsideand the Graphic Arts Staff at LiverpoolDesign Academy. Brian Morris, CarolineWalmsley and Helen Stone at AVAPublishing. Many thanks to all thetalented individuals who kindlycontributed their work.

Chapters

Chapter-opener numbers:

1. Joe Stothard2. Michael O’Shaughnessy3. Ailsa Crow4. Emma Symons5. Lucy Wilson6. David Crow7. Seel Garside8. Seel Garside9. Phillip Knight

Picture Research by Seel Garside

Photography by the author except:

Front cover – Ceramic Book by DavidCrow and Helen FelceyPhotography: John Crabtree, ManchesterSchool of Art p. 20 – René Magritte, The Betrayal ofImages © ADAGP, Paris and DACS,London 2010p. 21 – Marcel Broodthaers,The Farm Animals © DACS 2010p. 32 – Image three, Stars and Stripes by Seel Garside p. 90 – Graduation, Mrs Musgrove p. 109, p. 111, p. 113, p. 149, p. 150 – All photographs on these pages arereproduced with the kind permission of F-Stop images, FSI FontShopInternationalp. 117 – Jean-Michel Basquiat,A Panel of Experts © The Estate ofJean-Michel Basquiat/ADAGP, Paris andDACS, London 2010p. 155 – Marcel Duchamp,Hat Rack and Urinal © SuccessionMarcel Duchamp/ADAGP, Paris andDACS, London 2010p. 169 – Wendy Pennington

Illustrations

p. 12, p. 13, p. 14, p. 23 – MichaelO’Shaughnessyp. 14, p. 22, p. 33, p. 35 – Emily Alston

Additional imagery

Seel Garside, Michael O’Shaughnessy,David Shrigley, Ian Wright, Jas Bhachu[http://cargocollective.com/jashands],The Outlaws – Patrick Young, JohnnyHannah and Paul Farrington

Portfolios

1: COMPONENTS

p. 24 – No SmokingDirection: Daniel Eatockwww.eatock.comp. 25 – Illustration for ‘Wired’ MagazineDesign: Andy Gilmorewww.birdbrid.comp. 26 – Alphabet Exhibition Poster, 2005 Client: ArtscapeDesign: Bruce Willen www.posttypography.comp. 27 – Apostrophe Poster, 2005Client: Neenah PaperDesign: Matthias Ernstberger,Sagmeister Inc

2: HOW MEANING IS FORMED

p. 44 – Xmas DeclarationsDesign: DorothyImage: Tim Sinclair www.wearedorothy.comp. 45 – Glasgow and London ToilesDesign: Timorous Beasties www.timorousbeasties.com pp. 46–47 – Posters Design: Jason Munn/The Small Stakesp. 48 – The New Season Client: ‘The New York Times’Art Direction: Paul Jean, Post Typographyp. 48 – Greenbuild, 2007Client: US Green Building CouncilDesign: Post Typographyp. 49 – Racism Erases Face Poster, 2002 Client: AIGA, BaltimoreDesign: Bruce Willen, Post Typography

3: READING THE SIGN

p. 62 – War School PosterClient: Ctrl.Alt.ShiftDesign: Dorothy (Phil Skegg)Photography: Shaw and Shawp. 63 – Beauty and the BeastDesign: G-Manpp. 64–65 –The Fifth Floor, Ideas Taking ShapeClient: Tate Liverpool Design: Burn www.burneverything.co.ukpp. 66–67 – If I Want to Explore a NewDirection Professionally, it is Helpful toTry it Out for Myself First and TheAudacity of Hov‘VIBE’ Magazine title pageClient: Mark Shaw, VIBE, 2008 Artwork: Marian Bantjes, 2007Client: Stefan SagmeisterArtwork and photography: MarianBantjes

4: TEXT AND IMAGE

p. 76 – Leonardo Book CoverClient: New York School of Visual ArtsDesign: Michael Walshp. 77 – Liar (self promo)Design: Lawrence Zeegen

pp. 78–79 – ‘Guardian’ letters: 3D Friends, Four Obstacles to Writing,Map of the Area Surrounding OurHoliday HomeClient: ‘Guardian’ newspaperIllustration: Tom Gauldwww.tomgauld.comp. 80 – Pixie ShoesIllustration: Francesca Bunny Williams www.wonderleague.co.ukp. 81 – Drawings for ‘Emblem’ Magazine,2008 Documentary Illustration: William John Hewitt,Manchester School of Art

5: OFFICIAL LANGUAGE

pp. 96–97 – Things I Have Learned in MyLife So Far, 2008Client: Abrams IncConcept: Stefan SagmeisterDesign: Stefan Sagmeister and MatthiasErnstbergerPhotography: Henry LeutwylerIllustration: Yuki Muramatsu andStephan WalterEditor: Deborah AaronsonProduction: Anet Sirna-Bruderpp. 98–99 – Keeping a Diary Supports Personal DevelopmentArt direction and concept: Stefan SagmeisterDesign: Matthias Ernstberger and Stephan WalterProducer: Joanna Lee and Bert TanCreative director: Richard JohnsonEditor: Elena HoSponsor: MDA Singapore Design: Sagmeister Inc.pp. 100–101 – Pint GlassDesign: Peter Richardson Photography: Nick [email protected]. 102 – Interference (Plaque)Design: Katy Dawkinsp. 103 – Price-Tag Gift WrapDesign: Daniel Eatock

6: UNOFFICIAL LANGUAGE

p. 120 – Design Austria Poster, 2008Art direction: Stefan SagmeisterDesign: Matthias Ernstberger and Sarah NoellenheidtClient: Design Austriap. 121 – Chaumont Poster, 2004Client: Chaumont, FranceDesign: Sagmeister Inc, New YorkArt direction: Stefan SagmeisterDesign: Matthias Ernstberger3D illustration: Aaron HockettIllustration: Gao Ming, Mao, p. 122 – Open Day Poster, 2009Client: University of BrightonCostumes and design: Francesca BunnyWilliams and Hannah Waldron www.wonderleague.co.ukwww.hannahwaldron.co.uk

p. 123 – SnowflakeConcept and design: Riitta IkonenPhotography: Anni Koponenp. 123 – Commuter ThrivalConcept and design: Riitta IkonenPhotography: Anja SchaffnerTypography: Valerio Dilucentep. 124 – Veterant Skateboard/Space InvadersDesign: Elzo Durtwww.elzo.bep. 125 – Wastebin self-promotional workDesign: Burnp. 126 – TI/Paper TrailDesign and illustration: Ian Wrightwww.mrianwright.comp. 127 – Record Prints, Bob DylanConcept and design: Ian Wright

7: SYMBOLIC CREATIVITY

p. 136 – Wonderleague website screen shotsDesign: Francesca Bunny Williamswww.wonderleague.co.ukp. 137 – T-Post T-shirt subscription magazine (Image courtesy of T-Post)Design: Kate Morosspp. 138–139 – Nike Dunk Posters Art direction and design: Kate MorossPhotography: Neil BedfordStyling: Carrie Mundanewww.katemoross.compp. 140–141 Bellini PostersDesign: Ian Mitchell, MichaelO’Shaughnessy, Seel Garside, LiverpoolDesign Academy

8: JUNK AND CULTURE

pp. 156–157 – Chocolate Button Safe,String Too Small for UseDesign: Hazel Joneswww.a1scrapmetal.blogspot.com pp. 158–159 – Emblem/St PeterDesign: David CrowManchester School of Artpp. 160–161 – Guarda el Polvo andAparejo Potencial collagesDesign: Rodrigo de Filippiswww.flickr.com/rodrigboy

9: OPEN WORK

p. 176 – Self-commissioned workDesign: Andreas Banderashttp://andreasbanderas.comp. 177 – Pop!Tech Poster, 2008Client: Pop!TechArtwork: Marian Bantjespp. 178–179 – Alma De SantiagoDesign: Burnp. 180 – Automatic DrawingsDesign: Jonathan Hitchenp. 181 – Forever, 2008Client: Victoria & Albert MuseumDesign and art direction: Universal Everything

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Vis

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Other AVA titles of interest

Other titles in AVA’s

Graphic Design range include:

The Visual Dictionary of

Graphic Design

The Fundamentals of

Graphic Design

Basics Design: Image

Basics Design: Design Thinking

Basics Graphic Design:

Approach and Language

Left to Right:

The Cultural Shift From

Words to Pictures

Verbalising the Visual:

Translating Art and Design

into Words

Visual Communication:

From Theory to Practice

[email protected]

[email protected]

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AVA Academia’s Required Reading Range:

Course Reader titles are designed to support

visual arts students throughout the lifetime

of an undergraduate degree. Packed with

examples from students and professionals and

fully illustrated with clear diagrams and inspiring

imagery, they offer an essential exploration

of the subject.

This second edition of Visible Signs is an update

to the popular first edition of the same name, in

which David Crow introduces design students to

the fundamentals of semiotics. Basic semiotic

theories are taught in most art schools as part of a

contextual studies programme, but many students

find it difficult to understand how these ideas

might impact on their own practice. Visible Signs

tackles this problem by explaining semiotic terms

and theories in relation to visual communication,

with illustrative examples taken from

contemporary art and design. Concepts such as

signs and signifiers, and language and speech are

all explored within the framework of graphic

design and the visual arts.

The second edition features new content and

includes case studies, student exercises and

200 visuals that have been specifically sourced

to best illustrate the ideas discussed within

the book.

Features substantial new and revised content.

Addresses the lack of an accessible and visually

interesting publication on the topic of semiotics.

Showcases 200 colour visuals specifically created

to illustrate the ideas discussed in the text.

David Crow studied Communication Design

at Manchester Metropolitan University. He

subsequently worked as a designer in London

for Assorted iMaGes and as Art Director for

Island Records before running his own

consultancy. As a freelance designer he

worked for a range of clients in the cultural

sector including Rolling Stones Records,

Virgin Records, Phonogram and the Royal

Shakespeare Company. Crow then moved into

academia as Head of the Department of Graphic

Arts at Liverpool John Moores University. He is

currently Dean of the Faculty of Art and Design

and Pro-Vice Chancellor at Manchester

Metropolitan University.

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Publisher’s note

Ethical practice is well known,

taught and discussed in the

domains of medicine, law, science

and sociology but was, until

recently, rarely discussed in terms

of the Applied Visual Arts. Yet

design is becoming an increasingly

integral part of our everyday lives

and its influence on our society

ever-more prevalent.

AVA Publishing believes that our

world needs integrity; that the

ramifications of our actions upon

others should be for the greatest

happiness and benefit of the

greatest number. We do not set

ourselves out as arbiters of what is

‘good’ or ‘bad’, but aim to promote

discussion in an organised fashion

for an individual’s understanding

of their own ethical inclination.

www.avabooks.com


www.avabooks.com



DAVIDCROW

Job:01980 Title:Visible Signs 2nd Edition (AVA)Page:Cover

Cover 01980 C3 9/23/10 2:30 PM Page 1

9 782940 411429

ISBN 13: 978-2-940411-42-9

£35.00

UK Job:01980 Title:Visible Signs 2nd Edition (AVA)Page:Cover

Documents

Crow - Visible Signs, Semiotics in the Visual Arts