Crisis and Conflict in the Crisis and Conflict in the Middle EastMiddle East

IntroductionIntroduction

The European contest to control The European contest to control the Arab worldthe Arab world

The Arab-Israeli conflict originated in the The Arab-Israeli conflict originated in the contest among European powers to contest among European powers to control the Arab territories of the Ottoman control the Arab territories of the Ottoman empire.empire.

Developing Arab nationalism in the late Developing Arab nationalism in the late 1919thth century was contested by European century was contested by European ambitions and a growing Jewish nationalist ambitions and a growing Jewish nationalist movement in Europe.movement in Europe.

The Ottoman EmpireThe Ottoman Empire

Spread from Anatolia (now Turkey) – Spread from Anatolia (now Turkey) – along the eastern Mediterranean coast to along the eastern Mediterranean coast to Morocco and down the Arabian Peninsula Morocco and down the Arabian Peninsula to Mecca and Medina. By 1529 it reached to Mecca and Medina. By 1529 it reached to Vienna.to Vienna.By the 19By the 19thth century it had become century it had become weakened politically and economically. weakened politically and economically. European powers seized territory in European powers seized territory in Europe and North AfricaEurope and North Africa

Britain takes territoryBritain takes territory

Britain wanted to control the trade routes Britain wanted to control the trade routes to India.to India.

By WW1 Britain controlled Gibraltar, By WW1 Britain controlled Gibraltar, Malta, Cyprus, Egypt, Sudan, Aden & Malta, Cyprus, Egypt, Sudan, Aden & South Africa.South Africa.

Britain also established special relations Britain also established special relations with local Arab rulers along the Persian with local Arab rulers along the Persian GulfGulf

France & Italy counterFrance & Italy counter

France countered by seizing Algeria, France countered by seizing Algeria, Tunisia & MoroccoTunisia & Morocco

Italy grabbed Libya.Italy grabbed Libya.

The Ottoman Empire shrank to Anatolia The Ottoman Empire shrank to Anatolia and the Arab provinces on the eastern and the Arab provinces on the eastern Mediterranean (Syria, Lebanon, Mediterranean (Syria, Lebanon, Palestine), the Red Sea coast (Hejaz, Palestine), the Red Sea coast (Hejaz, Yemen), and Mesopotamia (Iraq).Yemen), and Mesopotamia (Iraq).

ZionismZionism

Jewish nationalism growing in Europe in the Jewish nationalism growing in Europe in the 1880s because of deep-seated anti-Semitism1880s because of deep-seated anti-SemitismZionists felt that Jews needed their own Zionists felt that Jews needed their own independent state.independent state.Jewish immigration to Palestine increased from Jewish immigration to Palestine increased from 1882 to 1914 until they were 10% of the 1882 to 1914 until they were 10% of the populationpopulationWZO (f.1897) assisted with purchase of land in WZO (f.1897) assisted with purchase of land in Palestine with the aim of creating an Palestine with the aim of creating an independent state.independent state.

WW1WW1

Ottoman empire fought on the side of Ottoman empire fought on the side of Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Germany and the Austro-Hungarian EmpireEmpire

Russia, France and England competed for Russia, France and England competed for the potential spoils of war – carving up the the potential spoils of war – carving up the territory of the Ottoman empire.territory of the Ottoman empire.

To achieve this Britain made 3 To achieve this Britain made 3 contradictory agreements.contradictory agreements.

1. The Hussein-McMahon Correspondence 1. The Hussein-McMahon Correspondence 1915 –19161915 –1916

Britain gained support of the ruler of the Britain gained support of the ruler of the Hejaz (who was also the religious leader Hejaz (who was also the religious leader of Mecca and Medina)of Mecca and Medina)Britain persuaded Sharif Hussein of Mecca Britain persuaded Sharif Hussein of Mecca to launch an Arab revolt against the to launch an Arab revolt against the Ottoman Empire and seek Arab Ottoman Empire and seek Arab independenceindependenceHussein and Arab nationalists thought that Hussein and Arab nationalists thought that this would avoid European rulethis would avoid European rule

But Britain insisted in ruling Iraq, kept But Britain insisted in ruling Iraq, kept protectorates in the Persian Gulf and Aden. protectorates in the Persian Gulf and Aden. They hinted that France would have a role in They hinted that France would have a role in Lebanon.Lebanon.Palestine was not mentioned as being excluded Palestine was not mentioned as being excluded from the Arab zone.from the Arab zone.Sharif Hussein’s forces helped the British take Sharif Hussein’s forces helped the British take Palestine, Transjordan and Syria during 1917-18Palestine, Transjordan and Syria during 1917-18Britain seized Iraq and Hussein’s son, Faisal Britain seized Iraq and Hussein’s son, Faisal was made ruler of Syria.was made ruler of Syria.

2. The Sykes-Picot Agreement of 2. The Sykes-Picot Agreement of May 16, 1916May 16, 1916

A secret agreement between France and A secret agreement between France and Britain.Britain.France to control Lebanon, Syria and France to control Lebanon, Syria and Northern IraqNorthern IraqBritain to dominate Transjordan and Britain to dominate Transjordan and southern Iraq.southern Iraq.Palestine – to be under international Palestine – to be under international control and not in Arab areas that would control and not in Arab areas that would receive independence. receive independence.

The Arab area shrank to a small part of The Arab area shrank to a small part of the Arabian peninsulathe Arabian peninsula

This agreement was the basis for the post This agreement was the basis for the post war settlement that the League of Nations war settlement that the League of Nations ratified.ratified.

3. The Balfour Declaration of 3. The Balfour Declaration of November 2, 1917November 2, 1917

Britain told the Zionist movement that it favoured Britain told the Zionist movement that it favoured the establishment of a “national home for the the establishment of a “national home for the Jewish people” in PalestineJewish people” in Palestine

Britain hoped this would encourage American Britain hoped this would encourage American and Russian Jews to press their governments to and Russian Jews to press their governments to fight harder in Europe.fight harder in Europe.

Forming a Jewish national home under British Forming a Jewish national home under British protection would circumvent the promises to the protection would circumvent the promises to the French to internationalize Palestine and the French to internationalize Palestine and the inclusion of Palestine in the Arab zone. inclusion of Palestine in the Arab zone.

By offering to help the Zionists establish a By offering to help the Zionists establish a home in Palestine, Britain could place its home in Palestine, Britain could place its own troops there and control the strategic own troops there and control the strategic territory near the Suez Canal and control territory near the Suez Canal and control the holy places in Jerusalem.the holy places in Jerusalem.

The League of NationsThe League of Nations

These deals were sanctioned by the These deals were sanctioned by the League of Nations. League of Nations.

Britain and France were given mandates Britain and France were given mandates to rule areas on behalf of their residentsto rule areas on behalf of their residents

Syria & Lebanon went to France. Iraq, Syria & Lebanon went to France. Iraq, Palestine, Transjordan to Britain.Palestine, Transjordan to Britain.

The Balfour Declaration was written into The Balfour Declaration was written into Britain’s mandate over Palestine.Britain’s mandate over Palestine.

European colonial rule prevailed in the European colonial rule prevailed in the Middle East, at the expense of Arab Middle East, at the expense of Arab independence. independence.

Jewish nationalism was given priority over Jewish nationalism was given priority over the rights of the Palestiniansthe rights of the Palestinians

Arabs felt betrayed and bitter at the Arabs felt betrayed and bitter at the carving up and colonisation of their carving up and colonisation of their territories. territories.

1946-671946-67

Israel and PalestineIsrael and Palestine

Why was the state of Israel Why was the state of Israel created in 1948?created in 1948?

The Holocaust created great sympathy for The Holocaust created great sympathy for the Jews. Many western countries wanted the Jews. Many western countries wanted to create a homeland where they could to create a homeland where they could settle and feel safe. settle and feel safe.

Jews had been arriving in the area since Jews had been arriving in the area since the 1890s. Jews believed that Palestine the 1890s. Jews believed that Palestine was the ‘Promised Land’ of the Old was the ‘Promised Land’ of the Old Testament.Testament.

From 1921 Palestine was controlled by From 1921 Palestine was controlled by Britain. But in 1947 the British handed Britain. But in 1947 the British handed Palestine over to the United Nations.Palestine over to the United Nations.

The United Nations recommended dividing The United Nations recommended dividing Palestine between Arabs and Jews. The Palestine between Arabs and Jews. The plan was published in November 1947. plan was published in November 1947.

Why did the Arabs reject the UN Plan?Why did the Arabs reject the UN Plan?

They believed that Palestine was theirs by They believed that Palestine was theirs by right. right.

The Jews had been given 60 percent of The Jews had been given 60 percent of the land.the land.

The Arabs seemed to have been allocated The Arabs seemed to have been allocated the worst land.the worst land.

As the British withdrew, the Palestinians As the British withdrew, the Palestinians fought to gain control of every town. fought to gain control of every town.

Israeli terrorist gangs forced Arabs to Israeli terrorist gangs forced Arabs to leave their homes and flee for their lives. leave their homes and flee for their lives.

What was Israel like?What was Israel like?

It was a secular state. All people living It was a secular state. All people living within its borders would have the full rights within its borders would have the full rights of citizenship. of citizenship.

Arabs would qualify as citizens and be Arabs would qualify as citizens and be able to vote and stand for the Knesset, able to vote and stand for the Knesset,

This did not satisfy many Arabs. They did This did not satisfy many Arabs. They did not want to live in Israel. They wanted a not want to live in Israel. They wanted a state of their own.state of their own.

Israel was created on 14 May 1948. On 15 Israel was created on 14 May 1948. On 15 May 1948 the armies of Lebanon, Syria, May 1948 the armies of Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Transjordan, Saudi Arabia and Egypt Iraq, Transjordan, Saudi Arabia and Egypt attacked Israel. attacked Israel.

Why did the Israelis win the war Why did the Israelis win the war of 1948-9?of 1948-9?

The numbers of soldiers on both sides were The numbers of soldiers on both sides were about equal. But the Israeli army was well about equal. But the Israeli army was well trained and used to fightingtrained and used to fighting

The Arab armies were inexperienced and The Arab armies were inexperienced and divided. divided.

Israel’s forces were also much better armed and Israel’s forces were also much better armed and supplied than those of the Arabs. supplied than those of the Arabs.

There was great financial support for the new There was great financial support for the new state of Israel in the USA. state of Israel in the USA.

What effects did the war have?What effects did the war have?

The Israelis took over all of the areas that the The Israelis took over all of the areas that the United Nations had set aside for Arabs. United Nations had set aside for Arabs.

About 800,000 Arabs left the new state of Israel. About 800,000 Arabs left the new state of Israel. This created the Palestinian refugee problem.This created the Palestinian refugee problem.

The refugee camps became the training grounds The refugee camps became the training grounds for the freedom fighters or 'Fedayeen'. Attacks for the freedom fighters or 'Fedayeen'. Attacks began almost immediately upon targets in Israel. began almost immediately upon targets in Israel.

More Jewish immigrants began to arrive and More Jewish immigrants began to arrive and new settlements were begun to house the new new settlements were begun to house the new immigrants. Many of these were in areas that immigrants. Many of these were in areas that Israel had occupied during the war of 1948-9. Israel had occupied during the war of 1948-9.

There were no peace treaties afterwards – only There were no peace treaties afterwards – only ceasefires. Another attack could be expected at ceasefires. Another attack could be expected at any time. any time.

The Israeli government tried to encourage more The Israeli government tried to encourage more immigration in an effort to increase the Israeli immigration in an effort to increase the Israeli population. population.

The Law of Return gave every Jew the The Law of Return gave every Jew the right to return to Israel. The population right to return to Israel. The population rose rapidly as a result. rose rapidly as a result. Arab states began to look towards the Arab states began to look towards the Soviet Union for support. Soviet Union for support. The war led to increased support for Arab The war led to increased support for Arab nationalists such as Nasser in Egypt and nationalists such as Nasser in Egypt and led to the downfall of King Farouq of Egypt led to the downfall of King Farouq of Egypt who was overthrown in a coup.who was overthrown in a coup.

Why was there a Suez Crisis in Why was there a Suez Crisis in 1956?1956?

In Egypt in July 1952, there was a In Egypt in July 1952, there was a revolution. The new leader of Egypt was revolution. The new leader of Egypt was Colonel Gamal Abdul Nasser. Colonel Gamal Abdul Nasser.

NasserNasser

Nasser wanted to force the British to leave Nasser wanted to force the British to leave the bases that they still held in Egypt and the bases that they still held in Egypt and unite the Arab nations in one single unite the Arab nations in one single movement with Egypt at its head. movement with Egypt at its head. In 1954 British agreed to evacuate all In 1954 British agreed to evacuate all troops from Suez by April 1956, but troops from Suez by April 1956, but retained the right to reoccupy the base in retained the right to reoccupy the base in the event of an attack by any outside the event of an attack by any outside power on an Arab League state or Turkey.power on an Arab League state or Turkey.

US PolicyUS Policy

At this time the USA was attempting to At this time the USA was attempting to build a barrier against Soviet expansion. build a barrier against Soviet expansion. Baghdad Pact – Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, Baghdad Pact – Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, Iraq and Britain – signed interlocking Iraq and Britain – signed interlocking agreements in 1954 -55 – and received agreements in 1954 -55 – and received generous US economic and military aid.generous US economic and military aid.Nasser refused to allow Egypt to join. Nasser refused to allow Egypt to join. Syria and Jordan declined too. - claiming Syria and Jordan declined too. - claiming imperialist aims of the west. imperialist aims of the west.

Nasser appealed to the USA for arms, but Nasser appealed to the USA for arms, but was refused. Instead he agreed to buy was refused. Instead he agreed to buy $200m Soviet arms from Czechoslovakia.$200m Soviet arms from Czechoslovakia.

The US government offered $50,000,000 The US government offered $50,000,000 for the Aswan Dam project. But when for the Aswan Dam project. But when Nasser also asked for help from the Soviet Nasser also asked for help from the Soviet Union, the US government withdrew the Union, the US government withdrew the offer.offer.

Nasser’s responseNasser’s response

Annoyed by the US refusal to help fund Annoyed by the US refusal to help fund the $1 billion Aswan project, Nasser the $1 billion Aswan project, Nasser retaliated by nationalising the Suez Canal retaliated by nationalising the Suez Canal on 26 July 1956on 26 July 1956

He said he would use the revenues to fund He said he would use the revenues to fund development projects the West refused to development projects the West refused to help.help.

Suez was operated by a French companySuez was operated by a French company

How did the West and Israel How did the West and Israel react?react?

The British government regarded Nasser's The British government regarded Nasser's actions as a threat to the Commonwealth, actions as a threat to the Commonwealth, which, it believed, depended upon the which, it believed, depended upon the Canal for trade links. Anthony Eden called Canal for trade links. Anthony Eden called the nationalisation theft.the nationalisation theft.The French sent Israel 75 of their latest The French sent Israel 75 of their latest fighter aircraft. fighter aircraft. The Israelis wanted to take advantage of The Israelis wanted to take advantage of the situation to launch an attack on Egypt. the situation to launch an attack on Egypt.

On 29 October the Israeli army attacked On 29 October the Israeli army attacked Egypt through Sinai without warning. Egypt through Sinai without warning.

On 30 October the British and French On 30 October the British and French governments demanded that Egypt governments demanded that Egypt withdraw its forces from the Suez Canal, withdraw its forces from the Suez Canal, or they would intervene within twelve or they would intervene within twelve hours. hours.

On 1 November British and French planes On 1 November British and French planes began to bomb the Egyptian airforce, destroying began to bomb the Egyptian airforce, destroying most of Nasser’s planes on the ground.most of Nasser’s planes on the ground.

On 5 November, when the British and French On 5 November, when the British and French dropped paratroops at Port Said. dropped paratroops at Port Said.

On 6 November 200 British and French warships On 6 November 200 British and French warships bombarded Port Said and then landed a further bombarded Port Said and then landed a further 22,000 troops many by helicopter. Nasser 22,000 troops many by helicopter. Nasser ordered the Canal to be blocked.ordered the Canal to be blocked.

What effects did the Suez War What effects did the Suez War have?have?

There was overwhelming condemnation of There was overwhelming condemnation of the invasion. the invasion.

The General Assembly of the UN voted The General Assembly of the UN voted 64-5 for a cease-fire on the same day. 64-5 for a cease-fire on the same day.

The Soviet Union threatened to send The Soviet Union threatened to send troops to support Egypttroops to support Egypt

President Eisenhower told the British President Eisenhower told the British government that it must withdraw. government that it must withdraw.

On 7 November Britain and France On 7 November Britain and France announced a cease-fire.announced a cease-fire.

The Israelis withdrew six months later and The Israelis withdrew six months later and a UN peacekeeping force was put in place a UN peacekeeping force was put in place for ten years. for ten years. Israel was guaranteed the use of the Gulf Israel was guaranteed the use of the Gulf of Aqaba. The port of Eilat, which had of Aqaba. The port of Eilat, which had been blockaded by the Egyptians before been blockaded by the Egyptians before the war, was now reopened.the war, was now reopened.This was a great victory for Nasser and This was a great victory for Nasser and the Arab countries.the Arab countries.

Damage to BritainDamage to Britain

The Sunday Times of The Sunday Times of London wroteLondon wrote““[Eden was] the last [Eden was] the last British Prime Minister to British Prime Minister to believe that Britain was believe that Britain was a Great Power and the a Great Power and the first to confront a crisis first to confront a crisis which proved beyond which proved beyond doubt that she was not.”doubt that she was not.”January 16 1977January 16 1977

What effects did Suez have in the What effects did Suez have in the Middle East?Middle East?

Arab hostility to Israel increased still further. Arab hostility to Israel increased still further.

The pro-western regime in Iraq was overthrown The pro-western regime in Iraq was overthrown in 1958 and Syria and Libya both began to look in 1958 and Syria and Libya both began to look to the Soviet Union for military aid. to the Soviet Union for military aid.

In 1958 Syria and Egypt formed the United Arab In 1958 Syria and Egypt formed the United Arab Republic, which lasted for three years. Republic, which lasted for three years.

In 1964 Nasser supported the setting up of the In 1964 Nasser supported the setting up of the Palestine Liberation OrganisationPalestine Liberation Organisation

Why did Superpower involvement Why did Superpower involvement increase in the Middle Eastincrease in the Middle East??

To try to protect Israel and other countries from To try to protect Israel and other countries from Soviet influence, the Eisenhower Doctrine was Soviet influence, the Eisenhower Doctrine was announced in 1957.announced in 1957.

US aid was offered to any country in the Middle US aid was offered to any country in the Middle East threatened by communism. East threatened by communism.

The Soviet Union began to send military The Soviet Union began to send military advisers to Egypt. By 1970 there were an advisers to Egypt. By 1970 there were an estimated 20,000 and military aid worth more estimated 20,000 and military aid worth more than $12,000,000,000 had been sent to the Arab than $12,000,000,000 had been sent to the Arab countries. countries.

All the equipment and weapons lost by Syria and All the equipment and weapons lost by Syria and Egypt in the wars of 1967 and 1973 were Egypt in the wars of 1967 and 1973 were apparently immediately replaced by the Soviet apparently immediately replaced by the Soviet Union.Union.From 1968 to 1973 the Soviet Union sent From 1968 to 1973 the Soviet Union sent $2,600,000,000 worth of aid to the Arab states $2,600,000,000 worth of aid to the Arab states of Syria and Egypt. of Syria and Egypt. Increased Soviet aid to the Arabs meant Increased Soviet aid to the Arabs meant increased American aid to Israel. In the late increased American aid to Israel. In the late 1960s and early 1970s the USA sent 1960s and early 1970s the USA sent $2,000,000,000 to Israel. $2,000,000,000 to Israel.

What caused the Six Day War?What caused the Six Day War?

In May 1967 the Egyptian government In May 1967 the Egyptian government began to make claims that the Israelis began to make claims that the Israelis were building up forces for an attack. were building up forces for an attack.

President Nasser sent Egyptian forces into President Nasser sent Egyptian forces into Sharm el Sheikh close to the Israeli border Sharm el Sheikh close to the Israeli border and ordered the UN forces (UNEF) to and ordered the UN forces (UNEF) to leave Egypt.leave Egypt.

Nasser was hoping that the tone of his speeches Nasser was hoping that the tone of his speeches and the increased strength of the Arab states, and the increased strength of the Arab states, which were now equipped with modern Soviet which were now equipped with modern Soviet weapons, would force Israel to back down.weapons, would force Israel to back down.

The Israelis accused Nasser of threatening war. The Israelis accused Nasser of threatening war. Nasser believed that his aggressive stance Nasser believed that his aggressive stance would gain him the approval and support of the would gain him the approval and support of the other Arab nations.other Arab nations.

On 5 June 1967 the Israeli armed forces On 5 June 1967 the Israeli armed forces attacked the Arab countries without attacked the Arab countries without warning. The Egyptian air force was warning. The Egyptian air force was virtually wiped out on the ground. virtually wiped out on the ground.

All of Sinai was occupied by the Israelis. All of Sinai was occupied by the Israelis. The Jordanian army was pushed back The Jordanian army was pushed back across the Jordan River and the Israelis across the Jordan River and the Israelis occupied all of the West Bank.occupied all of the West Bank.

In the north the Israelis seized the Golan In the north the Israelis seized the Golan Heights from Syria and began to advance Heights from Syria and began to advance on Damascus. on Damascus.

The UN called for a cease-fire, which was The UN called for a cease-fire, which was accepted by Jordan on 7 June and then by accepted by Jordan on 7 June and then by Egypt and Syria. By 10 June the fighting Egypt and Syria. By 10 June the fighting had finished and the Arab states had been had finished and the Arab states had been defeated. defeated.

Why did the Israelis win so Why did the Israelis win so easily?easily?

It is almost certain that the Israelis planned It is almost certain that the Israelis planned and then executed an unprovoked attack and then executed an unprovoked attack to knock out their enemies before they to knock out their enemies before they could do anything about it.could do anything about it.

The Arab states were caught completely The Arab states were caught completely off guard.off guard.

They had the best-equipped troops in the They had the best-equipped troops in the Middle East. Not only their weapons, but Middle East. Not only their weapons, but also their training, was vastly superior to also their training, was vastly superior to their opponents. their opponents.

Israel could put 300,000 trained and Israel could put 300,000 trained and experienced soldiers into the field against experienced soldiers into the field against 180,000. 180,000.

What effects did the Six Day War What effects did the Six Day War have?have?

Israel now had fixed boundaries that could Israel now had fixed boundaries that could be defended much more easily. be defended much more easily.

Israel had a great deal more territory. Israel had a great deal more territory.

The Israeli government believed that it The Israeli government believed that it could exchange territory for concessions, could exchange territory for concessions, which would guarantee the security of which would guarantee the security of Israel. Israel.

Israel now had fixed boundaries that could Israel now had fixed boundaries that could be defended much more easily. be defended much more easily.

Israel had a great deal more territory. Israel had a great deal more territory.

The Israeli government believed that it The Israeli government believed that it could exchange territory for concessions, could exchange territory for concessions, which would guarantee the security of which would guarantee the security of Israel. Israel.

Both governments forced the Palestinians Both governments forced the Palestinians out for fear of reprisals from Israel. The out for fear of reprisals from Israel. The Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) left to set up bases in Jordan. left to set up bases in Jordan. Civil war broke out in Jordan as the Civil war broke out in Jordan as the guerrillas fought the governmentguerrillas fought the governmentOther Arab groups became convinced that Other Arab groups became convinced that the only way of defeating Israel was by the only way of defeating Israel was by international terrorism. international terrorism.

1967-961967-96

International terrorismInternational terrorism

From the late 1960s terrorism was From the late 1960s terrorism was directed against any country that directed against any country that supported Israel. supported Israel.

The aim was to force countries to withdraw The aim was to force countries to withdraw support from Israel and so isolate it in the support from Israel and so isolate it in the Middle EastMiddle East

Most of the international terrorism was Most of the international terrorism was carried out by extremist groups.carried out by extremist groups.

In 1968 the PFLP began to hijack aircraft In 1968 the PFLP began to hijack aircraft and killed more than fifty hostages. and killed more than fifty hostages.

In 1970 the PFLP hijacked four airliners In 1970 the PFLP hijacked four airliners with 600 passengers and then destroyed with 600 passengers and then destroyed three on the ground at Dawson’s Field in three on the ground at Dawson’s Field in Jordan.Jordan.

In 1972 Black September received a In 1972 Black September received a $5,000,000 ransom for a German airliner $5,000,000 ransom for a German airliner and then killed eleven Israeli athletes at and then killed eleven Israeli athletes at the Munich Olympic Games.the Munich Olympic Games.

Arafat decided that the PLO proper would Arafat decided that the PLO proper would only carry out raids against Israel. only carry out raids against Israel.

In the same year an Israeli aeroplane was In the same year an Israeli aeroplane was hi-jacked and flown to Entebbe in Uganda. hi-jacked and flown to Entebbe in Uganda. The passengers were rescued, however, The passengers were rescued, however, by an operation carried out by Israeli by an operation carried out by Israeli Special Forces. Special Forces.

What caused the war of Yom What caused the war of Yom Kippur?Kippur?

In 1970 Nasser died and was succeeded In 1970 Nasser died and was succeeded as President of Egypt by Anwar Sadat. as President of Egypt by Anwar Sadat. Sadat wanted to force Israel to return the Sadat wanted to force Israel to return the land that had been occupied in 1967 and land that had been occupied in 1967 and then reach an agreement with the Israeli then reach an agreement with the Israeli government. government. Sadat wanted to inflict a military defeat Sadat wanted to inflict a military defeat upon Israel to force it to the negotiating upon Israel to force it to the negotiating table.table.

On 6 October 1973 Egypt and Syria On 6 October 1973 Egypt and Syria suddenly attacked Israel. suddenly attacked Israel.

On this day most Jews spent their time On this day most Jews spent their time fasting or in prayerfasting or in prayer

The Egyptian forces crossed the Suex The Egyptian forces crossed the Suex Canal and advanced across Sinai, but Canal and advanced across Sinai, but moved too quickly and allowed the Israelis moved too quickly and allowed the Israelis an opportunity to counter-attack. an opportunity to counter-attack.

On 15 October the Israelis once again On 15 October the Israelis once again crossed the Suez Canal and encircled the crossed the Suez Canal and encircled the Egyptian Third Army. Egyptian Third Army.

In the north Syrian forces took the Golan In the north Syrian forces took the Golan Heights, but were forced back by Israeli Heights, but were forced back by Israeli reinforcements. reinforcements.

At this point the Soviet Union USA ordered At this point the Soviet Union USA ordered the Israelis to agree to a truce. When the the Israelis to agree to a truce. When the war ended on 24 October, little had war ended on 24 October, little had changed, but massive casualties and changed, but massive casualties and damage had been caused.damage had been caused.

What were the effects of the What were the effects of the war?war?

Both sides were convinced that peace Both sides were convinced that peace talks were necessary. talks were necessary.

The Arab forces had fought well and The Arab forces had fought well and shown that Israel was not invincible. shown that Israel was not invincible.

The Israeli armed forces had been shaken The Israeli armed forces had been shaken and their losses had been proportionally and their losses had been proportionally much greater than their opponents. much greater than their opponents.

The Arab states placed an oil embargo on the The Arab states placed an oil embargo on the USA and reduced shipments to the West. Petrol USA and reduced shipments to the West. Petrol rationing was put into effect in Britain. rationing was put into effect in Britain.

When the crisis was over, the Arab states raised When the crisis was over, the Arab states raised the price of oil by 600 percent to try to force the the price of oil by 600 percent to try to force the West to stop backing Israel. West to stop backing Israel.

They soon realised that controlling the price of They soon realised that controlling the price of oil gave them a powerful weapon that could be oil gave them a powerful weapon that could be used to support the Palestinians. used to support the Palestinians.

Why was the Palestinian Liberation Why was the Palestinian Liberation Organisation important?Organisation important?

The PLO (Palestine Liberation The PLO (Palestine Liberation Organisation) was set up in 1964. It was Organisation) was set up in 1964. It was an umbrella organisation. an umbrella organisation.

Some groups were violent, others, like Al-Some groups were violent, others, like Al-Fatah, were more moderateFatah, were more moderate

Nevertheless, Al Fatah carried out major Nevertheless, Al Fatah carried out major terrorist raids. In 1967 it killed 97 Israeli terrorist raids. In 1967 it killed 97 Israeli soldiers. soldiers.

The PLO was based at first in Egypt, but The PLO was based at first in Egypt, but was forced to leave in 1968 after the Six was forced to leave in 1968 after the Six Day war and moved to Jordan. Day war and moved to Jordan. In September 1970 war broke out between In September 1970 war broke out between the PLO and the Jordanian army. the PLO and the Jordanian army. The USA, however, promised aid and the The USA, however, promised aid and the Jordanian army was able to defeat the Jordanian army was able to defeat the PLO, and force it to move to Lebanon and PLO, and force it to move to Lebanon and Syria. Syria.

The defeat of the PLO led to the creation of a The defeat of the PLO led to the creation of a new and much more violent organisation, Black new and much more violent organisation, Black September. September.

In October 1974 the PLO was recognised by the In October 1974 the PLO was recognised by the Arab governments as the only organisation that Arab governments as the only organisation that could speak on behalf of the Palestinians. could speak on behalf of the Palestinians.

It was then recognised by the United Nations It was then recognised by the United Nations and Arafat addressed the UN General and Arafat addressed the UN General Assembly. Assembly.

How did Arafat try to change the How did Arafat try to change the PLO?PLO?

In 1985 Arafat, along with King Hussein of In 1985 Arafat, along with King Hussein of Jordan, recognised the state of Israel and Jordan, recognised the state of Israel and in 1988 persuaded the PLO to accept the in 1988 persuaded the PLO to accept the right of the state of Israel to exist. The right of the state of Israel to exist. The PLO subsequently renounced violence. PLO subsequently renounced violence. This led to official contacts between the This led to official contacts between the USA and the PLO for the first time and USA and the PLO for the first time and increased international support for the increased international support for the PLO. PLO.

These changes made possible the These changes made possible the agreement between Yasser Arafat and agreement between Yasser Arafat and Yitzhak Rabin, the Israeli prime minister in Yitzhak Rabin, the Israeli prime minister in 1993. 1993.

This resulted in the creation of Palestinian This resulted in the creation of Palestinian self-rule in the Gaza Strip and parts of the self-rule in the Gaza Strip and parts of the West Bank.West Bank.

Why did fighting break out in Why did fighting break out in Lebanon?Lebanon?

Lebanon had a mixed population of Lebanon had a mixed population of Christians and Muslims. Christians and Muslims.

In 1975 civil war broke out between In 1975 civil war broke out between Muslims and Christians. Muslims and Christians.

Israel was drawn into the conflict in Israel was drawn into the conflict in Lebanon in 1978 to destroy PLO basesLebanon in 1978 to destroy PLO bases

A UN peacekeeping force was installed, A UN peacekeeping force was installed, but failed to keep the two sides apart. but failed to keep the two sides apart.

The Israelis invaded for a second time in The Israelis invaded for a second time in 1982 and drove the PLO out of the 1982 and drove the PLO out of the country.country.

A UN peacekeeping force was installed, A UN peacekeeping force was installed, but failed to keep the two sides apart. but failed to keep the two sides apart.

The Israelis invaded for a second time in The Israelis invaded for a second time in 1982 and drove the PLO out of the 1982 and drove the PLO out of the country.country.

What effects did the Israeli What effects did the Israeli actions have?actions have?

The massacres had a dramatic impact The massacres had a dramatic impact upon international opinion, which had upon international opinion, which had hitherto tended to back Israel. Inside hitherto tended to back Israel. Inside Israel, an effective Peace Movement Israel, an effective Peace Movement emerged for the first time.emerged for the first time.

Some PLO guerrillas returned from Some PLO guerrillas returned from Tunisia and set up Hizbollah, a new and Tunisia and set up Hizbollah, a new and more violent terrorist organisation. more violent terrorist organisation.

The massacres had a dramatic impact The massacres had a dramatic impact upon international opinion, which had upon international opinion, which had hitherto tended to back Israel. Inside hitherto tended to back Israel. Inside Israel, an effective Peace Movement Israel, an effective Peace Movement emerged for the first time.emerged for the first time.

Some PLO guerrillas returned from Some PLO guerrillas returned from Tunisia and set up Hizbollah, a new and Tunisia and set up Hizbollah, a new and more violent terrorist organisation. more violent terrorist organisation.

What caused the Intifada?What caused the Intifada?

In the 1980s many Arab states paid less In the 1980s many Arab states paid less attention to Israel.attention to Israel.

The PLO was relatively inactive because The PLO was relatively inactive because of its break up in 1983.of its break up in 1983.

Palestinians in the Occupied Territories Palestinians in the Occupied Territories began to take matters into their own began to take matters into their own hands. hands.

The Intifada began with protests, strikes The Intifada began with protests, strikes non-payment of taxes and refusal to use non-payment of taxes and refusal to use identity documents. identity documents.

The PLO moved in and the Intifada The PLO moved in and the Intifada became more serious.became more serious.

The Israelis retaliated mostly with curfews The Israelis retaliated mostly with curfews and tear gas, but some soldiers used their and tear gas, but some soldiers used their firearms and by 1991 697 Palestinians had firearms and by 1991 697 Palestinians had been killed.been killed.

What were the results of the What were the results of the Intifada?Intifada?

Palestinians came to believe that their Palestinians came to believe that their destiny was in their own hands.destiny was in their own hands.

Some Israeli politicians saw the futility of Some Israeli politicians saw the futility of attempting to retain control of areas, which attempting to retain control of areas, which were valueless and which were costing were valueless and which were costing Israeli lives.Israeli lives.

International opinion also swung against International opinion also swung against Israeli tactics in Gaza and the West Bank.Israeli tactics in Gaza and the West Bank.

Yasser Arafat announced that the PLO Yasser Arafat announced that the PLO was renouncing violence.was renouncing violence.

How successful were attempts at How successful were attempts at peace?peace?

In 1977 Menachem Begin became Prime In 1977 Menachem Begin became Prime Minister of Israel. He showed that he was Minister of Israel. He showed that he was prepared to make agreements with the Arab prepared to make agreements with the Arab states and this led to the Camp David Talks with states and this led to the Camp David Talks with Egypt in 1978.Egypt in 1978.

Begin was a realist. Since 1967 Israel had Begin was a realist. Since 1967 Israel had occupied Sinai, which was almost entirely desert occupied Sinai, which was almost entirely desert and of no real value. He could see no point in and of no real value. He could see no point in holding on to it and so continuing to anger the holding on to it and so continuing to anger the Egyptians.Egyptians.

Begin was also coming under increasing Begin was also coming under increasing pressure from the USA to reach some sort pressure from the USA to reach some sort of agreement with Israel’s neighbours. of agreement with Israel’s neighbours.

The Camp David Agreement was signed The Camp David Agreement was signed by President Sadat of Egypt and by President Sadat of Egypt and Menachem Begin the Israeli Prime Menachem Begin the Israeli Prime Minister in 1978. Minister in 1978.

Israel promised to evacuate all land taken Israel promised to evacuate all land taken from Egypt, except the Gaza Strip, within from Egypt, except the Gaza Strip, within three years. This was completed on time three years. This was completed on time in 1982.in 1982.

In return Israel would have free use of the In return Israel would have free use of the Suez Canal and the Gulf of Aqaba.Suez Canal and the Gulf of Aqaba.

What effects did the Camp David What effects did the Camp David Agreement have?Agreement have?

This was the first agreement between This was the first agreement between Israel and any of her Arab neighbours. But Israel and any of her Arab neighbours. But it did nothing for the Palestinians. it did nothing for the Palestinians.

Sadat was seen as having betrayed the Sadat was seen as having betrayed the Palestinian cause and in1981 he was Palestinian cause and in1981 he was assassinated by Muslim extremists in his assassinated by Muslim extremists in his own guards. own guards.

In 1988 Yasser Arafat renounced the use In 1988 Yasser Arafat renounced the use of violence. The USA accepted Arafat’s of violence. The USA accepted Arafat’s statements and made its first official statements and made its first official contacts with the PLO. contacts with the PLO.

In 1991 the USA sponsored a peace In 1991 the USA sponsored a peace conference in Madrid. Many Palestinian conference in Madrid. Many Palestinian delegates were members of the PLO and delegates were members of the PLO and their attitude impressed the Americans. their attitude impressed the Americans.

What effects did Yitzhak Rabin What effects did Yitzhak Rabin have?have?

In June 1992 the Labour Party was In June 1992 the Labour Party was elected to power in Israel. Yitzhak Rabin, elected to power in Israel. Yitzhak Rabin, the new Prime Minister, lifted the official the new Prime Minister, lifted the official ban on contact with the PLO in January ban on contact with the PLO in January 1993. 1993. Rabin announced that Palestinian rights Rabin announced that Palestinian rights would be restored in every respect. Rabin would be restored in every respect. Rabin was convinced that the only way to end was convinced that the only way to end the violence was by negotiation.the violence was by negotiation.

All building on the West Bank was stopped All building on the West Bank was stopped and the Israeli army was refused and the Israeli army was refused permission to search the Palestinian permission to search the Palestinian University campus. University campus. 800 of the 7,429 Palestinians being held 800 of the 7,429 Palestinians being held by the Israelis were released. by the Israelis were released. Secret talks took place in Oslo between Secret talks took place in Oslo between the Israeli government and the PLO in the Israeli government and the PLO in January 1993. January 1993.

The PLO agreed to recognise Israel, The PLO agreed to recognise Israel, renounce terrorism and accept renounce terrorism and accept responsibility for all groups within the PLO.responsibility for all groups within the PLO.Israel agreed to recognise the PLO as the Israel agreed to recognise the PLO as the representative of the Palestinian people. representative of the Palestinian people. Israeli troops would be withdrawn from Israeli troops would be withdrawn from Gaza and Jericho. The Palestinians would Gaza and Jericho. The Palestinians would govern these areas and take over govern these areas and take over responsibility for law and order.responsibility for law and order.

On 1 July Yasser Arafat returned to head On 1 July Yasser Arafat returned to head the new Palestinian Authority. A second the new Palestinian Authority. A second agreement was signed in 1995.agreement was signed in 1995.

Palestinian attacks on Israelis continued Palestinian attacks on Israelis continued and fighting broke out between extremist and fighting broke out between extremist groups and Arafat’s Palestinian police groups and Arafat’s Palestinian police force. force.

The Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin The Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was shot while attending a peace rally by was shot while attending a peace rally by an Israeli extremist, who believed that an Israeli extremist, who believed that Rabin had given away too much in his Rabin had given away too much in his agreements with the Palestinians.agreements with the Palestinians.