Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e © 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education,

Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e

© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Analyzing and Interpreting Qualitative Data

Chapter 8

Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e - CreswellISBN: 0132755912

© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.

All rights reserved.8-2

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

Identify the six steps in the process of analyzing and interpreting qualitative data

Describe how to prepare and organize the data for analysis

Describe how to explore and code the data Use codes to build description and themes Construct a representation and reporting of qualitative

findings Make an interpretation of the qualitative findings Advance validation for the accuracy of your findings




Six Steps in Analyzing and Interpreting Qualitative Data Preparing and organizing the data for analysis Exploring the data through coding Using codes to develop description and

themes Representing the findings through narratives

and visuals Making an interpretation of the meaning of the

findings Conducting a validation of the accuracy of the

findings




The Process of Data Analysis

Codes the text fordescription to be usedin the research report

Codes the text forthemes to be usedin the research report

The researcher codes the data (locates text segments and assigns a code to label them)

The researcher prepares data for analysis(transcribes fieldnotes)

The researcher collects data (a text file, such as fieldnotes, transcriptions, optically scanned material)

The researcher reads through data (obtains general sense of material)

SimultaneousIteractive




Preparing and Organizing the Data Develop a matrix or table of sources that can

be used to organize the material Organize material by type Keep duplicate copies of materials Transcribe data Prepare data for hand or computer analysis

(and select computer program)




Exploring the Data

Obtain a general sense of the data by performing a preliminary exploratory analysis

Read through fieldnotes and interviews several times to get a sense of the interview and the observation

Write memos in the margins of interviews or fieldnotes of your initial reflections on the data

Consider whether more data are needed




Coding the Data Read through all transcripts Start with one transcript Identify text segments. Ask, “What is this person saying?” Bracket text segment Assign code word

One, two, or three words that describe what is being said

Terms from the literature can be used When possible use a participant’s actual words (in

vivo code) Practice lean coding (30–40 codes)




Coding the Data (cont’d)

Include codes that describe the participants and site Reduce redundancy

Take out codes that are duplicate ideas Reduce to a manageable list (usually 25–30)

Collapse codes into themes, which are: The major ideas that emerge from the data The ideas the participants most frequently discuss, are

unique or surprising, have the most evidence to support them, or those you might expect to find when studying the phenomenon

Usually number 5–7




A Visual Model of the Coding Process in Qualitative Research

Reduce codes to5–7 themes

Initially readthrough data

Divide text into segmentsof information

Label segments ofinformationwith codes

Reduce overlap andredundancyof codes

Collapsecodes intothemes

Manypages of text

Manysegments of text

30–40codes

Codesreducedto 20




Using Codes to Build Description Describe

People Events Activities Processes

Describe in detail




The Incident and Response

The incident occurred on the campus of a large public university in a Midwestern city. A decade ago, this city had been designated an “all-American city,” but more recently, its normally tranquil environment has been disturbed by an increasing number of assaults and homicides. Some of these violent incidents have involved students at the university.

The incident that provoked this study occurred on a Monday in October. A forty-three-year-old graduate student, enrolled in a senior-level actuarial science class, arrived a few minutes before class, armed with a vintage Korean War military semiautomatic rifle loaded with a thirty-round clip of thirty caliber ammunition. He carried another thirty-round clip in his pocket. Twenty of the thirty-four students in the class had already gathered for class, and most of them were quietly reading the student newspaper. The instructor was en route to class.

The gunman pointed the rifle at the students, swept it across the room, and pulled the trigger. The gun jammed. Trying to unlock the rifle, he hit the butt of it on the instructor’s desk and quickly tried firing it again. Again it did not fire. By this time, most students realized what was happening and dropped to the floor, overturned their desks, and tried to hide behind them. After about twenty seconds, one of the students shoved a desk into the gunman, and students ran past him out into the hall and out of the building. The gunman hastily departed the room and went out of the building to his parked car, which he had left

Description builds from broad to narrow

Building a Descriptive Passage

Situate the readerin the placeProvide details

Detail to create a sense of “being there”

Use of action verbsand vivid modifiersand adjectives

Type of Description




Using Codes to Identify Themes Ordinary themes Unexpected themes Social science themes Layering and connecting themes




Safety The violence in the city that involved university students and the subsequent gun incident that occurred in a campus classroom shocked the typically tranquil campus. A counselor aptly summed up the feelings of many: “When the students walked out of that classroom, their world had become very chaotic; it had become very random, something had happened that robbed them of their sense of safety.” Concern for safety became a central reaction for many informants. When the chief student affairs officer described the administration’s reaction to the incident, he listed the safety of students in the classroom as his primary goal, followed by the needs of the news media for details about the case, helping all students with psychological stress, and providing public information on safety. As he talked about the safety issue and the presence of guns on campus, he mentioned that a policy was under consideration for the storage of guns used by students for hunting. Within 4 hours after the incident, a press conference was called during which the press was briefed not only on the details of the incident, but also on the need to ensure the safety of the campus. Soon thereafter the university administration initiated an informational campaign on campus safety. A letter, describing the incident, was sent to the university board members. (One board member asked, “How could such an incident happen at this university?”)

Coding Used in Theme PassageTitle for themebased on words ofparticipant

Evidence for themes based on multipleperspectives ofparticipants

Within themesare subthemes




Representing the Findings Comparison table: A table used to compare groups on

one theme Demographic table: A table of demographics on

individual participants and/or research site Hierarchical tree: A diagram that visually represents

themes and their interconnections Figures/diagrams: A visual depiction that shows the

interconnections between themes Drawings: Maps of the physical layout of the site




Reporting the Findings

Multiple perspectives for each theme Metaphors and analogies Quotes Detail Tensions and contradictions




Interpreting the Findings

Interpretation is not neutral Reflect about the personal meaning of

the data Compare and contrast personal

viewpoints with the literature Address limitations of the study Make suggestions for future research




Validating the Accuracy of the Findings Member checking: Asking members to

check the accuracy of the account Triangulation: Using corroborating

evidence External audit: Hiring the services of an

individual outside the study to review the study

Documents

Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e © 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education,