Problems

Western lands

Postwar depression

Representation in the new government

Slavery

228 CHAPTER 8

ONE AMERICAN’S STORYOn May 15, 1787, Virginia Governor Edmund Randolph

arrived in Philadelphia. The young nation faced

lawlessness, as Shays’s Rebellion had shown. Now

delegates from throughout the states were coming to

Philadelphia to discuss reforming the government. Early

in the convention Randolph rose to speak.

A VOICE FROM THE PAST

Let us not be afraid to view with a steady eye the[dangers] with which we are surrounded. . . . Are wenot on the eve of [a civil] war, which is only to beprevented by the hopes from this convention?

Edmund Randolph, quoted in Edmund Randolph: A Biography

Over the next four months, the delegates debated how best to keep

the United States from falling apart. In this section, you will read about

the Convention of 1787 and the creation of the U.S. Constitution.

A Constitutional Convention Is CalledIn 1786, a series of events began that would eventually lead to a new formof government for the United States. In September of that year, delegatesfrom five states met in Annapolis, Maryland, to discuss ways to promotetrade among their states. At the time, most states placed high taxes ongoods from other states. The delegates believed that creating nationaltrade laws would help the economies of all the states.

Making such changes required amending the Articles of Confederation,because the national government had been granted no power to regulatetrade among the states. The Annapolis delegates, led by AlexanderHamilton of New York, called for the states to send representatives to

22

Creating theConstitution

MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES

The states sent delegates to a

convention to solve the problems

of the Articles of Confederation.

The Constitutional Convention

formed the plan of government that

the United States still has today.

ConstitutionalConvention

James Madison

Virginia Plan

New Jersey Plan

Great Compromise

Three-FifthsCompromise

Taking Notes

Use your chart to take notes about thenew governmentand slavery.

CALIFORNIA STANDARDS

8.2.3 Evaluate the major debatesthat occurred during the develop-ment of the Constitution and theirultimate resolutions in such areas asshared power among institutions,divided state-federal power, slavery,the rights of individuals and states(later addressed by the addition ofthe Bill of Rights), and the status ofAmerican Indian nations under thecommerce clause.

8.2.4 Describe the political philoso-phy underpinning the Constitutionas specified in the Federalist Papers(authored by James Madison,Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay)and the role of such leaders asMadison, George Washington,Roger Sherman, Gouverneur Morris,and James Wilson in the writing andratification of the Constitution.

8.3.3 Enumerate the advantages ofa common market among thestates as foreseen in and protectedby the Constitution’s clauses oninterstate commerce, commoncoinage, and full-faith and credit.

Edmund Randolphand the otherdelegates gatheredin the PennsylvaniaState House.

A. EvaluatingHow well do thecharacteristics ofthe Foundersserve as modelsof civic virtue?A. PossibleResponseThey provide anexcellent modelof civic virtuebecause theywere educated,well-informed,and actively par-ticipated in government.

Philadelphia the following May to discuss such changes.At first, many Americans doubted that the national

government needed strengthening. But news of Shays’sRebellion in late 1786 and early 1787 quickly changedmany people’s minds. Fearing that rebellion mightspread, 12 states sent delegates to the meeting inPhiladelphia in the summer of 1787. Only RhodeIsland refused to participate.

The Convention’s DelegatesThe 55 delegates to the Constitutional Convention, asthe Philadelphia meeting became known, were a veryimpressive group. About half were lawyers. Others wereplanters, merchants, and doctors. Three-fourths of themhad been representatives in the Continental Congress.Many had been members of their state legislatures andhad helped write their state constitutions. Along withother leaders of the time, these delegates are called theFounders, or Founding Fathers, of the United States.

America’s most famous men were at the Con-stitutional Convention. George Washington, the heroof the Revolution, came out of retirement for the meet-ing. Benjamin Franklin, the famous scientist and states-man, lent his wit and wisdom to the convention. Oneof the ablest delegates was James Madison. Madisonhad read more than a hundred books on government inpreparation for the meeting. When Thomas Jefferson,serving as ambassador to France, read the list of dele-gates, he wrote, “It is really an assembly of demigods.”

Not everyone was at the Constitutional Convention.Thomas Jefferson and John Adams were overseas at their diplomaticposts. But they wrote home to encourage the delegates. Others had a lesspositive outlook on the convention. For example, Patrick Henry, whohad been elected as a delegate from Virginia, refused to attend. He saidhe “smelled a rat in Philadelphia, tending toward monarchy.”

Also, the convention did not reflect the diverse U.S. population of the1780s. There were no Native Americans, African Americans, or womenamong the delegates. The nation’s early leaders did not consider thesegroups of people to be citizens and did not invite any of them to attend.However, the framework of government the Founders established is thevery one that would eventually provide full rights and responsibilities toall Americans.

The Delegates AssembleMost of the delegates arrived at the Constitutional Convention without aclear idea of what to expect. Some thought they would only draft amend-ments to the Articles of Confederation. Others thought they would design

Confederation to Constitution 229

BackgroundRhode Island didnot send dele-gates because itfeared that astrong nationalgovernmentwould force people to repaythe war debts ondifficult terms.

INDEPENDENCE HALL

The Pennsylvania State House,where the ConstitutionalConvention took place, is nowcalled Independence Hall. It isprotected as part of a nationalpark in Philadelphia.

The State House itself was thesite where George Washingtonreceived his commission to leadthe Continental Army and wherethe Declaration of Independencewas signed. The Liberty Bell isnearby. Many visitors come to Philadelphia to stand in the building where much of America’s early history as a nation was made.

an entirely new plan for the government. But they allagreed that the government should protect people’s rights.

Back in 1776, many Americans thought that govern-ment was the main threat to people’s rights. But by1787, many realized that the people often came intoconflict and needed a government that could maintainorder. As a result, the government had to be strongenough to protect people’s rights but not too strong tobe controlled. Madison later wrote about this problem.

A VOICE FROM THE PAST

If men were angels, no government would be necessary. Ifangels were to govern men, neither external nor internalcontrols on government would be necessary. In framing agovernment which is to be administered by men over men,the great difficulty lies in this: you must first enable thegovernment to control the governed; and in the next placeoblige it [the government] to control itself.

James Madison, The Federalist “Number 51”

This was the challenge that faced the delegates:how to set up a strong but limited federal government.Some, such as Gouverneur Morris of New York,wanted the upper class to control the new government.Others, such as James Wilson of Pennsylvania, favoreda direct democracy open to more people. By May 25,1787, at least two delegates from each of seven stateshad arrived in Philadelphia. With 29 delegates inattendance, the convention was officially under way.

The Convention BeginsThe first order of business was to elect a president forthe convention. Robert Morris of Pennsylvania nomi-nated George Washington. Every delegate voted forhim. Washington’s quiet and dignified leadership set a

solemn and serious tone for the convention.At their next meeting, the delegates decided on the rules for the con-

vention. They wanted to be able to consider all ideas and to be able tochange sides in any debate. They did not want to be pressured by the pol-itics of the day. For these reasons, they decided that their discussionswould remain secret. To ensure privacy, the windows in their meetingroom were kept shut even though it was summer. Guards were posted out-side the door. With the secrecy rule approved, they got down to business.

The Virginia PlanOn May 29, the delegates began the real work of designing a newnational government. Presiding over the convention, George Washingtonrecognized Edmund Randolph as the first speaker. Randolph offered a

230 CHAPTER 8

JAMES MADISON

1751–1836

James Madison was a short, soft-spoken man, but he may havemade the greatest contribution of any of the Founders at theConstitutional Convention. Hetook thorough notes of the con-vention’s proceedings. His notesare the most detailed picture wehave of the debates and dramaof the convention.

But Madison did not justobserve the convention. He wasperhaps the most important par-ticipant. One of the other dele-gates called him “the bestinformed Man of any point indebate.” Madison was so impor-tant that he earned the title“Father of the Constitution.”

How did Madison contributeto the ConstitutionalConvention?

B. PossibleResponses Theproblem is inframing a govern-ment that cancontrol itself as well as the governed.

B. Using PrimarySourcesAccording toMadison, what isthe central prob-lem in framing a government?

C. PossibleResponses Somestudents mightagree because thedelegates mightnot have felt freeto have an honestdebate withoutsecrecy. Othersmight disagreebecause theybelieve peopleshould have hadthe right to knowwhat the dele-gates were doing.

C. MakingDecisions Do youagree with theFounders’ deci-sion to keep theconventionsecret? Why orwhy not?

Confederation to Constitution 231

plan for a whole new government. The plan became known as theVirginia Plan. Madison, Randolph, and the other Virginia delegates haddrawn up the plan while they waited for the convention to open.

The Virginia Plan proposed a government that would have threebranches. The first branch of government was the legislature, whichmade the laws. The second branch was the executive, whichenforced the laws. The third branch was the judiciary, whichinterpreted the laws.

The Virginia Plan proposed a legislature with two houses.In both houses, the number of representatives from eachstate would be based on the state’s population or its wealth.The legislature would have the power to levy taxes, regulatecommerce, and make laws “in all cases where the separatestates are incompetent [unable].”

The Virginia Plan led to weeks of debate. Because they hadlarger populations, larger states supported the plan. It would give themgreater representation in the legislature. The smaller states opposed thisplan. They worried that the larger states would end up ruling the others.Delaware delegate John Dickinson voiced the concerns of the small states.

A VOICE FROM THE PAST

Some of the members from the small states wish for two branches in thegeneral legislature and are friends to a good [strong] national government;but we would sooner submit [give in] to a foreign power than submit to be deprived, in both branches of the legislature, of an equal suffrage [vote],and thereby be thrown under the domination of the larger states.

John Dickinson, quoted in Mr. Madison’s Constitution

The Great CompromiseIn response to the Virginia Plan, New Jersey delegate William Patersonpresented an alternative on June 15. The New Jersey Plan called for alegislature with only one house. In it, each state would have one vote.In providing equal representation to each state, the New Jersey Planwas similar to the Articles of Confederation.

Even though the New Jersey Plan gave the legislature the power toregulate trade and to raise money by taxing foreign goods, it did notoffer the broad powers proposed by the Virginia Plan. The delegatesvoted on these two plans on June 19. The Virginia Plan won and becamethe framework for drafting the Constitution.

The delegates atthe ConstitutionalConventiondebated theConstitutionintensely.

D. SummarizingWhat was theVirginia Plan?D. Answer It wasthe plan for thelegislatureoffered by theVirginia delegatesto the conven-tion. It proposeda legislature withtwo houses withrepresentationbased on popula-tion or wealth.

“If men wereangels, nogovernmentwould benecessary.”

James Madison

During the rest of June, the delegates argued over representation in thelegislature. Emotions ran high as the delegates struggled for a solution.In desperation, the delegates selected a committee to work out a com-promise in early July. The committee offered the Great Compromise.(Some people also refer to it as the Connecticut Compromise.)

To satisfy the smaller states, each state would have an equal numberof votes in the Senate. To satisfy the larger states, the committee setrepresentation in the House of Representatives according to state pop-ulations. More than a week of arguing followed the introduction of theplan, but on July 16, 1787, the convention passed it.

Slavery and the ConstitutionBecause representation in the House of Representatives would be basedon the population of each state, the delegates had to decide who wouldbe counted in that population. The Southern states had many moreslaves than the Northern states. Southerners wanted the slaves to becounted as part of the general population for representation but not fortaxation. Northerners argued that slaves were not citizens and shouldnot be counted for representation but should be counted for taxation.

On this issue, the delegates reached another compromise, known asthe Three-Fifths Compromise. Under this compromise, three-fifths ofthe slave population would be counted when setting direct taxes on thestates. This three-fifths ratio also would be used to determine represen-tation in the legislature.

The delegates had another heated debate about the slave trade.Slavery had already been outlawed in several Northern states. All of theNorthern states and several of the Southern states had banned theimportation of slaves. Many Northerners wanted to see this banextended to the rest of the nation. But Southern slaveholders strongly

232 CHAPTER 8

SkillbuilderAnswers1. the New JerseyPlan2. PossibleResponse Itincluded more ofwhat the largestates wantedbecause there weretwo houses in thelegislature, one ofwhich had repre-sentation by popu-lation.

SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Charts1. Which plan appealed more to the small states?2. Did the Great Compromise include more of what the large

states wanted or more of what the small states wanted?

THE GREATCOMPROMISE

VIRGINIA PLAN

NEW JERSEY PLAN

● The legislative branch would have two houses.

● Both houses in the legislature would assign representatives according to state population or wealth.

● The legislature would have one house.

● Each state would have one vote in the legislature.

The Great Compromise

● The Senate would give each state equal representation.

The legislature would have two houses.

● The House of Representatives would have representation according to state population.

BackgroundRoger Sherman ofConnecticut iswidely creditedwith proposingthe GreatCompromise.

2. Using GraphicsUse a chart like the onebelow to take notes on thecontributions made by theleading delegates at theConstitutional Convention.(8.2.4)

3. Main Ideasa. What was the relation-ship between the AnnapolisConvention and the Consti-tutional Convention? (CST1)

b. What is the significance ofthe date 1787? (CST1)

c. How did the ConstitutionalConvention reach a compro-mise on the issue of slavery?(CST1)

4. Critical ThinkingAnalyzing Points of ViewHow did the delegates at theconvention differ on the issueof representation in the newgovernment? (REP5)

THINK ABOUT• the large states and the

small states• the Virginia Plan• the New Jersey Plan• the Great Compromise

1. Terms & NamesExplain the

significance of:• Constitutional

Convention• James Madison• Virginia Plan• New Jersey Plan• Great Compromise• Three-Fifths

Compromise

Section Assessment

ACTIVITY OPTIONS

TECHNOLOGYART

Think about the Three-Fifths Compromise. Make an audio recording of a speech or draw a political cartoon that expresses your views on the issue. (REP5)

2

disagreed. The delegates from South Carolina andGeorgia stated that they would never accept any plan“unless their right to import slaves be untouched.”Again, the delegates settled on a compromise. OnAugust 29, they agreed that Congress could not ban theslave trade until 1808.

Regulating TradeAside from delaying any ban on the slave trade, theConstitution placed few limits on Congress’s power to reg-ulate commerce. Most delegates were glad that Congresswould regulate—and even promote—commerce. After all,commercial problems were the main cause of the AnnapolisConvention in 1786. Southerners, however, succeededin banning Congress from taxing exports because Southerneconomies depended on exports. The Constitution alsogave Congress sole power to coin money. Congresscould issue money under the Articles of Confederation,but so could the states, which led to economic conflicts.

The Articles of Confederation granted Congress and the states thepower to make treaties with Native Americans, and this power was grantedexclusively to Congress under the Constitution’s Commerce Clause. Butthe status of Native Americans under the Constitution remained hazy.They were not citizens, nor were they considered foreign nations.

The Constitutional Convention continued to meet into September.On September 15, 1787, the delegates voted their support for theConstitution in its final form. All but three delegates signed theConstitution. It was then sent to the Confederation Congress, whichsent it to the states for ratification, or approval. In the next section, youwill read about the debate over ratification.

Confederation to Constitution 233

Delegate Contribution

E. Forming andSupportingOpinions Did thedelegates do theright thing inagreeing to theThree-FifthsCompromise?Explain.E. PossibleResponses Somemight say no,because theFounders shouldhave abolishedslavery. Othersmight say yes,because otherwisethe Southernstates might nothave ratified theConstitution.

PRESERVING THECONSTITUTION

The National Archives isresponsible for preserving the200-year-old sheets of parch-ment on which the originalConstitution was first written.

The Archives stores the document in an airtight glasscase enclosed in a 55-ton vaultof steel and concrete. Everyfew years, scientists examinethe pages with the latest technology. For the last exami-nation in 1995, they used fiber-optic light sources and computer-guided electroniccameras designed for space exploration.