Cross-Language Communication in Heliodorus' Aethiopica

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Electronic Thesis and Dissertations

UCLA

Peer Reviewed

Title:

Cross-Language Communication in Heliodorus' Aethiopica

Author:

Groves, Robert W.

Acceptance Date:

2012

Series:

UCLA Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Degree:

Ph.D., Classics 0174UCLA

Advisor(s):

Blank, David

Committee:

Dieleman, Jacco, Telò, Mario, Vine, Brent

Permalink:

http://eprints.cdlib.org/uc/item/4v69q533

Abstract:

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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

Los Angeles

Cross-Language Communication in Heliodorus Aethiopica

A dissertation su!mitted in "artial satis#action o# t$e

re%uirements #or t$e degree &octor o# '$iloso"$(

in Classics

!(

Ro!ert )illiam *ro+es IV

,.,


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/ Co"(rig$t !(


,.,


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A0STRACT OF THE &ISSERTATION

Cross-Language Communication in Heliodorus Aethiopica

!(


&octor o# '$iloso"$( in Classics

Uni+ersit( o# Cali#ornia1 Los Angeles

'ro#essor &a+id L2 0lan31 C$air

T$is dissertation anal(4es 5$( Heliodorus "a(s so muc$ attention to #oreign languages in

t$e Aethiopica and $o5 $is descri"tion o# t$ese linguistic "$enomena colors t$e 5or32 It

demonstrates t$at Heliodorus is +er( care#ul to attri!ute linguistic a!ilities to c$aracters in a

sensi!le 5a( t$at is in line 5it$ real-5orld e6"ectations2 C$aracters ne+er s"ea3 a mutual

language merel( !ecause it 5ould !e con+enient #or t$e aut$or i# t$e( could2 Language also

$el"s aid t$e aut$ors c$aracteri4ation2 Heliodorus dra5s u"on long-standing cultural attitudes

to5ards multilingual indi+iduals to ma3e $is religious "riests more aut$oritati+e and trust5ort$(

and $is conni+ing merc$ants e+en less so2 Female c$aracters 5it$ multi"le languages are seen as

se6uall( sus"ect1 5$ile C$ari3leia1 t$e no+els $eroine1 "reser+es !ot$ $er c$astit( and $er status

as a monolingual *ree3 s"ea3er2 Non+er!al communication is as "ro!lematic to inter"ret as t$e

dreams and oracles in t$e no+el1 !ut s"o3en language doesnt "resent an( $ermeneutic "ro!lems7

s"eec$ is eit$er understood or not understood1 !ut ne+er misunderstood2 T$e #inal !oo3 o# t$e

no+el demonstrates !ot$ t$e limits o# s"eec$ and t$e "o5er o# t$e $uman +oice to transcend

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s"o3en language2

Heliodorus treatment o# language in t$e no+el is1 as ot$er sc$olars $a+e suggested1 !ot$

!ased on a desire #or realism and an em"$asis on inter"reti+e "rocesses1 !ut t$is is not t$e 5$ole

stor(2 T$e attri!ution o# s"eci#ic linguistic a!ilities to s"eci#ic c$aracters also communicates to

t$e reader a 5ealt$ o# in#ormation a!out t$ose c$aracters2 0ecause t$is in#ormation is deri+ed

#rom t$e readers e6"ectations a!out language in t$e real 5orld1 an anal(sis o# linguistic

"$enomena in t$e no+el o"ens u" t5o 3inds o# in#ormation2 Our understanding o# t$e no+el 5ill

!e !etter i# 5e ta3e into account t$e aut$ors treatment o# language1 and t$e no+el itsel# ma(

"resent tantali4ing glim"ses into t$e attitudes to5ard language "resent in t$e culture o# t$e aut$orand t$e no+els #irst readers2

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T$e dissertation o# Ro!ert )illiam *ro+es is a""ro+ed2

8acco &ielemann

9ario Tel:

0rent Vine

&a+id L2 0lan31 Committee C$air

Uni+ersit( o# Cali#ornia1 Los Angeles,.,

i+


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&edicated to

9( great-grandmot$er and academic muse1

9art$a Rosner

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Table of Contents

Introduction: Heliodorus and his Worlds....................................................................................1

On t$e Aut$or and $is Te6t222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222;Sc$olarl( A""roac$es to Languages in Heliodorus 2222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222<Cons"ectus22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222.<'ol(glossia22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222,.

Chapter 1: The Languages of Heliodorus' Characters.............................................................23

C$ari3leia1 t$e 9onolingual Heroine2222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222,<T$eagenes1 t$e Une6"ected 0ilingual222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222;.Eg("tian 'riests= T$(amis and >alasiris22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222;?*ree3s Li+ing in Eg("t= >nemon and Nausi3les2222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222@Foreign )omen o# 9em"$is= >(!ele and Arsa3e22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222@,T$e Et$io"ians= H(das"es1 'ersinna1 and Sisimit$res22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222@<T$e Unusual Case o# t$e Eunuc$ 0agoas222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222?@Conclusion222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222?

Chapter 2: Trust, Deceit, and !"#$%%&...................................................................................()Trust and &eceit in t$e Aet$io"ica22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222?Religious and Trust5ort$( 0ilinguals222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222BUntrust5ort$( and &eceit#ul 0ilinguals22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222B@>alasiris2222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222B<

Chapter 3: Linguistic Chastit*...................................................................................................+

C$astit( in t$e Ancient No+el and in Heliodorus2222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222BArsa3e 22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222(!ele2222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222.'ersinna22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222.;C$ari3leia22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222.<

Language and Education in t$e Roman Em"ire2222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222..?Conclusion2222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222.,

Chapter -: on/er0al Counication in the ethiopica......................................................12(

Introduction22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222.,?C$ari3leia and t$e 0andits on t$e 0eac$22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222.,< Non+er!al Communication 5it$ Cor"ses2222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222.@.*estures at t$e 'ersian Court22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222.@?*estures in )ar22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222.?@Conclusion2222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222.?

Chapter (: Interpreting thiopia and Heliodorus' Languages.............................................14

T$e Cro5d S"ea3s and Transcends S"eec$2222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222..

T$e Uses o# Languages22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222.B,T$e Land o# Uni+ersal Translata!ilit(222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222.BConclusion2222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222.@

Conclusion: ................................................................................................................................1+5

ppendi6 1: The 7eantic /olution of !"#$%%&8...............................................................1)1

ppendi6 2: 7ur/e* of on/er0al 9eha/ior in the ethiopica..........................................1)+

9i0liograph*...............................................................................................................................24(

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Ac3no5ledgments

I cannot su##icientl( t$an3 t$e mem!ers o# m( dissertation committee1 &a+id 0lan31 9ario Tel:1

8acco &ieleman1 and 0rent Vine #or t$eir encouragement1 $el"#ul suggestions and guidance2

T$e( $a+e !een as stern1 demanding1 $el"#ul and 3ind as I needed t$em to !e and1 Dust as

im"ortantl(1 $a+e "ro+ided models o# !ot$ !rilliant sc$olars$i" and $umanit(2 I also o5e a

s"ecial de!t to Sara$ 9orris1 in 5$ose seminar I un5ittingl( stum!led u"on Heliodorus1 and 5$o

t$ere!( set t$is dissertation in motion2 T$is dissertation $as !ene#ited greatl( #rom t$e ad+ice and

criti%ues o##ered !( m( colleagues and #riends1 most "articularl( 9ic$ael 0rum!aug$1 Craig

Russell1 Emil( Rus$1 C$arlie Stein1 and 0rian )alters as 5ell as t$e interdisci"linar( dissertation

5riting grou" o# &a+id Hull1 8ulie Romain1 and Sara )ol#2 )it$out t$e su""ort and

encouragement o# Hector Re(es1 !ot$ t$e $ig$s and lo5s o# t$e 5riting "rocess 5ould $a+e !een

#ar less "leasant2 Finall(1 t$is dissertation stems #rom a curiosit( and lo+e o# learning instilled !(

m( "arents o+er ; (ears ago1 and nurtured e+er since7 t$an3s1 9om and &ad

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VITA

,, 02 S21 Classics and Classical HumanitiesUni+ersit( o# )isconsin-9adison1 9adison1 )isconsin

,,-,@ Englis$ Instructor1 Osa3a1 8a"an

,@-,? 'ost-0accalaureate &egree1 UCLALos Angeles1 Cali#ornia

,-,B Teac$ing Assistant1 Classics1 UCLA

,B 92A21 Classics1 UCLA

,B-,. Teac$ing Associate1 Classics1 UCLA

,-,< Teac$ing Assistant Consultant1 Classics1 UCLA

,. C2'$il1 Classics1 UCLA

,.. Fello51 Collegium o# Uni+ersit( Teac$ing Fello5s1 UCLA

,.. &istinguis$ed Teac$ing Assistant A5ard1 UCLA

'RESENTATIONS

,B T$e Li!rarian and t$e S$aman= 9a3ing Sense o#A"ollonius Allusions to Em"edoclesG ClassicalAssociation o# t$e 9iddle )est and Sout$

, '2 Stan#ord *ree3 *reen G 'a"(rolog( Institute atStan#ord Uni+ersit(

,< Heliodorus and Ancient 0ilingualism= Fiction and FactsG1 Ancient Cultures in Contact= Catal(sts #or C$ange1Uni+ersit( o# 'enns(l+ania

,. )omen1 Se61 0ilingualism1 and t$e Aet$io"i3aG American'$ilological Association

,., Statue to Stor(= O+ids 9etamor"$osis o#Herma"$roditusG American '$ilological Association

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Introduction: Heliodorus and his Worlds

About the tongues when divers with me wrangle,

And count our English but a mingle mangle, I tell them, all are such; and in conclusionWill grow so more by curse of first Confusion.The atine, !ree"e, and #ebrew are not free;Though what their borrow$d words are "now not wee; %ecause their neighbour tongues we never "new; &or what they "eepe of old; nor what have new' %ut count that language good, which can e(presseThe more of sense, in doubtfull speech the lesse;

--)illiam Lisle1 The )aire Aethiopian

T$ese lines are t$e o"ening cou"lets o# The )aire Aethiopian, Englis$ "oet and

anti%uarian )illiam Lisles .;. +erse translation o# t$e ancient *ree3 no+el 3no5n as t$e

Aet$io"icaG !( Heliodorus o# Emesa2 T$e lines and t$ose t$at #ollo5 stand to Dusti#( $is

con+ersion o# t$e *ree3 "rose o# t$e original into r$(ming Englis$ "oetr( 5it$ !ot$ an a""eal to

t$e su"er#luous !ount( o# language and t$e license a##orded ot$er "oets2 Lisles a""eals to t$e

mingle mangleG o# tongues and t$e re#erence to 0a!el suit !ot$ $is o5n situation and t$at o# $is

te6t2 Lisle1 5$o also 5ent !( Lisle1G addresses $is 5or3 to Englands C$arles I and $is Frenc$

5i#e1 Henrietta 9aria2 0ot$ recei+e dedicator( e"igrams1 C$arles a Latin elegiac cou"let1 and

Henrietta a r$(ming Frenc$ ale6andrine1 !e#ore anot$er Latin elegiac $o"ing t$at t$e lilies o#

*aul #louris$ toget$er 5it$ 0ritis$ roses2G. T$is multilingual dedication to t$e multinational and

. Ad regem: prospera conservent Carolum tibi )ata *inorem;+ Tu %ritonum Carolus deniue *agnus eris. Tothe ing: 9a( t$e #ates !e #a+ora!le and "rotect (oung C$arles #or (ou2 You 5ill trul( !e t$e 0ritons C$arlest$e *reat2G

A la Reine: Tant des perfections Ie Chanteray sans cesse;+ -ule oy est /atron, la eine est /atronesse. Tothe ;ueen: T$( rare endo5ments e+er 5ill I sing7J For Kueene is 'atronesse 5$ere 'atron >ing2G translation !(Lisle $imsel# in lines @; and @@ o# $is "oem2

0um rotat astra polus, dum fi(a est terra, %ritannis+!allica florescant ilia 1uncta osis. So long as t$e "oleturns t$e stars and t$e eart$ sta(s in its "lace1 ma( t$e lilies o# *aul #louris$ toget$er 5it$ 0ritis$ Roses2G

All translations t$roug$out t$is dissertation are m( o5n1 e6ce"t 5$ere noted2

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multilingual ro(al cou"le is !orn out in t$e "lot o# t$e Aet$io"ica itsel#1 5$ic$ sees *ree3s1

Eg("tians1 Et$io"ians1 and 'ersians #inding 5a(s to communicate across and des"ite t$e

language !arriers t$at o#ten se"arate t$em2 Lisle does not s"eci#icall( call attention to t$e #act

t$at translation itsel# is o#ten at sta3e in Heliodorus no+el !ut $is o"ening ne+ert$eless dra5s our

#ocus to !ot$ t$e di##erences !et5een languages and t$e #undamental and s$ared "ur"ose o# all

languages1 t$e success#ul e6"ression o# sense2

T$e #ocus o# t$is dissertation is t$e a!undant and remar3a!le "resence o# cross-linguistic

encounters in t$e Aethiopica2 In t$e no+els o"ening scene1 its $eroine deli+ers a dramatic s"eec$

in 5$ic$ s$e !egs t$e Eg("tian !andits 5$o $a+e ca"tured $er to "ut $er out o# $er miser(2

,

T$enarrator "ic3s u"= T$is 5as $er tragic monologue1 !ut t$e !andits couldnt understand an( o#

5$at s$e said222G Ἡ μὲν ταῦτα ἐπετραγῴδει, οἱ δὲ οὐδὲν συνιέναι τῶν λεγομένων2 T$e

!andits1 !eing Eg("tian1 do not s"ea3 *ree31 unli3e t$e reader and t$e $eroine1 and t$us t$e

language !arrier !et5een C$air3leia and t$e !andits is t$rust sur"risingl( to t$e sur#ace2 ; It is a

common con+ention o# literature t$at c$aracters can communicate des"ite language !arriers and

t$is is es"eciall( true #or Ancient *ree3 literature2@ Heliodorus !rea3 5it$ t$at con+ention1 t$en1

is all t$e more sur"rising and in need o# e6"lanation2 T$is dissertation 5restles 5it$ t$e %uestion

o# 5$( Heliodorus incor"orates cross-language "$enomena into $is no+el in suc$ a dramatic 5a(

and "oints out some o# t$e e##ects t$ese "$enomena $a+e on !ot$ $is no+el and its c$aracters 2?

, Aethiopica 2.3.2452 See !elo51 "2 .;?2; T$e sur"rising "art is t$e linguistic element1 not t$e con#rontation o# *ree3s and 0ar!arians1 5$ic$ are a sta"le

"iece o# t$e genre2 See Ste"$ens ,2

@ I 5ill return to t$e su!Dect in m( #irst c$a"ter2 Col+in .


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0e#ore I la( out in more detail t$e s$a"e o# t$e c$a"ters to come1 I 5ill !rie#l( introduce t$e

no+elist and $is no+el1 and 5$at 5e can sa( a!out t$eir conte6t2

On the Author and his Text T$e #inal 5ords o# Heliodorus no+el gi+e us !ot$ its name and $is2 As a coda to t$e

e+ents o# t$e "lot "ro"er1 t$e aut$or signs o##=

οι!νδε πέρας "σ#ε τ$ σύνταγμα τῶν περ% &εαγένην 'α% (αρ)'λειαν *+ιοπι'ῶν- . συνέτα/εν 0ν1ρ2ο3νι/ 4μισην!ς, τῶν 056 Ἡλ)ου γένος, &εοδοσ)ου πα3ς Ἡλι!δωρος78 Aethiopica [email protected]@

T$is is t$e end o# t$e !oo3 on t$e Et$io"ian stor( o# T$eagenes and C$ari3leia2 A '$oenician man #rom Emesacom"osed it1 a descendent o# Helios1 Son o# T$eodosius1 Heliodorus2B

)e 3no5 little o# t$e aut$or !e(ond $is sign-o## $ere !ut sc$olars $a+e made +aliant attem"ts to

$el" !uild u"on t$is small amount o# in#ormation2 T$e aut$ors claim to t$e cit( o# Emesa "laces

$im in S(ria1 a location con#irmed !( $is use o# t$e term 2ο3νι/ '$oenician #or $imsel#2 It is

li3e5ise tem"ting1 and I t$in3 rig$t1 to connect Heliodorus claim a!out $is descent #rom t$e sun

5it$ t$e solar religion centred in Emesa1 es"eciall( in t$e lig$t o# t$e role t$at sun gods "la( in

t$e no+el itsel#2 Li3e5ise1 e+en t$e name Heliodorus ma( !e t$e *ree3 +ersion o# t$e S(rian

name A!ds$amas$G Ser+ant o# t$e Sun2


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gi+en t$e c$oice !et5een doing so or denouncing $is no+el2. T$ere are se+eral reasons 5$( t$is

in#ormation s$ould !e treated circums"ectl(= e+en t$e earliest sources stand at some remo+e

#rom t$e "ro!a!le dates o# t$e aut$or7 t$e sources gain s"eci#icit( as t$e( gain distance #rom t$e

aut$or7 and 0(4antine readers and aut$ors 5ould $a+e li3ed to reclaim Heliodorus !( connecting

$im 5it$ a C$ristian #igure o# t$e same name2 T$at said1 t$e claims are not "re"osterous and

s$ould "ro!a!l( !e $eld to !e unli3el( !ut "ossi!le unless ot$er e+idence su""orts or contradicts

t$em2..

T$e identit( o# Heliodorus is !ound u" too 5it$ t$e %uestion o# 5$en t$e 5or3 5as

com"osed2 T5o main sc$ools o# t$oug$t $a+e de+elo"ed1 one "ositing a date o# t$e mid ;

rd

centur( CE1 in t$e "eriod o# t$e Roman Em"ire o#ten called t$e Second So"$isticG and anot$er

t$e mid to late @t$ centur(2., T$e case #or t$e latter1 more "o"ular 5it$ most sc$olars1 is !ased

$ea+il( on t$e similarities !et5een Heliodorus de"iction o# t$e siege o# S(ene and 8ulians

de"iction o# t$e siege o# Nis!is !( t$e 'art$ians in ;?2 9organ com!ines t$is "rimar( "iece o#

e+idence 5it$ linguistic and religious com"aranda in suggesting a date !et5een ;? and ;B?

CE2.; T$e earlier date1 in contrast1 is !ased $ea+il( on t$e "rominence o# !ot$ Emesan letters and

Solar 5ors$i" in t$e t$ird centur(2 0o5ie1 #or e6am"le1 suggests t$at $e remains uncon+inced !(

t$e siege-!ased date and suggests ,; as a good terminus a uo2.@ T$e de!ate is unli3el( to !e

. T$e c$urc$ #at$er Socrates ?t$ centur( CE is t$e #irst o# t$ese sources1 #ollo5ed !( '$otius %iblioteca


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con+incingl( settled1 !arring re+olutionar( "a"(rological disco+eries1 and t$us sc$olars o#

Heliodorus are #orced to "roceed 5it$ a centur( and a $al# o# "ossi!le uncertaint(2 In t$e "ages to

come I $a+e a+oided arguments 5$ic$ de"end on one date or anot$er and $a+e instead

endea+oured to !e sure t$at m( arguments are e%uall( com"elling regardless o# 5$ere one stands

on t$e %uestion2

T$e title Heliodorus ga+e $is no+el seems to !e τ9 περ% &εαγένην 'α% (αρ)'λειαν

*+ιοπι'ά T$e Et$io"ian Stor( a!out T$eagenes and C$ari3leia2.? Later sources re#er to it !ot$

as τ9 *+ιοπι'ά and as (αρ)'λεια1 !ot$ o# 5$ic$ are su""orted !( com"arison 5it$ t$e titles o#

ot$er ancient *ree3 no+els2.

)$itmars$ argues "ersuasi+el( t$at t$e τ9 περ% !o(s name 'α%

girls name1 or vice versa #ormula is t$e most con+incing candidate #or t$e ancient con+ention2.B

I $a+e1 $o5e+er1 o"ted to #ollo5 t$e modern con+ention o# calling t$e 5or3 !( t$e name it

generall( goes !( in Englis$-language te6ts1 t$e Aethiopica2

T$e stor( o# t$e Aethiopica is com"licated and con+oluted and t$e no+el is "o"ulated

5it$ a large cast o# ric$l( dra5n c$aracters2 T$e alread( com"licated "lot is made still more

com"le6 !( t$e aut$ors decision to o"en t$e no+el in medias res and re+eal t$e earl( "arts o# t$e

stor( in #las$!ac3-li3e internal narrati+es1 and e+en narrati+es 5it$in narrati+es2 . In s$ort1 t$e

stor( #ollo5s C$ari3leia1 an Et$io"ian "rincess1 !orn 5$ite to !lac3 "arents t$roug$ a tric3 o#

o"tics1 and raised a!road in *reece2.


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5$is3ed #rom &el"$i !( t$e Eg("tian "riest >alasiris 5$o $as !een tas3ed 5it$ #inding t$e girl

and restoring $er to $er 3ingdom2 T$e e+ents o# t$e no+el "ro"er !egin 5$en >alasiris1

T$eagenes and C$ari3leia are s$i"5rec3ed at t$e mout$ o# t$e Nile1 and #ollo5 t$e t$ree as t$e(

ma3e t$eir 5a( sout$ along t$e Nile t$roug$ t$e entire lengt$ o# Eg("t until t$e arri+al1

recognition1 and sal+ation o# C$ari3leia and T$eagenes in Et$io"ia2 Li3e t$e "rotagonists o#

e+er( *ree3 no+el1 t$e su"ernaturall( good loo3s o# !ot$ T$eagenes and C$ari3leia Deo"ardi4e

not onl( t$eir sa#et( and autonom( !ut also t$eir +o5s o# c$astit( and #idelit( to5ards eac$

ot$er2

T$e 5orld in 5$ic$ t$e Aethiopica un#olds1 t$en1 is mostl( Eg("t and Et$io"ia1 !ot$ o#5$ic$ $a+e long $istories o# associations in *ree3 literature2, )$ile in Heliodorus o5n time1

Eg("t $ad !een under t$e control o# *ree3s or *reco-9acedonians and *ree3-s"ea3ing

Romans #or $undreds o# (ears1 t$e aut$or sets $is no+el !e#ore t$e con%uest o# *reece1 around

t$e ?t$ centur( 0CE2,. Heliodorus ma3es no e##ort to nail do5n a s"eci#ic (ear1 !ut rat$er de"icts

a 3ind o# romanticall( imagined "ast1 near t$e $eig$t o# *ree3 ci+ili4ation2 T$is means t$at 5$ile

t$ere are '$oenicians1 Eg("tians1 Et$io"ians1 and 'ersians1 t$ere are no Romans and t$e

"rotagonists are #orced to tra+el t$roug$ a barbarian land in t$e strictest sense o# t$at 5ord1 t$at

is1 a "lace 5$ere t$e s"eec$ o# t$e locals is incom"re$ensi!le2

0esides *ree31 t$e no+elist re#ers e6"licitl( to t$e Eg("tian1 Et$io"ian1 and 'ersian

languages2,, T$ere is no reason to !elie+e t$at Heliodorus actuall( 3ne5 an( o# t$ese languages

, Eg("t is most #amousl( imagined as an anti-*reece1 5$ere *ree3 customs are !ac35ards1 on 5$ic$ see Hartog

.


17/225

at all1 and in some cases it is not e6actl( clear 5$at $istorical language s$ould !e associated 5it$

t$e languages $e names2 'ersian1 #or e6am"le1 mig$t reasona!l( re#er to eit$er Aramaic1 t$e

lingua franca o# t$e 'ersian em"ire1 or to a #orm o# 'ersian2 Heliodorus s$o5s no interest in

di##erentiating t$e t5o or in re#lecting in an( 5a( t$e linguistic s"eci#ics o# 5$ate+er language it

is2 T$e nati+e language o# a 'ersian c$aracter is sim"l( 'ersian2 In a similar +ein1 t$e $istorical

9eroitic scri"t and t$e language associated 5it$ it seem a good candidate #or t$e Et$io"ianG

language o# t$e no+el1 !ut t$ere is little reason to t$in3 t$at Heliodorus $ad an( detailed

3no5ledge a!out t$at language or t$at $e 5ould $a+e cared i# $e did2,; T$e Eg("tian language

5as #amiliar enoug$ in *ree3 literature t$at t$ere is no %uestion o# its re#errent1 t$oug$Heliodorus s$o5s no signs o# a5areness o# t$e com"licated relations$i"s !et5een di##erent 3inds

o# Eg("tian 5riting and t$e +ersions o# s"o3en language t$e( encoded2 ,@

9odern ideas o# multiculturalism and glo!alism $a+e s"a5ned a recent interest in

multilingualism in anti%uit(2 *i+en our ina!ilit( to s"ea3 5it$ nati+e s"ea3ers1 5ritten sources

!ecome t$e greatest "ieces o# e+idence #or understanding !ilingual and multilingual

"$enomena on t$e ground2,? )$ile literar( sources do contain some telling anecdotes or

re#erences to !ilingual "$enomena1, most 5or3 $as de"ended on multilingual inscri"tions t$e

2.B2, περσ):οντα2,; See Tr3 .alasiris2 )e cannot 3no5 5$et$er Heliodorus 3ne5 t$at 9eroitic scri"t 5as deri+ed #romEg("tian $ierogl("$s or i# $e merel( in+ented a scri"t +alua!le #or t$e inter"reti+e econom( o# $is no+el and1 indoing so1 stum!led u"on t$e trut$2

,@ T$us1 t$e demotic scri"t 5$ic$ 5ould $a+e !een a relati+el( ne5 in+ention at t$e no+els dramatic date 5ould$a+e !een signi#icantl( closer to t$e s"o3en language o# t$e e+er(da( Eg("tians encountered !( C$ari3leia and

T$eagenes1 !ut t$e #amous $ierogl("$s 5rote a language 5$ic$ 5as all !ut #ossili4ed2 See &e"au5 .


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most #amous o# 5$ic$ is t$e Rosetta stone and documentar( "a"(ri "articularl( !ilingual

arc$i+es 5$ic$ t$e dr( sands o# Eg("t "reser+e in greater num!ers t$an ot$er locales2 ,B Some o#

t$ese arc$i+es allo5 us to trac3 t$e same indi+idual using di##erent names and "artici"ating in

di##erent societies in di##erent languages2, &es"ite t$e 5ealt$ o# in#ormation (ielded !( t$ese

documentar( sources1 Heliodorus "icture o# multilingualism in Eg("t relies less on t$e s"eci#ics

o# 'ersian Eg("t and more on t$e general tendencies o# $is da(2 Some o# t$e tendencies e+ident

in $is te6t are su""orted !( t$e Eg("tian e+idence1 5$ile ot$ers "er$a"s #ill in some lacunae in

our understanding o# real 5orld !ilingualism2

Alt$oug$ Heliodorus no+el gi+es an im"ortant "art to #oreign languages and t$eirs"ea3ers1 it is im"ortant to note t$at at no "oint does t$e #oreign tongue come !e#ore t$e readers

e(es2 A good e6am"le is t$e 'ersian Eunuc$1 0agoas1 5$o $as a loose gri" on *ree35$( $e

3no5s it at all is somet$ing o# a m(ster(!ut 5$ose s"eec$ is "er#ectl( grammatical2,


19/225

Scholarly Approaches to Languages in Heliodorus

)$ile t$e su!Dect o# #oreign languages in Heliodorus no+el $a+e not !een #ront and

center in sc$olars$i" on t$e Aethiopica1 #our articles $a+e made signi#icant contri!utions to t$e

discussion and I 5ould li3e to turn m( attention to t$ese articles no52 All #our o# t$e articles $a+e

muc$ to commend t$em and ma3e +alua!le contri!utions to t$e understanding o# t$ese

"$enomena2 All #our must1 $o5e+er1 in t$eir o5n 5a(s !e amended2 T5o o# t$ese #our articles

came to "ress in .


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indeed I $o"e t$at m( #ourt$ c$a"ter on non+er!al communication adds #urt$er 5eig$t to

)in3lers alread( %uite "ersuasi+e argument2 Heliodorus does "a( remar3a!le attention to not

onl( t$e non+er!al cues t$roug$ 5$ic$ c$aracters inter"ret eac$ ot$ers actions !ut also dreams1

oracles1 and "ro"$ecies2 It seems undenia!le t$at t$e care#ul reader 5ill notice Heliodorus

em"$asis on t$e 5a(s in 5$ic$ meaning is constructed in t$e no+el2 In discussing t$e "ro!lem o#

language and communication in t$e no+el1 )in3ler suggests t$at naturalism is a tem"ting

e6"lanation !ut #inds t5o c$ie# "ro!lems= .2 t$e aut$or uses language to underscore t$e cross-

"u"oses1 com"lication and dQnouements o# $is "lot1G and ,2 $e culti+ates scenes in 5$ic$ a dim

and "artial a5areness o# #oreign language is dis"la(ed2G

;;

T$e #irst o# t$ese seems true1 and t$ereis no !etter or more con+incing e6am"le t$an t$e #ailure o# t$e !andits to understand C$ari3leias

s"eec$ at .2;2,1 as )in3ler rig$tl( "oints out2;@ T$e second "oint1 $o5e+er1 needs to !e %uali#ied2

One signi#icant "ro!lem 5it$ )in3lers suggestion t$at Heliodorus accumulates moments

o# dim and "artial a5arenessG o# #oreign languages is t$at Heliodorus !roadl( ignores a maDor

su!set o# t$e categor( )in3ler descri!es2 It is true t$at t$ere are a range o# a!ilities in s"ea3ing

#oreign languages in t$e Aet$io"ica2;? T$ermout$is onl( 3no5s one 5ord o# *ree3 T$is!e7

T$(amis1 Sisimit$res and 0agoas do not s"ea3 *ree3 #luentl(1 t$oug$ t$e terms used to e6"ress

t$is seem to s$o5 t$at some are !etter at it t$an ot$ers2 0ut t$ese all deal 5it$ t$e "roduction o#

#oreign s"eec$1 5$ereas t$e "$enomenon most similar to )in3lers concerns is t$e understanding

and inter"retation o# #oreign s"eec$2 I# language is to !e included among dreams1 oracles1 and

literar( te6ts as utterances in need o# care#ul and learned e6"lication1 t$en 5e 5ould e6"ect

Heliodorus to include in $is no+el some attention to t$e 5a(s in 5$ic$ language can !e

;; )in3ler .


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misunderstood1 Dust as $e does 5it$ oracles1 dreams1 "ro"$ecies1 and non+er!al !e$a+ior2 ;

Instead1 Heliodorus onl( e+er "ro+ides t5o o"tions #or 5ords s"o3en= com"lete #ailure to

communicate t$roug$ 5ords as in t$e no+els o"ening scene or "er#ect com"re$ension des"ite

an( inelegancies in t$e "roduction o# t$e s"eec$2;B &es"ite T$eagenes lac3 o# #amiliarit( 5it$

Eg("tian1 $e de#tl( ans5ers t$e correct %uestion2; &es"ite Sisimit$res #um!ling *ree31

C$ari3les understands 5$at Sisimit$res 5ants and is a!le to com"l(2 T$e inter"reters t$roug$out

t$e no+el >nemon1 most #amiliarl( ne+er misinter"ret as t$e( ser+e t$eir #unction2 E+er(one

5$o $as e6"erience communicating in a #oreign language 3no5s o# t$e m(riad 5a(s in 5$ic$ an

e6c$ange across t$e language !arrier can #ail= one can ans5er t$e 5rong %uestion1 res"ond 5it$ anon-se%uitur1 misunderstand an idiom1 or not $ear a negation1 Dust to name a #e5 o# t$e man(

"ossi!le "ro!lems2 And t$ere is no reason to !elie+e t$at suc$ e6c$anges 5ere an( less

"ro!lematic in anti%uit(2 T$e a!sence o# all o# t$ese and an(t$ing similar in t$e no+el suggests

t$at Heliodorus "rimar( concern cannot $a+e !een to $ig$lig$t t$e 5a(s in 5$ic$ s"o3en

communication mirrors ot$er inter"reti+e "rocesses2 T$is stands in mar3ed contrast to

Heliodorus treatment o# non+er!al communication 5$ic$1 as I argued in m( #ourt$ c$a"ter1 is

terri!l( "ro!lematic in t$e no+el and occu"ies t$e liminal s"ace !et5een com"re$ended +er!al

communication and incom"re$ensi!le non-communication2

82R2 9organ ta3es a %uite di##erent a""roac$ to Heliodorus1 t$oug$ not one com"letel(

irreconcila!le 5it$ )in3lers2 9organ la(s out t$e 5a(s in 5$ic$ Heliodorus narratorial +oice is

#as$ioned into 5$at $e calls t$e $istoriogra"$ical "ose2G;


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o# $istorians li3e Herodotus and t$ere!( creates t$e illusion t$at $e is a $istorian1 not a no+elist

and t$at $is te6t is not merel( a stor(1 !ut is in #act t$e narration o# a real Dourne( made !( real

"eo"le2 9organ includes Heliodorus attention to #oreign languages as "art o# $is general concern

#or naturalistic detail2G@ 9organ e6"licitl( re#utes )in3lers attem"t to e6"lain t$e linguistic

detail !( arguing t$at 5$ile Heliodorus does sometimes use t$e language !arrier to e##ect tension

and dela( t$e "lot1 $e does not do so consistentl(2 Rat$er1 9organ sa(s1 An( $omogeneit( lies

in t$e su!stance o# t$e moti# rat$er t$an in t$e uses to 5$ic$ it is "ut1 !ut t$e consistenc( 5it$

5$ic$ t$at su!stance recurs in a""ro"riate situations argues strongl( #or an a5areness on t$e

aut$ors "art o# t$e re%uirements o# naturalism2G

@.

As I $o"e to ma3e clear in m( #irst c$a"ter15$ate+er else Heliodorus ma( !e doing 5it$ t$e language !arrier1 $is use o# language is largel(

realistic or naturalistic and gi+en t$e 5ide s"read nature o# t$e e+idence1 must re#lect t$e

aut$ors decision to e##ect a naturalistic setting2

9oreo+er1 alt$oug$ Et$io"ia long $ad t$e re"utation #or !eing at t$e ends o# t$e eart$ and

t$ere!( 5ell outside t$e realm o# normal Hellenism1 Heliodorus 9eroe is "er$a"s closer to t$e

$istorical record t$an modern readers mig$t sus"ect2 One 3ing o# Nu!ia during t$e Hellenisitic

"eriod1 Ar3amani%o called Ergamenes in t$e *ree3 sources1 seems to $a+e $ad a *ree3

"$iloso"$ical education2@, Arc$eologists 5or3ing on t$e ancient cit( o# 9eroe $a+e disco+ered

se+eral inscri"tions in *ree31 most o# 5$ic$ seem to $a+e !een erected in t$e t$ird and #ourt$

centuries CE !( t$e 3ings o# A6um 5$o con%uered t$e areas2@; T$e A6umites are gi+en s"ecial

"rominence during H(das"es rece"tion o# em!assies at .2,B2. ##1 a #act 5$ic$ ma( re#lect an

@ 9organ .


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anac$ronistic understanding o# $o5 im"ortant t$e 3ingdom 5ould !ecome2 Clearl( some "ortion

o# A6umite societ( 5as a!le to 5rite *ree3 in order to com"ose t$e inscri"tions1 and t$e

inscri"tions t$emsel+es testi#( to a readers$i" ca"a!le in *ree3 as 5ell 5$et$er t$ese !e local

elites1 dignitaries or generals #rom Roman Eg("t1 or tourists and traders2 I# Heliodorus is

#amiliar enoug$ 5it$ current e+ents to nod at t$e "resence o# A6um1 it s$ould not !e terri!l(

sur"rising i# $e also 3ne5 somet$ing a!out t$e "resence o# *ree3 in t$eir 3ingdom2 @@ It is also

"lausi!le t$at !ot$ Heliodorus and t$e $istorical record con+erge on t$e "resence o# *ree3

!ecause o# t$e im"ortance o# *ree3 as t$e language in 5$ic$ di"lomac( 5it$ t$e Roman Em"ire

5ould !e conducted in general2 T$at is1 Heliodorus ma( $a+e guessed rig$t !ecause $eunderstood t$e general "rinci"le 5$ic$ underla( t$e $istorical "$enomenon2@?

9organ is also rig$t1 $o5e+er1 to "oint out t$at t$ere are moments 5$ere t$e inclusion o#

linguistic details is detrimental to t$e cause o# naturalism1 and t$us ot$er or additional

e6"lanations must !e soug$t2 'rinci"al among t$ese are t$e remar3a!le cases o# re+elator( #eats

o# understanding made !( t$e Et$io"ian cro5d at t$e no+els end and t$e "resence o# *ree3

a!ilit( among c$aracters li3e Arsa3e and T$(amis1 5$ose linguistic a!ilities are neit$er re%uired

!( naturalism nor easil( e6"lained !( it2 Alt$oug$ I $a+e outlined a!o+e some o# t$e 5a(s in

5$ic$ e+en t$e strange alternation o# languages in t$e #inal !oo3 and t$e *ree3 a!ilities o# t$e

elite are actuall( 5ell and realisticall( moti+ated 5it$in t$e te6t1 t$e naturalist e6"lanation 5$ile

+er( im"ortant is not su##icient on its o5n2

Su4anne SaPd1 in $er article Les langues du roman grecG1 constructs a dic$otom(

@@ T$is is not to sa(1 o# course1 t$at 5e 5ould $a+e a su##icient !asis to trust Heliodorus as a source on ancient9eroe2 I# $e gets some $istorical details rig$t in t$e de"iction o# $is #ictional 3ingdom1 t$is is to $is credit2 0ut5e certainl( s$ould not trust $im to $a+e s"ecial in#ormation or a desire to transmit a $istorical "icture o# t$e

"eo"le or societ( o# t$e u""er Nile2 See HMgg ,2@? T$is is t$e +ie5 ta3en !( 'er3ins .


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!et5een t$e "resentations o# language in '$ilostratus ife of Apollonius of Tyana and

Heliodorus no+el2@ S$e is rig$t to "oint out t$at t$ese t5o 5or3s stand a"art #rom ot$er 5or3s o#

t$e no+elistic genre$o5e+er 5e c$aracteri4e t$at genre or non-genre2@B '$ilostratus ife of

Apollonius is t$e Aethiopicas onl( ri+al in attention to t$e language !arrier1 5it$ c$aracters

a!ilit( to s"ea31 understand1 and e+en read *ree3 or t$eir lac3 o# t$ose a!ilities !eing

commented on !( &amis1 t$e internal narrator2 SaPd is rig$t to dra5 our attention to t$e 5a(s in

5$ic$ t$e *ree3 language is1 in '$ilostratus 5or31 consistentl( connected 5it$ ot$er

accoutrements o# Hellenism1 culture1 and 5isdom2@ T$is is "er#ectl( consonant 5it$ t$e #amous

5ords o# A"ollonius t$at to a 5ise man1 e+er(5$ere is *reeceG ; 0νδρ% ?λλ9ς πάντα1.2;@2 SaPd is also rig$t to see '$ilostratus $andling o# t$e language !arrier as su!stantiall(

di##erent #rom Heliodorus2 SaPds com"arison o# t$e t5o 5or3s1 $o5e+er1 leads $er to

conclusions a!out Heliodorus 5$ic$ are less t$an con+incing2

T$e #irst conclusion is t$at Heliodorus re"resents t$e #inal ste" in a gradual "rocess in

5$ic$ t$e no+elists little !( little renounced t$e con+enient literar( con+ention o# t$e

intercom"re$ension o# c$aracters2G@


25/225

s$uns all multicultural in#luence1 and Ac$illes Tatius !rie# mention is essentiall( in line 5it$ t$e

"ractice o# C$ariton and eno"$on o# E"$esus2? )e "ossess no te6ts o# an intermediate interest

in t$e %uestions o# cross-language communication2 T$e treatments in t$e ife of Apollonius and

t$e Aethiopica a""ear suddenl( and alread( near t$e o""osite side o# t$e s"ectrum #rom earlier

5or3s2 As suc$1 t$e "resence o# t$is attention to t$e language !arrier cannot !e e6"lained 5it$

re#erence to lQ+olution du genreG and demands to !e e6"lained as a "articular #eature o# t$e

te6ts in 5$ic$ it a""ears2?.

SaPds second conclusion is at least "artiall( correct2 S$e descri!es '$ilostratus 5or3 as

re#lecting a ;rd centur( ideal in 5$ic$ *ree3 societ( 5as largel( "ersuaded o# t$e su"eriorit( o#

*ree3 as t$e natural language o# culture and "$iloso"$(2G?, T$is muc$ is surel( rig$t7 t$e ife of

Apollonius lea+es little dou!t t$at 3no5ing *ree3 means !eing educated and not 3no5ing it

means t$e o""osite2?; )$at I 5ould li3e to interrogate #urt$er1 $o5e+er1 is SaPds claim a!out

Heliodorus= t$at $e lac3s con#idence in t$e su"eriorit( o# *ree31 "er$a"s due to t$e intellectual

currents o# t$e @t$ centur(2?@

T$e +ision o# t$e relations$i" !et5een language1 culture1 and "$iloso"$( in t$e

Aethiopica is %uite sim"l( not radicall( di##erent #rom t$at in t$e ife of Apollonius and certainl(

not totall( di##erent2G?? In t$e Aethiopica1 *ree3 retains its su"eriorit( as t$e language o#

learning and culture2 E+er( c$aracter 5$o can !oast o# an( education or an( elite cultural or

? SaPd .


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"$iloso"$ical 3no5ledge s"ea3s *ree32 T$e clearest e6am"le is1 o# course1 >alasiris1 5$ose

"onti#ications range #rom t$e m(steries o# t$e Nile to "la(#ul et(mologies o# Homers name and

5$ose #acilit( 5it$ *ree3 is unim"eac$a!le2 As I argued in m( #irst c$a"ter1 T$(amis *ree3 is

#urt$er testimon( to t$e connection !et5een Eg("tian education and *ree3 language2 T$e

'$oenecian traders 5$om >alasiris stum!les u"on in &el"$i include among t$eir num!er a man

ca"a!le o# 5inning in 5restling at t$e '(t$ian games t$e same dis"la( o# learned manl( +irtue

5it$ 5$ic$ T$eagenes "ro+es $imsel# at t$e no+els end1 and unsur"risingl( t$e( also seem to

s"ea3 *ree32? As "ro!lematic as it is1 Arsa3es lo+e o# *ree3 is a mar3 o# $er status as an elite1

educated 5oman1 "aralleled !( 'ersinna and e+en H(das"es1 t$e so"$isticated and educatedro(alt(2 T$e g(mnoso"$ists1 5$o clearl( occu"( an im"ortant "osition allied 5it$ t$e di+ine and

t$e aut$or also 3no5 t$e *ree3 language2?B It is a "redicta!le #eature o# t$e no+el t$at t$e less

*ree3 a c$aracter "ossesses1 t$e less culture and 5isdom $e "ossesses2? One t$in3s o#

T$ermot$is1 T$(amis $enc$man1 5$ose *ree3 consists entirel( o# t$e 5ord T$is!eG and 5$o is

a "ersoni#ication o# t$e lust(1 dangerous1 animalistic !ar!arian2?


27/225

#or no!le non-*ree3-s"ea3ingand I am not sure t$at 5e s$ouldstill1 5e must admit t$at at no

"oint in t$e no+el is t$ere t$e slig$test indication t$at an( ot$er language $as t$e "restige o#

*ree3 or t$at an( ot$er language could $o"e to !e !ound u" 5it$ cultural and "$iloso"$ical

so"$istication t$e 5a( t$at *ree3 is2 &es"ite SaPds claims1 t$e inclusion o# and attention to

languages ot$er t$an *ree3 in t$e Aethiopica cannot !e e6"lained 5it$ re#erence to t$e

deterioration o# t$e status o# *ree3 in Heliodorus time2.

Niall Slaters ,? And T$eres Anot$er Countr(= Translation as 9eta"$or in

HeliodorusG !uilding u"on t$e articles discussed a!o+e1 as 5ell as 8udit$ 'er3ins 5or3 on

identit( in t$e no+el1 considers Heliodorus use o# language "rinci"all( as a mar3er1 stand-in1 ormeta"$or #or cultural identit(2, T$us c$aracters 5$o s"ea3 *ree3 are generall( ta3en to !e

*ree31 t$oug$ Heliodorus o!+iousl( to(s 5it$ t$ese e6"ectations1 most em"$aticall( t$roug$

C$ari3leia and >alasiris !ot$ o# 5$om a""ear to !e *ree3 !ut are not2 T$ere is muc$ to !e said

#or t$is a""roac$2 Certainl( language is one mar3er o# identit( in t$e no+el1 and i# C$ari3leias

#ailure to communicate 5it$ t$e !andits in t$e o"ening scene mar3s t$e !andits as em"$aticall(

ot$er1 it also mar3s $er as em"$aticall( similar to t$e *ree3-reading reader2;

Slater also cites t$e secret 5ords and codes 5$ic$ C$ari3leia and T$eagenes agree u"on

as one 5a( in 5$ic$ language $el"s create identit( and $ig$lig$ts t$e 5a(s in 5$ic$ t$e

adDecti+e ἐγ#@ριος "ro!lemati4es t$e readers relations$i" 5it$ t$e c$aracters !( creating

distance !et5een t$e o!ser+er and t$e o!ser+ed2@ Finall(1 Slater suggests t$at Et$io"ia

re"resents t$e "romise o# a uni+ersal translata!ilit(G1 !ased in "art on 5$at $e argues is a trend

. )$ene+er t$at time 5as2 SaPd su!scri!es to t$e #ourt$ centur( date1 t$e consensus o# t$e sc$olarl( communit(and t$e date most "ro!a!l( correct1 !ut t$e no+els date is #ar #rom de#inite and an argument !ased on t$e date

!eing in t$e @t$ rat$er t$an t$e ;rd centur( is alread( some5$at "ro!lematic2, Slater ,?2; T$us also 'er3ins .


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o# increased understanding o# *ree3 in Et$io"ia1 and in "art on +isual and t$eatrical language2

Alt$oug$ muc$ o# Slaters anal(sis is con+incing1 I disagree 5it$ $im on se+eral

su!stanti+e "oints2 As I s$o5 in c$a"ter #our1 non+er!alJ+isual communication is an(t$ing !ut

uni+ersall( translata!le2 T$ere ma( !e some t$ings 5$ic$ t$e +isual is %uite e##ecti+e at

transmitting across language !arriers1 !ut t$ere are also a num!er o# 5a(s in 5$ic$ +isual

inter"retation goes a5r(1 not least t$roug$ its ina!ilit( to con+e( t$e com"le6it( o# some

messages in t$e 5a( t$at s"o3enJ5ritten s"eec$ can 5it$out "ro!lem2 And 5$ereas Slater "oints

out t$at C$ari3leia and T$eagenes 5atc$5ords mar3 t$em as s$aring a common +oca!ular(

5$ic$ consists o# *ree3 le6ical items1 and t$ere!( *ree3ness1 t$e scene is e+en more "ro!lematic #or t$is2 T$e c$osen 5ords are not !land or "ic3ed at random1 !ut rat$er intensel(

"ersonal and s(m!olic o# t$eir "ast e6"eriences and t$eir moment o# #alling #or eac$ ot$er and

t$us signi#( #ar more t$an sim"le *ree3ness2? Furt$ermore1 t$eir "lans are !arel( and some5$at

im"ro!a!l( em"lo(ed2 Furt$ermore1 Eg("t is not so cra5ling 5it$ *ree3s t$at t$e cou"le reall(

needs s"ecial codes to ma3e t$eir messages stand out2B *i+en t$e "ro!lems caused !( t$e $eroes

de"endence on translators1 i# t$e *ree3 language 5ere reall( t$e cultural mar3er Slater suggests

it is1 T$eagenes and C$ari3leia s$ould !e a!le to recogni4e eac$ ot$er sim"l( t$roug$ t$eir

s"ea3ing *ree3 as o""osed to 'ersian or Eg("tian2 It is1 in #act1 in line 5it$ 'er3ins assertions

a!out t$e sli""er( nature o# identit(G in t$e 5orld o# t$e no+el1 t$at t$e c$aracters need suc$ an

ela!orate s(stem o# code 5ords2

? Aethiopica ?2?2.-,2 T$e( agree to re#er to t$emsel+es as '(t$iosJ'(t$ia in re#erence to t$eir time at &el"$i in

an( inscri"tions detailing t$eir mo+ements and agree on t$e 5ords torc$G #or C$ari3leia and "almG #orT$eagenes !ased on t$eir e6"erience in t$e #oot race in 5$ic$ C$ari3leia $eld t$e torc$ and T$eagenes 5on t$e

"alm2 T$e e6ce"tion is Aethiopica 22B1 5$ere C$ari3leia uses torc$G to #orce T$eagenes to recogni4e $er 5$en s$e is

disguised2 For some reason1 T$eagenes cannot recogni4e C$ari3leia in disguise1 e+en 5$en s$e runs u" to $ims"ea3ing *ree32 It ta3es t$e code 5ord to !rea3 t$e illusion2

B U"on meeting anot$er *ree3 in Eg("t1 c$aracters are consistentl( sur"rised1 #rom C$ari3leia and T$eagenesmeeting 5it$ >nemon to >nemons meeting 5it$ >alasiris 5$o turns out not to !e *ree3 a#ter all2

'er3ins .


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As #or Slaters notion o# uni+ersal translata!ilit(1 re"resented in t$e te6t !( t$e uto"ian

Et$io"ia1 m( anal(sis o# t$e no+els #inal !oo3 lea+es me uncon+inced t$at e+en Et$io"ia tends

in t$at direction2


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s"ecial a!ilities o# !ilingual "eo"le and c$aracters "lace t$em in a "recarious "osition in societ(2

0ecause t$e( $a+e access to s"ecial in#ormation1 t$e( can !e indes"ensi!le allies and o#ten elicit

t$e trust o# t$ose 5$o de"end on t$em2 T$is same uni%ue access to in#ormation also "resents

!ilinguals 5it$ t$e c$ance to a!use t$eir "o5er and decei+e t$ose around t$em1 as se+eral

c$aracters in t$e Aethiopica do2 T$is tension !et5een trust and distrust o# !ilinguals is $ardl(

uni%ue to Heliodorus no+el1 and instead re"resents a long-standing cultural attitude1 5$ic$

sur#aces !ot$ in earlier literature and in t$e semantic e+olution o# t$e term δ)γλωσσος1 5$ic$

can mean !ot$ !ilingual s"ea3ing t5o languages and untrust5ort$( s"ea3ing 5it$ #or3ed

tongue1 $a+ing t5o #aces20uilding u"on t$e arguments o# t$e second c$a"ter1 m( t$ird e6"lores one 5a( t$is

distrust o# !ilinguals sur#aces2 T$e multilingual 5omen o# t$e Aet$io"ica #ind t$emsel+es under

sus"icion not onl( #or t$eir s3ill 5it$ #oreign languages1 !ut also #or a concomitant sus"icion t$at

t$e( ma( !e se6uall( un#ait$#ul2 T$e lust( 'ersian "rincess and "$il$ellene Arsa3e ser+es as

"o5er#ul e6am"le o# t$e connection1 5$ile C$ari3leias loss o# $er nati+e Et$io"ian language and

#ait$#ul dedication to remaining monolingual in *ree3 "arallel and s(m!oli4e $er de+out se6ual

c$astit(2 T$is connection again ma3es sense in terms o# !roader mores o# *ree3 culture and

contri!utes to t$e long-standing de!ates on t$e relations$i"s !et5een education1 se61 and 5omen

in t$e ancient 5orld2

)it$ c$a"ter #our1 I turn m( attention a5a( #rom t$e !ounds o# s"o3en language and

to5ards t$e non+er!al "$enomena in e+idence t$roug$out t$e no+el2 9( anal(sis s$o5s t$at

c$aracters tr( eagerl( to e6"loit non+er!al communication as a 5a( o# ma3ing t$emsel+es

understood 5$en 5ords #ail !ut t$at t$is is #ar #rom a sim"le "rocess2 )$ile man( c$aracters

gestures succeed in transmitting t$e intended message1 ot$ers send t$e 5rong message1

,


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sometimes 5it$ #atal conse%uences2 In t$e end1 Heliodorus seems to suggest a +ision o#

non+er!al communication as an intermediate stage !et5een s"eec$ and noncommunicati+e

silence and non+er!al communication "ro+es to s$are 5it$ )in3lers dreams1 oracles1 and

"ro"$ecies t$e need #or care#ul and e6"ert inter"retation2

T$e #i#t$ and #inal c$a"ter turns to t$e e+ents o# t$e no+els #inal !oo31 set in Et$io"ia1

5$ic$ are densel( "o"ulated 5it$ cross-linguistic "$enomena2 T$e !ilingual Et$io"ian rulers

alternate !et5een t$e Et$io"ian language o# t$e mo! in attendence and t$e *ree3 o# C$ari3leia

and T$eagenes1 de"lo(ing t$eir linguistic a!ilities to mani"ulate1 include1 and e6clude2 T$e

cro5d1 mean5$ile1 "er#orms not onl( remar3a!le #eats o# inter"retation1 !ut also demonstratest$e limits o# $uman language2 I agree 5it$ )in3ler and 9organ t$at t$e language !arrier is

im"licated in %uestions o# realism and inter"retation1 !ut I also argue t$at it "la(s a role in t$e

com"licated relations$i"s !et5een readers and aut$or1 as a mar3er o# cultural status1 and as an

im"ortant contri!ution to c$aracteri4ation2

Polyglossia

9i3$ail 0a3$tin1 "ro!a!l( t$e most in#luential t$eorist o# t$e no+el1 #amousl( descri!ed

t$e relations$i" !et5een languages and t$e genre o# t$e no+el2 B For 0a3$tin1 t$e no+el is t$e

result o# t$e incor"oration o# mulit"le +oices and "oints o# +ie5 5it$in a single te6t2 T$e no+el

e+en o5es its e6istence1 in $is estimation1 to t$e "ol(glottic 5orld in 5$ic$ it #louris$ed=

0ut t$e disintegration o# t$is national m(t$1 5$ic$ 5as so #atal #or t$e straig$t#or5ard monoglotic genres o#Hellenism1 "ro+ed "roducti+e #or t$e !irt$ and de+elo"ment o# a ne51 "rosaic no+elistic discourse2 T$e role o#

"ol(glossia in t$is slo5 deat$ o# t$e m(t$ and t$e !irt$ o# no+elistic matter-o#-#actness is e6tremel( great2 )$ere

languages and cultures interanimated eac$ ot$er1 language !ecame somet$ing entirel( di##erent1 its +er( naturec$anged=in "lace o# a single1 unitar(1 sealed-o## 'tolemaic 5orld o# language1 t$ere a""eared t$e o"en *alilean5orld o# man( languages1 mutuall( animating eac$ ot$er2 From t$e 're$istor( o# No+elistic &iscourse1G "2 ?

In ot$er 5ords1 $a+ing more t$an one language at "la( !ot$ allo5ed "eo"le to t$in3 o# language

in itsel# as o""osed to language merel( !eing a means o# communicating t$oug$t and it $el"ed

B 0a3$tin .


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create t$e 5orld o# t$e no+el1 in 5$ic$ contrasting +ie5"oints are !roug$t into dialogue and

con#lict2 )$ile 0a3$tin stresses $o5 *ree3 and Roman aut$ors #irst ste"s into t$e 5orld o# t$e

no+el 5ere still dominated !( a single1 con+entionali4ed st(le1 I 5ould li3e to em"$asi4e t$e

5a(s in 5$ic$ Heliodorus no+el demonstrates polyglossia in action2B.

Heliodorus no+el is animated !( t$e clas$ o# cultures and +ie5"oints2 'ersians

understand t$at t$e *ree3s $ate t$em2 An Eg("tian "riest can use t$e re"utation o# $is

countr(men #or e6"ertise in lo5 magic to +irtuousl( de#raud $is 5ould-!e em"lo(ers2 T$e c$ie#

"riests o# Et$io"ia can e6"ress se+ere dis"leasure 5it$ t$e religious customs o# t$eir o5n

3ingdom2 0ut more t$an Dust a Dum!le o# com"eting +ie5"oints1 Heliodorus ma3es 0a3$tins polyglossia e6"licit 5it$in $is te6t7 c$aracters ina!ilit( to see e(e-to-e(e is e6"ressed at times in

t$eir lac3 o# a s$ared language in 5$ic$ to communicate2 Heliodorus1 more t$an an( ot$er *ree3

aut$or1 "resents a 5orld in 5$ic$ *reece and *ree3 are not t$e center o# t$e 5orld2 )$ile *ree3

still "la(s an anac$ronisticall( "rominent role in t$e linguistic econom( o# $is no+el1 s"ace is

made #or non-*ree3 languages and non-*ree3 "oints o# +ie52 T$is dissertation $el"s e6"lain

5$(2

B. 0a3$tin .


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"oint a!out Heliodorus treatment o# t$e language !arrier as clearl( as "ossi!le2 0e#ore del+ing

dee"er into Heliodorus "lace on t$is s"ectrum1 I 5ould li3e to !rie#l( discuss t$e t5o "oles so

t$at !( e6"loring 5$at Heliodorus does not do1 5e mig$t !etter understand 5$at $e does2

)$en con#ronted 5it$ a multinational1 multilingual cast o# c$aracters1 realism can create

"ro!lems2 Ho5 can t$e c$aracters communicate 5it$ eac$ ot$er 9ust t$e aut$or "ut a translator

into e+er( scene t$at 5ould re%uire one in realit( 9an( aut$ors including most ancient *ree3

aut$ors o"t to em"lo( t$e literar( con+ention 5$ic$ allo5s c$aracters #rom di+erse origins to

understand eac$ ot$er 5it$out engaging t$e %uestion o# e6actl( 5$ic$ language t$e( s"ea32G .

T$is need not !e t$oug$t o# as a 3ind o# crutc$1 em"lo(ed !( aut$ors 5$o cannot $andle t$ecom"le6ities a more realistic treatment o# language 5ould introduce2 Instead1 5e s$ould t$in3 o#

it as merel( one "articular 3ind o# st(li4ation1 one 5a( o# em"$asi4ing some as"ects o# t$e te6t

!( "la(ing do5n less im"ortant ones2 T$us1 !ot$ Euri"ides #elen and Iphigenia among the

Taurians deal 5it$ *ree3 m(t$ological c$aracters stranded o+erseas in em"$aticall( !ar!arian

lands2 T$ese c$aracters $a+e no "ro!lem1 $o5e+er1 s"ea3ing to t$e locals2, As #oreign and

isolated as Colc$ian 9edea is1 s$e ne+er com"lains o# an ina!ilit( to con+erse 5it$ Creon1 8ason1

or t$e Corint$ian 5omen around $er2 It is not t$e case t$at Euri"ides 5as inca"a!le o#

"ro!lemati4ing t$e language !arrier on stage1 $e does so on occasion else5$ere2; Instead1 it is

clear t$at #or t$ese "la(s1 language 5as not among t$e most im"ortant t$emes1 5$ile actuall(

. SaPd .


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"utting an inter"reter on stage1 #or e6am"le1 5ould unnecessaril( drag out t$e dialogue2@ 0ot$

genre and tradition surel( $ad an e##ect as 5ell1 since no e6tant traged( actuall( "uts #oreign

s"eec$ on stage1 alt$oug$ some "la(5rig$ts clearl( to(ed 5it$ t$ese !oundaries more t$an

ot$ers2?

Homer too1 tends to5ard t$is e6treme o# #reedom #rom linguistic realism1 remo+ing

signi#icant language !arriers !et5een *ree3s and TroDans and !et5een gods and men2

Rut$er#ord is rig$t to sa( t$at onl( "edantr( 5ould "rotest at t$is con+ention2GB 'utting an

inter"reter !et5een 'riam and Ac$illes in Iliad ,@ 5ould not onl( ruin t$e intimac( o# t$is

im"ortant and touc$ing scene1 !ut 5ould also suggest t$e di+isions in $umanit( at e6actl( t$emoment 5$en 'riam as3s Ac$illes to loo3 to s$ared $uman uni+ersals2 T$e !ene#its o# t$is

#reedom #rom t$e linguistic are so +alua!le and numerous t$at it is not $ard to see 5$( so man(

aut$ors o"t to #rame t$eir 5or3s at t$at end o# t$e s"ectrum2

Linguistic realism1 on t$e ot$er $and1 means e6"ecting t$at c$aracters 5ill onl( s"ea3 t$e

languages 5e s$ould e6"ect t$em to s"ea3 !ased on t$eir "ersonal $istories and t$at t$e( 5ill !e

una!le to understand c$aracters 5it$ 5$om t$e( do not s$are a language2 T$us not onl( s$ould a

*ree3 man li3e1 sa(1 9enelaus in Euri"ides #elen s"ea3 *ree31 $e s$ould also not !e a!le to

@ /ace )illis ,; 5$o rig$tl( "oints out t$at t$e #elen com"licates linguistic matters !( "ro!lemati4ing t$erelations$i" !et5een name and named 5it$ Helen and $er eidolon2

? T$e most stri3ing e6am"le is Aesc$(lus treatment o# Cassandra in t$e Agamemnon 5$o #or a s$ort 5$ile lines.?-.B. a""ears to not understand t$e *ree3 o# Cl(taemestra and t$e c$orus1 !ut is graduall( re+ealed to notonl( understand *ree3 all too 5ellas s$e laments at line .,?@!ut also can s"ea3 it %uite com"etentl(2 It is$er "ro"$etic curse t$at "re+ents $er #rom !eing #ull( understood1 not somet$ing as "rosaic as an ina!ilit( tos"ea3 *ree32

T$e !i!liogra"$( is e6tensi+e2 T$e #irst c$a"ter o# *era ,; e6"lores t$e "resentation o# language in Homer1

5it$ "articular attention to t$e linguistic issues surrounding Od(sseus encounter 5it$ 'ol("$emus2 )at3ins.


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s"ea3 Eg("tian1 sa(1 unless 5e learn at some "oint t$at $e $ad an Eg("tian nurse1 or s"ent time

as a mercenar( in Eg("t in $is (out$1 or some ot$er suc$ stor(2 9ore im"ortantl(1 i# a *ree3 and

Eg("tian come into contact1 and 5e $a+e no reason to !elie+e t$at eit$er s$ares t$e ot$ers

language1 t$ere s$ould !e communicati+e di##iculties2 An aut$or 5riting at t$is end o# t$e

s"ectrum must 3ee" an internal list o# e+er( c$aracters !ac3ground and linguistic a!ilities and

must e6"lain or at least $int to $is reader 5$( a c$aracter $as or does not $a+e #acilit( 5it$ a

"articular language2

Aristo"$anic comed( tends in t$is direction1 and Aristo"$anes e6"loits cross-language

commuincation #or laug$s2 Furt$ermore1 t$e "aratragic elements o# comed( ma3e t$ere"resentation o# #oreign languages a comment on t$e lac3 o# realism in traged(2 T$us t$e

'ersian or 'ersian-es%ue Di!!eris$ o# 'seudo-Arta!as in t$e Acharnians !ot$ "oints u" t$e

#unn( 5a( #oreigners are "ercei+ed to tal31 and "oints out t$at t$e audiences e6"ectations t$at all

c$aracters on t$e stage 5ill s"ea3 t$e same language are unrealistic2 Li3e5ise t$e sim"li#ied

registerG o# t$e Sc(t$ians in t$e Thesmophoria8usae is !ot$ a "iece o# realismAt$ens #oreign

"olice #orce li3el( did s"ea3 *ree3 less t$an "er#ectl(and a c$ance to laug$ at t$e ot$er2<

T$is %uestion o# realism and t$e language !arrier is #urt$er com"licated !( t$e #act t$at

t$ere are "otentiall( t5o language !arriers im"licated in e+er( e6c$ange= a !arrier !et5een t$e

c$aracters 5it$in t$e no+el and a !arrier !et5een t$e c$aracters and t$e reader2 E+en i# Euri"ides

made $is Eg("tians s"ea3 Eg("tian1 $is At$enian audience could $ardl( !e e6"ected to #ollo52

9odern mo+ies and tele+ision "rograms $a+e t$e #reedom to tend to5ard t$e "ole o# realism

largel( !ecause t$e tec$nolog( o# su!titles $el"s t$e audience understand #oreign s"eec$2

T$e most im"ortant recent 5or3 on #oreign language and dialect in *ree3 comed( are )illi ,; and Col+in.


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Furt$ermore1 t$e a+aila!ilit( o# translators $el"s t$e monolingual aut$or com"ose accurate

#oreign s"eec$ #or a glo!ali4ed audience 5$ic$ ma( include mem!ers o# t$at #oreign s"eec$

communit(2 At t$is #ar rig$t end o# t$e s"ectrum1 t$e "ole o# a!solute realism1 t$e aut$or #aces

signi#icant c$allenges o# "resentation !ut t$e re5ard is a linguisticall( com"le6 5orld t$at is !ot$

e6"loita!le in its o5n rig$t and a""arentl( true to t$e reader #or 5$om linguistic com"le6ities are

a #act o# li#e2

Heliodorus Aethiopica sta3es a claim on t$e realistic $al# o# t$e s"ectrum #rom its #amous

o"ening scene2 In t$at scene1 our $eroine1 t$e e+identl( *ree3 C$ari3leia surrounded !(

Eg("tian !andits deli+ers a monologue in 5$ic$ s$e !egs t$e !andits to 3ill $er and t$us !ring$er traged( to a close2. T$e !andits1 $o5e+er1 !eing Eg("tian and not *ree3 s"ea3ers1 #ail to

understand $er s"eec$ and t$e no+el is t$ere#ore sa+ed #rom a "remature ending2 From t$is

o"ening scene o# $is Aethiopica1 Heliodorus "laces t$e e6"ectations o# linguistic realism #ront

and center1 as somet$ing 5$ic$ is not onl( an im"ortant as"ect o# t$e no+els attention to

inter"retation and t$e construction o# understanding1 !ut also a##ects 5$o $is c$aracters can

communicate 5it$1 and t$ere!( 5$at role t$e( "la( in t$e de+elo"ment o# t$eir o5n stor(2 T$is

o"ening scene #orces our inter"reti+e $ands2 )e can no longer e6"ect t$at linguistic realia can or

5ill sim"l( !e ignored2 )e 3no5 no5 t$at language !arriers do e6ist 5it$in t$e 5orld o# t$e

no+el and t$at t$ere are rules #or 5$o understands 5$om2

T$is1 $o5e+er1 cannot !e t$e end o# our in%uir(2 T$is c$a"ter 5ill anal(4e t$e e6tent to

5$ic$ Heliodorus is success#ul in including linguistic realism in $is te6t2 It 5ill also com"licate

t$e s"ectrum as outlined a!o+e2 Heliodorus no+el can !e t$oug$t o# as realistic not onl( !ecause

it engages 5it$ t$e language !arrier1 !ut also !ecause c$aracters 3no5ledge o# language is

. T$e monologue is Aethiopica .2;2.1 5it$ t$e reaction in t$e #ollo5ing section2 T$e non+er!al !e$a+ior o# t$is#ascinating scene is treated e6tensi+el( in t$e !eginning o# c$a"ter #our o# t$is dissertation2

,B


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consistentl( moti+ated !( t$eir !ac3 stories1 !ecause c$aracters linguistic a!ilities c$ange o+er

t$e course o# t$e no+el as t$e( mature and $a+e ne5 encounters1 and !ecause t$e no+el almost

entirel( a+oids gi+ing c$aracters unusual linguistic a!ilities merel( #or t$e sa3e o# t$e "lot

con+enience2 T$is is not to sa(1 $o5e+er1 t$at Heliodorus treatment o# language is com"letel(

realistic2 At times $e seems to stretc$ t$e !ounds o# !elie+a!ilit(1 suc$ as 5$en $e $as T$eagenes

"ic3 u" Eg("tian unusuall( %uic3l(2 Heliodorus is less clear on t$e %uestion o# why c$aracters

learn languages t$an that t$e( $a+e learned t$em1 5it$ t$e result t$at t$e audience is le#t to in#er

t$e details2 In some cases1 suc$ as t$ose o# Nausi3les and >(!ele1 t$e ans5ers are not terri!l(

$ard to #ind2 In ot$ers1 li3e t$at o# 0agoas and to a lesser e6tent t$e Et$io"ian court1 5e are le#tto our o5n surmises !ased on reconstructions ancient ideas a!out language and societ(2

T$is rest o# t$is c$a"ter 5ill e6amine t$e linguistic a!ilities or lac3 t$ereo# o# t$e

no+els maDor c$aracters and as3 5$et$er t$ese a!ilities are #ull( realistic1 t$at is 5$et$er t$e( are

reasona!l( moti+ated !( t$e c$aracters e6"eriences and !ac3 stor(1 and $o5 t$e( com"licate our

notion o# Heliodorus linguistic realism2 T$is c$aracter-!(-c$aracter anal(sis 5ill also $el" orient

t$e reader 5$o is less #amiliar 5it$ Heliodorus com"le6 "lot and cast o# c$aracters2 I do not deal

5it$ t$e c$aracters 5$ose conte6t is entirel( monolingual1 es"eciall( >nemons #at$er1

Aristi""os7 $is ste"-mot$er1 &emainete7 and $is #riend1 C$arias1 all o# 5$om can !e sa#el(

assumed to !e monolingual *ree3 s"ea3ers2 Nor do I engage 5it$ C$ari3les1 C$ari3leias

ado"ti+e #at$er2 Alt$oug$ C$ari3les does s"end some time a!road in Eg("t1 #irst on t$e tri"

5$ic$ leads to $is ado"tion o# C$ari3leia1 and later 5$en $e $unts do5n T$eagenes1 5e are

ne+er gi+en an( e+idence o# $is learning an( languages2.. T$e c$aracters I do anal(4e all s$o5

.. T$is ma( !e due in "art to t$e #act t$at t$e no+el rarel( #ocali4es $is e6"erience7 >alasiris tells t$e stor( o# onl(one moment o# $is #irst tri"1 a moment 5$en $e s"ea3s 5it$ a *ree3 s"ea3er2 )e could imagine t$at C$ari3lesgained great #acilit( 5it$ Eg("tian o##-stageG !ut since $e ne+er de"lo(s $is language on-stage1G t$e "oint ismoot2 His arri+al in Et$io"ia at t$e no+els end again is onl( a !rie# e"isode in 5$ic$ $is *ree3 is li3e5ise moret$an su##icient2

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signs o# some #orm o# a!ilit( 5it$ t5o languages or s$ould !e e6"ected to !( t$e logic o# t$e

no+el2

I 5ill !egin 5it$ t$e unusual case o# C$ari3leia1 5$ose monolingualism is odd in t$e #ace

o# $er e6tended time a!road and t$e multilingualism all around $er1 #ollo5ed !( $er lo+er1

T$eagenes1 5$o gains an une6"ected #acilit( 5it$ Eg("tian2 0ecause T$eagenes a!ilities are

lin3ed in certain 5a(s to t5o Eg("tian "riests1 T$(amis and >alasiris1 I e6"lore t$em ne6t2

T$oug$ Nausi3les and >nemon are !ot$ *ree3s in Eg("t1 t$eir stories are %uite di##erent and

t$e( "ut t$eir a!ilities to %uite di##erent uses2 I t$en anal(4e t$e *ree3 sla+e >(!ele and t$e

'ersian "rincess Arsa3e1 !ot$ among t$e no+els most gi#ted linguists2 Et$io"ia comes near t$eend and includes !ot$ t$e >ing and Kueen o# Et$io"ia as 5ell as t$e interesting case o#

Sisimit$res 5$o demonstrates t$e ca"acit( #or linguistic im"ro+ement2 I #ollo5 t$is 5it$ t$e

'ersian Eunuc$1 0agoas1 5$ose #acilit( 5it$ *ree3 is one o# t$e most "er"le6ing #eatures o# t$e

no+els treatment o# language2 Finall( I return to t$e %uestion o# t$e no+el as a 5$ole2 As I $o"e

m( anal(sis 5ill ma3e clear1 I !elie+e Heliodorus no+el actuall( does as"ire to a "lace at t$e #ar

rig$t end o# t$e s"ectrum1 and onl( #alls s$ort o# #ull ac$ie+ement o# t$is goal !( a small amount2

*i+en t$e com"le6it( o# t$e no+el and its large cast o# c$aracters1 t$e no+els moments o#

unrealistic linguistic !e$a+ior are +er( #e5 and ma( !e am"li#ied !( t$e limits o# our o5n

3no5ledge o# ancient ideas a!out language and multilingualism2

Charikleia, the Monolingual Heroine

C$ari3leia is an interesting "lace to !egin !ecause o# $er uni%ue status among t$e

c$aracters o# t$e no+el2 As t$e $eroine1 and t$e c$aracter t$at 5e readers s"end t$e most time

5it$1 s$e encounters almost e+er( !ar!arian tongue in t$e no+el1 and (et s$e remains resolutel(

monolingual2 T$e sim"lest e6"lanation #or t$is is t$at s$e rarel( needs to communicate 5it$

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an(one 5$o does not s"ea3 *ree31 !ecause s$e is usuall( accom"anied !( a man or

occasionall( a 5oman 5$o can tal3 #or $er2 Sisimit$res s"ea3s *ree3 5$ile entrusting $er to $er

*ree3 #oster-#at$er C$ari3les2., )$en s$e #inall( lea+es &el"$i 5it$ T$eagenes1 it is t$e *ree3-

s"ea3ing >alasiris 5$o leads t$em and interacts !ot$ 5it$ t$e '$oenician sailors and t$e "irates

5$ose identit( is not clearl( mar3ed1 !ut ma( in #act !e *ree32.; T$e o"ening scene o# t$e

no+el sees $er !um"ing u" against t$e language !arrier and is t$e onl( moment in 5$ic$

C$ari3leia trul( #ails to communicate2 At t$at "oint neit$er o# $er guardians can $el" $er7

>alasiris $as alread( #led1 and T$eagenes is !adl( inDured2 Later1 >nemon is e6"licitl( made $er

translator 5$ile in t$e !andit cam"2

.@

A#ter s$e and T$eagenes #lee t$e cam"1 t$e( are interce"ted !( a detac$ment o# t$e 'ersian arm(1 !ut t$e *ree3-s"ea3ing Nausi3les immediatel( s"ea3s #or

$er and accom"anies $er !ac3 to >alasiris1 5$o sees $er to 9em"$is2 .? T$e *ree3-s"ea3ing

>(!ele acts as intermediar( 5it$ t$e 'ersian court until C$ari3leia is rescued !( t$e eunuc$

0agoas1 5$o1 again1 $as some a!ilit( 5it$ *ree3 2. T$eagenes ste"s u" !( suddenl( !eing a!le to

s"ea3 Eg("tian 5$en t$e( are ca"tured !( an Et$io"ian "art(2.B And once in Et$io"ia1 C$ari3leia

is $el"ed !( t$e "rominence o# *ree3 among t$e Et$io"ian ro(alt( and sages2 As I 5ill argue

more #ull( in c$a"ter t$ree1 C$ari3leias resolute a!stention #rom #oreign languages is "aralleled

!( $er e6ce"tional c$astit(1 and is "rotected !( t$e continual "resence o# "yrioi 5$o come

., C$ari3leias trans#er #rom Sisimit$res to C$ari3les is told !( >alasiris at Aethiopica ,2;2.-,2;;2@2

.; T$e "irate leader Trac$inos and $is cre5 come onto t$e scene most "rominentl( at Aethiopica ?2,@2.-?2;,22C$ari3leia does address Trac$inos at ?2,2,-;1 t$oug$ >alasiris descri"tion o# t$e scene "a(s s"ecial attention tot$e non+er!al elements o# C$ari3leias seduction as 5ell2 I# 5e ta3e t$e "irates to !e *ree3 or s"ea3 *ree31 no

language !arrier e6ists $ere2 I# t$e( do notand Heliodorus does not "ro+ide an( indication t$at is t$e case C$ari3leias non+er!al !e$a+ior could !e t$oug$t to do some o# t$e 5or3 o# $er "otentiall( incom"re$ensi!les"eec$2

.@ In Aethiopica .2B2;1 C$ari3leia and T$eagenes are assigned to lodge 5it$ >nemon so t$at t$e( mig$t $a+esomeone to s"ea3 5it$ τοῦ διαλέγεσαι Fνε'εν and at .2.nemon is assigned to translate #or t$e *ree3s2

.? On 9itranes use o# $is linguistic a!ilities to ca"ture C$ari3leia1 see !elo51 "2 @2

. >(!ele is actuall( a *ree3 !( !irt$1 5$ile 0agoas #acilit( 5it$ *ree3 is #airl( "er"le6ing2 see !elo51 "2 @; and?@ res"ecti+el(2

.B T$e encounter occurs at Aethiopica 2.B2.-?2

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!et5een $er and t$e linguistic ot$er2

Theagenes, the Unexpected Bilingual

*i+en C$ari3leias linguistic isolation1 it is some5$at sur"rising to #ind t$at T$eagenes1

5$ose cultural and racial identit( are #ar clearer and less interesting t$an $is !elo+eds1 actuall(

gains #acilit( 5it$ a second language2 T$eagenes !egins t$e no+el as a Hellene o# t$e "urest

!reeding1 a descendent o# t$e original tri!e o# Hellenes 5$o ga+e t$eir name to *ree3s

e+er(5$ere2. Li3e C$ari3leia1 $e s$o5s no o!+ious interest in t$e languages o# t$e "eo"le !(

5$om $e is surrounded #or muc$ o# t$e no+el2 Ho5e+er1 5$en an Et$io"ian scouting "art(

comes u"on T$eagenes1 C$ari3leia1 and 0agoas1 t$e scouting "art( in%uires 5$o t$e( are=

Gλησιάσαντες οHν οἱ *+)οπες 'α% τ$ν μὲν Iαγ@αν εὐνοῦ#ον 'α% 0π!λεμον ἐ' τῶν JKεων γνωρ)σαντεςτοLς δὲ 0!πλους μὲν 'α% δεσμ@τας 'άλλει δὲ 'α% εὐγενε)M διαπρέποντας Nρ@των οOτινες εPεν *+γύπτι!ντε 0π$ σ5ῶν Fνα τε 'α% περσ):οντα τ1ν 5ων1ν ε+ς τ1ν πεῦσιν 'αέντες Qς R 0μ5οτέρων R ατέρουπάντως συνήσοντας7 Sἱ γ9ρ TπτUρές τε 'α% σ'οπο% λεγομένων τε 'α% πραττομένων 0ποσταλέντεςVμογλ@σσους τε 'α% Vμο5@νους το3ς τε ἐγ#ωρ)οις 'α% πολεμ)οις ἐπάγεσαι Wπ$ τUς #ρε)αςἐδιδά#ησαν7 Aethiopica 2.B2,

So1 as t$e( closed in1 t$e Et$io"ians also recogni4ed at sig$t t$at 0agoas 5as a eunuc$ and not a soldier andt$at t$e ot$er t5o 5ere unarmed1 in c$ains1 and 5ere o# outstanding !eaut( and !reeding2 T$e( as3ed 5$o t$e(5ere and a""ointed #or t$e in%uir( one Eg("tian #rom t$eir num!er 5$o also 3ne5 'ersian so t$at surel( t$e(

5ould understand one1 t$e ot$er1 or !ot$2 S"ies and scouts o# t$ings said and done1 (ou see1 are taug$t !(necessit( to !ring 5it$ t$em "eo"le 5$o s"ea3 t$e same language or !a!!le as !ot$ t$e nati+es and t$e enem(2

T$ere is muc$ o# interest $ere2 T$e scouts correctl( si4e u" t$e trio !ased on inter"retation o#

+isual clues1 a t$eme I 5ill return to in c$a"ter #our2 T$e attention to t$e real e6igencies o#

5artime maneu+ers needing translators is uncommon in literar( de"ictions2 And 5$ile t$e

aut$or 3no5s 5$ic$ language 5ill !e necessar( #or t$is scene1 $a+ing t$e translator !e !ilingual

or trilingual i# 5e count Et$io"ian1 5$ic$ $e must 3no5 5ell enoug$ to translate !ac3 to t$e

scouts Heliodorus maintains $is detac$ed and realistic narratorial stance2.


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t$e same %uestion in di##erent languages2 All t$is realism suggests t$at t$e scene 5ill continue in

a realistic +ein1 t$at t$e ans5er 5ill !e gi+en !( t$e c$aracter most li3el( to !e a!le to s"ea3

eit$er 'ersian or Eg("tian1 t$e 'ersian Eunuc$ 0agoas2

T$e ans5er1 $o5e+er1 does not come #rom 0agoas !ut #rom a more sur"rising source1 t$e

t$oroug$l( *ree3 T$eagenes2

Xς οHν V &εαγένης Wπ! τε συνδιαιτήσεως Yδη μα'ρCς τUς *+γυπτ)ας 'α% Dρα#ε)ας τUς πεύσεως τ9πρῶτα εPναι τοῦ σατράπου Gερσῶν Iαγ@αν 0πε'ρ)νατο Zαυτ$ν δὲ 'α% τ1ν (αρ)'λειαν [λληνας γένοςGέρσαις μὲν πρ!τερον α+#μαλ@τους 0γομένους τ$ παρ$ν δὲ *+)οKιν Wπ$ #ρηστοτέρας Eσως τύ#ηςἐγ#ειρι:ομένους, "γνωσαν 5ε)δεσαι 'α% :ωγρ)M λαD!ντες \γειν- ] Aethiopica 2.B2;

So 5$en T$eagenes1 !ecause o# !ot$ $is lengt$ o# time s"ent in Eg("t alread( and t$e !re+it( o# t$e %uestionans5ered #irst t$at 0agoas 5as t$e "ro"ert( o# t$e 'ersian Satra" and t$en t$at $e and C$ari3leia 5ere o# t$e*ree3 race1 #ormerl( ta3en as sla+es !( t$e 'ersians !ut "resentl( ca"tured "er$a"s under a more merci#ul #ate

!( t$e Et$io"ians1 5$o t$e( 3ne5 5ould s"are t$em and lead t$em a5a( ali+e2

T$eagenes a!ilit( to understand and s"ea3 Eg("tian is not t$e onl( sur"rise $ere2 I 5ill return to

t$e "u44le o# 5$ere and 5$( T$eagenes "ic3ed u" t$is #acilit( in a moment !ut #or no51 it is

im"ortant to note t$e narratorial slig$t o# $and at "la(2 First1 des"ite t$e narrators claim t$at

T$eagenes $as s"ent a long time in Eg("t Wπ! τε συνδιαιτήσεως Yδη μα'ρCς τUς *+γυπτ)ας1

$e and C$ari3leia $a+e !een ma3ing t$eir 5a( across t$e countr( #airl( %uic3l(2 )$ile t$e reader

$as made $is 5a( t$roug$ eig$t !oo3s o# Eg("t1 +ast "ortions o# t$e readers time $as !een s"ent

in #las$!ac32, T$eagenes1 on t$e ot$er $and1 $as s"ent no more t$an a 5ee3 or t5o tra+eling

sout$1 "lus $is time se%uestered in t$e 'ersian court1 5$ere $e can $ardl( !e e6"ected to $a+e

"ic3ed u" muc$ Eg("tian #rom Arsa3e1 >(!ele or C$ari3leia2,. Secondl(1 5$ile it is true t$at t$e

, T$us t$e , (ears o# !ac3stor( told !( >alasiris un#olds o+er . da(s 5it$in t$e course o# t$e no+el1 see >im, "2 .?2 As Futre 'in$eiro .


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%uestion )$o are (ouG is %uite sim"le and 5ell 5it$in t$e range o# a!ilities o# someone 5it$

Dust a #e5 5ee3s immersion1 T$eagenes ans5er is signi#icantl( more com"le62 He does not

ans5er )e are *ree3s2 )e are "risoners2 He is 'ersian2 )e are no5 5it$ (ou2G Instead1 $is

res"onse is a de#t "lea 5$ic$ !ot$ trut$#ull( ans5ers t$e %uestion and also recasts t$e Et$io"ian

scouts as sa+iors rat$er t$an enemies1 attri!uting t$eir a""earance to t$e merci#ul $and o# #ate2 ,,

T$is s"eec$ is e##ecti+e not onl( #or its une6"ected #luenc( !ut also its sur"rising tact1 a

testament to T$eagenes a!ilit(1 li3e $is #amous ancestor1 to !e a s"ea3er o# 5ords as 5ell as a

doer o# deeds2,;

Still1 e+en i# 5e set aside t$e %uestions o# timing1 $o5 5ould T$eagenes $a+e ac%uiredt$is #acilit( 5it$ Eg("tian Heliodorus ne+er "re"ares us #or t$is re+elation !( telling us t$at

t$en T$eagenes started learning Eg("tian2G T$e no+elist does1 $o5e+er1 "ro+ide a reasona!le

"at$5a( #or T$eagenes ac%uisition o# Eg("tian t$roug$ t$e #riends$i" 5$ic$ de+elo"s !et5een

T$eagenes and T$(amis2 A#ter C$ari3leia #acetiousl( agrees to marr( T$(amis1 t$e $ig$-"riest-

turned-!andit-c$ie# occasionall( in+ites T$eagenes 5$om $e !elie+es to !e $er !rot$er to s$are

$is ta!le on occasion as a sign o# res"ect to5ards C$ari3leia2,@ )e 3no5 #rom else5$ere in t$e

no+el t$at T$(amis 3no5s some *ree31 t$oug$ not a lot2,? E+en i# T$eagenes and T$(amis dined

alone1 T$eagenes 5ould li3el( "ic3 u" some Eg("tian o+er su""er2 I#1 as seems more li3el(1

T$eagenes 5as one o# man( at T$(amis ta!le1 surrounded !( Eg("tians1 $e mig$t $a+e an e+en

greater e6"osure to Eg("tian and moti+ation to learn it2

time T$eagenes $as s"ent in Eg("t1 and t$ere#ore ma3es $is sudden s"ea3ing a!ilit( e+en more remar3a!le2

,, It is reasona!le to su""ose t$at Heliodorus $ere1 as $e o#ten does1 $as "olis$ed u" t$e s"eec$ o# T$eagenes a !itand "resented in good1 indirect s"eec$1 t$e some5$at more !ro3en s"eec$ o# T$eagenes2 )$ile t$is isinteresting in its o5n rig$t1 it also suggests a sur"rising #acilit( 5it$ t$e language1 es"eciall( gi+en lac3 o#narratorial comment on t$e !ro3enness o# $is s"eec$2

,; On T$eagenes as Ac$illes see Aethiopica ,2;@2.-B2 T$ere is a sense in 5$ic$ T$eagenes assertion o# control o+ert$is situation #ores$ado5s t$e at$letic trium"$s 5$ic$ 5ill "ro+e $is masculinit( in t$e no+els denoument2

,@ Aethiopica .2,@2,= ^α% δ)αιτάν τέ τινα _Dροτέραν τUς ο`σης παρε3#εν V &ύαμις 'α% εE πa 'α% τ$ν &εαγένηνε+ς α+δῶ τUς 0δελ5Uς Vμοδ)αιτον ἐποιε3το

,? See !elo51 "2 ;?2

;;


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a""ears to !e 3e"t around s"eci#icall( to translate #or *ree3s1 as $e 5ill do 5$en T$(amis

organi4es an assem!l( to as3 #or C$ari3leias $and=

4πε% δὲ Y#ησαν, Yροιστο δὲ 'α% V λοιπ$ς fμιλος, ἐπ% τινος WKηλοῦ προ'α)σας Zαυτ$ν V &ύαμις 'α%τ1ν νUσον ἐ''λησ)αν 0πο5ήνας 'α% τ9 λε#ησ!μενα 5ρά:ειν τ$ν ^νήμωνα 'α% το3ς α+#μαλ@τοις

προστά/ας ]συν)η γ9ρ Yδη τῶν *+γυπτ)ων, V δὲ &ύαμις οῦ' N'ρ)Dου τ9 ?λλήνωνm, bnνδρεςd "λεγεbσυστρατιῶταιd222 Aethiopica .2.nemon to communicate 5$at 5ould !e said to t$e "risoners too#or >nemon alread( 3ne5 Eg("tian1 !ut T$(amis 5asnt #luent in *ree31 $e said No!le #ello5 soldiers222G

Here #or t$e second time1 t$e incom"leteness o# T$(amis master( o# *ree3 is em"$asi4ed2

>nemon 5as onl( ca"tured a s$ort 5$ile ago οὐ πρ$ πολλοῦ α+#μάλωτος1 .2B2; and (et $e

$as alread( Yδη mastered t$e language2 T$(amis a!ilities are descri!ed not as a!sent !ut rat$er

as im"recise or ine6act οὐ' N'ρ)Dου and it is t$is im"recision t$at 5ill cause $im to enlist

>nemons ser+ices as translator as $e delicatel( $andles "ro"osing $is marriage to C$ari3leia2

T$is still does not ans5er t$e %uestion o# 5$( T$(amis $as an( #acilit( 5it$ *ree3 at all1

$o5e+er2 I !elie+e t$is can !e e6"lained !( com"aring T$(amis to $is #at$er >alasiris2 >alasiris

is t$e most accom"lis$ed "ol(glot in t$e no+el2 He not onl( s"ea3s $is mot$er tongue1 Eg("tian1

!ut is also #luent enoug$ in *ree3 to cause t$e At$enian >nemon to sus"ect t$at >alasiris is

*ree3=

'ατα πρ!σωπον Wπαντιάσας πρῶτα μὲν #α)ρειν ἐ'ελευε7 οῦ δὲ οὐ δύνασαι 5ήσαντος, ἐπειδ1 μ1 οoτω;pqrstuvwu syz{ |s}~ z•€ z‚ƒ€„ …spq†;s€ ‡ ˆu‰qŠu ‹Œƒu Ž v‘|vu ‹‡ ’“unemon 5al3ed u" to $im1 #ace-to-#ace and !id $im good da(2 )$en $e re"lied t$at $e could not $a+e a goodda( since it 5as not #ated #or $im to $a+e one1 >nemon 5as ama4ed and said T$e stranger is a *ree3G and$e re"lied Not a *ree31 no1 #rom $ere1 I am an Eg("tian2G,<

T$is introduction to >alasiris mar3s $im as not Dust ca"a!le o# !asic *ree3 li3e $is son1 !ut

rat$er an e6"ert at so"$isticated 5ord "la(2 He not onl( understands >nemons #α3ρε—G

HelloJ*ood &a(1 literall( ReDoiceG1 $e "la(#ull( inter"rets t$e 5ord according to its literal

,< In t$is translation1 I am in de!t to 9organs translation in Reardon , 5$ic$ insu"era!l( ca"tures >alasiris "la( 5it$ language $ere2

;


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meaning rat$er t$an its con+entional one in suc$ a situation2; Alt$oug$ t$e #irst segment o# t$e

con+ersation is descri!ed indirectl( and t$ere#ore it is "ossi!le to imagine it ta3ing "lace in eit$er

*ree3 or Eg("tian1 t$e "la( on t$e 5ord #α3ρε strongl( encourages us to understand t$e

con+ersation as *ree32 T$is +ie5 too is su""orted !( >nemons reaction T$e stranger is

*ree3G t$oug$ t$is is $ardl( un"ro!lematic2;. Regardless1 >nemons reaction also re+eals t$e

e6tent o# >alasiris talents in *ree32 >alasiris does not mum!le or tri" o+er t$e 5ords !ut s"ea3s

in suc$ a 5a( t$at >nemon can !elie+e $im to !e a nati+e s"ea3er1 an outcome o# 5$ic$ an(

student o# language 5ould !e Dealous2

>alasiris "ro!a!l( also understands Et$io"ian and "ossi!l( 'unic2 First1 >alasiris tellsC$ari3leia t$at $e $ad a "ri+ate meeting 5$ic$ 'ersinna1 during 5$ic$ t$e Et$io"ian %ueen

c$arged $im to #ind C$ari3leia2;, As 5e 5ill see1 'ersinna 3no5s *ree3 too so t$e "air mig$t

$a+e s"o3en in eit$er *ree3 or Et$io"ian1 !ut >alasiris soon "ro+es ca"a!le o# reading t$e

Et$io"ian scri"t as 5ell1 a talent !ased at least "artiall( on t$e similarit( o# Eg("tian and

Et$io"ian $ierogl("$s2;; Alt$oug$ it is im"ossi!le to !e com"letel( con#ident in >alasiris a!ilit(

in Et$io"ian1 all signs in t$e te6t "oint to a ca"a!ilit(2

Arguing t$e case #or 'unic is more di##icult2 >alasiris descri!es $is con+ersations 5it$

'$oenician sailors 5it$out mar3ing in an( 5a( t$e linguistic "ro!lems "ossi!le in suc$ an

; It is "ossi!le1 I su""ose1 to ta3e >alasiris "la(#ulness as o!tuseness and su""ose t$at $is gras" o# *ree3 is %uite5ea32 *i+en $is long time in *reece to sa( not$ing o# $is ot$er linguistic bona fides1 t$is +ie5 cannot !ereconciled 5it$ $is c$aracter as it de+elo"s2 S$ale+ , !egins $er +alua!le anla(sis 5it$ t$is e"isode1 5$ic$re"resents a "articularl( intresting ne6us o# multiculturalism and t$e tec$ni%ues in+ol+ed in narrating e"isodes

in+ol+ing s"eec$2;. >nemons !e$a+ior cannot !e resol+ed entirel( satis#actoril( $ere2 I# >nemon did not t$in3 t$e stranger 5as

*ree31 5$( $ail $im in *ree3 rat$er t$an Eg("tian I# >nemon did t$in3 $e 5as *ree3 !ased on >alsiris*ree3is$ a""earance1 5$( is $e sur"rised

;, Aethiopica @2.,2,;; Heliodorus re"resentation o# t$ese t5o s(stems o# $ierogl("$s ma( "arallel t$at o# C$inese c$aracters 5it$in

di##erent sinitic languages or dialects2 In t$is +ie51 t$e 5ritten #orm o# t$e language is mutuall( intelligi!le e+en5$en t$e s"o3en #orm is not2 For a more e6tensi+e discussion o# Heliodorus treatment o# 5ritten Et$io"ian seem( discussion o# C$ari3leias recognition to3en in c$a"ter t$ree1 es"eciall( #ootnote @;2

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encounter2;@ T$e( must s"ea3 in eit$er *ree3 or 'unic2 I# it is t$e latter1 >alasiris not onl(

understands 'unic !ut does not seem to need to note t$at $e $as t$is a!ilit(2 It seems more li3el(1

on t$e ot$er $and1 t$at t$ese '$oenicians s"ea3 *ree32 T$e( are merc$ants and t$ere#ore li3el(

to $a+e some 3no5ledge o# local languages2 9oreo+er1 one o# t$eir num!er is Helleni4ed enoug$

to 5in t$e 5restling com"etition at t$e '(t$ian games2 Finall(1 t$e '$oenicians "raise >alasiris

as a 5ise man and a *ree31 a comment t$at seems rat$er unli3el( i# t$e con+ersation is meant to

ta3e "lace in 'unic2 Still1 e+en setting 'unic aside1 >alasiris remains at least tri-lingual *ree31

Eg("tian1 Et$io"ian and t$e no+el ne+er gi+es us an o""ortunit( to e+aluate $is s3ill in 'ersian2

>alasiris linguistic talents can onl( !e e6"lained in relation to $is "riest$ood2 It is $is "riest$ood t$at gi+es $im s"ecial 3no5ledge in ot$er matters2;? Indeed1 it $is "riest$ood 5$ic$

endo5s $im 5it$ t$e a!ilit( to read $ierogl("$ic Eg("tian at all2; T$e %uestion o# 5$( an

Eg("tian "riest in t$e ?t$ centur( 0CE s$ould 3no5 t$e *ree3 language is not entirel( clear2;B

T$e easiest ans5er is sim"l( t$at Heliodorus needs it #or $is no+el to 5or31 and 5$ile t$is is true1

it is un#air to Heliodorus "roDect to ta3e t$is as t$e onl( ans5er2 A !etter ans5er1 I t$in31 is to

attri!ute t$is to t5o related causes= et$nocentrism and anac$ronism2 Certainl(1 in Heliodorus

o5n time1 *ree3 5as !ot$ t$e "restige language1 and t$e lingua franca o# t$e Eastern

9editerranean2 It seems li3el( t$at tr( as $e mig$t to dis"lace $is no+el into a mar3edl( "re-

Helleni4ed "ast1 t$e status o# *ree3 in $is o5n da( s$ades into t$is imagined "ast2; T$e

;@ Aethiopica @2.2-.;? See1 #or e6am"le1 $is 3no5ledge o# t$e true stor(G o# Homers origins at ;[email protected]@ and $is cle+er inter"retation o#

Homeric +erse at ;2.,2,-;2.;2;2

; At t$e dramatic date o# t$e no+el1 $ierogl("$ic 5riting 5ould $a+e still !een em"lo(ed1 alt$oug$ increasingl(rarel( in com"arison to t$e $ieratic scri"t a cursi+e s$ort$and o# $ierogl("$s and t$e increasing use o# t$eletter-scri"t 3no5n as &emotic2 At an( rate1 5riting in Eg("t 5as largel( t$e domain o# "ro#essional scri!es and

"riests and ne+er !ecame t$e "ro+ince o# t$e a+erage Eg("tian2;B T$e %uestion 5ill come u" again in m( discussion o# *ree3 in Et$io"ia1 !elo51 c$a"ter #i+e2; And indeed1 as clearl( as Heliodorus mar3s t$e no+els setting to some "oint in t$e "ast 5$en 'ersia ruled Eg("t1

$e does not seem o+er5$elmingl( interested in t$e s"eci#ics o# t$is tem"oral setting2 Ot$er anac$ronisms docree" t$roug$ suc$ as t$e 9onument o# t$e E"icureans at .2.2?1 on 5$ic$ see 9organ , "2 ;B1 #ootnote,2

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"$enomenon o# Eg("tian "riests !eing 5ell educated1 literate1 and multilingual is one 5it$ a

!asis !ot$ in Eg("tian realit( and t$e *ree3 imagination and se

Documents

Cross-Language Communication in Heliodorus' Aethiopica