Creating and Using Photographs as Archivial Evidence

8/11/2019 Creating and Using Photographs as Archivial Evidence

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CREATING

AND

USING

PHOTOGRAPHS

AS

HISTORICAL EVIDENCE

Robert

Papstein

Introduction

The

use of

photographs

as research

data is

becoming

of

increasing

interest

to

historians of

Africa. The School

of

Oriental

and African Studies'

Workshop

on

"Photographs

as

sources

for

African

history"

is

only

the most recent

example

of

this

emerging

concern.1

This

paper

is

designed

to discuss some

of the

conceptual

problems one might meet when attemptingto understandphotographsas data. It

also discusses

making

photographs

as a

systematic

part

of field research.

Lastly,

it

provides

a brief

primer

on

the

type

of

photographic equipment

best

suited for

fieldwork.

Historians

of Africa

are

used to

thinking

of

themselves as

dwelling

at the

very

cutting

edge

of

methodological

and

theoretical

nnovation,

but

in

the use

of

visual

data we

lag

behind our

colleagues

in

ethnology, anthropology,

and

sociology.2

Fieldwork

historians,

virtually

all of whom

take

photographs,

have

rarely

accepted

photography

as

an

integral

part

of their field research data.3

Nor has

readily

available visual data been

widely

used

by

historians:

compare

the extensive

historical use of conventional

anthropological

data

with

the

almost total

neglect

of

visual anthropology.

Although

the

eye

is our most

important

nformation-gathering

ense,

we find

it

surprisingly

difficult to

agree

about

the

meaning

of

images.

Ironically,

one of

the attractions of the

photograph,

its

apparent accessibility

(and

implied

objectivity),

dissolves into

subjectivity

when

closely

'read.' Since

we cannot

readily

agree

about

photography's meaning

and content we

tend to discard or

marginalize

its

use as data.

Obviously

I

am

overstating

the case

somewhat. We

have of course

learned to 'read'

photographs;

his is

the reason

we can

recognize

a

tree as

a tree. But

compared

o the

way

we

have learned o read

text,

we

read

images

in

haphazard

and

non-systematic

ways.

Outside art

history

and

cinema

courses,

image

reading

s

rarely

taughtsystematically.4We areall aware of

the

power

of

images-how

images help

structure

behavior.

Advertising

photography

s based on

this

principle.

Liquors,

tobacco

products,

and

cosmetics are sold almost

entirely

on

'image'

without

any

serious

attempt

o assert

inherent

differences between

obviously

similar

products.

Without

images

the

staggering suffering

of the African

famine

of

1984/85

would never

have

touched

us

in

the

same

way.

The famine

only

'existed'

(outside

the

Sahel)

once

it

had been

photographed

rather

han

described)

in

the

media.

The South African

government

understands

his

power very

well

and

ensures that

photojournalists

and

television

camera teams

are

subjected

o even

more

rigorous

censorship

han

word

journalists.

Still,

there

are vast

areas,

historical and

contemporary,

where we do

not know

-or at least cannotagree-about the meaningof images. The SOAS Workshop,

which began

by assuming that

"colonial"

photographywas a useful

category for

History

in

Africa

17

(1990),

pp.

247-65.

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248

ROBERT

PAPSTEIN

describing

certain

types

of

photographs,

ound

it

increasingly

difficult to

apply

the

concept.

For

research

purposes

a

more

supple

and

nuanced

approach

to the

interpretation f photographs n Africa(andelsewhere for thatmatter)needs to be

developed

by

taking

into account the

prevailing

technical

limitations of

making

photographs,

how

photography

was used

in

a

wider,

non-colonial

sense

in

the late

nineteenth and

early

twentieth

centuries,

and

the

evolving

conceptual

and

commercialmilieus

which

influenced

composition

and

style.

Our ambivalence about the

meaning

of

images

is

mirrored in the

ongoing

debate

about whether violent television

images

contribute

o

violent

behavior. It is

usually

claimed that the scientific studies

suggest

there

is no

correlation.

Somehow

it

strains

credulity

(if

not

common

sense)

to

argue

that

one

type

of

image,

especially

the

powerful imagery

of

violence,

has

no

effect when

advertising

imagery

is

universally accepted

as

behavior-molding. Images

not

only modify

behavior

and skew

understanding,

hey

also are the

single greatest

reinforcer of

stereotypes

about Africa. There is not much

to be

done

about

the

commercial

pressures

within the media

which limit

news

coverage

to

a

very

narrow

spectrum

of

African

society

and

which

tend to

support,

often

unconsciously,

racial and

cultural

tereotypes

and a

longstandingemphasis

on exotica.

Presumably

unfettered

by

these

constraints,

scholars

are

in

a

unique position

to

use

images

and words to describe

the

rapid

and

profound

social,

political,

and

economic transformations

aking

place

in

Africa.

Historical

photographs,by

which

we

tend to mean colonial

photographs,

are

increasingly

recognized

as

useful to

understanding

hese

processes,

but because the

changes

in

every

part

of

Africa

are

taking place at such a rapid rate, even the photographs of contemporary

fieldworkers

(if

made

systematically)

will

soon become valuable

sources of

historical information.

In

my

research on the

precolonial history

of

the

Upper

Zambezi,

photographs

have

helped

date the

introductionof new

political symbols

and the

traditions

which

explain

them.5

Photographs

help

indicate

changing

commercial and economic

relationships by

showing

when

European

manufactures-pots,

pans,

containers, cloth,

clothes-began

to

replace

local

products.

Photographs

of

retailing

taken as

recently

as

1972

in

northwestern

Zambia,

when

compared

with

photographs

aken in

1988,

are

part

of

the

evidence

showing

the

impoverishment

of

rural Zambia over

the interim. Not

only

do the

photographs

illustrate

general

economic

decline,

they

indicate one

of

the

ways

mission influence has affected retailing. The shops owned by Christians,

recognizable

by

the

biblical

quotations

painted

on

the

facades,

were

by

far

the best-

stocked and

prosperous

n

1972,

not because

Christianity

necessarily

made

better

businessmen, but,

as

I

later

discovered,

because Christian

businessmen could

rely

on

loans,

supplies,

and

transport

made

available

through

their mission whereas

other

traderscould

not.

As the

infrastructure f the state

declined

throughout

he

1980s,

retailers

without access

to the informal networks of

capital, regular

transportation,

nd

supplies

of

the missions

found

it

difficult

to

manage.

Without

doubt one

of

the most

important

of

these

changes,

which

photography

an describe

particularly

well,

is the

development

of

popular

culture.6

Historical

photographs,

as well as the

photographs

taken

by

fieldworkers,

could

also increase

understanding

f class

development,changing

gender

relationships,

the

process

of

bureaucratization,

gricultural

hange,

the

penetration

of

capitalism,



4/20

PHOTOGRAPHSAS HISTORICAL

EVIDENCE

249

and the

myriad

of other

transformations

taking

place

in Africa.

Whether

photographs

will

allow us

broader

insights

into African

societies

unobtainable

throughother data is a debate which is only beginning. For a start we need to be

able to view

existing

historical

photographs, many

of which

lie

neglected

and

forgotten.7

But we should

also consider the

equally important

question

of

producing

photographs-of

creating

a

visual

archive

alongside

fieldwork

tapes

and

notes.

II

Planning

Fieldwork

Photography

Organizing

and

conceptualizing

fieldwork

photography requires

the

same

forethought

and

planning

needed for

developing

the

original

research

plan.

Professional

photojournalists

work

systematically,

breaking

down

events

into

parts

and

making up

shooting

schedules

in

advance.

One

of

the first

questions

a

photojournalist

sks

is: "Can

the essence of

the

story

be

converted into

images?"

As

any

weekly

newsmagazine

demonstrates,

t

is

far easier to

make

riveting

photographs

of

violence

and

tragedy

than to

photograph

more

subtle

changes

in

social

attitudes or

political

ideas.

Photojournalists

usually

work

deductively,

beginning

with an

opening

"establishing"

mage

and

becoming

ever more

detailed.

The

camera is

omnivorous;

our

eye

unconsciously

selective. The

process

of

making

photographshelps

to

structure

perception.

Many

fieldworkers

will

find

in

the planningand systematic makingof photographsa new way of understanding

events and

of

creating

an

unprecedented

ntensity

of

observation.

Photographs

always

contain a

subjective

message

in

addition to

the

seemingly

objective

record,

and all

photographic

data

reflect

not

only

the

photographers'

nterests

but

also their

biases

and

assumptions.

Every

fieldworker

has to

come

to

terms with

this.

Compare,

for

example,

Paul

Strand

and

Basil

Davidson's

book

about Ghana

and Leni

Riefenstal's

hugely

successful

books

about

the

Nuba.8 Strand,

one

of

the

great

photographers

of the

twentieth

century,

photographed

a

society

which

incidentally

happened

o be

in

Africa.

Nevertheless,

the book

is

clearly

a

product

of its time

(the

1960s),

and of

Davidson's

concern

to

enhance our

understanding,

n

basic

human

evels,

of

African

societies,

which

had

often appeared so strange and "other" to westerners. Whatever their intent,

Riefenstal's

hugely

popular

pseudo-anthropological

coffeetable

books

emphasize

the

exoticism

and

"otherness"

f

the

Nubians.

Nuba

is

exotic

by

western

standards

and

Riefenstal's

photographs

capitalize

on

this.

Conceptually they

are

rather

old

fashioned

"ethnographic"

photographs,

regardless

of

their

stunning

use

of

color.

We

might

find

Strand'sblack

and

white

photographs

ormal and

overly

stylized

by

today's

photographic

esthetics,

but

they

are

conceptually

far

more

sophisticated

than

Riefenstal's

because

they

are

photographs

of

human

beings

rather han

people

as

cultural

artifacts.

Fieldworkers

need to think

consciously

through

what

they

are

trying

to

say

with

photographs. Photographs

can

document

in

the

simplest sense; they

can

reveal

something

unknown

(which

is

surprisingly

difficult to

articulate)

or

they

can

be rather

imple

supplements

o

other

data.



5/20

250 ROBERT PAPSTEIN

III

Making

Pictures

Researchers

who

will

ask about

anything, including

the most detailed and

intimate

aspects

of

peoples'

lives,

are

often reluctant o

photograph

even the

most

banal

public

situation.

It

is

rarelypossible

to make

good

documentary

photographs

by 'stealing'

them:

effective

photographs

require

the

cooperation

of

the

subjects.

Social

skills are

far more

important

han

photographic

equipment.

Here it

is

vital

to be

prepared

to

'waste'

film

by

making

photographs

until

people

eventually

ignore

the camera.

A

fieldworker,

who

spends

months with the

same

people,

is

in

an

excellent

position

to

photograph

rom the "inside out." The

often-quotedadage

from

photojournalist

Robert

Capa,

whose

photographs

of

the

Spanish

Civil War

are still

among

the most

powerful

war

photographs

ever

taken-"If

your

photographs

aren't

good enough; you're

not close

enough"-also

applies

to

fieldwork

photography.

Establishing

a

social

relationship

is

the basis for

good

documentary hotography.

IV

Types

of

photographs

Fieldworkphotographscan be divided into four types of photographswhich I

will

term

Authentic, Historical,

Representative,

and

Interpretative.

The

"ethnographically

authentic"

attempts

to document

"features"of

a

society,

often

material culture.

In

the

past

these included

photographs

of

"physical types,"

or

examples

of how to

do

something.

While

such

documentscan be valuable

(usually

not for the reason

they

were

taken)

there are also cautions for

making

such

photographs today.

The desire of

people

to show the

"authentic" form

of

something

easily

leads to

distortions. One

of

the essential

problems

of

photography

of

this

kind

is that

"authentic"

can too

easily

be

assumed

to mean

"ancient."

Also,

photographs

of

cultural eatures which are

often the most

visually

compelling-ritual,

for

example-can

be distortive

if

not

placed

in

a wider

visual

social context.

A

fieldworker

needs to

develop

a

visual sense

of

the banal.

If

one looks

closely

at what

photojoumalists

call

the

photographic ssay

(in

Europereportage)-telling

a

story

in

a series of

photographs-it

is

striking

how

many photographs

are of

very

common situations.

Perhaps

the best

example

of this to American readers is

the

National

Geographic Magazine

(Which

is

mostly

about

people

and

only

occasionally

about

geography). European

readers

can find

a

similar

approach

in

German

and

French Geo.

Photojournalists

doing

editorial work seek to make

photographs

which

reveal essential elements

of

a

situation

or a

society;

fieldworkers

will

be

tempted

o

try

to

make "authentic" nes.

The second type of photograph s consciously historical.When anthropology

and

history

were

guided

by

static models of

'primitive'

societies,

photography

was

assumed

to

be

a look

into the

past

as well as the

present.

As scholars have



6/20

PHOTOGRAPHS

AS HISTORICALEVIDENCE

251

developed

more

dynamic

models

of

African

societies,

the use of

photographs

has

became

less

comprehensively

explanatory.

Fieldworkers,

aware that most

elements

of African(and other)societies have both an ancientand a modem historywill be

sceptical

about

making

photographs

f "ancient"artifactsas

representing

historical

reality.9 Many

genuinely

ancient

political symbols,

for

example,

have been

recently

borrowed

by

one

society

from another.10Here and there

it is

perhaps

possible

to

photograph

"the

past,"

but

mostly

we are

photographing

he

present

for

ourselves

and futurescholars.

The third

type

of

photograph

is

"representative."

These

photographs

are

consciously

of the

present

and do not

purport

to

represent

the

past.

Often

these

photographsattempt

to

portraysociety "objectively"

at the time of their

making,

although

we

realize

that

they

are not

"objective" any

more than

a written

document

is

objective.

In

fact,

W.

Eugene

Smith

wrote

many years ago

that the

first word which needs to be struck from our discussion of

photography

is

"objectivity.""1

Bearing

in

mind

that

photographs,

and

especially

photographic

essays,

are

always

the

photographer'snterpretation

f

a

situation,

the

documentary

photograph

can

still

be an

important

ource of information.As

with

other

sources,

we

need

to establish

the

provenance

of

historical

photographs,

as well

as

knowing

something

about the motivations which

produced

them.

Obviously

we would

not

want to

accept any longer

the notion that

a

particularphotograph

of

a

person

is

"typical"

of one "tribe" or

another,

but we

certainly

can

glimpse

elements of

African societies

through

he same

photographs.

The fourth

type

of

photograph

is

consciously

interpretative.

These

often

evocative photographsare intendedto have an editorialmeaningandthey aremost

commonly

found

in

the

media,

though

fieldworkers

will

inevitably

also

make such

images.

In

April

1988

I

was

in

Tigre

covering

the

Tigre

People's

Liberation

Front's

(TPLF)

capture

of some

towns.

In

Axum

I

went to visit

the

shambles of a

hospital

overflowing

with sick and war

wounded

and,

perhaps

most

tragically,

children who

had lost

hands

and

arms

playing

with

undetonated hells.

One

boy

of

about

seven walked

up

to me

silently

and

held

up

the

stump

of

his

right

arm. This

confrontation

with his

mutilation

brought

the

tragic

side

of the

Tigrean

struggle

together

for me and

I

made a series of

photographs

of the

boy.

The first

showed

him

as

he had

presented

himself

to

me,

looking

directly

at the

camera

holding

up

his

bandaged

stump.

The next included

the front of a

hospital

wall full of

governmentslogans in Amharic.For the next I included more of the wall which

had

larger

than

life-size stencils of

Marx,

Lenin,

and

Engels.

Then

I

included

yet

more of the

wall to

include as well a

stencil

of

Mengistu

Haile

Mariam,

the

head

of

the

Ethiopian

government,

and

finally

a frame

which included

only

the

boy

and

the

Mengistu

stencil.

Through

the

juxtaposition

of

the

boy

with other

symbols

of

the

Ethiopian

central

government,

each of the

frames has a

somewhat

different

message.

Each is true

in

its own

way,

but each also

contains its

own

distortions.



7/20

252

ROBERT

PAPSTEIN

V

The Choice

of

Equipment

and

Materials

Great

photographs

can be

made

with

very

simple

equipment.

Henri Cartier-

Bresson,

one

of

the

great

photojournalists

of this

century,

worked

almost

exclusively

with

one camera and

a

standard ens. EdwardWeston and Paul Strand

used

fifty-year-old

wooden cameras.

Equipment

is

secondary

to vision and

technique.

As

obvious as

it

seems,

it

is worth

emphasizing

that fieldworkers need

to

practice

with their cameras

prior

to

entering

the

field.

Every

serious

photographer

owes his

subject

a measure of

technical

competence

which

permits

efficient

work.12This means

being

able to

compose, adjust

the

camera,

and

focus

quickly.

The new

generation

of electronic autofocus camerasdo all of

these

things

automatically.

With a

minimum

of

practice

it is

possible

to master the

camera.

Putting

a

roll of

film in

the camera

quickly

and

taking

it

out

again

twenty-five

consecutive times

teaches a skill which serves for a

photographic

ifetime.

The choice

and use of

equipment

s

personal,

often

eclectic,

and

depends

on

the

project.

There

has never been

more

photographicequipment

on the market

than

now.

I

am interested

in

images:

my

knowledge

of

equipment

is restricted.What

I

have tried to do below is discuss some

categories

of

equipment

with

fieldwork

in

mind.

Photographic echnology

is

changing

so

rapidly

through

the

application

of

microprocessors,

onar, asers,

and

computer-designed

nd

manufactured

ptics,

that

it is not sensible to recommend he "best."13

Cameras

For

this

discussion

we

can

say

there

are two

types

of

35mm cameras. One is

the

rangefinder

"point

and

shoot"

camera

which is

usually inexpensive

and

fully

automatic.14

With this

type

of camera one looks

through

a viewer to

adjust

distance

(increasingly

done

by

autofocus)

and

frame the

picture;

a

separate

lens

takes the

picture.

These cameraswork

very

well

and

are

becoming

bettereach

year,

but

they

are limited

in

the kinds of

pictures

they

can

take.

They

are

designed

for

users who wish to make

prints

(rather

than

slides)

and

who want maximum

convenience.For casualphotography hey are excellent;many fieldworkerswould

need

nothing

more. On the other hand

they

tend to have "slow" lenses-that

is,

they

are

not usable

(without flash)

in low

light

conditions,

do not

have

interchangeable

enses,

are limited

in

the

types

of films

they

can

use,

and have

automatic features

that

cannot

be

overridden

by

the

user.

A

further

potential

disadvantage

s the

discrepancy

between what

you

see

through

the viewfinder and

what the

taking

lens

puts

on the

film,

especially

when

used

at

very

close

distances.15

Depending

on

the

design

of

the

camera

and

the

camera-subject

istance,

this

discrepancy

can

be considerable.

For

normal

photography

his

is

usually

not

noticed

and

manufacturers ssume

that

you

won't realize

the

edges

of the frame

(as

seen in the

viewfinder)

have been cut

off or

added to.

For

photographing

documents,whichevery fieldworker hould be equipped o do, a few simple tests in



8/20

PHOTOGRAPHSAS HISTORICALEVIDENCE

253

advance

will establish

how much of the frame

(if

any)

is cut off and the user

can

frame

the

document

accordingly.

The second type of camera is the very popularsingle lens reflex (SLR). With

this

type

of

camera

one views the

subject

directly

through

he

lens and

what is

seen

in

the viewfinder

is what

appears

on the film.16

Many

SLRs

are automatic

and

many

automatic

SLRs also

permit

manual use

of

the camera-the

best

of

both

worlds.

They

also allow

interchangeable

enses

and

the use

of

very

fast

special-

purpose

films,

and

accept

a

wide

range

of

specialized

accessories. Most now

offer

Through

The Lens

(TTL)

flash

metering,

which makes

using

the flash

as

easy

as

the

"point

and

shoot"

cameras. SLR cameras

also offer "faster"

lenses-lenses

which transmitmore

light

and allow

photographs

n

situationswhere slower

lenses

require

artificial

ight. Although

there are measurabledifferences

between lenses

of

different

manufacturers,

o most

viewers there is no

noticeable difference to

the

naked

eye

between

the

quality

of

photographs

aken with the lenses of

the

major

manufacturers.

Measuring Light

Every light

meter-built

into

the cameraor hand

held-uses the same

standard

calibration or

measuring ight.17

All

have the same

"defect"

for

photographing

n

Africa-they

are

calibrated

n

a

way

which

correctly

exposes

caucasian skin

tones

but

often rendersblack

faces too darkand

sometimes as

unrecognizable

mudges.

It

is

essential to know how

your

camera

measures

light.

There are

essentially

four

types of metering systems for cameras: averaging, center-weighted, spot, and

integrated.

An

averaging system

(older

SLR

cameras;

some

"point

and

shoot"

cameras)

looks at the whole

viewfinder and

gives

an

average

light-reading

of

the

entire scene.

Obviously

a

black face

surrounded

y

a

lighter

area

will

be

drastically

underexposed.

A

center-weighted

exposure

system

(most

better-quality

SLR

cameras)

places

about 60% of

the

exposure

value

in

the

center of

the frame

(where

the

designers

assume

the faces

will

be)

and

thus

will

give

better

exposures

than an

averaging system.

A

spot-meteringsystem

will

put

80

to 90% of

the

value of

the

exposure

in

a

spot

perhaps

1

to

5%

of

the frame

and

thus offers a

great

deal of

control over

exposures

but it is slower

to use than a

center-weighted system

and

requires

more

judgment

on

the

part

of

the

photographer.

Quite sophisticated "integrated"exposure systems are now appearing on

middle-

to

upper-range

SLR

cameras,

which to some

degree

compensate

for

this

problem by

taking

a

variety

of

light

readings

at the

same time and

integrating

hem

into a

single

lens

setting.

Most

cameras

will

require adjustments

o

expose

black

faces

properly.

More

exposure

is

required-especially

when

the

surrounding

rea is

very

bright-than

the meter of

the camera

is calibrated

to

give.

A

simple

way

to

compensate

for

this is

to

increase

exposure

about

1/3

to

1/2

of

an

f

stop.18

Unfortunately, many

"point

and

shoot" cameras do

not allow

you

to

make

these

adjustments.

The

only way

to

know

how

your

camera

works and

which

adjustments

an

be made is to

read the

instructionsand

especially experiment.

Other

ways

to solve

the

problem

of

contrast

in

the

picture

is to

move

people

out of the direct sun and into the shade where the contrast is less or to use a

technique

called

fill-flash,

a

combination

of

natural

ight

and

electronic

flash. When



9/20

254 ROBERT PAPSTEIN

this

is done

correctly,

it is

hardly

noticeable

and

allows

proper exposure

of

the

lightest

and darkest

parts

of

the

picture.

It is a standard

professional

technique

which can be learned by consultingan introductoryphotographicbook. Many of

the

new electronic cameras

include automatic fill-flash

in

their

options,

a

considerable

advantage

for

fieldworkers. To have the widest

range

of fill-flash

possibilities,

the

SLR

should have the

highest

flash

synchronization

speed

possible.19

With most

cameras,

eyeglass

wearers

cannot

see the entire frame

because the

eye

is

physically

too far

away

from

the

viewfinder.20

Eyeglass

wearerswho do not

want to wear

glasses

while

making pictures

can

purchase diopters (eyepiece

correctors)

which screw into the viewfinderof the

camera,

but this is a

compromise

solution

and its effectiveness

depends

on

individual

eye

problems.

A

more

elegant

solution

is to

have the

focusing eye prescription

made

up,

which then can be

screwed ntotheviewfinder.

Batteries

Electronic

cameras are

by

definition

battery-dependent

cameras:

when

the

battery

fails the camera

no

longer operates. Many photojournalists

who

regularly

work

in

remote areas

carry

at least one non-electroniccamera.

In

recent

years

there

has

been a

revolution

in

battery design

which has

resulted

in

longer

life,

less

leakage

and

better

storage

life. These

changes

are

continuing;

at

the moment

lithium camera batteries

are

widely

used

by professionals.

They

are

long

lasting

and have a

very long

shelf

life, allowing

them

to be

stored,

even at

relativelyhigh

temperatures,

or

up

to

five

years

before use. Some cameras use older

mercury-

silver

batteries.

While

effective

(and

expensive),

they

are

very dangerous

if

swallowed or

if

broken

open.

In

the

field,

where

every

discard is

someone else's

treasure,

all batteries hould be

disposed

of in a

way they

cannotbecome a

hazard.

Cameras:

Motor Drives

and Winders

More

and

more

cameras are

offering

built-in

automatic

film

advance and

rewind. Left

eyed

photographers,

who

have

to

contend with

moving

the camera

away

from

the

viewing

eye

for

each

exposure,

ind automatic

ilm

advancea decided

boon. The majordisadvantageof motor drives is the noise.

Cameras: data backs

In

recent

years

scientists have made extensive

use

of the "data

back,"

which

replaces

the normal back

of

the camera. This contains a

microprocessor-driven

liquid crystal display

which

imprints

he time and date

on

the corner of the

picture.

Nikon's

top-of-the-line

F4

cameraallows data

(including

sequential

rame

numbers)

to

be

printed

on

the

film

between

the

frames.

Camera:

cases

and

bags

Ironically,

one of the most difficult

things

to find is a

good

camera

bag.

Fieldworkers

need a

bag

for

tape

recorder,

cassettes,

camera,

perhaps

extra

lens,



10/20

PHOTOGRAPHSAS

HISTORICALEVIDENCE

255

film, flash,

notebook, batteries,

and

sundrypersonal

items. A camera

bag

is

often

a

good

solution

for

all

this. Some of the

best,

no-nonsense

bags

are

made

by

Jim

Domke, a formerpress photographer.Domke bags are strong, durable,versatile,

protect

the

equipment,

come

in

various

sizes-and,

most

important,

can

be

"worked"

using

only

one hand

(they

don'thave

zippers).Carrying

a few

camera-size

zip-loc

plastic bags

and one

large

plastic garbage bag

to

protect everything

in

extreme dust or rain

makes them the most versatile

bags

available.

Electronic Flash

Electronic flash

units made

by

the camera manufacturer

usually

offer the

greatest compatibility

with the camera.

However,

a numberof other

manufacturers,

such as Vivitar and

Sunpak,

make flashes

offering compatibility,

versatility,

and

very

good

value. Most

important

s that the flash will work with the automatic

TTL

metering

in

the camera

(in

all its

modes)

and

that

its

angle of

coverage

matches the

angle of your

widest

angle

lens.

Most flashes

will

cover the

angle

of

view

of

a 35mm lens

and,

with an

accessory

diffuser

(usually

included),

a

24mm

lens.

Of

secondary

consideration,

but

nevertheless

very

important,

s

the

numberof

batteries

a flash

requires,

how

many

flashes

per

set of

batteries,

and the

time it

takes

to

recycle.

Almost all

flashes use

AA

type

batteries,

which

will

also fit

tape

recorders,

flashlights,

and

radios.

Only

fresh

alkaline

type

batteries

designed

for

heavy duty

use should be

considered. It is

increasingly

unlikely

that

such batteries

(especially fresh ones) will be available in the field or even in some countries.

Built

in

rechargeable

batteries

are,

generally speaking,

not a

good

idea

because

they

are

problematic,

but

rechargeable

nickel cadmium

batteries

can be an

excellent

investment;

he

newest

types

are

very

reliableand trouble

ree.21

Flash

pictures

are

often harsh and

unpleasant

and the use of

the flash

usually

destroys

the

atmosphere

of the

event.

Sometimes it is

unavoidable,

though,

and

there

are

a few

simple ways

to

improve

the

quality

of

pictures

taken

by

flash.

A

piece

of

white

shower

curtain

taped

over

the flash

head

(or

the

use of a 24mm

diffuser)

will

help

soften the

light.22

"Bouncing"

the

light

off a

ceiling

or wall is

also

especially

useful,

creating

a

softer,

more

natural,

ight.

Most

electronic flashes

swivel

to allow

this,

while the

TTL

system

of the

camera

will

automatically

adjust

the exposure.

Lenses

A

lens has

two

characteristics

important

for this

discussion;

its

angle

of

view-how

much it

sees,

and its

speed-the ability

to

transmit

light.

A

fast lens

will

be

able

to

take

pictures

when

a slow lens

cannot or

must

resort to

flash.

A

standard

lens with

a maximum

f

stop

of

3.5 or 2.8

(most

"point

and shoot"

cameras)

would

be

considered slow

while one

of 1.8 or 1.4

would be

considered

fast.

A

lens

able

to

take

in

more

than a

"normal"

view,

and

which also

allows

photographs

at low

light

levels,

is a

great

advantage.

Unfortunately,

many

fieldworkersbuy just the opposite-a telephoto zoom lens, often in the popular

70-210,

range

which

is

inherently

slow.

A

far

better choice for a zoom

lens is a



11/20

256

ROBERT PAPSTEIN

wide-angle

to

moderate

telephoto

in

the

28-85mm

range.

The inherent

"slowness"

of

zoom lenses can

be

partially compensated

by using

faster

films

(see

below,)

with consequent oss of quality.

Single

lens reflex cameras

are

usually

sold with 50mm normal lenses.

Most

photojournalists

use a

35mm

or

28mm as

standard.

An

ultra violet filter

on

each

lens

protects

the front

glass

element

against

scratches.

A

lens

hood,

no

longer

necessary

against

reflections,

now

protects

against

rain,

bumping,

and other

physical

hazards.

Film

If

photographs

are

regarded

as

a

part

of the research

archive,

the choice

of

film

is critical. There are

three basic

types

of film:

slides,

color

prints,

and black and

white.

Virtually

all

magazine photography

is done on slide film. The standard

professional

slide

film

is Kodachrome

ISO

25,

ISO

64,

or the new ISO 200.

Most

photojournalists

use

ISO 64.

For

quality,

color

fidelity

and

stability

there is

nothing

better

than

Kodachrome;

everything

else is a

compromise.

Kodak

estimates

that,

given proper

storage,

Kodachrome

will not

begin

to fade

or

deteriorate,

or

at

least 100

years.23

All

other slide films

are

called

E6 films

(from

the

process

used to

develop

them).

This includes Kodak Ektachrome

ilms,

Fujichrome

an

excellent

E6

film),

Agfachrome,

Sakura,

3M,

and others.

E6 films

are the standardwhenever

speed

is

more

important

han

quality

and

permanence.

E6

films can

be

developed

at home

or

in

an hourby a laboratoryusingrelatively simple equipment.

A

second advantage

is their

speed.

Some

E6 films are available

in

ISO

400,

800,

1600

and can be

force-developed

(with

loss

of

quality)

to

ISO 3200.

Virtually

all

photojournalists

carry

one of the fast

E6 films for

very

low

light

conditions or when

the

situation

requiresvery

fast shutter

peeds.

E6 films

do

not

have

the

color saturation

of

Kodachromeand

they

have more

"grain"-when

enlarged

he structure f the

film is more

apparent.

The

dyes

used

in

E6

are

not as stable

as

in

Kodachrome.Kodak

estimates the

longevity

of their E6

films at

fifty

years

before deterioration

could

begin.

Other films

can

begin

to

deterioratewithina

few

years

after

development

see

Appendix

1).

Color

print

films

are

designed mostly

for

snapshots.

The

film,

and

especially

the prints, are considered to be non-permanent and subject to fairly rapid

deterioration

and

fading,

compared

to

Kodachrome

(see

Appendix

1).

A

further

problem

with

prints

is that

virtually

all

prints

are made on automatic

machines,

which

often

underexpose

black

faces even

when

the

negative

has been

correctly

exposed.24

An

exception

to the

impermanence

of color

prints

are

prints

made

using

the

comparatively expensive

Cibachrome

process.

Not

only

is

it

stable but it is

very

beautiful. The

prints

are made

directly

from

slides,

not

negatives.

Ilford,

the

manufacturer

of

Cibachrome,

estimates

that

prints

should

last

at

least

100

years

before

beginning

to fade. Other

companies, including

Kodak,

now offer similar

direct

printing

rom slides.

The only permanentimage is black and white, assuming that the film and

prints

have been

archivally processed.

The

photojournalist's

tandardblack and



12/20


13/20

258

ROBERT

PAPSTEIN

around

the

cassette,

which is

then

placed

back in

the canister.

Once film rolls

are

exposed,

the leader

is wound back

into the

cassette

in

order to

prevent

running

a

roll through he camera wice.

Preparing

the Cameras

for Field Use:

Assuming

I

am

using

three

films,

each

camera

has three

pieces

of

different

colored

tape

stuck to the

left hand side

of

the

back,

as above. The

orange

tape

is

stuck to the

pentaprism

n

the

camera(s)

loaded with

Kodachrome

so

I

see

in

an

instant which

film is

loaded. Each

time a

new

role

of

film

is

put

in

the

camera

I

automatically

heck

that the

tape

is accurateand ISO dial is set

correctly.

On the

right

side back of each camera

is

a

piece

of duct

tape.

As each film is

removed from the canister

I

remove the label which

I

earlier

placed

on the

cassette

and stick it to the piece of tape. (The tape is there only to give the sticker a

bondable

surface)

On this sticker

I

write brief

captions.

If

necessary,

I

write more

detailed

captions

in

a

notebook carried

n

the

camera

bag.

When the

roll is

finished

the

sticker

is

removed

and

placed

around he

cassette

(if

there is

a

separatecaption

sheet that

is

also

wrapped

around

the

cassette when the

film

is

shipped).

As

the

cassette is

placed

in

one of

the

empty

canisters

in

the

stick,

I

cross the

top

of

the

cap

to

indicate

the roll has been used.

This

way

I

can see

immediately

how

many

rolls have been used.

When the

film is

sent

to the

laboratory

or

development,

I

remove the

sticker

with

the

captions

from

the

cassette and

put

each roll

in

a

developing envelope,

noting

the number

of the

developing envelope

on the

sticker.

When

the

film is

returned can

match

the roll with

the

captions

and

then

caption

each slide on the

mount.

Accessories

There are

literally

thousands of

photographic

accessories for

sale,

most of

them

unnecessary.

A

small set

of

jeweler's

screwdrivers

(one

handle,

different

blades)

will

take care

of

loose

screws.

A

small

"lipstick"

brush-the kind

that

retractsand

has a cover-is

necessary

to

keep

lenses clean.

This

type keeps

itself

clean

whereas others

do not.

A

plastic

bottle

of

lens

cleaning

fluid and

a

couple

of

packsof lens cleaningtissue is about all one needs.27

VII

Conclusion

While

we are

only

beginning

to

investigate

the use

of

visual materials

for

historical

research,

there

is no

doubt that

photographic

archives

will

offer future

historians

a

valuable

new source of data.

However,

making

fieldwork

photographs

is

also valuable

to researchers who

might

need to

interpret

old

pictures.

If

researchers

participate

n

the

process

of

visually interpreting

society

to

outsiders,

they will almost certainly be able to gain a greater understanding into the

intentions and limitations

of earlier

photographers.



14/20

PHOTOGRAPHS

AS

HISTORICAL

EVIDENCE

259

The most

effective

way

to

understand

how

photographs

an be used is

to

study

existing

work.

I have

appended

a

bibliography

of

significant

photographic

studies.

Some of them are specific attempts to use photographyin fieldwork situations,

others are

outstanding examples

of

the

"photographicessay,"

and still others

are

specifically

concerned

with Africa. A last section includes

some

introductory

itles

for

those interested

n

technique.

Not

everyone doing

fieldwork

will

be

interested

n

making

photographs

a

part

of their

research. But those who have the interest

and

take the

trouble

to

integrate

photography

nto

the

archive

of their

fieldwork

data

will

leave a

legacy

of

yet

undetermined

ignificance

for

the

future.

Appendix

1

Stability of Photographic Materials

Relative dark

stability

of

35mm color films

(Class

1

is

best,

5

is

worst)

Class 1

Current

Kodachrome

all

speeds)

Class

2

CurrentEktachromeE-6

films28

Current

Fujichrome

E-6

films

Agfachrome

200

(E-6)

Class 3

Fujichrome

R100

(E-4)

Class

4

Agfachrome

64

and

10029

GAF color slide

films

Class 5

Old

Ektachromes

E-1, E-2,

E-3 sheet

film

and E-4

duplicating

ilm.

Relative

Fading

in Slide

Projection

(Class

1

is

best,

4

worst)

Class 1

Fujichrome

50

and 100 Professional

Class

2

Ektachrome

E-6

films,

including

E-6

duplicating

ilm

Fujichrome

100

and 400

Agfachrome

200

(E-6)

Class 3

Kodachrome

25,

64

and

40,

type

A. Kodachrome

200,

not available

during

the

testing,

can also be assumed to fall into this

category.



15/20

260

ROBERT PAPSTEIN

Agfachrome

64

and

100

Class 4

All

GAF

color

slide films

To maintain

maximum

color

fidelity

for slides

which are to be

reproduced

a

total

projection

time of not more

than

twenty

minutes

for

Kodachromes and

one

hour for

Ektachromes

is recommended.

If

slides

are to be used

in

prolonged

projections

or

repeatedprojections,

duplicate

slides shouldbe

used.

Estimated

Time Before

Perceptible

Color

Change

n Dark

Storage

(in

Years)

Current

Kodachromes-100+

Earlier

Kodachromes-up

to 50

E-6

Ektachromes-up

to

50

High

Speed

Ektachrome

E-4-about

20

Ektachrome

E-3 sheet

film-about

6

Vericolor

II,

type

S

and

Kodacolor

VR-about

25

OtherVericolors-3 to 6

Color

Prints

Inexpensive

"Drugstore" rints:

1

to

5

Cibachrome,

polyester

base-100+

(expensive

but

affordable)

AgfachromeSpeed-100+

Dye

transfer

prints-100-300

(these

are

very expensive)

Black

and White Prints

Archivallyprocessed

black

and

white

prints

printed

on

a

paper

base

(rather

hana

plastic

"RC"

base)

will

last

indefinitely.

There is

no

way

to know how

long

normal,

commerciallyprocessed,

black and

white

prints

will

last

since

it

is

impossible

to know how

they

were

processed-

how well

the

image

was fixed

and,

especially,

how

thoroughly

the

prints

were

washed

clean of residual

chemicals.

Appendix

2

Sources of

Materials for

Storing

and

Preserving

Photographs

Light

Impressions

439 Monroe

Avenue

Rochester,

New York

14607-5717

U.S.A.

Producesa catalog



16/20

PHOTOGRAPHS

AS HISTORICALEVIDENCE

261

The

Maine

Photographic

esource

2

Central treet

Rockport,Maine04856

U.S.A.

Notes

1.

Organized by

Andrew Roberts and

David

Killingray,

12-13

May

1988.

See

also

Andrew

Roberts, ed.,

The

Use

of Photographs

as Sources

for

African History

(London,

1989).

2.

See for

example,

John Collier

Jr. and Malcolm

Collier,

Visual

Anthropology: Photography as Research Method, (Albuquerque, 1986); Bruce

Jackson,

Fieldwork

(Urbana, 1987);

the new

journal

Visual

Anthropology

(especially

vol.

1,

no.

1,

November

1987);

Gregory

Bateson,

Balinese Character: A

Photographic Analysis

(New

York,

1962).

Many anthropologists explored

film

making

with limited success in the

1950s and

1960s.

See,

for

example,

Claude

Meillassoux's

films

"Bamako,

I Ni

Tye"

(1965)

and

"Goumbou du Sahel"

(1965)

and

Luc

de

Heusch, "Ruanda,

tableaux d'une

feodalite

pastorale"

(1955).

A more

recent

statement of the

uses

of film

can be found in the new

series "Visual

Anthropology,"

Jack

R.

Rollwagen

ed.,

Anthropological Filmmaking: Anthropological

Perspectives

on

the Production

of

Film and

Video

for

General

Public Audiences

(New

York,

1988).

3.

I

am

sorry

to have

to

say

that

this is a case of do as I

say,

not do as I

did. During my fieldwork in the Upper Zambezi during the early 1970s I did not fully

integrate

visual

data

into

my

research-to

my present regret.

See

also Lonna

M.

Malmsheimer,

"Photograhpic

Analysis

as

Ethnohistory:

Interpretive

Strategies,"

Visual

Anthropology

1

(1987),

4.

Edmund

Carpenter

has

briefly

described the

problems

of

teaching image-

reading

(and

its

devastating

effects)

in

Papua

New

Guinea,

as the

newly-independent

government

prepared

to use

photographs

to

communicate with the

large

number of

linguistically

different,

non-literate

people

who had

never seen

a

photograph.

When

shown a

polaroid

photograph

taken

only

seconds

before,

people initially

failed to

recognize

themselves or the

everyday

things

which

appeared

with

them. See

Edmund

Carpenter,

Oh,

What a Blow

That Phantom

Gave

Me

(St.

Albans,

1976),

112-13,

118-21 ex

passim.

5. See

Robert

Papstein,

"From Ethnic

Identity

to

Tribalism:

The

Upper

Zambezi

of

Region

of

Zambia 1830-1981" in

Leroy

Vail, ed.,

The

Creation

of

Tribalism in

Southern

Africa

(Berkeley,

1989),

372-94.

6.

For

three

widely

different

examples

see Martinus

Daneel,

Southern Shona

Independent

Churches

(2

vols.: The

Hague,

1971-74);

Margaret

Courtney-Clarke,

Ndebele

(New

York,

1987);

Nadine Gordimer and David

Goldblatt,

Lifetimes

Under

Apartheid

(New

York,

1987).

7.

Archivists

at

the

SOAS

workshop vididly

described

how

underfunded and

under

equipped

they

are to

deal

with

photographs

which often take a

great

deal

of

time to identify and catalog.



17/20

262

ROBERT PAPSTEIN

8. Paul

Strand and

Basil

Davidson,

Ghana: An

African

Portrait

(Millerton,

N.Y.,

1976);

Leni

Riefenstahl,

The Nuba

(New

York,

1974);

idem.,

The

People

of

Kau (New York, 1976).

9.

See,

for

example,

Eric

Hobsbawm

and Terence

Ranger,

eds.,

The Invention

of

Tradition

(London,

1981)

and

Vail,

The Creation

of

Tribalism.

10.

Papstein,

"Ethnicity."

11.

W.

Eugene

Smith,

Minamata: The

Story

of

the

Poisoning

of

a

Village

and

the

People

Who

Bore

the Burden

of Courage

(New

York,

1975),

7.

12.

Fieldworkers

should consult

African

Arts 18

(1985),

for an extensive

discussion

of

photographic

techniques

and

quality

standards

required

by

this

beautifully-produced

journal.

13.

Some 70%

of

professional photojournalists

use Nikon SLR

cameras,

mostly

because

Nikon makes

virtually

every

lens and

accessory imaginable

and

it

provides

very good

professional

support

services. The current

models of Nikon

used

extensively by

professional

photographers

are the

top

of the line

(new

and

very

expensive)

F4,

the

workhorse F3

and the "bottom

of

the

line" FM-2.

The F4 and

F3s

are

fully

electronic

cameras.

The FM-2

is a

rugged,

manual camera which

Nikon

makes

in

response

to

professional

demands for a camera which

can be used

in

extreme

conditions and

which

is not

battery-dependent.

14. An

exception

to this

is the

very expensive,

excellent

M-series

Leica

cameras.

Some

photojournalists

consider them the ultimate

camera;

others

feel

they

have been

superseded

by

the

Nikon

system. Setting

aside their

staggering

expense,

for

quiet operation

in

very

low

light

situations the

M Leicas with

the Summilux

and

Noctilux lenses are unsurpassed.

15.

Many

of these cameras

will not

focus

closer

than three

feet

(1 meter),

a

potentially

serious

disadvantage.

See the discussion

of

photographing

documents

below.

16.

Strictly

speaking,

this is

actually

not true.

Compared

to

the

rangefinder-

type

cameras,

the

discrepancy

is

very

small,

but

varies

by

camera manufacturer

and

even within models

of the same manufacturer.

The Nikon

F3 model-the standard

professional

camera-is,

I

believe,

the

only

camera

where 100% of what

is

seen

through

the viewfinder

appears

on

the film.

Other cameras

usually

cut off

a small

proportion

(2%

to

10%),

which means

that

the

photographer

must

leave

a

slight

border around

the frame if the

edges

are

crucial

to

the

picture.

17. Professional photographers tend to prefer an independent handheld

"incident"

light

meter,

which has what

appears

to

be a half

of

a

ping-pong

ball

over

the

light

receptor.

Camera

meters measure

the

light

reflected

by

the

subject;

incident

meters

measure

the

light

falling

on the

subject.

Pointed at

snow,

a

reflected

meter

reading

will render

the snow

grey;

an incident

reading

will render

snow

white.

Anyone

who is serious about

obtaining optimal

results

should

investigate

the

use of

incident

light

measurement.

All

light

meters

only

give

indications

of

the

proper

exposure-experience

determines the

correct

exposure

for

the situation.

When the

photograph

is

particularly

important

and

the

exposure

questionable,

bracketing

(making

exposures

over and under the

meter

reading)

is the

best answer.

18.

The

sensitivity

of film

used

to be rated

by

ASA

(American

Standards

As,ciation)

or DIN

(Deutsche

Industrie

Normen),

but

recently

has

changed

to a new

name ISO

(International

Standards

Organization). Only

the name is

new;

the numbers



18/20


19/20

264

ROBERT PAPSTEIN

27. The

best lens

cleaning

fluid

is made

by

Kodak,

simply

a weak

detergent

in

distilled water. Solvent

type

cleaners can

damage

lens

coating(s)

and

seep

into

the

lens mount, dissolving lubricants. Lenses should be cleaned as seldom as possible.

To

clean a lens first brush

it

lightly,

put

a

drop

or

two

of

fluid

on

the

special

lens

cleaning

tissue

(not

eyeglasses

cloths which

contain

silicon),

not

on

the lens

itself,

and clean

away smudges, wiping

with

a

clean

dry

tissue.

Many

photojournalists

prefer

a chamois

for lens

cleaning.

28. E-6

refers to the

type

of

processing

necessary

to

develop

the

film.

Virtually

all

slide films

today

use

E-6

processing except

for

Kodachrome. E-4 is the

predecessor

to

E-6

and

is still

occasionally

used.

29.

Agfa

and Ansco films are

particularly

sensitive to

high

relative

humidity

and

their

lives can

be

greatly

extended

by storing

them

at

low

(30

to

45%)

relative

humidity.

Bibliography

Avedon,

Richard,

In the American West. New

York,

1986.

Carpenter,

Edmund, Oh,

What

a

Blow

That Phantom Gave Me

St

Albans,

1976.

Daniel,

Peter,

Merry

A.

Foresta,

Maren

Stange

&

Sally

Stein,

Official Images:

New

Deal

Photography. Washington,

Smithsonian Institution

Press,

1987.

Davidson, Bruce,

Subway.

New

York,

1985.

America

1935-1946:

The

Photographs

of the Farm

Security

Administration and

the

office of War Information from the Prints and Photographs Division of the

Library

of

Congress.(1,576

microfiche).

Chadwyck-Healey,

1987.

Graham,

Paul

Al:

The Great

North Road.

London,

n.d.

Golden, Nan,

The Ballad

of

Sexual

Dependency.

New

York,

1986.

Riboud,

Marc,

Photographs

at

Home and Abroad. New

York,

1988.

Richards,

Eugene,

Below the

Line:

Living

Poor

in America. New

York,

1987.

Reid,

Robert L.

ed.,

Back Home

Again:

Indiana in the

Farm

Security

Administration

Photographs,

1935-1943.

Bloomington,

1987.

Salgado,

Sebastiao,

Other

Americas. New

York,

1986.

Strand,

Paul

and

Basil

Davidson,

Ghana:

An

African

Portrait.

Millerton,

1976.

Understanding

Photographs:

Methodology

African

Arts,

18/4

(August,

1985).

Bayer,

Jonathan,

Reading

Photographs:

Understanding

the

Aesthetics

of

Photography.

New

York,

1977.

Berger,

John,

About

Looking.

New

York,

1980.

Collier,

John

Jr.

and

Malcolm

Collier,

Visual

Anthropology: Photography

as

Research

Method,

1986.

Geary,

Christraud,

"Photographs

as

materials

for African

history:

some

methodological considerations, History

in

Africa,

13

(1986)

89-116.

Leongard,

John,

Pictures under

Discussion.

New

York,

1987.

Sontag,

Susan,

On

Photography.

New

York,

1977.



20/20

PHOTOGRAPHS

AS

HISTORICAL

EVIDENCE

265

Stange,

Maren,

Social

Documentary

Photography

in

America,

1890-1950.

Cambridge,

1989.

Szarkowski, John, Looking at Photographs: One Hundred Pictures in the Collection

of

the Museum

of

Modern

Art.

New

York,

1973.

Woodford,

Susan,

Looking

at Pictures.

Cambridge,

1983

Technique

Orabona,

B.

Nadine,

The

Photographer's

Computer

Handbook. New

York,

1984.

Picker, Fred,

The Zone VI

Workshop.

Newfane,

1972.

Vestal, David,

Photography.

New

York,

1978.

Documents

Creating and Using Photographs as Archivial Evidence