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9/6/2015 Could railways have done more to aid economic development in India? http://www.ideasforindia.in/article.aspx?article_id=142 1/3 Dan Bogart University of California [email protected] Latika Chaudhury Naval Postgraduate School latika.chaudhary@scrippscolle ge.edu Topics: Infrastructure Tags: railways , transport Could railways have done more to aid economic development in India? Posted On: 29 May 2013 Section: Columns Indian Railways celebrated its 160th anniversary last month. This column argues that while railways played a large economic role in British India, it is likely they could have done more to aid economic growth and development in the country. Between 1850 and India’s independence in 1947, railways were the most important infrastructure development in the country. In terms of the economy, railways played a major role in integrating markets and increasing trade. In terms of politics, railways shaped the finances of the colonial government and the Princely States. Indian political institutions influenced railway ownership and policy, which in turn influenced railway performance. As the 20th century progressed, railways became a force for independence and democracy. While the Government of India had a strong influence on railways from the beginning, the government’s role increased over time. Railways were partially nationalised between 1880 and 1908 as the Government of India assumed a majority ownership stake in most of the main trunk lines. Complete nationalisation occurred between 1924 and 1947 as the colonial government assumed full control over operations. Dividend guarantees were a key feature of the early era of private ownership before 1880. The British companies that built and operated the early railways were guaranteed a 5% return on their capital investment 1 . Guarantees were costly because they dulled incentives to lower operational costs, but it is likely they encouraged rapid railway development. The only alternative was large scale government ownership and investment, which was unlikely given India’s fiscal development around that time. Economic role in British India The performance of Indian railways can be classified into two periods: pre1920 and post1920. There was a trend to higher output, productivity, and profits between 1850 and 1919. The rate of total factor productivity growth, which is the difference between output growth and average of input growth, was similar to more advanced countries. But after 1920 there was a leveling off in productivity, and an increase in fares. The low productivity often associated with Indian railways began in the second quarter of the 20th century. Traffic developed slowly in the first decade of railway operations, but the subsequent increase in traffic was large, surprising even official estimates. In the absence of comparable alternatives, Indians used railways to transport goods and people. The key questions are whether the introduction of railways increased market integration and price convergence, and also whether railways substantially increased income. Railways and prices A large body of research has examined the effects of railways on price convergence. Hurd (1975) compared average prices and variation in prices across railway and nonrailways districts. In railway districts, prices were less dispersed and closer to the average as compared to nonrailway districts. McAlpin (1974) found that prices of both food and nonfood crops converged as railway development expanded. However, Andrabi and Kuehlwein (2010) imply that railways can explain only 20% of the overall 60% decrease in crossdistrict price dispersion between the 1860s and 1900s. They conclude that the effects of railways on market integration are overstated. Meanwhile, in an innovative study, Donaldson (2012) shows that interdistrict price differences in salt are equal to trade costs because salt is produced in only one district and consumed in many other districts. He then measures trade costs and finds the arrival of railways significantly reduced trade costs, and that railroads significantly increased trade flows. The different conclusions partly stem from the commodity being studied. Grain was a more important good than salt in terms of total value, but it was not always traded between regions even after railways entered. The conclusions may also differ because there is a missing variable in both analyses, which is the freight rate charged by railways in each market. Data from the Administration Reports show that freight rates differed across commodities, with special rates sometimes being offered on grain or coal. More research is needed to understand how railways influenced markets, incorporating the role of freight rates and different goods and public finance UID environmental regulation China malnutrition right to food manufacturing PDS democracy RBI rural India IT credit MNREGA inflation West Bengal Bihar cash transfers Bangladesh Andhra Pradesh schooling RTE land acquisition healthcare training gender discrimination south Asia inclusive growth affirmative action exchange rates crime against women financial inclusion US public service delivery Indian states cities water and sanitation GDP current account deficit energy electricity child health food security Gujarat fiscal policy services FDI Planning Commission monetary policy Popular tags Twitter Feed Most Read This Month All Time Charting a course for the Indian economy Karthik Muralidharan , Arvind Subramanian The political economy of data Florian Blum , Rohini Pande Moving beyond the growthversus redistribution debate Maitreesh Ghatak Why did the Indian economy stagnate under the colonial rule? 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9/6/2015 Could railways have done more to aid economic development in India?

http://www.ideasforindia.in/article.aspx?article_id=142 1/3

Dan Bogart University of [email protected]

Latika Chaudhury Naval Postgraduate School

[email protected]

Topics:  InfrastructureTags: railways , transport

   

Could railways have done more to aid economic development in India? Posted On: 29 May 2013 Section: Columns

Indian  Railways  celebrated  its  160thanniversary  last  month.  This  columnargues  that  while  railways  played  alarge economic role  in British India,  itis likely they could have done more toaid economic growth and developmentin the country.

Between  1850  and  India’sindependence  in  1947,  railways werethe  most  important  infrastructuredevelopment in the country. In termsof  the  economy,  railways  played  amajor role  in  integrating markets andincreasing  trade.  In  terms  of  politics,railways  shaped  the  finances  of  thecolonial  government  and  the  PrincelyStates.  Indian  political  institutionsinfluenced  railway  ownership  and

policy, which in turn influenced railway performance. As the 20th century progressed, railways became a forcefor independence and democracy.

While the Government of India had a strong influence on railways from the beginning, the government’s roleincreased over time. Railways were partially nationalised between 1880 and 1908 as the Government of Indiaassumed  a  majority  ownership  stake  in  most  of  the  main  trunk  lines.  Complete  nationalisation  occurredbetween 1924 and 1947 as the colonial government assumed full control over operations.

Dividend  guarantees  were  a  key  feature  of  the  early  era  of  private  ownership  before  1880.  The  Britishcompanies  that  built  and  operated  the  early  railways  were  guaranteed  a  5%  return  on  their  capital

investment1.  Guarantees were costly because they dulled incentives to lower operational costs, but it is likelythey encouraged rapid railway development. The only alternative was large scale government ownership andinvestment, which was unlikely given India’s fiscal development around that time.

Economic role in British IndiaThe performance of Indian railways can be classified into two periods: pre1920 and post1920. There was atrend to higher output, productivity, and profits between 1850 and 1919. The rate of total factor productivitygrowth, which  is  the difference between output growth and average of  input growth, was  similar  to moreadvanced countries. But after 1920 there was a leveling off in productivity, and an increase in fares. The lowproductivity often associated with Indian railways began in the second quarter of the 20th century.  

Traffic developed slowly  in the first decade of railway operations, but the subsequent  increase  in traffic waslarge, surprising even official estimates. In the absence of comparable alternatives, Indians used railways totransport  goods  and  people.  The  key  questions  are whether  the  introduction  of  railways  increased marketintegration and price convergence, and also whether railways substantially increased income.

Railways and pricesA large body of research has examined the effects of railways on price convergence. Hurd (1975) comparedaverage prices and variation in prices across railway and nonrailways districts. In railway districts, prices wereless dispersed and closer to the average as compared to nonrailway districts. McAlpin (1974) found that pricesof  both  food  and  nonfood  crops  converged  as  railway  development  expanded.  However,  Andrabi  andKuehlwein (2010) imply that railways can explain only 20% of the overall 60% decrease in crossdistrict pricedispersion between the 1860s and 1900s. They conclude that the effects of railways on market integrationare  overstated.  Meanwhile,  in  an  innovative  study,  Donaldson  (2012)  shows  that  interdistrict  pricedifferences in salt are equal to trade costs because salt is produced in only one district and consumed in manyother districts. He then measures trade costs and finds the arrival of railways significantly reduced trade costs,and that railroads significantly increased trade flows.

The different conclusions partly stem from the commodity being studied. Grain was a more important goodthan salt in terms of total value, but it was not always traded between regions even after railways entered.The conclusions may also differ because there is a missing variable in both analyses, which is the freight ratecharged by  railways  in each market. Data  from the Administration Reports show that  freight  rates differedacross commodities, with special rates sometimes being offered on grain or coal. More research is needed tounderstand how railways influenced markets,  incorporating the role of freight rates and different goods and

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9/6/2015 Could railways have done more to aid economic development in India?

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inputs used in production.

Railways and incomesHistorians have long argued that national  income would have been far smaller in most countries if railwayshad never been introduced. Hurd (1983) was the first to make a social savings calculation for Indian railways.He assumed that without railways, freight rates would have been between 80 and 90% higher, based on theobserved differences between rail freight rates and those for bullock carts during the mid 19th century. Usingthe volume of freight traffic in 1900, Hurd estimated the social savings to be Rs.1.2 billion or 9% of nationalincome. The estimated social savings of railways are large considering real GDP increased by around 50% from1870 to 1913.

Why did railways have a relatively large impact in India? We think there are two reasons. First, railways were far superior to the existing transport technology in India.Bullock  carts  were  not  an  effective  alternative  to  railways  and  India  did  not  have  an  extensive  inlandwaterway network. Second,  Indian railways experienced high  levels of  totalfactor productivity growth afterthey were constructed. The social savings of any technological  innovation  is partly due to  improvements  inefficiency  after  the  original  breakthrough. According  to  our  estimates  the high  level  of  railway productivitygrowth  accounts  for  over  13%  of  all  national  income  per  capita  growth  from  1874  to  1912  (Bogart  andChaudhary, 2013).

The social savings methodology provides a powerful and simple tool, but it has some problems. First, it is notclear what the price of road or water transport would have been in the absence of railways. Congestion wouldhave increased on roads and rivers with the increased traffic volume. The cost of using alternative transportmodes  is  arguably  underestimated  in most  cases  as  a  result.  Second,  the  social  savings  calculation  omitsspillovers  or  indirect  effects.  In  theory,  railways  should  increase  demand  for  iron  and  steel  and  increasecompetition in manufacturing. They also contribute to agglomeration of economic activity, like the emergenceof cities.

In spite of these critiques, there are reasons to doubt the importance of spillovers in the Indian case. Most ironand steel imports came from Britain and thus there was limited scope for increase in demand due to railways.The manufacturing sector was small as well, so the effect of railways on competition in manufacturing wasrelatively weak. Indian cities also remained quite small well into the 20th century.

Indian Railways could have done moreIt  appears  that  railways’  primary  impact  in  the  Indian  economy  was  to  increase  interregional  andinternational trade. But this raises a different question. Why didn’t railways do more, such as spurring a higherrate of economic growth? Some scholars blame colonial policy. The Indian government paid a lot of attentionto  profits,  and  freight  rates were  perhaps  not  set  at  the  socially  optimal  level.  There  is  also  criticism  thatpassenger services were given insufficient attention. Fares were quite high considering income levels in India.For example, Thomas Robertson, a contemporary critic of Indian railways, argued in 1903 that Indian faresand rates should be onesixth of English fares, when in fact they averaged between onethird to twothird.Ultimately,  it  seems  the  railways  could  have  done  more  to  aid  Indian  economic  development  by  setting‘developmental’ fares and freight charges.

This column has been reprinted with permission from India at LSE (http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/indiaatlse/)

Notes:1.  Private British companies constructed  the  initial  railway  lines  in  India and a majority of  the capital wasraised in Britain.

Further ReadingBogart, Dan and Chaudhary, Latika, Railways in Colonial India: An Economic Achievement? (May 1, 2012).Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2073256Andrabi, Tahir and Michael Kuehlwein. 2010. “Railways and Price Convergence in British India.” Journal ofEconomic History, 70 (2): 351377.Bogart, Dan and Chaudhary, Latika Regulation, Ownership and Costs: A Historical Perspective from IndianRailways, American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 4 (2011), 2857.Bogart, Dan and Chaudhary, Latika Engines of Growth, the Productivity Advance of Indian Railways, 18741913. Forthcoming, Journal of Economic History, 2013.Donaldson, Dave.  2012.  “Railways  of  the Raj:  Estimating  the  Impact  of  Transportation  Infrastructure,”Working paper.Hurd,  John  II.  1975.  “Railways  and  the  Expansion  of  Markets  in  India  18611921.”  Explorations  inEconomic History, 12 (3): 263288.Hurd, John II. 1983. “Railways” in ch. 8 of the Cambridge Economic History of India, vol. 2:17571970.Eds. D. Kumar and M. Desai. London: Cambridge University Press.McAlpin, Michelle Burge. 1974. “Railroads, Prices and Peasant Rationality: India,18601900.”Journal of Economic History, 34 (3): 66284.

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