Crime and Deviance Chapter 13 1 12/01/2016 Introduction Official Crime Statistics (OCR) revealed how recorded crime appears to be a masculine activity

Crime and Deviance Chapter 13 121/04/23

IntroductionIntroduction

Official Crime Statistics (OCR) revealed how recorded crime appears to be a masculine activity (87% of all recorded crime)

Official Crime Statistics (OCR) revealed how recorded crime appears to be a masculine activity (87% of all recorded crime)

Victorians explained women’s conformity with biological theory, sociologists favour socialisation, social control and postmodern concept of ‘transgression’.

Victorians explained women’s conformity with biological theory, sociologists favour socialisation, social control and postmodern concept of ‘transgression’.

Crime, delinquency and deviance viewed as a (working-class) “male thing”, that usually ends as they ‘settled down’.

Crime, delinquency and deviance viewed as a (working-class) “male thing”, that usually ends as they ‘settled down’.

However, the growth of laddette behaviour is challenging the implied links between deviance and masculinity.

However, the growth of laddette behaviour is challenging the implied links between deviance and masculinity.

Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 221/04/23

Patterns in crime

Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 321/04/23

At 31 December 2011, there were: 82,112 males in prison - a rise of 4 per cent over the year 4,060 females in prison - a rise of 1 per cent over the year


Gender and CrimeGender and Crime3 questions we need to address in order to ascertain if women are less criminal than men:

3 questions we need to address in order to ascertain if women are less criminal than men:

Are there

differences in the

amount of crime

committed by men

and women?

Are there

differences in the

amount of crime

committed by men

and women?

Are there

differences in the

kinds of crime

committed by men

and women?

Are there

differences in the

kinds of crime

committed by men

and women?

Is there any evidence that

women’s crime has changed in either

amount or kind ?

Is there any evidence that

women’s crime has changed in either

amount or kind ?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gGGXUkOQIng&feature=fvsrhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UvHE86XsC0M


Female Crime StatisticsFemale Crime Statistics

Whilst they commit less than men, women commit all types of offences.

Whilst they commit less than men, women commit all types of offences.

Women’s property crime is motivated by economic factors (just like men).

Women’s property crime is motivated by economic factors (just like men).

Women fear and feel the impact of the stigma of the ‘criminal’ label.

Women fear and feel the impact of the stigma of the ‘criminal’ label.

Women offenders are seen as 'doubly deviant' - for breaking social rules, and being viewed as ‘unfeminine’.

Women offenders are seen as 'doubly deviant' - for breaking social rules, and being viewed as ‘unfeminine’.

Quantitative and qualitative evidence suggests:

Quantitative and qualitative evidence suggests:


‘‘Chivalry’ FactorChivalry’ FactorSome argue women are more deviant than they appear and are protected by a ‘chivalry factor‘ by police, courts, etc.

Some argue women are more deviant than they appear and are protected by a ‘chivalry factor‘ by police, courts, etc.

Hilary Allen (1987) argues mental health explanation (including PMS) for female criminality results in lighter punishments by the courts.

Hilary Allen (1987) argues mental health explanation (including PMS) for female criminality results in lighter punishments by the courts.

However, Eileen Leonard (1982) challenges the 'chivalry factor‘ pointing out how ‘bad women’ are treated more harshly than some men.

However, Eileen Leonard (1982) challenges the 'chivalry factor‘ pointing out how ‘bad women’ are treated more harshly than some men.


Theories of Gender and CrimeTheories of Gender and Crime

Frances Heidensohn (1985) suggests that the question we should be asking is not why some women commit crime, but why women are so non-criminal?

Frances Heidensohn (1985) suggests that the question we should be asking is not why some women commit crime, but why women are so non-criminal?

Biological Theory

Biological Theory

Sex-role Theory

Sex-role Theory TransgressionTransgression

She considers three explanations:She considers three explanations:


Biological TheoryBiological Theory

The origins of this theory go back to Victorian ideas such as Cesare Lombroso (left).

The origins of this theory go back to Victorian ideas such as Cesare Lombroso (left).

It argues that 'normal' females have a disposition that repels them from deviant and criminal behaviour.

It argues that 'normal' females have a disposition that repels them from deviant and criminal behaviour.

This theory has little support in sociology, although a link between female crime and hormonal and menstrual factors has been made.

This theory has little support in sociology, although a link between female crime and hormonal and menstrual factors has been made.


Pat Carlen and Control TheoryPat Carlen and Control Theory

Pat Carlen (1985) has adopted control theory located in 'class deals' and 'gender deals'.

Pat Carlen (1985) has adopted control theory located in 'class deals' and 'gender deals'.

Frances Heidensohn argues most women conform because failure to do results in labelling as unfeminine behaviour.

Frances Heidensohn argues most women conform because failure to do results in labelling as unfeminine behaviour.

Females who are most likely to become criminal are those who have not had, or have rejected, the 'gender deal'.

Females who are most likely to become criminal are those who have not had, or have rejected, the 'gender deal'.

Females who have been in care, thrown out of home, or have rejected 'normal' family life, are the most likely to be law-breakers.

Females who have been in care, thrown out of home, or have rejected 'normal' family life, are the most likely to be law-breakers.


Sex-role Theory (Socialization)Sex-role Theory (Socialization)

From infancy, children are socialized that the two sexes are different.

From infancy, children are socialized that the two sexes are different.

Female rôles contain such elements as caring, passivity, and domesticity.

Female rôles contain such elements as caring, passivity, and domesticity.

Male rôles, on the other hand, stress elements of toughness, aggressiveness and sexual conquest.

Male rôles, on the other hand, stress elements of toughness, aggressiveness and sexual conquest.

It is argued that females generally lack the values that are typically associated with delinquency. However, laddette behaviour challenges this.

It is argued that females generally lack the values that are typically associated with delinquency. However, laddette behaviour challenges this.


Sex-role Theory (continued)Sex-role Theory (continued)

Even with shoplifting and prostitution it is argued these express socialised roles of family provider on the one hand and sexual provider on the other.

Even with shoplifting and prostitution it is argued these express socialised roles of family provider on the one hand and sexual provider on the other.


Social ControlSocial Control

Frances Heidensohn (1985) says women commit so few crimes because of the ways in which they are ideologically controlled.

Frances Heidensohn (1985) says women commit so few crimes because of the ways in which they are ideologically controlled.

Firstly in the way in which societies are cemented together by a shared value system.

Firstly in the way in which societies are cemented together by a shared value system.

Secondly in the way bonding occurs within relationships of family, the peer group, and the school.

Secondly in the way bonding occurs within relationships of family, the peer group, and the school.


Lack of OpportunitiesLack of Opportunities

There was an assumption that because women were confined to the private world with limited access to the public world they lacked opportunity for crime.

There was an assumption that because women were confined to the private world with limited access to the public world they lacked opportunity for crime.

However, this situation is changing, with women occupying roles in the workplace and public life.

However, this situation is changing, with women occupying roles in the workplace and public life.

Women still have less opportunity for crimes but Wilkinson found in California that where women were equal to men, they were engaged in similar levels of white-collar crime.

Women still have less opportunity for crimes but Wilkinson found in California that where women were equal to men, they were engaged in similar levels of white-collar crime.


TransgressionTransgressionAdopting a Postmodernist approach Carol Smart (1990) introduced the concept of 'transgressive criminology‘.

Adopting a Postmodernist approach Carol Smart (1990) introduced the concept of 'transgressive criminology‘.

In order to understand crime in a Postmodernist society, transgression takes us beyond the boundaries of conventional criminology.

In order to understand crime in a Postmodernist society, transgression takes us beyond the boundaries of conventional criminology.

It considers ideas as diverse as self-imposed curfews; treatment of women as victims; domestic violence, abuse and rape.

It considers ideas as diverse as self-imposed curfews; treatment of women as victims; domestic violence, abuse and rape.


Will Women’s Crime Rise?Will Women’s Crime Rise?Freda Adler (1975) believes that women’s liberation will increase women’s participation in criminal activity.

Freda Adler (1975) believes that women’s liberation will increase women’s participation in criminal activity.

Her evidence is partly based on a growth of juvenile crime by (liberated) girls.

Her evidence is partly based on a growth of juvenile crime by (liberated) girls.

Just as they are penetrating the labour market, so they are moving also into ‘criminal careers’.

Just as they are penetrating the labour market, so they are moving also into ‘criminal careers’.

However, Carol Smart (1979) criticises Adler on the grounds that she (wrongly) sees juvenile delinquency as reflective of future adult crime

However, Carol Smart (1979) criticises Adler on the grounds that she (wrongly) sees juvenile delinquency as reflective of future adult crime


Rise in Women’s CrimeRise in Women’s Crime

Stephen Box feels that any increase in women’s property crime has more to do with poverty (especially as lone-parents) than their liberation.

Stephen Box feels that any increase in women’s property crime has more to do with poverty (especially as lone-parents) than their liberation.

He also found a relationship between the increasing employment of women police officers and the recording of violent crime by women.

He also found a relationship between the increasing employment of women police officers and the recording of violent crime by women.

He suggests the authorities have also been ‘sensitized’, resulting in female crimes of violence becoming more likely to be recorded.

He suggests the authorities have also been ‘sensitized’, resulting in female crimes of violence becoming more likely to be recorded.


James MesserschmidtJames Messerschmidt

James Messerschmidt (1993, pictured left) argues there is a 'normative masculinity' (what a real man should be), highly valued by most men.

James Messerschmidt (1993, pictured left) argues there is a 'normative masculinity' (what a real man should be), highly valued by most men.

He argues that masculinity is something males have to constantly work at.

He argues that masculinity is something males have to constantly work at.

A businessman can achieve masculinity through the exercise of power over women in the workplace, whereas a man with no power at work may express his masculinity through control of women in the domestic situation – e.g. domestic violence.

A businessman can achieve masculinity through the exercise of power over women in the workplace, whereas a man with no power at work may express his masculinity through control of women in the domestic situation – e.g. domestic violence.


Messerschmidt: Middle-class MalesMesserschmidt: Middle-class Males

Middle-class boys achieve educational success but at the expense of emasculation.

Middle-class boys achieve educational success but at the expense of emasculation.

In school they adopt an 'accommodating masculinity',

In school they adopt an 'accommodating masculinity',

But compensate for this out of school by adopting a more 'oppositional masculinity': engaging in pranks, excessive drinking and 'high spirits'.

But compensate for this out of school by adopting a more 'oppositional masculinity': engaging in pranks, excessive drinking and 'high spirits'.


Messerschmidt: Working-class MalesMesserschmidt: Working-class Males

Working-class males adopt an 'oppositional masculinity', both inside and outside school, which is more aggressive in nature.

Working-class males adopt an 'oppositional masculinity', both inside and outside school, which is more aggressive in nature.

Young Black males can be sucked into property and violent crime as ways of enhancing 'hegemonic masculinity‘ (Bob Connell).

Young Black males can be sucked into property and violent crime as ways of enhancing 'hegemonic masculinity‘ (Bob Connell).

Messerschmidt notes how rape and pimping is sometimes used to express control over women.

Messerschmidt notes how rape and pimping is sometimes used to express control over women.


Aggressive MasculinityAggressive Masculinity

Men may express their masculinity through criminal behaviour, e.g. fighting, football hooliganism, etc.

Men may express their masculinity through criminal behaviour, e.g. fighting, football hooliganism, etc.

Bea Campbell (1993) argues young men seek compensation for lack of breadwinner status through 'aggressive masculinity'.

Bea Campbell (1993) argues young men seek compensation for lack of breadwinner status through 'aggressive masculinity'.

The forms of masculinity adopted involve control over technology (stolen cars) over public space (the streets); violence against the 'other' (Asian shopkeepers and women).

The forms of masculinity adopted involve control over technology (stolen cars) over public space (the streets); violence against the 'other' (Asian shopkeepers and women).


Enjoyment of DevianceEnjoyment of Deviance

Katz (1988) argues that criminology has failed to understand the role of pleasure in committing crime.

Katz (1988) argues that criminology has failed to understand the role of pleasure in committing crime.

This search for pleasure is meaningful when equated within masculinity’s stress upon status, control over others, and success.

This search for pleasure is meaningful when equated within masculinity’s stress upon status, control over others, and success.

Violent crime is 'seductive' undertaken for chaos, thrill and potential danger.

Violent crime is 'seductive' undertaken for chaos, thrill and potential danger.

AO2 Point: Compare to Postmodernist search for thrills and to Walter B. Miller’s focal concern of ‘excitement’.

AO2 Point: Compare to Postmodernist search for thrills and to Walter B. Miller’s focal concern of ‘excitement’.


Women as VictimsWomen as VictimsA significant proportion of criminal activity consists of crimes against women. A significant proportion of criminal activity consists of crimes against women.

The majority of such crime is carried out by men and includes the use of violence.The majority of such crime is carried out by men and includes the use of violence.

25% of serious violence takes place within the home, ironically the place where women feel most secure.

25% of serious violence takes place within the home, ironically the place where women feel most secure.

1 in 4 women are victims of domestic violence, 1 in 10 each year.1 in 4 women are victims of domestic violence, 1 in 10 each year.

Such crimes against women are subject to significant underreporting.

Such crimes against women are subject to significant underreporting.


RapeRape The Home Office (2001) reported that 1 in 20 women aged 16-60 had been raped, 45% by their current partners.

The Home Office (2001) reported that 1 in 20 women aged 16-60 had been raped, 45% by their current partners.

Rape is related to the association of masculinity with power, dominance and toughness – not sexual desire.

Rape is related to the association of masculinity with power, dominance and toughness – not sexual desire.

A substantial number of rapists appear to be only able to become sexually aroused after they have terrorised and degraded their victims.

A substantial number of rapists appear to be only able to become sexually aroused after they have terrorised and degraded their victims.

Susan Brownmiller (1975) argues that rape is part of a system of male intimidation keeping women in fear.

Susan Brownmiller (1975) argues that rape is part of a system of male intimidation keeping women in fear.


BMA Report on Domestic BMA Report on Domestic Violence (1998)Violence (1998)

More than 1 in 4 women experience domestic violence in their lives.More than 1 in 4 women experience domestic violence in their lives.

1 in 10 women experience domestic violence every year.1 in 10 women experience domestic violence every year.

Violence ranges from being punched, choked, bitten, burning, starving and knifing, to being forced to have sex against their will.

Violence ranges from being punched, choked, bitten, burning, starving and knifing, to being forced to have sex against their will.

Domestic violence is more likely to occur during pregnancy.Domestic violence is more likely to occur during pregnancy.


Domestic ViolenceDomestic Violence

Betsy Stanko (2000) found an act of domestic violence is committed every 6 seconds in Britain.

Betsy Stanko (2000) found an act of domestic violence is committed every 6 seconds in Britain.

It is estimated that a quarter of all violent crimes committed are "domestics“.

It is estimated that a quarter of all violent crimes committed are "domestics“.

In 45-70% of cases, the father inflicts violence on the children as well as the mother (BMA Report, 1998).

In 45-70% of cases, the father inflicts violence on the children as well as the mother (BMA Report, 1998).


Meanings of Domestic ViolenceMeanings of Domestic Violence

Public admission of the violence present in their family can make women feel a strong sense of failure.

Public admission of the violence present in their family can make women feel a strong sense of failure.

Support for battered partners is not always forthcoming from police, family, friends, or the welfare services.

Support for battered partners is not always forthcoming from police, family, friends, or the welfare services.

The police traditionally regarded ‘domestics’ as private matters and reluctant to intervene.

The police traditionally regarded ‘domestics’ as private matters and reluctant to intervene.

From 1990s the Home Office have instructed the police to treat domestic violence the same as any form of violence. From 1990s the Home Office have instructed the police to treat domestic violence the same as any form of violence.


Key Factors in Explaining Women Key Factors in Explaining Women as Victimsas Victims

The sexual objectification of women: women as property. The sexual objectification of women: women as property.

The relationship between crime and the wider patriarchal social control of women in society.

The relationship between crime and the wider patriarchal social control of women in society.

Traditional gender role socialisation (male = dominant). Traditional gender role socialisation (male = dominant).

The link between the ‘crisis of masculinity’ (powerlessnes at work, divorce, unemployment) and crimes against women.

The link between the ‘crisis of masculinity’ (powerlessnes at work, divorce, unemployment) and crimes against women.

Men’s reaction to the feminisation of the labour force and the growing economic and cultural power of women

Men’s reaction to the feminisation of the labour force and the growing economic and cultural power of women


AO2 Exam Evaluation PointsAO2 Exam Evaluation Points

In evaluating the ‘women as victims’ situation reference should be made to the significant contribution of feminism in raising our awareness and understanding.

In evaluating the ‘women as victims’ situation reference should be made to the significant contribution of feminism in raising our awareness and understanding.

However, some might question whether feminists have exaggerated male power and/or the extent of female victimisation.

However, some might question whether feminists have exaggerated male power and/or the extent of female victimisation.

Answers might recognise social changes, for example the increasing level of violent crime committed by females against females.

Answers might recognise social changes, for example the increasing level of violent crime committed by females against females.

Rough Plan – 45 mark essay Outline patterns in gender and crime (including

increases in female crime) Explanations for why women don’t commit crime

(also include why some do) Explanations of rising female crime Explanations of why men commit more crime Explanations of why victimisation patterns are

different. Don’t forget your AO2’s


Plan for chivalry thesis Explain statistical patterns in gender and crime One explanation for this is chivalry in police –

give clear definition and give examples e.g pollack poisoning or infanticide

Offer alternative explanations e.g women are not as criminal, past records affects decisions.

Explain rise in female crime/police officers


Documents

Crime and Deviance Chapter 13 1 12/01/2016 Introduction Official Crime Statistics (OCR) revealed how recorded crime appears to be a masculine activity