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Critical Race Pedagogy: Teaching about Race and Racism through Legal Learning Strategies Author(s): Nikol Alexander-Floyd Source: PS: Political Science and Politics, Vol. 41, No. 1 (Jan., 2008), pp. 183-188 Published by: American Political Science Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20452130 . Accessed: 14/06/2014 18:41 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. . American Political Science Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to PS: Political Science and Politics. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 185.2.32.58 on Sat, 14 Jun 2014 18:41:23 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Critical Race Pedagogy: Teaching about Race and Racism through Legal Learning Strategies

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Page 1: Critical Race Pedagogy: Teaching about Race and Racism through Legal Learning Strategies

Critical Race Pedagogy: Teaching about Race and Racism through Legal Learning StrategiesAuthor(s): Nikol Alexander-FloydSource: PS: Political Science and Politics, Vol. 41, No. 1 (Jan., 2008), pp. 183-188Published by: American Political Science AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20452130 .

Accessed: 14/06/2014 18:41

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range ofcontent in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new formsof scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

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American Political Science Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access toPS: Political Science and Politics.

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Page 2: Critical Race Pedagogy: Teaching about Race and Racism through Legal Learning Strategies

Critical Race Pedagogy: Teaching About Race and Racism through Legal Learning Strategies

Nikol Alexander-Floyd, Rutgers University

Student resistance to learning about race and racism is pervasive and

well-documented. Scholars have noted an array of direct and indirect resistance tactics. These range from withdrawal from class discussion or course with drawal; questioning professorial authority in classrooms; and verbal and physical harassment and assault (Painter 2000; Tatum 2001; Tusmith and Reddy 2002; Lee and Johnson-Bailey 2004). In re sponse, scholars have developed a variety of pedagogical approaches and tech niques for confronting student resistance and/or providing the optimal context for teaching on race and other sensitive sub jects. These responses to resistance to leaming about race and racism include, but are not limited to: "frontloading" (i.e., providing a substantial amount of data establishing the reality of social in equality at the beginning of the course, and telling students ahead of time that they will be engaging in difficult sub jects, and to expect discomfort) (Sam uels, Fervber, and Herrera 2003); setting ground rules for discussion to ensure re spect in the classroom (Allen, Floyd Thomas, and Gillman 2001); assigning privilege inventories and/or other exer cises, such as joumaling, that encourage self-examination (Allen, Floyd-Thomas, and Gillman 2001; Sue 2003); and creat ing opportunities for self-generated knowledge (e.g., assigning interviews on racial topics) (Tatum 2001).

In this essay, I present one pedagogical approach, based on legal learning strat egies, to counteract and negotiate student resistance to learning about race and rac ism. I argue that utilizing legal strategies, such as the Socratic method, that focus

on argumentation can dissipate emotional volatility in the classroom, heighten stu dent responsiveness, and shore up pro fessorial authority in the classroom. I identify this approach as a Critical Race Pedagogy (CRP)1, that is, a pedagogical approach that rests on insights from best practices in legal education and theory in general and concepts and theories from Critical Legal Studies and Critical Race Theory in the law in particular. Legal practices are valuable to handling diffi culties around teaching about race be cause they undergird professorial authority and focus discussion on a sys tematic examination of issues and contro versies surrounding race. I develop my discussion in two phases. First, I briefly recount two primary areas of challenges professors confront in the classroom, in cluding establishing the legitimacy and scope of the subject matter and affirming professorial authority. Then, I briefly dis cuss various components of the CRP I employ in the classroom, focusing specif ically on how the Socratic method; analy sis of argumentative and narrative structure; and a graduated series of foren sic exercises can support a classroom environment conducive to leaming about racism. The CRP I utilize is informed by my experiences as a Black female, and may be particularly useful for other Black female professors. But, the strat egies I present here are useful to all fac ulty teaching on the politics of race and racism and/or confronting issues of legit imacy and authority in the classroom.

Key Issues and Baseline Strategies

Issues surrounding legitimacy and au thority form the main areas of challenges for faculty of color teaching on race and racism. These issues arise as a result of what is being taught and who is teaching. The first area, legitimacy, centers on es tablishing the necessity for teaching about race and identity in the classroom. There is a continuum of approaches and contexts in which race and racism are discussed in classrooms, from courses that are not for mally centered on racism, but discuss it in one or several classes, to courses directly focused on racism (e.g., Race and Rac

ism). Instructors teaching general survey courses or other courses that are not spe cifically identifiable through the title as dealing with questions of race may have the most difficult time introducing race into the discussion; this is particularly true if race is dealt with throughout the course and not contained to one segment of the class. Even instructors teaching courses that explicitly deal with race, such as the Political Development of American Race Relations, have to confront resistance to dealing with the subject.

Often students will come to courses with different sets of assumptions that undermine the legitimacy of the course's treatment of racism. They may anticipate learning about race in a clinical and de tached way or, conversely, experientially or through popular culture, not expecting it to be rigorous academic work. For in stance, in one of my courses that focused on Black women as political actors some

White female students said that they took the course thinking that they would be able to bond or connect with Black women's experience of sexism. They in dicated that they never thought about being confronted with questions of racism and how they might be implicated in op pressing Black women. This perspective signifies an expectation of learning about race in a way that is detached from one's own experience. Kevin Quashie, an assis tant professor in African American Stud ies at Smith College, noted that students arrived at his Introduction to African America Literature course, induced a party-like atmosphere, and invited their friends to sit in on the course (Hamilton 2002, 33). He explained that the course was rigorous and would demand work from students, yet White students none theless came to him after the mid-term asking to be allowed to take the course with a pass-fail option (33). These types of assumptions about detachment or lack of rigor are often a consistent challenge to establishing legitimacy in the classroom.

Because of these questions about the legitimacy of studying race and racism in college courses, it is necessary at the start of each course to establish the pa rameters and basis for the examination of racism. As noted above, front-loading involves explaining to students at the outset that they will have to deal with

Nikol Alexander-Floyd is assistant pro fessor of women's and gender studies at Rutgers University. A lawyer and political scientist, her research and teaching interests center on interdisciplinary approaches to the study of Black politics; the relationship of race, gender, media, and the law; critical race theory; and Black political ideology. Her new book, Gender, Race, and National ism in Contemporary Black Politics (Palgrave 2007), examines narratives of Black male endangerment and Black cultural pathology in political discourse and social policy.

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questions of race and racism and provid ing information documenting the reality of racism. It is also important to explain to students that dealing with such topics will likely involve discomfort and a range of emotions, and that discomfort in and of itself is not necessarily problem atic and can, indeed, be a springboard for intellectual development (Tatum 2001; Samuels, Fervber, and Herrera 2003). In my own courses, I provide a "frame" for thinking about the courses, indicating the relevance of race and pointing out that there is much discussion about racial issues, but that people are not used to talking about it in classroom settings. I explain that the courses provide a rare and excellent opportunity for examining these issues. Since I am a Black feminist and committed to a constitutive model of identity that sees race as produced through and by the boundaries of other social identities, such as class and gender (see, e.g., McClintock 1995), I explain that we will have a multi-dimensional exploration of the subjects we cover in terms of identity. Moreover, I include language in my syllabi that specifically relates that I deal with racism, sexism, and other difficult subjects in my class room, and advise students to consider whether it would be appropriate to select another course if this would prove prob lematic for them.

Questions regarding authority are a second area of concem. Students typi cally experience cognitive dissonance when they have people of color as pro fessors and, consequently, students often question the authority of women and men of color. Cognitive dissonance can be defined as a profound disorientation that occurs when our foundational modes of thinking are directly challenged (Don adey 2002, 96), or our lived experience fails to conform to deeply ingrained be liefs and assumptions. Blacks and other racial minorities in the U.S. occupy a lower social and political status than

Whites and are not typically seen as au thority figures, especially in the lives of

most Whites. Given this fact, most White students, and even students of color, ex perience cognitive dissonance when they have people of color as professors. Since Blackness in particular has been identi fied with low intelligence, students ques tion the intellectual capabilities of Black professors and, hence, challenge their authority. These reactions are conscious and unconscious and range from with drawal to accusations of discrimination to classroom outbursts to physical threats (Pope and Joseph 1997; Tatum 2001). One senior professor I spoke to who is well-respected in her field had an entire class of White students walk out of her

general survey course on the first day of class after they arrived and saw that their instructor was Black. As historian Nell Painter (2000) observes, people often have difficulty accepting the idea that Blacks are capable of teaching outside of "Black studies courses" and, conversely, automatically assume that their racial identity qualifies them to teach on racial subjects. I have several personal exam ples of how students disrespect the authority and capabilities of Black pro fessors. I had one Black female student, for instance, who tried to refer to me as "girlfriend" and others, from a range of racial and ethnic backgrounds, who were taken aback by being expected to ac knowledge me as a "professor" or "doctor."

There are several ways in which pro fessors underscore their professional competence and authority in the class room. One study conducted by sociolo gist Roxanna Harlow (2003), for instance, noted the emphasis on "impres sion management" undertaken by Black professors, an emphasis that is not mir rored in the academic practice of White faculty. In this study Harlow found that Black professors relay their credentials and teaching experience early on in their courses (354). Professors of color also "performed competence and authority by projecting a strict, authoritative demeanor ..." (354). Finally, echoing my own ex periences mentioned above, students will often express difficulty in acknowledging faculty of color, particularly Black fe males, as "doctor" or "professor," and, this is something that Black women fac ulty have to insist upon (354). Harlow also found that while Black faculty took steps to affirm their authority as profes sors, White male professors in the study commented that they often do things to try to downplay their authority (352). I, like other faculty of color, document classroom dynamics throughout the se mester. It is also important to address harassment, such as rudeness or class outbursts, as inappropriate in classroom settings or by having individual meetings with students, if necessary.

Legal Learning Strategies

There are three basic components to the Critical Race Pedagogy I employ. They include the Socratic teaching method; an emphasis on narrative analy sis, including a model for argumentation; and a graduated series of instructional exercises based on logic and argumenta tion. I have taught a variety of subjects in various teaching capacities and in di verse contexts. I have, for instance, taught high school students in college

prep courses, college students taking courses at a medical school in prepara tion for pursuing a career in medicine, and legal research to first-year law stu dents. I have also taught undergraduate and graduate students in interdisciplinary politics courses at several public univer sities. Most of my classes have been di verse in their racial and gender makeup; others have been single sex or predomi nantly Black in their composition. The suggestions I offer in terms of Critical Race Pedagogy can be applied in a vari ety of contexts, although the nuances of teaching particular courses and at differ ent types of institutions must also be taken into account. Situations will vary given the social location of the professor as well. Still, utilizing a CRP has been critical in terms of enhancing student leaming and my own classroom manage

ment as a professor. In this section, I discuss each of the three basic compo nents of the CRP I utilize in relation to the issues of legitimacy and authority.

The first aspect of the Critical Race Pedagogy I use is the Socratic method, a longstanding teaching method that is commonly used in law school environ ments. Inspired by the teaching style of the Greek philosopher Socrates, this

mode of academic engagement focuses on asking a series of questions designed to provoke reflection, as well as synthe sis and application of knowledge. As Linda Nilson (1998, 71) explains, Socra tes believed that people did not gain new knowledge per se, but could be brought to a recognition or discovery of knowl edge through questioning. Socrates asked questions based on logic that exposed "an intemal contradiction or absurd con clusion" in students' reasoning (72). It is this focus on dialogue that emphasizes inherent incoherencies and illogicality that distinguishes it from other modes of questioning. I do not agree that knowl edge is in fact within the individual, but, rather, that everyone has the ability to reason through issues and questions. Using a Socratic approach, along with complementary modes of questioning, challenges students to think critically in practical ways and focuses discussions of racism on intellectual inquiry grounded in syllogism and debate. It is particularly useful for those students who are "empir ically" minded, as attention can be drawn to matters of proof, as well as the so cially constructed nature of knowledge production. While I will lecture at times in my courses, providing a systematic treatment of a particular topic and then following it up with an opportunity for questions and discussion, most often I rely on the Socratic teaching method. As in law schools, students are "on call,"

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that is, are responsible for responding to direct questioning.

Students may require some adjustment to this method, but, in time, they em brace the exploration process. It contrasts sharply, of course, with what Paulo Freire (1970) identifies as the "banking system" of education whereby teachers fill their students' minds with concepts and theories that they are to absorb with little room for questioning or reflection. The Socratic method, because it invites and engages students in developing their analytical skills, is a key component of a pedagogy of empowerment. In law schools professors routinely assign case materials that are the focus of class dis cussions via a Socratic approach of ques tioning. Students are often typically called on in law school classrooms, a fact which, of course, ensures a high level of preparedness among students.

There are several advantages to using the Socratic teaching method that di rectly relate to addressing challenges with legitimacy of subject matter and professorial authority. First, it supports the seriousness of the topics of race and racism. Very often, when students are confronted with leaming about race and racism, they assume that this process will not be exacting. A Socratic teaching method, particularly since it encourages student preparedness, affirms the neces sity for involvement and engagement among students. Second, the Socratic teaching method facilitates critical inves tigation. It assumes that readings, videos, and other sources and their attendant concepts and arguments are subject to examination. In this connection, I em phasize that students in my classes are exposed to a wide range of ideological perspectives, and should both voice and show respect for those who express op posing viewpoints. Third, this focus on investigation through questioning em powers students to think for themselves and to understand their role in the evalu ation and production of knowledge. The Socratic teaching method requires stu dents to not only demonstrate knowl edge, comprehension, and application of material, but to engage in analysis, syn thesis, and evaluation as well. Analysis, synthesis, and evaluation are important, of course, because they constitute the higher levels of knowledge formation we identify in classifications of educational objectives such as Bloom's Taxonomy. Finally, the Socratic teaching method affirms the authority of faculty (in a way that open discussion, for instance, may not). It does not rest on the role of an academic as the only source of knowl edge as in the banking system of educa tion. Instead, it appropriately

acknowledges the expert standing of pro fessors as they engage with students in the classroom. This is significant, given the challenges to professorial authority faculty of color often confront. The So cratic teaching method, thus, can be a useful tool in engaging race and racism in the classroom, by communicating the seriousness and legitimacy of the subject and inhibiting challenges to authority.

Of course, some might argue that the Socratic teaching method might be au thoritarian or result on "picking on" stu dents or that it might hinder learning through evading a clear articulation of ideas and systems of belief (Kalman 1995; "Professor Lani Guinier" 1997). To be sure, there are law school and other classroom environments in which the Socratic method is used to provoke fear and anxiety in students. As a result of this, some law school professors, for instance, will have "on call" policies where they inform students of the days on which they might be on call and re sponsible for answering questions. Other professors explain that they will simply go down the roster in inviting students to respond to questions. Also, some critics might argue that law school classrooms are bad models for teaching about race. In many law school classrooms questions of policy, fairness, history, and justice are evacuated from classroom discus sions, as such questions are deemed "extra-legal."

Still, it is possible to craft a Socratic teaching style that engages and intellec tually equips students, while avoiding the pitfalls of authoritarianism and a narrow focus on concepts devoid of their larger relevance to politics and society. I ex plain to students at the start of each se mester, for instance, the rationale for using this method. Also, I discuss the basic components in my teaching philos ophy with them, both in writing via the syllabus and verbally the first week of class. I highlight two things in particular. First, I emphasize that since everyone, in the words of my friend Jacqueline T. Flowers, "has something to offer that is both necessary and important," the suc cess of the class requires active partici pation. Second, I explain that I not only ask questions, but at times follow up some of their questions with questions instead of "direct" responses. I relate that in such cases my aim is to lead them, or guide them through the process, to find ing their own answers. I discuss how handling questions in this way assists me in teaching them how to fish (i.e., think) as opposed to simply giving them fish (i.e., answers to be absorbed uncriti cally). Many students are uncomfortable with this, especially at first. But, students

learn to work along with this Socratic method in the learning process.

Also, while I do teach Socratically, I have developed "bank accounts" for par ticipation points that allow students a range of opportunities to receive credit for their contributions. Students begin with zero participation points in their accounts. They are given a specific num ber of points to attain by the end of the semester (e.g., 15 out of 200). (In my courses, I give a certain number of points for attendance each semester as well, but these are separate from partici pation). Just as one can go to a financial banking institution and make deposits, one can also make withdrawals. Like wise, students can make deposits and withdrawals into their participation bank accounts. I accept a number of types of contributions as deposits, many of which do not involve directly responding to being called on for questioning or other things that would be deemed "high pres sure." I begin each day with a review, for instance, asking my classes what we covered the last class session. (I call this our "mental warm-up" period.) Students can review their notes and raise their hands, explain the focus of the previous class and outline of issues we discussed, and thereby add points. Also, occasion ally I will ask students to develop thought questions based on the readings and to bring them to the following class as an entrance ticket. Those who develop good questions are credited with a de posit. Also, small group work that I as sign to the whole class during class time garners deposits for students. Students obtain withdrawals for anything that dis tracts from class functioning, including, but not limited to, failing to disable cell phones, checking email or receiving mes sages during class, complete lack of preparation, and disrespecting other classmates or the instructor. Deposits and withdrawals are calibrated based on the nature of a particular action. Arriving more than ten minutes late to class will solicit fewer withdrawal points than dis respecting other students, for instance. Students cannot earn more than a certain number of points per day. If they go over the set amount for the semester (which

many often do), they do not acquire credits for those points. If they are in "the red," then this "overdraft" is sub tracted from their total points for the semester. (This has never actually hap pened, but this is the policy.) Explaining the purpose behind using a Socratic method and developing a just system of participation credit allows students a cer tain level of confidence in the process, even if having to participate in classes, particularly when racism is a topic, is a

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new or relatively unfamiliar experience for them.

A second dimension of the CRP I use focuses on disceming and assessing nar rative and argumentative structures. Criti cal Legal Studies and Critical Race Theory scholars have emphasized the political dimensions of narrative struc tures, particularly in terms of academic legal writing (see, e.g., Delgado 1995). These scholars have problematized the narrative norms of legal argumentation, for instance, highlighting that legal knowledge in its form and content present the law as more objective, ratio nal, and valuable than other types of aca demic exchange. In response to these deconstructive critiques, scholars such as Derrick Bell (1987), Patricia Williams (1991), and Richard Delgado (1995) have invoked autobiographical and fic tional writing styles. These altermative writing styles disrupt legal narratives' claims to objectivity and rationality by highlighting the inherent subjectivity of all knowledge production. In my courses I emphasize the constructed nature of knowledge and work to expose the vari ous ways in which people in general and scholars in particular develop and justify their arguments.

In my classes I have developed what I refer to as a Basic Argumentative Struc ture for Instruction in Critical thinking (B.A.S.I.C.TM). B.A.S.I.C is a model for argumentation that focuses attention on narrative structure and the subjective di mensions of knowledge. It is a fusion of insights gained from my legal and politi cal science education, forensic training, and practical experience in teaching legal research and writing. I introduce the ele ments of B.A.S.I.C. training during the first week of class through a practical hypothetical exercise, specifically a love letter. These elements include: a thesis (a statement that can be argued for or against), supporting arguments (state ments that prove, though logic, statistics, or other evidence, the thesis proposed), implied arguments (claims indirectly sug gested; a.k.a. subtextual arguments), definitions/counter-definitions (the narra tive boundaries of debate that determine what is focused on and what is ex cluded), and counter-arguments (re sponses to anticipated questions, critiques, or arguments). After reading the love letter together in class and high lighting the first few elements of the B.A.S.I.C. model, each student prepares his or her own letter in response. They get a chance to read some of their letters in a subsequent class, and we use them as an opportunity to discuss the remain ing elements of B.A.S.I.C. and amplify its importance. Students enjoy the exer

cise because they get to be creative. It is a useful pedagogical tool because, in addition to being an excellent icebreaker, it demonstrates that argumentation hap pens in everyday contexts and, so, gives them a greater level of comfort with the process of argumentation. Also, the let ters highlight the range of definitions/ counterdefinitions, implied arguments, and other argumentative elements that can be generated from one scenario. Al though students do not return to the letter per se, throughout the semester we return to the B.A.S.I.C. elements the letter in troduces. In fact, in addition to the key elements listed above, the B.A.S.I.C. program I have developed entails re inforcing this emphasis on argumentation by using these elements as the founda tion for assignments (e.g., presentations and written assignments) and class dis cussion. Students are invited to respond to a range of perspectives on issues, and this centers the discussion on the merits of claims, as opposed to emotional re sponses regarding race or racism. In class discussions and in every assign ment, requiring that students consider and respond to the best opposing argu ments is particularly important, as it forces students to consider, and in some cases reformulate, their own scholarly opinions. Emphasizing the narrative structure of arguments and the subjectiv ity of knowledge production also helps to dissipate the adverse psychological responses, such as anger or withdrawal, which students typically face when leam ing about difficult subjects such as racism.

A final element of the Critical Race Pedagogy I have developed centers on a series of instructional exercises in logic and argumentation. These exercises in clude, but are not limited to: informal debates, formal debates, skits, interviews, and mock trials. Forensic activities, such as debates, moot court, and mock trials, have been proven to assist students in developing oral presentation skills, argu mentative ability, and critical thinking.

Each of the different types of exer cises or assignments emphasizes and/or develops different skill sets. Debates, for instance, assist students with refining research skills and honing the ability to think quickly and to speak extemporane ously. Moot court assignments and mock trials provide students with insight into legal doctrines in a very practical way, and assist them with leamning higher level critical thinking through elements such as cross-examinations and develop ment of oral argument delivery (see, e.g., Collins and Rogoff 1991). Since students are attracted to legal topics, focusing discussions about race on legal topics

and/or legally oriented argumentative tasks helps students to move beyond the stress and difficulty inherent in dealing with race and racism in the classroom.

Teachers can readily develop the skills needed in using these instructional exer cises in logic and argumentation. Articles published in PS, for instance, detail the use of moot court and other similar exer cises (Collins and Rogoff 1991; Guliuzza 1991; Hensley 1993; Baker 1994). Trial materials can be purchased from the American Mock Trial Association, and adapted (with the assistance of local at tomeys if necessary) to fit particular course needs. I acquired a mock trial packet for a criminal case, for instance, and made alterations in the affidavits and other documents to add a racial dimen sion to the case. John R. Vile's Pleasing the Court: A Mock Trial Handbook (2005), geared toward assisting coaches for competitive mock trials, and law school classics, such as Thomas Mauet's Trial Techniques (2007), focused on equipping students for trial practice, are useful resources to assist in incorporating mock trials into courses. The American Mock Trial Association also hosts confer ences for new and experienced coaches.

Formal debates are perhaps the easiest of these exercises to incorporate into classes. Works such as William Bennett's Beginning Debate (1990) provide a solid introduction to the theory and practice of debating. Debates can be formal or infor mal, periodic or done as final projects. To achieve the full benefit, however, de bating should be done throughout the semester. In some of my classes, for in stance, I randomly assign students topics the second week of the semester (adjust ing for forensic experience and comfort with public speaking). Then, I introduce students to debating concepts throughout the semester and hold various debates in preparation for "grand debates" at the semester's end. In addition to teaching basic oral presentation skills, I emphasize the identification of logical fallacies in argumentation. Robert Trapp and Wil liam Driscoll's Discovering the World Through Debate (2005) and John Meany and Kate Shuster's On that Point! An Introduction to Parliamentary Debate (2003) are examples of the many won derful texts available to teach students about logical fallacies in argumentation and how they can be effectively ad dressed and refuted. For those who would like to use altemnatives to debates, moot court, or mock trials, the B.A.S.I.C. elements (thesis, supporting arguments, definitions/counter definitions, implied arguments, and counter-arguments) can be usefully em ployed with presentations or skits.2

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Given the complex nature of pedagog ical approaches, it is often difficult to disentangle the effects of specific as pects. Still, there are several indicators that the Critical Race Pedagogy I employ (the Socratic method, a focus on narra tive and argumentative structure through B.A.S.I.C. training, and exercises such as mock trials), along with other pedagogi cal strategies, is effective on a number of fronts. I use several different types of assessment, including, but not limited to, mid-term evaluations, end-of-semester evaluations, and annual peer reviews. The mean average of my end-of-semester evaluations are consistent with those of my department as a whole. This is criti cally important, as professors of color often receive lower teaching scores over all as means of racial harassment in the classroom. My peer evaluations and mid term evaluations are strong. Most impor tantly, students' assignments and classroom interaction reflect a genuine, often transformative, engagement with issues of racism. Students in one of my courses on race, media, and the law, for instance, are able to re-examine popular television programming and movies they view in terms of the racial theories we discuss. In self-reflective essays on their racial identity development and/or their

experiences learning about racism, stu dents discuss the ways in which their views about racism have been challenged and/or expanded. One White student noted, for instance, "I have leamed that even though I think I am free of racism, I contribute to racism in small ways. [I do this, for example, through] trying overly hard to talk about rap artists with another black woman in order to prove I can connect to her, or even thinking that the black woman sitting in class next to

me [is there] because [my university] had to meet a certain quota ..." Another student wrote, "The course ... has truly helped me to grasp the idea, as [Beverly] Tatum presented, that all Whites are rac ists. I have heard accounts from my Black peers and read about a multitude of instances and I cannot ignore that fact.

White people, me included, are racists." As noted above, students get exposed to a range of ideological viewpoints in class and are encouraged to think critically for themselves, as opposed to imbibing the professor's or anyone else's perspectives. In this context, these statements are im portant because they reflect a genuine engagement with the concepts and argu ments presented by different scholars who theorize about racism in ways that encourage self-reflection and self

transformation. Students also incorporate new vocabulary and apply new concepts in their discussion of race. To be sure, results are by no means uniform, as stu dents enter courses at different points in their own racial identity development. But, CRP can be a successful strategy for negotiating issues of legitimacy and au thority in the classroom in ways that fa cilitate learning about race and racism.

Conclusion Resistance is likely to be an enduring

feature of classes that focus on teaching about race and racism. The challenges to the legitimacy of course content and to professorial authority, and the psycholog ical distress students typically experi ence, are difficult to overcome. No one pedagogical solution can fit each profes sor, course, or student. The CRP I have developed has proven to be a successful means of diminishing and managing stu dent resistance in the classroom. A simi lar Critical Race Pedagogy can be usefully deployed by other faculty to affirm their authority, direct student learning to focused engagement with critical issues, and deflate student behav ior that detracts from a course environ

ment conducive to learning.

Notes * Thanks to my two anonymous reviewers,

Gena Chandler, and Emily Satterwhite for their

helpful comments on the manuscript. Also, this work was presented as a faculty development workshop in 2004 sponsored by Virginia Tech's Center for Excellence in Undergraduate Teaching and at a panel on teaching and learning at the 2006 Annual Meeting of the APSA.

1. For other examples of approaches to uti

lizing critical race theory to inform pedagogy, see Lynn (1999) and Jennings and Lynn (2005).

2. The B.A.S.I.C elements provide a sound format for presentations. When I have used it for

presentations, I typically ask students to develop a handout that provides all of the different B.A.S.I.C. elements to accompany their presenta

tion that can be used interactively with the class

(e.g., by leaving blanks to be filled in and/or

providing thought questions) as they conduct their presentation. I couple this with helpful pointers for presenting, from information about

attire, maintaining eye contact, and connecting with audiences to beginning with attention get ting remarks and learning how to anticipate and

respond to questions. Skits are another active

learning tool than can be joined with the

B.A.S.I.C. elements. In one exercise I asked stu dents to imagine that they were part of a fic tional show based on Friends in which they had to explain a key concept for analyzing race, dis

tinguish it from a related concept, and respond to

anticipated arguments regarding the concept's efficacy for understanding racial politics. I pro vided them with the info a few days in advance of the class in which I wanted them to do this

exercise, then, on the day of the class, I gave them some class time to work together, and then

they performed their five to seven minute skit for the rest of the class. (Other groups in the class were assigned different skits, and they per formed them during the same class period, as

well.) As is typical with active learning strat

egies, students asked to do such exercises learn,

apply, and analyze knowledge in a way that is fun and engaging and that elicits students' best

creative, intellectual energy.

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